For Reference Not to be taken from this room + + 4* 4 4» 4* 4» 4- 4* 4* + 4* + 4» 4* 4* + 4* 4* 4* + 4» 4» 4* 4» 4* 4* 4* 4* 4» 00'^ '4'. OtCr^, /’^w. 0/ This Date Case,- ViLLANOVA College VILLANOVA. PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARY L 111 Class... j.aS . .15?.Q4.4. V . 1 Accession 2 ?3 9 5 ^+4*4**|*4*4*4*4*+++ Shelf, [ Whole Number 356 REPORT OF THE Commissioner of Education THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1904. NO LONGER PROPERTY OF FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY VOLUME 1. . avashiNgton? GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1906* “HA'IUm LHikARV OP eHUCAtidN U S. oewmENT of education MAR 2 8 2013 400 liXATtVLANO AVENUE kw. WASHINGTON. D C 3njfl3 THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Created as a Dejxirtment March 2, 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1, 1869. COMMISSIONERS. Henry Barnard, LL. D., March If, 1S67, to March 15, 1870. John Eaton, Pii. D., LL. D., Ma rch J O, . 1870, to August 5,- 1886. Nathaniel 'H. R. HaH\^6n-, L' H. D., August 6, 1886, to September 3, 1889. William T. Harris, Ph. D., LL. D., September 12, 1889, to date. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1 L III THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION. I’age. Enrollment in schools and colleges . VII Number of pupils in all grades of public and private schools . XI Average amount of schooling per inhabitant . . . XIII Universities, colleges, and technological schools . XIV Agricultural and mechanical colleges . XVI Secondary schools . : . XVII City school systems . XVIII Normal schools . XIX Length of service of teachers . XX Pensions for university iirofessors. . XXI Teachers’ salaries . XXII Education at the St. Louis Exposition . , . XXIV Statistics of growth . XXVII Education in England . XXVII Education in Canada, Australia, and Nev/ Zealand . XXXII Higher education in England . XXXIV Education in Sweden . XXXVIII The work and influence of Hampton . . . . XLI Temperance instmction in the public schools . LXI V Juvenile criminality in Germany . XLVI Schools and reindeer stations of Alaska . XLVIII Appropriations for the Bureau of Education since its establishment . LX STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Total population, school population, and adult male population . LXIII School ages and State school censuses . LXV Enrollment of pupils . LXVI Average daily attendance . LXIX Length of school term . LXX Teachers . LX XI School moneys received . LXXIV School expenditures . LXXVI Permanent school funds . LXXXII COMMERCIAL EDUCATION . XCI Chapter I.— Education in Canada, Australia, and Neav Zealand. Outline of the Canadian systems of public instruction . 1 Brief account of the Australian federation . 11 The systems of public education . 13 New South Wales . 15 Queensland . 17 South Australia and Victoria . 18 AVestem Australia . 19 New Zealand . 20 Chapter II. Statistics of Growth. By Franz Boas and Clark AVissler 25 Chapter III.— Regulations Relating to Pensions and Insurance in all German Universities. Contents . 133 The universities of Prussia . 134 The Emperor AATlliam University of Strassburg . 162 The Royal Bavarian universities . 173 7^1 III IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1 Page. The Royal Wurttemberg University of Tubingen . 186 The Royal University of Saxony, at Leipzig . 196 The universities of the Grand Duchy of Baden . 209 The Grand Ducal Hessian Ludewig University of Giessen . 219 The Grand Ducal University of Saxony, at Jena . 227 The Grand Ducal University of Mecklenburg, at Rostock . 232 Chapter IV.— Digest of School Laws. Alabama . 249 Arkansas . 252 California . 257 Colorado . 276 Connecticut . 282 Delaware . .< . 291 Georgia . 295 Illinois . 299 Indiana . - 307 Iowa . 313 Kansas . ’ . 320 Kentucky . 326 Louisiana . 334 Maine . 337 Maryland . 341 Massachusetts . 346 Michigan . 361 Minnesota . 369 Mississippi . 377 Missouri . 383 Montana . 388 Nebraska . 394 Nevada . 405 New Hampshire . 409 New Jersey . 413 New York . 421 North Carolina . 431 North Dakota . 435 Ohio . 442 Oklahoma . 454 Oregon . 459 Pennsylvania . 467 Rhode Island . 471 South Carolina . 475 South Dakota . 480 Tennessee . 484 Texas . 489 Vermont . 493 Virginia . 498 Washington . 502 West Virginia . 510 Wisconsin . 513 Chapter V.— The University of Paris during the Middle Ages. By John W. Hoyt, LL. D. Preface . 519 Origin of the University of Paris— causes . 520 When the university began . 524 How the university began . 525 General development of the university faculties . 531 Helps toward development . 548 Some of the hindrances . 554 Concluding words . 557 Chapter VI.— The Work and Influence of Hampton, Meeting of the Armstrong Association in New York City, February 12, 1904 . 559 Address of Mr. Andrew Carnegie . 559 Address of President Charles W. Eliot . 562 Address of Dr. H. B. Frissell . 567 Address of Dr, Booker T. Washington . 573 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1. V Chapter VII.— Temperance Instruction in Public Schools and the Liquor Question. Page. Report on temperance physiology and hygiene in the schools of Connecticut . 581 Report of the New York State central committee as to the results of the study of physiology and hygiene, being a reply to the State science teachers’ association . 588 The battle against alcohol in the United States . 602 Temperance instruction in Prussia . 625 Report on temperance instruction in western Massachusetts . 630 Chapter VIII. Notices oe Some Early English Writers on Education, 1578-1603. By Prof. Foster Watson . 633 Chapter IX. Juvenile Criminality in Germany . 703 Chapter X. Grammar and Vocabulary of the IIlingit Language of Southeastern Alaska. By William A. Kelly and Frances II. Willard . 715 Chapter XI.— The Educational System of Sweden. General observations on the country . 767 Popular education . 768 Secondary educatron . 782 Higher education . 790 Technical education . 794 Swedish gymnastics . 796 Chapter XII.— Education in Great Britain and Ireland, 1903. Information on education in Great Britain in previous Reports . 799 Summary of current educational statistics of Great Britain and Ireland . 800 Elementary education in England . 801 System of public education in Scotland . 820 Education in Ireland . 822 Investigations relating to physical training and physical deterioration in Great Britain . 828 Chapter XIII.— Higher Education in England as Affected by the Law of 1902. The law of 1902 in its relation to higher education . 833 Regulations for secondary schools issued by the board of education for 1905 . 835 Action of local authorities in respect to higher education . 840 Secondary education . 841 Chapter XIV.— Education at the St. Louis Exposition. Contents . 863 Introduction . 864 Education at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, by George E. Gay . 865 The lessons of the exposition, by Howard J . Rogers, chief of the department of education . 871 The educational exhibit at St. Louis, by Anna Tolman Smith, member of the jury of awards. .. 875 Arizona . 884 California, by Robert Furlong, director . 886 Colorado, by Helen L. Grenfell, State superintendent of public instruction, and James B. Ragan, director . 890 Connecticut, by C. D. Hme, secretary of State board of education . 894 Illinois, by Alfred Bayliss, State superintendent of public instruction . 897 Indiana, by W. A. Millis, director . 901 Indian Territory, by John D. Benedict, superintendent . 905 Kansas, by John Macdonald, director . 905 Massachusetts, by George H. Martin and George E. Gay . 909 Mississippi, by T. L. Trawick . 915 Missouri, by G. V. Buchanan, superintendent... . 915 Nebraska, by Erwin Hinckley Barbour . 919 New Jersey, by S. R. Morse, director . 921 New Mexico, by M. W. Porterfield, commissioner . 924 New York, by De Lancy M. Ellis, director . 925 North Dakota, by W. L. Stockweli, State superintendent of schools . 930 VI CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1 Page. Pennsylvania, by Nathan C. Schaeffer . 932 The Philippines, by A. R. Hager, chief of the department of education, Philippine exposition board . 937 Porto Rico, by E. W. Lord, assistant commissioner of education . 940 South Dakota . 942 Tennessee, by B. A. Enloe, director . 944 Texas, by W. L. Lemmon, secretarj" of the education commission . 945 Utah, by Horace H. Cummings, director of the exhibit . 947 Virginia, by A. M. Dobie, of the University of Virginia . 949 West Virginia . 950 Wisconsin, b}^ W. D. Parker, director . 951 City of Chicago, by C. D. Lowry . 955 City of Cleveland, by Edwin F. Moulton, superintendent of instruction . 958 City of New York, by A. W. Edson, director . 960 City of St. Louis, liy F. Louis Soldam, superintendent of instruction . 965 Chapter XV.— Education at the St. Louis Exposition— Continued. Bradley Polytechnic Institute . 975 Hampton Institute . 976 Massachusetts Institute of Technology . 977 Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., by Arthur L. Williston . 980 Purdue University . 982 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . 983 Manual Training School of Washington University, by Dr. C. M. Woodward, director . 983 Worcester Polytechnic Institute . 985 The Art Institute of Chicago, by W. M. R. French, director . 986 Massachusetts Normal Art School . 987 The Minneapolis School of Fine Arts, by Robert Koehler, director . 988 School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass., by Thomas Allen, chairman ol council . 988 St. Louis Museum of Fine Arts, by the director . 989 Lutheran parochial schools, by a. Kaeppel . 990 The Philadelphia museums . 992 Schools for defectives, by A. E. Pope . 994 Land-grant colleges and agricultural experiment stations, by A- C. True, Director ot Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture . . . 997 Chapter XVI.— The Final Establishment of the American Common School System in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 1863-1900. By A. D. Mayo, LL. D. North Carolina . 999 South Carolina . 1023 Georgia . . . 1058 Chapter XVII.— Introduction of Reindeer into Alaska. Preliminary report of the general agent of education for Alaska to the Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, 1890 . 1091 Report on introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska, 1892 . . . 1102 Chapter XVllI. A Definition of Civilization (an address by W. T. Harris before the graduates at the commence¬ ment exercises of the Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa., March 2, 1899) . 1119 Art Education the True Industrial Education (a paper read by W. T. Harris before the depart¬ ment of art education, National Educational Association, Nashville, Tenn., July, 1889) . 1133 The intellectual Value ol Tool Work, by W. T. Harris . 1139 Chapter XIX. List of Educational Periodicals in the United States in 1904 . 1145 Chapter XX.— Educational Directory. Chief State school officers . 1149 City superintendents . 1150 College presidents . 1161 Professors of pedagogy and heads of departments of pedagogy in universities and colleges . 1169 Principals of normal schools . 1171 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, ^Yasldngton, D. C., October 2, 1905. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith the Annual Eeport of this Office for the year ending June 30, 1904. The enrollment in schools and colleges,, public and private, during the 3’ear 1903-4 Nvas 17,896,890, the same being an increase of 357,422 pupils over the previous je&T. Of this number there were enrolled in public institutions supported by taxation and funds belonging to States and municipalities 16,379,443- pupils, as against 16,127,739, the number reported for the previous ^^ear. The quota from private institutions corresponding in character to these vras 1,517,447. Besides the enrollment in schools and colleges, public and private, there were pupils enrolled in special institutions more or less scholastic in their character and more or less of a practical business character, as follows: Enrollment in special schools in the United States in 1903-Jf. Grade. Number of pupils. Public. Private. Total. City evening schools . . . 270, 092 270, 692 138, 363 33, 871 12, 267 4, 236 15, 595 29, 161 13, 727 2, 257 2,000 15, 000 105, 932 50, 000 Business schools . 138, 363 Reform schools . 33, 871 11,760 1,236 14,897 29, 161 13, 727 2, 257 2, 000 Schools for the deaf . 507 Schools for the blind . Schools for the feeble-minded . . . 698 Government Indian schools . Indian schools (Five Civilized Tribes) . Schools in Alaska supported by the Government . Schools in Alaska supported by incorporated municipalities (estimated)! Orphan asylums and other benevolent institutions (estimated) . J ■ 15, 000 105, 932 50,000 Private kindergartens (estimated) . i Miscellaneous (including schools of music, oratory, elocution, cookery and various special arts) (estimated) . Total for United States . 382, 601 310, 500 693, 101 Adding the enrolled of these special schools (693,101) to the total of schools, public and j^rivate (17,896,890), giving general education, we have a grand total of 18,589,991. VII Tablp] I. — Common school statistics of the United States. VIII EDUCATION BEPORT^ 1901. CO p C 81, 241, 246 c 23, 028, 748 16, 256, 038 20. 01 70.59 11,318,256 69.6 146.7 1,000,507,716 72. 1 102. 1 113,744 341,498 aSs-Si rssgs 1 1122 II 22 ii|i i s CM CM 05 ^2sm I f f e CO Ol o o isSJPJP. 2 g lli — i -8 - il sjips 1 2SS| i Sail SiSS siSs eo 0 i CO •-( 0 .-t s f 1 oi o spjrlisg “ 1 o GO CM ^ T-i 05 JoCMO O S = I ii Si rill 1 sisi ia’sS siSS 1 2 § 1-H 0 10 ^oo,.G • 1 jiPiPpI ii i 1 .2oo^2§^Sd^® : " filltlliai ; iiiMliSfiii Oq;wci;cd>C>cI>'^^^ I 1 1 1 17 ; 1 V ; ; : ; ;| i ; ; | ; ; • • • • ^x3 ‘ * ^ . II mill . ill :: ■:3 :: <1^ .. '.1^0.. ^ C,, : ; M :=>2 ; • ’-g ,g:: s ms : p : : -c : E ,2 : • 2 2 : : I 1 IVo.t 1 I : 1 I I mills 1 IP :j If mil ® ml, 1 illim n 111 il maaso |ii| il Si ill Z i s 1 il i ° a H 2 c a § 1 “ s n 2a -1 > a V Ci 2-. 5 0 > 21^ Po* §2^ tH 0 ss < it. q2- i li ; 2 ; ; 2 ; I s i ; 2: ; 1 II 1 ..H i|l| 2 c 0 . a- THE COMMISSIONER S INTRODUCTION, tx Tf GO O (>J ?o 00 o o co'^ 00 t>» I''- co CO w ;j }0 ^ iS O 05 OoQCO o t- 05 -t o5 ^ <1 S §F^P^ W 02 5CQ tuD'^ Cp S rS *3 ^t3 X EDUCATION EEPOET^ 1904. Looking at the comi:)aratiYe table above, Table I, it will be seen that the per cent of the population enrolled in the common schools’" (elementary or ‘^district’" and high schools) was 20.01, a ver}" slight decrease being noticeable since 1900, when the per cent was 20.51. But the ratio in actual attendance has increased more than enough to make up for the loss in enrollment. And the average number of days’ attendance on school b}^ each pupil enrolled was only 78.4 for the 3"ear 1870; it reached 86.3 days in 1890, and in 1902 passed the hundred limit (100.6) ; in 1904 it reached 102.1 daj^s. The aggregate of school property increased in value $41,000,000 over the previous year. The avera^ge expenditure for school purposes arose to 161 cents per day of instruction for each pupil, the amount for the previous year being 151 cents per ds.j. The following table gives, for the year 1903-4, the Federal, State, and local exT^enditure for all purposes with some degree of approximation ; also the expenditure for the different classes of schools and other institutions of learning. It will be seen that there was expended for education a sum nearty equal to one-half of the cost of the National Government. Of the total amount expended for all public purposes by the States, counties, cities, towns, etc. ($691,000,000), nearl}^ two- hfths (39.5 ])er cent) vras paid for common schools. Total disbursements by the United States (as reported l^y Census Bureau) . . $725, G84, 946 Estimated expenditure by States . . . 103, 000, 000 Estimated expenditure by minor civil divisions . 585,000,000 Total public expenditure . . . 1, 416, 984, 946 Expended for common schools (elementary and secondary) . 273,216,227 Approximate expenditure for private schools (elementary and secondary) . . 22, 000, 000 Approximate expenditure for universities and colleges . 40, 000, 000 Approximate expenditure for professional schools . 3, 000, 000 Approximate expenditure for normal schools . 6, 000, 000 Total expenditure for education... . 344, 216, 227 THE COMMISSIOHEK S IHTRODUCTIOH. Oi o e I ' c' q||-C I pj u g fH o3 “ - ^ 0? 5:i3 c te c g o Sll-I l“^s| ..<=<» cse: ^•S “ o l?l ' - .;1 c ^ ^:SS8^ Cl'S S oO:i ! Mce" o ^ H *;:i ^>C^og cc P .h J ■t: o 3-> o 9 J, p p^ ^ Ci O fD rf lO rO I, rg O hO I 00 S Si, ss Si, rO S :$; ^ S S^s c c i^llf mil Sli^B - fi E -s c3 e d :iS5^§ bjj^ 3 Sj g 3 CC! . • 3 ^!>.• 2 8 s rC o cS <1> Ir +^ 2oH-S^ i:-Bi= ^ o ^ |S»S„- 'S'5 fi S S S ” .j3 c3 TO ci;> pTi § S n o3 cp 2>^ cS IM^.I III^S fj-ress I ,o H « o «a2 cj g -p ^ §'^.2 0 0 ■3^ §S3fi5 ^ >> /r; c3 S S3S i2 c E 2 Si^P ■ D « ■ Ph bD o >. > P-t CQ Pp c5 O « CO QO c: O O O O O (M O :0 GO Tf to 00 O r-( to"' --T cT CO*' r-T o *o 0-1 O (M 04 O o' lo t'--*' ^.5^,p5 <1^00 g rC ^-OJ if'ti tf ti w o r o ^ ;z;mcq;z;^ ^ ^ C ^ M 2M ®- a'pi o P c« ^ brP- !>^ e‘ p p OJ S.2 ■S.52 o g Pi .2 'o o E t, rr, P WrPH-l ■S p g op; fcCo p; p 'll ^ ? i2 "o S 9 E g •iB| o •2q2 ^ p S oo »'2 Pi Pi P gSobsIg .S r-, 'P P -S ■‘^ S +^ P ^.2 a e' 2 «r3 S-d-o g-g £3cl^£)qc3C3rC:*^c^^w 3.S.^9o.2 2ET;^fi Ii1,!i|l"^§.sl Xi 1^ r*P "w /— t o /.<' 4—' o >'.^ °^pp‘o2'"- •p ‘5 “ P o “ P .P gP.&P^P-Ep.O P'3 ^ fi OO S “■'^ §|1 2 S'S'S 2 '^ssp-g^BhS' “ i PI O'P '2 S *=! a o 3 W) p p ^ C -E +-. O "3 2 E P 3a2oG: fig.B22 ’^ ' S V w ce c P $3:2 a o _ Si.r-:2 o ' Sr'P+-.g>o:-rt^S^«j.g S.SpgSa-i'Stg C.2 s ^-s a s I S 3.9 ■-, Pi ..-, . r»i E E Pi ^iP P) bCP P o m p p g.'g &p a “ o a:^ o o o o c p p^ C^O_i C< ^ CQpG O 9.®^ 8 “I'S ^ Mi 5 J? M p o o §“ - I O -o ^ o>rfi XI Table II. — Number of pupils and students of all grades in both public and private schools and. colleges, 1903- Jf — Continued. XII EDUCATION KEPOKT; 1904. Per cent of the total pop¬ ulation enrolled in each grade. Total. (^1 22. 03 4 05 0. 31 .35 .27 .19 .35 .37 ii'c m o 1.01 1. 17 .54 .54 1.27 1.37 Ele¬ men¬ tary. 20. 71 18. 12 21.02 21.71 21.74 21.60 Per cent of public pupils. High¬ er. 'ir- fii 41. 9G ... I CQ o 79. 40 80. 41 00. 00 63. 69 85. 47 79. 63 Ele¬ men¬ tary. § g Percent in each grade of the whole num¬ ber of pupils. 1 1.79 1.22 .87 1. 49 1.59 Sec- ond- ary. 4.59 Ki ^ ci o o Ele¬ men¬ tary. § ggggg Grand total. 13 17,890,890 lliai iiiig cd fo o 1-7 Summary according to control. Private. 1,517,447 544, 584 147,002 172,720 576, 321 70, 754 Public. § o 3,873,908 2.338.800 3,247,971 5.947.800 970,838 Summary of pupils by grade. Higher. a 253,012 Second¬ ary. ac 822,235 g|il6 SSSogS 1 i ^ ) I'* s S o iSiis iiiii O CO CO o o •^’'cdof S Division. - The United States . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division . South Central Division. , North Central Division.. Western Division . THE COMMISSIONER S INTRODUCTION. XIII The following tables show the trend of the statistics of annual increment of school enrollment and population and the distribution of the increase among elementary, secondary, and higher institutions, public and private. Table Ilia. — Increase in fourteen years of the total number of persons receiving education and of the total population. School year. Pupils, public and private, of all grades. Increase over pre¬ ceding year. Per cent of in¬ crease. Estimated population. Increase over pre¬ ceding year. Per cent of in¬ crease. 1889-90 14,512,778 14, 669,069 a 62, 622, 250 63, 809, 588 65, 027, 377 66, 266, 491 67, 537, 727 68, 844, 341 70, 127, 242 ■•890-91 . 156, 291 45,864 1.08 1,187,338 1,217,789 1.90 1891-92 . 14,714, 933 15, 083, 630 .31 1.91 1892-93 . 368, 697 2.51 1,239,114 1.91 1893-94 . 15, 530, 268 15, 688, 622 15,997,197 16, 255, 093 16, 687, 643 16, 738, 362 17, 020, 710 17, 299, 230 446,638 2. 96 1,271,236 1.92 1894-95 . 158, 354 308, 575 257,896 432, 550 50.719 282, 348 1.02 1,306,614 1.93 1895-96 . 1.97 1, 282, 901 1,318, 031 1.86 1896-97 . 1.61 71,445,273 1.88 1897-98 . 2. 66 72, 792, 617 1,347,344 1,386, 349 1.89 1898-99 . .30 74, 178, 966 0 75,602,515 1.90 1899-1900 . 1.69 1,423,549 1, 672, 452 1,269,849 1.92 1900-1901 b . 278, 520 160, 770 79, 478 1. 64 77,274,907 78,544, 816 79,900, 389 81,241,240 2.21 1901-2 . 17, 460, 000 17, 539, 478 17, 896, 890 .93 1.64 1902-3 . .46 1,355,573 1,340,857 1.73 1903-4 . 357,412 2.04 1.68 Total increase.. 3, 384,112 241, 722 23. 32 18,618, 996 1,329,928 29. 73 A veraw 1.51 1.88 a United States census. & Indian Territory added. Table 1116.— Per cent of the population receiving education of different grades. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1903- -4. Grade. Pupils. Per cent of popu¬ lation. Pupils. Per cent of popu¬ lation. Pupils. Per cent of popu¬ lation. Elementary: Public . 12, 494, 233 1,516,300 221,522 145, 481 19. 95 14,821,969 1, 240, 925 530, 425 188,816 238, 575 19.60 15, 620, 230 1,200,813 652, 804 169, 431 253, 612 19. 23 Private . 2. 42 1.64 1. 48 Secondary: Public . .35 .70 .80 Private . .23 .25 .21 Higher . . . 135, 242 .22 .31 .31 Total . 14,512, 778 23. 17 17,020,710 22. 50 17, 896, 890 22. 03 AVERAGE AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING PER INHABITANT. Tables IVa and IV6 show the relative amounts of schooling given in the different census divisions at different periods since 1870, measured by years of 200 days each. For example, the 5.21 years given for 1904 indicate 1,042 days’ schooling for each inhabitant if enrollment and attendance should hold the same percentage to popu¬ lation for thirteen years as it held during 1904. Then the number arriving at school age, 6 years, would have attended 1,042 days on the completion of their eighteenth year if their average attendance per year had been the same as the schools of the nation, public and private, reported for 1904. Table IVc shows the estimated average amount of schooling in days at different epochs, beginning with 1800. XIV EDUCATION EEPOET; 1904. Table IVa. — Average number of years of schooling {of 2G0 days each) that each individual of the 'population received at the different dates specified in the table, talcing into account all public and private schooling of whatever grade. 1870. 1880. 1 : 1890. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1 1899. 1900. 1901 1902. al903. ' al904. The United States.. 3. 36 3. 96 4.46 4.99 5. 09 5. 20 5.09 5. 23 5. 13 5. 18 5. 17 ' 5.21 North Atlantic Division.. 5. 06 5.69 6.05 6. 67 6. 84 6.95 6.90 6. 98 i 6.95 6.81 0. 87 6.89 South Atlantic Division.. 1.23 2.' 22 !- 2. 73 3. 01 3. 07 3.32 3. 11 3! 26 i 3.41 3. 46 3. 46 3. 55 South Central Division ... 1. 12 1.86 1 2. 42 2. 87 3. 03 3.04 3.09 3. 21 ! 3.02 3. 11 3. 10 3. 14 North Central Division... 4.01 4. 65 I 5.36 6.00 6.01 6. 15 6. 01 6. 18 i 5.97 6. 07 6.01 6.01 Western Division . j 3. 56 4. 17 4.57 5.66 5. 90 5. 85 5. 42 5.53 5.61 5. 87 6. 07 6. 47 a Subject to correction. Table IV — The same, talcing into account only the schooling furnished by public elementary and secondary schools. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. ’ 1902. a 1903. j al904. 1 The United States. . 2. 91 3. 45 3. 85 4. 43 4. 53 4.63 4.55 4. 06 4.57 ' 4.67 4.67 4.69 North Atlantic Division.. 4. 43 4. 84 4. 99 5.64 X.hT 5. 88 5. 85 5. 91 5.88 5. 97 0. 00 .5. 98 South Atlantic Division . . .80 1.90 2. 42 2.74 ! 2.79 3.05 2. 83 2. 95 3. 10 3. 15 3. 18 3. 25 South Central Division ... .80 1. 57 2. 20 2.59 : 2.75 2. 76 2. 81 2.91 2. 74 2, 84 2. 85 2.91 North Central Division... .3.71 4. 19 4. 67 5.35 ' 5.40 5.51 5. 41 5. 57 5. 40 5. 51 5. 43 5.39 Western Division . 2. 77 3. 57 3. 98 5. 12 5. 36 5. 34 4. 96 4.99 5.01 5. 36 5. 54 5. 85 a Subject to correction. Table IVc. — Average entire am.ount of schooling, public and private, since 1800, at different epochs, given in days {partly estimated). 1800. 1840. 1850. 1860. Days. 82 1870.. 208 1880.. 420 1890- . 434 1904. . Days. 072 792 892 1,042 Universities, colleges, and technological schools (see Chapter XXV, p. 1417). — The number of higher institutions included in this report is 607, with a total teaching staff of 17,559 men and 4,267 women, and 118,029 students. The matter of retiring allowances for aged professors has been brought prominently before the public b}^ the action of Mr. Andrew Carnegie in giving $10,000,000 as a fund, the income of which is to provide pensions for professors in universities, colleges, and technological schools, without regard to race, sex, or creed. The letter of Mr. Carnegie transferring the fund to a board of trustees, and which contains the general conditions concerning the classes of institutions to which it applies, is given in this chapter. Under the terms of the letter State and denominational institutions are not to share in the fund. For some years a few of our larger universities have been granting retiring allowances to professors under varying conditions, including Harvard, Princeton, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, the University of Cali¬ fornia, and Pandolph-Macon Woman’s College. There may be oth- THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XV ers that have adopted the principle from which no information has been received. The conditions under which allowances are granted vary in the several institutions and are given in the chapter. Another movement for the benefit of college professors is found in the system of sabbatical leaves of absence. Under this s^^stem a professor becomes entitled to a leave of absence one 3mar out of seven, usually on half pay. In many cases the leave is spent for the purpose of stud}^, usuall}^ abroad, and the institution as well as the professor shares, therefore, in the benefit derived from such leave. At the Uni¬ versity of Illinois such leave is granted only on condition that it be spent in study. The number of students in attendance at these institutions shows a considerable increase over the number for the preceding 3^ear. The number of undergraduate and resident graduate students from 1889- 90 to 1903-4 is as follows: Number of undergraduate and resident graduate students in universities, colleges, and schools of technology from 1889-90 to 1903- Jf.. Year. Universities and colleges for men and for both sexes. Colleges for women. Division A. Schools of tech¬ nology . Total number. Men. Women. VC omen. Men. Women. Men. W omen. 1889-90 . 38,056 8, 075 1,979 6, 870 707 44,926 10, 761 1890-91 . 40,089 9, 439 2,265 6,131 481 46,220 12, 185 1891-92 . 45, 032 10, 390 2,636 6,131 481 51,163 13,507 1892-93 . 46, 689 11,489 3,198 8,616 843 55,305 15,530 1893-94 . 50,297 13,144 3,578 9,517 1,376 59,814 18,098 1894-95 . 52,586 14,298 3,667 9,467 1,106 62, 053 19,071 1895-96 . 56,556 16,746 3,910 8,587 1,065 65, 143 21,721 1896-97 . 55, 755 16,536 3,913 8,907 1,094 64, 662 21,543 1897-98 . 58, 407 17,765 4, 416 8,611 1,289 67,018 23, 470 1898-99 . 58, 467 18,948 4,593 9,038 1,339 67,505 24, 880 1899-1900 . 61,812 20, 452 4, 872 10,347 1,440 72, 159 26, 764 1900-1901 . 65,069 21,468 5,260 10, 403 1,151 75, 472 27,879 1901-2 . 66,325 22,507 5,549 11,808 1,202 78, 133 29,258 1902-3 . 69, 178 24,863 5,749 13,216 1,124 82,394 31,736 1903-4 . 71,817 24, 413 6,341 14, 189 1,269 86, 006 32, 023 The number of students in technical courses of study, especially in engineering lines, is increasing very rapidly, and additional courses in those lines are being constantly established. Foreign countries are well represented in the institutions of this countr}^, the catalogues showing the presence of 2,673 foreign students. The number from the several countries is given in a tabular statement in this chapter. From British North America there came 614; Mexico, 308; Cuba, 245; Japan, 236; Porto Pico, 105; China, 93. Graduate work at the leading universities is expanding very rap¬ idly. A comparative statement including ten universities shows that modern languages attract the largest number of graduate stu¬ dents, followed in the order of their popularity by history and polit¬ ical science, philosophy (including pedagogy), ancient classics, chemistry, mathematics, botany, physics, geology, etc. XVI EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. The value of all property amounts to $465,216,545, an increase of almost $33,000,000 in one year. The income amounted the past year to $40,329,193 and the benefactions to $13,700,559. Of the total income $9,922,903 were received from States and municipalities. The chapter shows that in nine States and two Territories a general property tax is levied for the benefit of the institutions for higher education. The total number of degrees conferred in 1903-4 was 18,174 : A. B. degrees, 5,902 on men, 3,372 on women; B. S., 3,238 on men, 437 on women; A. M., 1,010 on men, 279 on women. The movement inaugurated several years ago for the granting of but one degree (A. B.) for the completion of any course of liberal studies is still in progress. Seven institutions reported during the year the discontinuance of all degrees except A. B. Of 301 Ph. D. degrees 272 were conferred on men and 29 on women; Harvard conferred 46, Yale 39, Johns Hopkins 31, Chicago 30, and Columbia 28. In addition, 5 honorar}^ Ph. D. degrees were conferred by three institutions (three by Austin College). Agricultural and mechanical colleges (See Chapter XXVI, p. 1545). — The statistics contained in this chapter have been compiled from the annual reports required to be made by these institutions to the Secretary of the Jnterior under the act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, and show continued growth and expansion in all lines of work. The courses in agriculture are becoming more spec¬ ialized, and new courses in engineering lines are being constantly established. These institutions were established under the land-grant act of July 2, 1862, and the income-producing funds derived from the sale of the lands amount now to $11,737,316, only the income of which may be expended. Under the act of August 30, 1890, each State and Territory now receives annually $25,000 from the General Gov¬ ernment for the benefit of these institutions. The total amount paid out under this act from its passage up to and including the installment for the year ended June 30, 1904, is $15,202,000. The reports of the treasurers for the year show that the funds received under the act of August 30, 1890, were expended as follows: For instruction in agriculture, 16.8 per cent; mechanic arts, 29.5 per cent; English language, 12.3 per cent; mathematical science, 11.8 per cent; natural and physical science, 23.4 per cent; economic science, 6.2 per cent. A gratifying feature noted in the reports of the institutions is the largely increased aid granted them by the several States and Terri¬ tories. This aid amounted for the year to $5,654,758, an increase of more than a million dollars over the amount for the preceding year. The total number of students in attendance was 53,161, of which THE commissioner's INTRODUCTION. XVII number 6,726 were enrolled in separate institutions for colored students. The chapter gives the legislation enacted during the year in behalf of the institutions, changes in courses of study, descriptions of new buildings erected during the year^ and a compilation showing the courses of study maintained by the several institutions. Secondary schools (Chapter XXIX, pp. 1727-2055). — The statistics of the current year show a total of 8,836 schools engaged in secondary instruction. Of this number, 7,230 are public and 1,606 private institutions. The number of students enrolled in the former was 635,808, and in the latter 103,407. In addition to these numbers, which cover enrollment in the regularly constituted secondary schools alone, 16,999 pupils in public and 66,024 in private colleges and other institutions having preparatory departments received instruc¬ tion in secondary branches during the year, making a grand total of 822,235. This latter sum represents about 1,010 to the 100,000 of estimated population. Of this number, 800 are in public and 210 in private institutions, an increase in the last fifteen years of 440 for the former and a decrease of 20 for the latter. A total of 87,724 grad¬ uates from public and private high schools is reported. This consti¬ tutes 11.87 per cent of the total enrollment, a ratio which has remained nearly uniform for the last fifteen years. From a somewhat extensive canvass of the question in 1903 the conclusion was reached that the proportion of secondary students enrolled during the school year in the four classes of the high school course, public and private, is as follows: Forty- three per cent in the first year; 26 per cent in the second year; 18 per cent in the third year; 13 per cent in the fourth year; more than 11 per cent graduating. Students receiving secondary instruction in public and private high schools and academies and in preparatory departments of colleges and other institutions. 1902-3. 1903-4. Per cent of increase or decrease. Public. 1 Pri¬ vate. Total. Public. Pri¬ vate. Total. Public. Pri¬ vate. Total. United States . 608, 412 168,223 776, 635 652, 804 169,431 822,235 7. 30 0. 72 5.87 North Atlantic Division. . . . 198, 843 51,751 250, 594 211,304 51,477 262, 781 6.27 aO. 53 4.86 South Atlantic Division .... 32, 879 24, 255 57,134 36, 039 23,970 60,009 9.61 0 1.18 5.03 South Central Division . 48, 573 30, 504 79,077 52, 152 29, 731 81,883 7.37 0 2.53 3. .55 North Central Division . 286, 143 49,119 335,262 304, 439 51,751 356, 190 6.39 5.36 6.24 Western Division . 41,974 12,594 54, 568 48, 870 12,502 61,372 16.43 0 0.73 12.47 a Decrease. The decline in the proportion of secondary students preparing for college in the last twelve years in both public and private high schools is worthy of comment. In 1892-93 the percentage of students preparing for college in public high schools was 14.60; in 1903-4 the ED 1904 M - II XVIII EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. percentage was 9.54. The percentages corresponding to these^in private high schools are 26.50 and 21.47. City school systems (Chapter XXIY, pp. 1305-1415). — City school systems, on the whole, are among the most highly organized of all the agencies contributing to the education of the masses of our people. Their evolution from the simple village schools of earlier times to the complex systems of the present, embracing, in addition to those departments dealing direct!}^ with instruction, numerous depart¬ ments having to do with organization, administration, and main¬ tenance, whereby the systems as a whole may effectually subserve the purpose of their being, well merits careful study. The tables given in this chapter contain the statistics of 1,212 incorporated places of a population of 4,000 and upward. The total enrollment in day schools in these places for the current year was 5,078,664, which number constitutes 31.2 per cent of the entire enrollment in the common schools of the nation. The value of school property as reported for the year was $423,253,680, and the total amount expended for all purposes was $129,836,203; these numbers represent 61.8 per cent and 47.5 per cent, respectively, of the cor¬ responding items for the common schools of the nation. The figures of enrollment, as given above, relate to day schools alone. In the evening schools, maintained as organic parts of city systems of instruction, were enrolled the current 3mar 270,692 pupils, requiring for their instruction 6,318 different teachers. Out of the 178 cities of the first class (population 8,000 and upward), which maintain evening schools, 127 are situated in the North Atlantic States, where industrial activities assume largely the form of manufacturing. An increase in the enrollment in evening schools in 1904 over the year 1903 of 18.1 per cent, and an increase in the number of cities main¬ taining evening schools from 158 to 178, are noted. DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN THE SEVERAL GRADES. The chapter on city schools in the Report for 1898 (Chapter XLVII) contained a series of tables showing the enrollment in the several school grades in 24 representative cities. The tables below present practically the same data for the present 3"^ear, but include a larger number of cities. Em'oUrnent hy grades or year's ivoric in elementary schools {58 cities of 8,000 and over). Grade. Enroll¬ ment. Percent. First . 350,116 279,938 266,300 238,051 201,447 155,275 114,269 83,240 20.7 16.6 15.8 14. 1 11.9 9.2 6.8 4.9 Second . . Third . F ourth . . Fifth . . Sixth . . Seventh . . Eighth . Total . 1,688,636 100. 0 THE COMMISSIONEe's INTRODUCTION. XIX Enrollment hy grades or years, elementary and secondary cities of 8,000 and over) . Year. Enroll-^ ! inent. ' Percent. First . 196,506 144,895 136,298 124, 196 19. 8 Second . 14. 6 Third . 13.7 Fourth . 12.5 Fifth . 106,795 95,796 10. 8 Sixth . 9.7 Seventh . . 65,075 6. 6 Eighth . 49,139 5.0 Ninth (first year of high school) . . 32,668 3.3 Tenth (second year of high school) . 18,976 1. 9 Eleventh (third year of high school) . 12,715 1.3 Twelfth (fourth year of high school) . 8,232 .8 Total . 991,291 100.0 The summary below exhibits the present status of schools in cities of 8,000 inhabitants and upward as compared with their condition for 1902-3. Summary of statistics of cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants, showing increase from 'pri vious year. 1902-3. 1903-4. Increase. Increase, percent. Number of city school systems . 587 588 1 0. 17 Enrollment . 4,270,473 609,811,464 4,374,463 630,662,688 3,354,806 187. 9 103,990 20,851,224 105,252 0. 2 2. 43 Aggregate number of davs attendance . 3. 42 Average daily attendance . 3,249,554 187. 7 3. 24 Average len^h of the school term in days . ... . 11 Enrollment in private and parochial schools . 967,535 2,660 2,713 1,006,552 2,799 39,017 139 4. 03 Male supervising officers . 5. 23 Female supervising officers . 2,820 5,619 7,289 89,335 96,624 10,069 4,151,938 $410,326,526 $74,332,482 107 3. 94 IVhole number of supervising officers 5,373 7,274 246 4. 58 Number of male teachers . 15 . 26 Number of female teachers . 86,782 94,056 9,853 4,092,077 ?380,437,679 870,183,871 2,553 2,568 216 2. 94 Whole number of teachers . 2. 73 Number of buildings . 2. 19 Number of seats . 59,861 $29,888,847 $4,148,611 1. 46 Value of school property . 7.86 Expenditure for salaries of supervisors and teach¬ ers . 5. 91 Total expenditure . .8122,233,724 $129,836,203 $7,602,479 6. 22 Normal schools (Chapter XXVIII, pp. 1G67-1725). — The statistics of the present year embodied in this chapter show in all the schools devoted partially or wholly to the professional training of teachers an enrollment of 87,239. These students are distributed among the several classes of institutions as follows : In public normal schools, 59.2 per cent; in j^rivate normal schools, 13.7 per cent; in universities and colleges, 11.6 per cent; in public high schools, 8.6 per cent; in private high schools, 6.9 per cent. There were reported as engaged in this work 1,220 institutions. Of this number, 449 are public and 272 private high schools, 230 universities and colleges, 178 public and 91 private normal schools. These, in the main, constitute the sources of supply from which all classes of schools recruit their required quotas of teachers. The ratio of women students to the whole number of students is found to be 65.8 per cent, a figure somewhat less than the ratio which women teachers bear to XX EDUCATION EEPOET^ 1904. all teachers as determined on the basis of last year’s statistics. This latter ratio, including universities and colleges, was 71.5 per cent. The two summaries below present, respectively, the status of public and of private normal schools for 1889-90 and 1903-4, and public appropriations to public normal schools for each of the last fifteen years. 1889-90. 19C3-4. Schools. In¬ struct¬ ors. Normal stu¬ dents. Normal gradu¬ ates. Schools. In¬ struct¬ ors. Normal stu¬ dents. Normal gradu¬ ates. Public normal schools . 135 1,182 26,917 4,413 178 2,846 51,635 9,230 Private normal schools . 43 274 7,897 824 91 668 11,992 1,618 Total . 178 1,456 34,814 5,237 269 3,514 63,627 10,848 Public appropriations to public normal schools for fifteen years. Year. For sup¬ port. For build¬ ings. Year. For sup¬ port. For build¬ ings. 1889-90 . 11,312,419 1,285, 700 1,567,082 1,4.52,914 1,996,271 1,917,375 2,187,875 2, 426, 185 $900, 533 409, 916 394, 635 816,826 1,583,399 1,003,933 1,124,834 743, 333 1897-98 . $2, 566, 132 2, 510, 934 2, 769,003 3, 068, 485 3, 228, 090 3, 582, 168 3, 927, 808 $417, 866 560, 896 718, 507 709, 217 906, 301 1, 268, 742 915, 443 1890-91 . 1898-99 . 1891-92 ... 1899-1900 . 1892-93 . . 1900-1 . 1893-94 . 1901-2 . 1894-95 . 1902-3 . 1895-96 . 1903-4 . 1896-97 . Length of service ofteacLers. — Chapter XXIII (pp. 1227-1302) con¬ tains tables giving the results of an inc(uiry into the length of service of teachers in the common schools of 379 cities and towns of 8,000 inhabitants or over. These tables show the number of teachers hav¬ ing taught from one to forty years and over. It appears that 30.75 per cent of the total number of teachers have taught less than five years; 25.48 per cent have taught from 5 to 10 years; 17.31 per cent have taught from 10 to 15 years; 11.21 per cent have taught from 15 to 20 years; 6.68 per cent have taught from 20 to 25 years; 4.29 per cent have taught from 25 to 30 years; 2.44 per cent have taught from 30 to 35 years, the period which in continental Europe usually entitles to retirement at four-fifths of the last year’s salary; 1.82 per cent have taught from 35 years to 40 years and over, a period which in Europe entitles to retirement at full salary. The number of teach¬ ers of long service, say 20 years and over, is over 15 per cent of the total number reported. The average length of service, regardless of where performed, proves to be 14.7 years for men and 11.1 years for women. Cincin¬ nati has the highest average — namely, 16.8 years for both sexes. Boston follows with 15.3 years, while St. Joseph, Mo., records the lowest average, to wit, 9.2 years. THE COMMISSIONEE S INTRODUCTION. XXI The following table gives the summarized percentages of the tables of Chapter XXIII. To facilitate calculations the percentages are also grouped in five-^^ear periods. Teachers in Teaxhers in Teachers in 333 cities of 379 cities of 29 cities of over 8,000 Figures of over 8,000 Figures of over 100,000 Figures of inhabitants, column 1 in inhabitants. column 3 in inhabitants, column 5 in Length of service of regardless of periods of service ren¬ periods of regardless of periods of teachers. where service 5 years. dered in 5 years. where service 5 years. was ren- present was ren¬ dered. location. dered. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. G. 483 13. 241 6. 457 5. 733 9. 681 5. 448 6. 195 8. 136 5. 688 6. 362 7. 246 5. 848 5 years . 5. 977 30. 750 6. 345 44. 649 5. 181 28. 622 5. 632 5. 337 5. 070 7 years . 5. 575 4. 957 5. 367 8 years . 5. 178 4. 460 4.914 9 years . 4. 530 4. 046 4. 407 10 years . 4. 570 25. 485 3. 656 22. 456 4.100 23. 858 11 years . 3. 782 3.216 3. 833 12 years . 3. 947 3. 236 3. 896 13 years . 3. 336 2. 790 3. 397 14 years . 3. 322 2. 623 3. 402 15 years . 2. 929 17.316 2.303 14. 170 2. 842 17. 370 1 fi yen rs 2. 479 1.805 2. 455 17 years . 2. 366 1.738 2. 468 18 years . 2. 119 1. 566 2. 219 19 years . 1.981 1.386 2. 090 20 years . 2. 265 11.210 1.526 8. 023 2. 353 11. 585 21 years . 1. 638 1. 178 1.854 22 years 1. 472 1. 066 1. 610 23 years . 1.246 .889 1. 525 24 years . 1. 157 .788 1.276 25 3'ears . 1. 171 6. 684 .757 4. 678 1.210 7.475 26 years . 1.071 .735 1. 468 27 years . .910 .620 1. 196 28 years . .734 . 492- .867 29 5'ears . .713 . 539 .929 30 years . .863 4. 291 .606 2. 992 .903 5. 363 31 years . .615 .473 .747 32 years . .510 . 435 .667 33 j^ears . .504 . 385 - .671 34 j^ears . . 442 .348 .618 35 years . .372 2. 443 . 263 1.904 .445 3.148 36 years . .308 .208 .436 37 years . .251 . 178 .382 38 years . .206 . 147 .271 39 years . . 191 . 142 .267 40 years and over . .865 1.821 .453 1. 128 1.223 2. 579 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 100. 000 Pensions for university professors. — Chapter III (pp. 133-247) con¬ tains a compilation of rules and regulations relating to pensions and annuities paid to professors of German universities. The question of providing pensions for teachers has of late years assumed an importance in this country not anticipated twenty years ago. The munificent gift of $10,000,000 for the establishment of a pension fund for college professors by Mr. Andrew Carnegie attracts public atten¬ tion as this report goes to press. In large cities private initiative among teachers has done much in securing small annuities to super¬ annuated or disabled teachers, and city authorities have lent their official aid to these efforts. In some States the legislatures have readily responded to the request of teachers and framed laws for the XXII EDUCATION EEPORT^, 1904. establishment of pension funds, the distinctive feature of which, however, is that no teacher shall be obliged to contribute to the pension fund, voluntary membership being a requisite of any pension- fund society. This is quite in harmony with our democratic form of government, while in German}^ membership is compulsory; i. e., membership in aiyy teaching body means, nolens volens, the payment of regular contributions to the pension fund of that body except in elementary schools, where the State assumes the entire burden of pension payment. In the United States only three States have provisions for teachers’ pensions paid by the State, to wit, Maryland, Ohio, and New Jersey (see pp. 2449-2451 of Annual Report of 1903), while German}^ has been for generations in a preeminent degree the country of civil- service pensions. The timely gift by Dr. Theodore Marburg, of Johns Hopkins University, of a manuscript to this Office makes possible an exhibit of the regulations in force in the twenty-one German universities with reference to pensions for professors and provision for their widows and orphans. The author of this compilation starts with the provisions for support of professors and their families in the ten Prussian universities; then follow those of Alsace, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Saxony, Baden, Hesse, Thuringia, and Mecklenburg in the order named. Many points usually overlooked in establishing new pension funds are found here well met by provisions which are evidently the result of long and vexatious experience. The sums granted to retired professors, to widows of professors, and to their orphans may not seem large for America, but they may be weighty considerations for a professor in deliberating upon a call to another institution of learning. It may be stated that in all the many years of administration of these pension funds in Germany no case of default has occurred. Teachers^ salaries. — The first question of interest to the teacher inquiring about salaries is: Are the positions of teachers, in a State, annual positions, or merely temporary occupations lasting only for a small fraction of the ^-ear? The annual position means a teacher employed by the year, who takes up teaching as a vocation, and does not have to shift to other occupations to eke out his salar}^ received from his vocation as teacher. In most rural districts that are sparsely settled the taxable wealth is small, and the State does not make an apportionment of its annual funds sufficient, when divided pro rata for each person of school age, to provide for a full school year’s instruction; instead of nine or ten months, instruction for only three or four, or five months possibly, is provided. Consequently the individual teacher has to find his main vocation in some other occupation than teaching — generally that of a farmer. The ungraded rural school can not afford to emplo}^ pro- TPIE COMMISSIONEE^S IXTRODUCTION. XXTII fessional teachers, because it can pay onl}^ a fragment of an annual salar}". Villages and cities can depend upon a school appropriation for the year, and an annual session of from eight to ten months, or even longer, is kept up. Professional teachers are employed at living wages; that is to say, the wages paid teachers are in advance of the average rates for laborers who work the same length of time. The second important question is: Plow many well-paying posi¬ tions are there — how many positions are there in the teachers’ ranlvs which promise the individual, successful in his profession of teacher, an increase above the position he at present occupies, say to a salar}^ one-fourth larger, or one-half larger; how many positions will become open to him that pay twice or three times or four times what he receives now when he first enters the profession? The ambitious teacher wishes to have a career before him. Just as he objects to enter the work of teaching when teaching is a makeshift, lasting only three or four months each 3"ear, so it is objectionable, though not to such a degree, to enter a profession which has in it no future for him. Pretty much all the interest in statistics of salaries in the United States therefore relates, not to the salaries of rural schools, but to those paid in village or city schools, which are sufficient to support a professional teacher, and to the question whether there are a suffi¬ cient number of higher positions to hold out a promise of promotion from time to time in accordance with the increase of his professional skill. He is glad to learn, therefore, that the average annual increase in higher education throws open nearly one thousand new places a year in colleges and universities for teachers promoted from the sec- ondar}^ schools on being found to have the requisite skill and scholar¬ ship. There were, in 1890, 7,918 professors and instructors in the colleges and universities of the United States, not counting the pro¬ fessional schools. In 1903 the number had risen to 20,887. It started with less than 8,000, and had an increase of new places in thirteen years almost equal to 1,000 a year (12,969). The second- ar}^ schools of the United States were taught by 16,329 teachers in 1890, and in 1903 by 33,795. This increase gave 17,466 new posi¬ tions in thirteen years for teachers in public and private high schools. The recent canvass of teachers’ salaries b}^ the special committee of the National Educational Association, of which Dr. Carroll D. Wright, formerly the United States Commissioner of Labor, was the chairman, gives us data from which we may complete our list of better-salaried positions, besides those in colleges already named, counting in superintendents, assistant superintendents, high school principals, high school teachers (not principals), elementary school teachers — six classes of positions reported in 467 cities of over 8,000 inhabitants. This list aggregates 53,554 positions with annual sal- XXIV EDUCATIOX KEPORT;, 1904. aries of $600 and over (one-half of which pay $800 and upward), and 14,193 of $500 and $600, and 17,728 of annual salaries below $500. The teacher^s profession offers, in the elementary and high schools and the office of superintendent, the following positions: Salaries (dollars). Positions. ' Salaries (dollars). Positions. 600 to 700 . 16,015 11,064 8,664 4,424 2,539 1,486 2,825 1,166 1,400 to 1,500 . 861 766 1,005 227 361 233 1,918 53,554 14, 193 17, 728 700 to 800 . 1,500 to 1,600 . . . 800 to 900 . 1,600 to 1,700 . 900 to 1,000 . 1,700 to 1,800 . 1,000 to 1,100 . 1,800 to 1,900 . 1,100 to 1,200 . 1,900 to 2,000 . 1,200 to 1,300 . 2,000 and over . 1,300 to 1,400 . Totfl 1 . . . 500 to 600 dollars . Under 500 dollars . Adding the positions in colleges and universities (20,887) to 53,554 positions with salaries of $600 and above, we have a total of 74,441. It will be seen, on inspection of the above table, that there are 26,475 positions that pay $800 and upward, which, with the college positions, make 47,362. Education at the St. Louis Exposition (see Chapters XIV, XV, XXI, XXII, pp. 863-998 and 1177 to 1275). — Four chapters of this report are devoted to a description of the educational exhibits at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis, Mo., in 1904. At St. Louis, for the first time in the history of expositions, a separate building was furnished for the display of the exhibits on education and its kindred subject — social econouiy. The building covered 276,153 square feet and cost $375,000. In it were arranged nearly all of the educational exhibits. The four chapters devoted to this subject comprise a series of mono¬ graphs descriptive of educational exhibits, compiled and edited by Mr. George E. Gay, president of the Educational Exhibitors’ Asso¬ ciation of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The series of mono¬ graphs was intended to include a description of each separate exhibit, but it was not possible to obtain all of them. Dr. H. J. Rogers, chief of the department of education at the expo¬ sition, points out two features that stood out promnnently, namely, the similarity of the exhibits from the several States and cities in the United States, demonstrating the fact that we have a national sys¬ tem of education, and, second, the subordination of the humanities to industrial instruction in the exhibits of foreign nations. The last monograph in Chapter XV is on the exhibit of the land- grant colleges and agricultural experiment stations. This exhibit was rendered possible by an appropriation of $100,000 made by Con¬ gress for the purpose. It was prepared by. a committee of the asso¬ ciation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiuient Stations, THE COMMISSIONEE^S INTRODUCTION. XXV and was designed to illustrate the instruction given liy the insti¬ tutions established under act of Congress approved July 2, 1862, in agriculture and the mechanic arts, and the work done by the experiment stations established under the act of March 2, 1887. This collective exhibit occupied about 16,000 square feet of space, and represented on the agricultural side work done in agronomy or plant production, zootechny or animal industry, agrotechny or agricul¬ tural technology, rural engineering or farm mechanics, and rural economics of farm management. The mechanic arts side was repre¬ sented by exhibits illustrating instruction in civil, mechanical, elec¬ trical, and mining engineering, technical chemistry, architecture, drawing, and shop practice, including textiles and trades. Instruc¬ tion in domestic science and ceramics was also represented. The central part of this exhibit was occupied by the exhibits of the Bureau of Education and the Office of Experiment Stations, which represent the United States Government in its relation with these colleges and stations. These exhibits were largely documentary and statistical, intended to show the development of the institutions and stations in respect to numbers, students, material, equipment, etc., and their relation to other educational institutions in the country. The school systems and exhibits of seven foreign countries are described in Chapter XXII. The organization of the school system of the Argentine Kepublic is briefly described by a member of the Argentine Commission. Each State manages its schools independ¬ ently, while the National Government has control over those at the federal capital and in sectional territories. In the city of Buenos Ayres education is compulsory for children between 6 and 14 years of age. Primary instruction comprises six grades covering eight years. Coeducation is allowed only in the first three grades. The exhibit of Argentina was limited to a representation of the work of the schools of the city of Buenos Ayres, and was confined chiefly to a display of statistics, school administration, and pupils’ work. Primary education in Belgium is described by M. A. Genonceaux, chief inspector of primary education. All the elementary communal teaching, including kindergarten, primary, and adult schools, is directed by the communes. The primary school receives children of 6 to 14 years of age. There are in Belgium 18 principal inspectors and 85 cantonal inspectors for a school population of 800,000 children, and about 20,000 teachers of primary schools. Teachers of 55 to,60 years of age are entitled to a retiring pension of about two-thirds of the highest salary they have received. The practical tendenc}^ is very prominent in the primary schools. All trades provide their quota of practical exercises, with special reference to local wants. The girl applies her theoretical knowledge to housekeeping and needle¬ work, the boy either to agriculture or to some branch of industry. XXVI EDUCATION EEPOET^ 1904. The surroundings of the school decide the trend of the practical instruction to be given by the teacher. In Brazil elementary and secondary education are supported and controlled by the authorities of the federal district and of each State in their respective territories. Higher public education is under the control of the Federal Government, being administered by the secre¬ tary of the interior. Schools generally begin in F ebruary or March and continue until November or December. The German educational exhibit covered about 50,000 square feet of space and was divided into five departments: 1, Universities and scientific institutions; 2, Chemistry; 3, Scientific instruments; 4, Medicine; 5, Elementary and advanced education. The exhibit of universities and scientific institutions consisted largely of models, photographs, and books descriptive of the equipment of the institu¬ tions. There were also numerous statistical and graphical charts illustrating the work and growth of the institutions. The German exhibit was noted for the large number of books and other printed matter displayed, and the minute and pertinent information on all the subjects of instruction and organization. Its medical exhibit was limited to five departments of medical science, namely, bacteri- olog}^, anatomy, surgery, pathological anatom}-, and internal medi¬ cine, to which was added a Roentgen cabinet furnished with the newest apparatus. The main object of this exhibit was to show the system of medical instruction followed in the German universities and the apparatus used during instruction. The characteristic features of the German school organization are shown in 24 brief tables on pages 1241-1252. The remarkable advance of Japan in educational lines in recent years was strikingly shown at St. Louis. Education in its modern sense was unknown in Japan prior to the restoration in 1868. An imperial university was established in 1869, and in 1871 educational affairs were entrusted to an independent department of state. A noticeable feature of the Japanese exhibit was the evidence it gave of the large provision in its school system for technical education. Institutions for technical education are of three grades, higher tech¬ nical schools, technical schools of secondary grade, and apprentice schools. In these schools are found courses in engineering, agricul¬ ture, fishery, commerce, navigation, etc. The statistical table on page 1254 gives the status of educational institutions in Japan in 1901, and shows an enrollment in all classes of schools of 5,265,006. There are two universities in the Empire, with an attendance of 3,612 students. The organization of the school system of Sweden and its exhibit at St. Louis are described on pages 1270-1275 by Carl Lidman, com¬ missioner to the exposition. Compulsory education in common THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XXVII schools was introduced in 1842. Common schools are divided gen¬ erally into two departments, the infant school for beginners and the common school proper for more advanced pupils. School age is counted from the seventh to the fourteenth year. The obligatory period extends through six years, two in the infant school and four in the common school. In 1902 there were 761,814 children of school age. Of this number 94 per cent received instruction in infant and common schools, and 6 per cent in secondar}^ schools, special schools, and in homes. Instruction in sloyd and in domestic economy is given in the common schools. State school laws.—li\ Chapter lY is given a revised digest of the school laws of the various States. The next previous compilation of this kind was published in Chapter IX of the Annual Report for 1894. The matter is arranged under four heads, viz: (1) The organization of the school system in each State, including the superintendents and other officers and the division into districts; (2) the teachers, their methods of appointment, their training and duties; (3) the schools, including attendance and studies; and (4) the financial support of the schools. Statistics of growth. — Chapter II (pp. 25-132) gives in detail the measurements of the school children of Worcester, Mass., made b}^ Prof. Franz Boas with the assistance of a number of students of Clark University. The large number of j^articulars recorded in the case of each child, and the care with which the work was conducted, render this collection of data peculiarly valuable. The tables of measurements are preceded by a preliminary investiga¬ tion of some problems bearing upon the growth of children, the treat¬ ment of which at the same time illustrates the methods of reducing observations of this character and discussing the results arrived at. In the prosecution of this study Doctor Boas has had the cooperation of Dr. Clark Wissler, and besides his own measurements makes use of data from other reliable sources. In particular, an attempt is made to correlate the various groups of measurements, so as to deter¬ mine at vvffiat stage of development of children a tendenc}^ is shovui to vary most from the normal, for all the different measurements to vary in the same direction. Education in England. — iV statistical surve^^ of education in Eng¬ land is given in Chapter XII (pp. 799-833), together with an extended account of the operations of the law of 1902, which effected a radical change in the local administration of elementary education. An epitome of the main provisions of the law comprised in the chapter enables the reader to comprehend the bearing of the year’s record. (For full text of the law see Report for 1902, pp. 1017-1026.) It appears that rapid progress has been made in transferring the local control of the public elementary schools from elected school XXVIII EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. boards to the county and municipal councils as required by the law. By this time (1904) the transfer has been completed throughout the country, including the metropolis, which was the subject of a special law (1903) providing for the same administrative change within its area. Confidence is expressed that under the new conditions it will be possible to bring the various agencies of public education into a coordinate whole in each administrative division; in this way over¬ lappings and duplication of schools may be prevented, with a gain in the scope and efficiency of the educational facilities. The local councils, it is reported, are, in general, carrying out their new duties with great energy and with a wise consideration for the various bodies with which they are thus brought into relation. Conflict has arisen in some cases between the councils and the governing bodies of private schools with respect to the limited authority over these schools granted to the councils, but for the most part the questions in dispute have been amicably adjusted. While on the whole the change in the local administration of the schools has progressed rapidly and smoothly, the financial policy of the law is still bitterly opposed. Prior to the passage of the law of 1902 sectarian or parochial schools could not draw support from local taxes, but they are now placed in that respect upon the same footing as nonsectarian schools under public control. This provision, at variance with the deep-seated principle in English administration, that public control should follow public funds, has been met by a refusal on the part of thousands of citi¬ zens to pay the portion of the school tax that presumably would be applied to sectarian instruction. In Wales this policy of ‘^passive resistance,” as it is termed, has taken on a more threatening aspect, the local councils having refused to turn over any part of the school tax for the use of sectarian schools. To meet the case of these recalcitrant authorities a law was passed at the end of the parliamentary session of 1904, the ^^Local authority default act,” which provides ^Hhat where the local authority fails to perform its duties as defined b}^ the educa¬ tion law of 1902, the board of education may make orders for recog¬ nizing as managers of a school any persons who are acting as managers thereof, and may pay to the managers such amounts as are needed for the expenses of the school and charge the same as a debt due to the Crown from the local authorities.” It is evident, however, that the board will be slow to adopt coercive measures, while on the other hand the local authorities may evade the charge of illegal action by ‘^placing their refusal to aid the denominational schools upon the ground of insufficient staff, equipment, etc., which are recognized by the law of 1902 as sufficient reasons for refusing support.” The present indica¬ tions are that the law of 1902 will be substantially modified in the near future, or that the parochial schools through their inability to meet the THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XXIN legal requirements as to staffing and equipments Avill gradually pass over to the control of the local authorities. To some extent this transfer has already taken place, as indicated by the fact that the 518 new public schools reported in 1903 comprised 28 schools that had been turned over to the councils by private managers. Of this num¬ ber, 10 were Church of England schools and 3 Wfisleyan. Since the report was rendered the tendency to such action has apparently increased. In some districts the disturbance caused by the favor shown to paro¬ chial schools has interfered with school attendance, but the statistics show on the whole continued increase in the number of enrolled chil¬ dren. The total enrollment rose from 5,881,278 in 1901-2 to 5,975,127 in 1903. In 1890 the school enrollment was 16.3 per cent of the popu¬ lation; in 1902, 18 per cent (population census of 1901). The classifi¬ cation of the pupils by age periods (Table II, p. 806) shows that the increase in recent years (1900-1903) has been greatest in the group of children above 1 1 years of age, a result attributed to recent legislation restricting more rigidly the employment of children (law of 1899) ® and to the provisions of the education law of 1900 empowering local authorities to extend the upper limit of compulsory school attendance from the thirteenth to the fourteenth year of age. The development of the compulsory principle in English school legislation is an impressive evidence of its importance, since in no country are parental authority and right of parental control more carefully guarded. The education law of 1870 gave optional power to school boards to make by-laws requiring the attendance at school of children of ‘ffiot less than five nor more than thirteen years ” of age. By reference to the chronological epitome of school legislation (p. 820) it will be seen that this permissive provision has been so extended by succeeding laws that local authorities are now required to make by¬ laws enforcing school attendance (laws of 1876 and 1880); the age for partial or total exemption from school attendance under local by-laws has been raised as to its lower limit from 11 to 12 years (law of 1899), the candidate for exemption being required to pass an exam¬ ination in a grade not lovv^er than the fourth (fixed by law of 1893); and local authorities are authorized to extend the upper limit of com¬ pulsory school attendance from the thirteenth to the fourteenth year of age (law of 1900). It is interesting to compare the gradual devel¬ opment of this policy in England with the early adoption of compul¬ sion in Scotland. The law of 1872 organizing the present system of education in the northern division of the Kingdom made education compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 and 13; in 1883 the upper age limit was raised to 14. As in England, exemption from school attendance, partial or total, is allowed at 12 years of age under oBy a clerical error the date of this law is given as 1889 instead of 1899 on page 806, near the foot. XXX EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. certain conditions, but in Scotland applicants for exemption must be able to pass examination in the studies of the fifth grade (law of 1878, see pp. 820-821). The statistics with respect to the teaching force in English elemen¬ tary schools show a stead}^ increase in the proportion of adult teachers. They formed 90 per cent of the entire force in 1899-1900 and 95 per cent in 1902-3. The increase in the proportion of certificated teach¬ ers is also noticeable. In 1876 they comprised 39 per cent of the entire bod}^ of teachers. In 1899 the proportion had risen to 50.9 per cent and in 1902-3 to 53.2 per cent. The adjustment of teachers’ salaries is one of the most serious prob¬ lems with which the local councils have to deal. In London and other great industrial cities there is an actual dearth of teachers, attributed in the main to the superior salary inducements offered b}^ other careers; in the rural districts the meager salaries offered, combined with certain limitations growing out of the relation of teachers to pri¬ vate managers (the majorit}^ of the rural schools are parochial), make it difficult to secure well-qualified teachers. The average salaries increase steadily, as shown in Table YII (p. 809), but the average is affected by the increase in the number of higher positions in the chief cities and conceals wide divergencies from a fair living income. The current expenditure for elementary schools so far as reported amounted for the year 1902-3 to £16,462,456 ($82,312,280). Of this amount £6,243,692 ($31,218,460) was derived from local taxes, appli¬ cable at that time to public (board) schools only; £876,360 ($4,381,800) was derived from subscriptions (parochiM schools chiefly), and £9,339,404 ($46,697,020) from Government grants. The Government grants for elementary schools have been modified and augmented from time to time since 1870 in ways that make it diffi¬ cult to convey a clear idea of the actual increase in this source of income. From Table IX (p. 810) it appears that what is called the annual grant, because the amount is annually determined, has increased tenfold. From 1870 to 1896 the greater part of this grant was distributed to the schools at a certain rate per capita of the pupils passing the Govern¬ ment examinations, but since that date at a certain rate per capita of average attendance. Estimated on the basis of average attendance the ])er capita rate has more than doubled. In 1870 it was equivalent to 9s. 7d., in 1876 to 13s. 2.8d., in 1890 to 17s. 10. 6d., in 1900 to 21s., and in 1902 to 22s. The total Government grant for public ele¬ mentary education amounted in 1902-3 to £9,339,404 ($46,697,020). This includes several grants besides the so-called annual grant, of which the principal are the fee grant (for schools remitting fees, law of 1891) and the special grant in aid of ^G^oluntary schools” (law of 1897). These two laws indicated the growing interest of the Govern- ment in measures for the promotion of a system of free schools sup- THE COMMISSIOKER^S INTRODUCTION. XXXI ported by public funds, wliicli was one of the niotives urged for the passage of the law of 1902. The latest code or body of regulations for elementaiy public schools, passing into effect July 31, 1905, is cited as to its main provisions in Chapter XII. It marks a distinct advance over all previous regula¬ tions in respect to the treatment of the course of study, a matter in which the present secretary of the board of education, Mr. K. L. Morant, has shown deep personal interest. Formerly the su])jects of instruction were comprised in two groups, one including obligatory subjects, the other subjects which might be taught under appropriate circumstances. The endeavor is now made to combine these subjects in one coherent whole, with directions as to maximum and minimum requirements. The introduction to the code sets forth a high but eminently practical ideal of the purpose which should control the work of elementary schools. In addition to the provisions respecting the course of study the code prescribes the minimum requirements with respect to the number of teachers, and the conditions of the school buildings, premises, and equipment, that must be met for a school to share in the Government grant. Table VI (p. 808), examined in connection with Article XII of the code (p. 814), shows that at present the schools as a whole have not reached the standard in respect to the proportion of pupils to each certi¬ ficated or adult teacher required by the Government. The rate of grant and the basis of allotment are shown in articles 25-34 (pp. 816, 817). Cliaper A^I of the code (pp. 817, 818) relates to ^Giigher elemen¬ tary’’ schools, which are now carefully distinguished from the ordi¬ nary elementary schools. The higher elementary schools have grad¬ ually developed through an extension of the elementary school curriculum, and in the large cities have come into competition with the secondary schools (endowed, proprietary, and private schools). The purpose of the present regulations is to provide, for pupils who can continue their studies up to 15 3mars of age, a four years’ course of stud}", in which science shall predominate, and which shall be so correlated with the course of the elementar}" schools that pupils who have passed the fourth grade in the latter may be transferred to the higher grade school. reference to the brief conspectus of the system of public educa¬ tion in Scotland (pp. 820, 821) it will be seen that in this division of the Kingdom secondaiy schools were recognized by the law of 1872 and have been ke])t in pretty close relation with the elementaiy schools, thus avoiding the overlapping of schools and the friction between them which has disturbed England. XXXII EDUCATION KEPOKT^ 1904. Chapter XII also includes a brief survey of the system of national education in Ireland, with an epitome of the results of recent investi¬ gations ordered by the Government with a view to devising plans for the better coordination and liberal support of the different classes of schools fostered and supervised by the Government (see pp. 825-827). The physical condition of the poorer classes in England and Scot¬ land has become a subject of great public interest in the last few years. Chapter XII presents a brief account of three special investigations ordered by the Government with a view to ascertaining the causes of physical deterioration and suggesting means of remedying this evil. The Royal Commission on Physical Training in Scotland, appointed in 1902, produced startling evidence of the low physical condition of school children in the classes, where food is scanty and the living condi¬ tions bad. The report of the commission led to the appointment of a special committee by the education department of Scotland to inves¬ tigate the systems of physical training in use in schools and to draw up a model course of physical exercises suitable for children of school age. These efforts in Scotland were among the causes that led to the appointment in September, 1903, of a Government committee to inquire into the cause of ^Ghe alleged deterioration of certain classes of the population in England.’’ The results of the three investigations referred to, as far as they relate to school life, are summarized in Chapter XII. Extensive citations are made from the report of the English committee relative to the existing agencies for supplying food to underfed children (see pp. 828-832). Education in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. — Chapter I (pp. 1-23) presents a brief survey of education in the British provinces of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Full expositions of the sys¬ tems of public instruction in these divisions of the British Empire have been given in previous Reports (see references, p. 11). In the present Report emphasis is placed upon the particulars in which these systems differ from those of our own States. In Canada the traditional regard for parochial schools is manifested by the special recognition accorded them in the chief Provinces, Que¬ bec and Ontario. In Quebec the schools are distinctively sectarian — that is, either Protestant or Roman Catholic — and are organized in two systems separately administered, although under the general direction of a single chief, the superintendent of public instruction. In Ontario the claims of the religious minority are recognized by a provision of separate schools where desired. The privilege is, however, seldom claimed excepting by adherents of the Roman Catholic Church and not invariably by them; although this denomi¬ nation comprises about 18 per cent of the population, the enrollment in the Roman Catholic separate schools is 9 per cent of the total school enrollment (in 1902 45,960 pupils in a total of 454,088). The THE COMMISSIOHEK^S IHTRODUCTIOH. XXX III right to establish separate schools was also granted in 1875 by the Dominion Parliament to the Northwest Territories. Since the chap¬ ter here considered was in press the establishment of two new Prov¬ inces out of portions of the Northwest Territories has been under consideration by the government. Great agitation has been excited throughout Canada b}^ the proposition to provide by constitutional enactment that separate schools for Roman Catholics shall be main¬ tained in the two Provinces. The proposition has been vigorously opposed on the ground that all legislation on school matters by the act of 1867, under which the union was constituted, is left to the provincial legislatures. The reopening of this question revived tlie bitterness of feeling that was manifested over the similar proposal in 1875, when this section was organized as a Territory, but recent elections seem to indicate that the measure finally proposed by the premier. Sir Wilfred Laurier, is regarded v/ith much favor. In the present form the proposition is that in separate schools, whether Catholic or Protestant, the clergy shall have no voice or part in mat¬ ters pertaining to secular education from 9 o’clock in the morning until 3.30 in the afternoon, but may then be admitted for half an hour to give such religious instruction as shall be approved by the local elected trustees. The free school policy has been adopted in all the Provinces except¬ ing Quebec, where it is very generally advocated. In Ontario fees are charged in the high schools, but may be and often are remitted. The support of the schools in all the Provinces, not excepting Quebec, where the income from fees is small, is derived from provin¬ cial grants, local (city and township) appropriations, and local school taxes. The mode of appropriatmg the legislative grant dif¬ fers in the different Provinces, but in ail there is apparent the purpose to make this grant a means of stimulating local effort in behalf of the schools (see pp. 2-3). In view of the attention awakened throughout the United States in the matter of teachers’ salaries, the detailed statements respecting salaries paid in the several Provinces of Canada, which make up the larger part of the chapter, are of special interest (pp. 5-7). The statistics of illiteracy for the entire Dominion (pp. 10, 11) show that whereas in 1891 in every group of 100 persons there were 17.5 illiterates over 5 years of age, in 1901 there were only 12.6 illiterates, or a decrease of 4.8 illiterates, over 5 3^ears in every group of 100. The smallest proportion of illiterates over 5 years of age is in Ontario, viz, 7.8 in every group of 100 persons. This is a decrease since 1891 of 2.3 per each groiqi. Australia and New Zealand. — Under the act of 1900 constituting the Commonwealth of Australia the educational systems of the six ED 1904 M - III XXXIV EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. colonies thus united (now denominated original States), like those of the several Canadian Provinces, are independently administered. In each of the Australian States the control of public education is com¬ mitted to a minister who is charged not only with the general admin¬ istration of the system, but also with its local direction. He decides as to the establishment of school districts and schools and controls the school funds and properties. In each State the schools are sup¬ ported by appropriations from the public treasur}^. Before the union the several colonies were characterized h}^ special efforts for adjusting the school provisions to the conditions of isolated rural districts. Recently the plan of conveying children at public expense to a central school has been adopted with great success, especially in Victoria (p. 14). The question of religious instruction in public schools, which has excited much attention, has been variously settled in the different States; in Victoria and Queensland the schools are strictly secular; in South Australia unsectarian religious instruction is allowed; in New South Wales and West Australia religious instruction is allowed at an hour when children may be withdrawn whose parents so desire. Secondary education is fostered in the several States either by appropriations from the public treasury for that purpose or by State scholarships open to competition. Technical and higher education are also aided by legislative grants. The chapter presents copious extracts from official reports with respect to the current operations of the several systems. Detailed particulars with respect to the progress of education in New Zealand during the year 1902-3, furnished to this office by Mr. Mark Cohen, editor of the Dunedin Evening Star, are also given in the chapter here considered. Among the points emphasized by Mr. Cohen are the high rate of average attendance maintained, viz, 84.9 per cent of the enrollment; the effect of recent legislation in reducing the average number of children under the charge of one teacher, and the advance made in the provision for manual and technical education. A brief survey is given of the efforts made during the last twenty- five 3’ears to devise a scheme for the superannuation of aged and infirm teachers. A bill embodying the jiroposals for a measure of this kind was introduced into the legislature in 1902, but no action has been taken with reference to it. Mr. Cohen expresses the opin¬ ion that ^Hhe teachers of the colony will be dealt with sooner or later in this regard as a branch of the civil service, which they ought to have been all along.” IJiglier education in England. — Chapter XIII (pp. 833-861) relates to higher education in England as affected by the law of 1902. The term ^Diigher” in this connection corresponds in part to the term THE COMMISSIONER S INTRODUCTION. XXXV ^^secondar}^” as used in this country; hut under the heading ^diigher education’’ the English law includes, besides secondary schools dis¬ tinctively so recognized, science and art schools fostered by the Gov¬ ernment and evening schools, all of which are to be carefully distin¬ guished from the ^Giigher elementary” schools referred to in the previous chapter. One purpose of the recent legislation in England has been to bring these various institutions into an organized system in each administrative area with a view to increasing their efficiency and determining how public funds may be best used for extending this provision. The policy of the Government in this respect, how¬ ever, is to stimulate local activity without impairing that free initia¬ tive in communities and institutions which is a cherished principle in England. The extent of the authority with respect to higher education which the law of 1902 has committed to the county and municipal councils, the supervisory control in respect to this matter to be exercised by the board of education, and the measures already adopted by the central and local authorities in view of these duties are explained in the chapter considered. The regulations for secondary schools issued by the board of edu¬ cation limit the classification to schools, day or boarding, which carry the education of each of their students up to and beyond the age of 16 years, and thus distinguish secondary schools from the higher elementary schools, which retain pupils to the fifteenth year only. In the category of secondary schools the regulations include three types of schools as recognized by the Schools Inquiry Commission of 1864 and the Secondary Education Commission of 1894, namely, ‘ffirst-grade schools, leading up directly to the universities;” second- grade schools, which stop short of that point as regards the majority of their scholars, “ and third-grade schools, which do not attempt to carry education much beyond the age of 16” (p. 836). A summary of the official report of the board, setting forth the classification and the number of “higher” institutions already brought under its supervision, is presented (p. 838). The local authorities have thus far devoted themselves chiefly to the task of ascertaining the conditions to be dealt with in their respective areas as the first step toward organizing and extending the agencies for higher education. In this preliminary work the educa¬ tional committees of Sheffield and Liverpool secured the services of Mr. Michael E. Sadler. The results of tlie exhaustive investiga¬ tion into the provision for secondary and higher education made by Mr. Sadler in the cities named are embodied in two reports, which are reviewed in Chapter XIII. These reports are not only of great inter¬ est for the view they afford of the educational provision in two typical cities of England — one chiefly noted as a manufacturing center, the XXXVI EDUCATION EEPOET^ 1904. other a commercial port of great magnitude — ^^but for the light they throw upon tendencies and conditions affecting secondary and tech¬ nical education throughout England. It will be noticed that IVIr. Sadler advocates for Sheffield two distinct types of secondary schools, one which he calls “ the highest type,” which corresponds to the first- grade school recognized in the official regulations (p. 842). In addi¬ tion to a school of this type Mr. Sadler notes in his report on Sheffield the need of a secondar^^ school ^Mo feed the technical school with a steady stream of well-educated lads of 16 years of age,” and of a secondary school for girls, which will feed the pupil teachers’ center with a steady stream of well-educated girls of 16 years of age.” These two wants he believed might be met by a single secondary school of of purely modern type, situated in a central part of the city. The plans for these two classes of secondary schools are fuU of suggestions of general interest (pp. 842-845). The special needs of Liverpool led to a discussion by Mr. Sadler of the best means of promoting commercial education in that city, but in respect to this subject also his opinions are of much more than local significance (pp. 852-855). In respect to each type of school described, Mr. Sadler emphasizes the need of quality rather than quantity. He recommends high requirements for the teaching staff, ‘intellectual efficiency, com¬ bined with personal character,” he says, “is of vital importance in a system of secondary schools,” and he urges liberal treatment of approved teachers both in respect to salary and vacation terms. “A school,” he says, “gains greatly by anything which keeps its teaching staff fresh in mind and interested in improvements in methods of teaching and of school organization. A ‘grace term,’ after five years of service in the school, and a somewhat longer leave of absence after ten years of such service, would enable a teacher to widen the range of his professional experience, or to carry out some piece of original research with great benefit alike to himself and to the school.” It is interesting to note that Mr, Sadler advocates manual training as a feature even of the higher type or classical secondary school (p. 843), and in the case of the city of Liverpool he advises that a manual training school should be established differing in type from either of the secondary schools already indicated. The suggestion is further made “that if the education committee venture upon the experiment of establishing the school they should seek some thor¬ oughly qualified practical man with a strong interest in and experi¬ ence of teaching, and after nominating him as head master to send him to the United States to make a careful study of what is now being done there in the manual training schools.” THE COMMISSIOHEK^S INTRODUCTION. XXXVII Chapter XIII presents also a survey of the existing provision for secondary education in London as shown by a special investigation made in 1892 under the direction of the ^ ^National Association for the Promotion of Technical and Secondary Education/’ and in a work on London education by Mr. Sidney Webb, chairman of the technical education board of London (published m 1903). In this work Mr. Webb endeavors to correct the wide spread opinion that London is particular!}^ lacking in provision for secondary education. ‘^Including/’ he says, ^^only foundations of which the management is essentially public m character, London has to-day certainl}^ not less than 25,000 boys and girls between 7 and 19 in its secondary schools, actually a larger number than either Paris or Berlin.” This estimate takes no account of the strictly private institutions of sec¬ ondary grade, which in 1892 were said to number at least 450. In all the secondary schools of London, as is the case also in Shef¬ field and Liverpool, fees are charged, and the only chance for a poor boy to enjoy their advantages is by securing a scholarship. London has already liberal provision of funds of this class to be secured by competitive examination. Mr. Webb advises an extension and revision of the scholarship system with a view to reaching a larger proportion of the population (p. 858). It is noticeable, however, that in the opinion of this authority the masses are not reached by any of the secondary schools even with the liberal provision of scholarships. The exigencies of life are such that for them the sys¬ tem of evening schools, which gained remarkable development under the London school board, offers the only means of extending their education beyond the elementary stage (p. 859). The three publications reviewed in Chapter XIII not only afford important information respecting the educational status of the cities to which they respectively relate, but they show very clearly the wide distinction between the conceptions of secondary education that prevail in England and in the United States. As stated in the chapter considered, the purpose in the United States ^ fis to induce the largest possible number of young people to continue their studies beyond the elementary stage. This is held to be a measure of public safety, a means of raising the level of general intelligence, and of increasing the mental alertness of individuals. These results are also seen to promote industrial aptitudes and power, hence the almost phenomenal increase in the number of our free high schools in recent years. English policy, on the contrary, is directed to the selection of young people of special promise and to their preparation for definite spheres of usefulness.” Edv, cation in England in the time of Queen Elizaleth. — Chapter VIII (pp. 633-701) contains notices by Prof. Foster Watson, of Uni¬ versity College, Wales, of certain early English writers on education, XXXYIII EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. with extracts from their writings, embracing works published during the last twenty-five years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1578-1603). These extracts, although presenting no connected and compre¬ hensive view, afford many significant glimpses into the educational methods of England at the period just preceding the English coloni¬ zation of America, and throw light upon the attitude of the early colonists in Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia regarding educa¬ tion. It is made apparent to what degree they were the product of the environment in which they had grown up in the old country, and that in framing their educational system they either adhered closely to English models or carried into practice ideas which they had brought with them from England. Religion is frec[uently and strongly emphasized in these extracts as the essential basis of education. Much stress is laid upon gram¬ mar and languages, especially Latin, which appears to have been the most prominent subject of study and instrument of culture. Logic, rhetoric, and other branches of the old scholastic curriculum are held in estimation. Mathematics finds little place in the schemes of study recommended. Mulcaster, who is extensively quoted, makes slight mention of mathematical studies; William Kemp says - (1590): ^Mhe scholar can easily pass through these arts [arithmetic and geometry] in half a yea,r’’ (p. 684). r" But references to ^ ^modern’’ studies are by no means lacking in these writings, and many recent educational reforms and innovations are distinctly foreshadowed. Arguments setting forth the impor¬ tance of the study of English are quite frequently met with; the claims of the physical sciences and even agriculture as subjects of study are occasionally presented; systematic physical training, the education of girls, and teachers’ conferences have their advocates. It is particularly noticeable that the need of professional training for teachers was recognized at this early period. Yhis trade,” says Mulcaster in 1561 (p. 654), ^Tequireth a particular college.” The low estimation in which the teachers’ calling was generally held, as well as the scanty remuneration of those who pursued it, is made a subject of complaint in these writings. It is probably ex¬ plained by the low average character and slender intellectual acquire¬ ments of the teachers themselves. Shakespeare has made us familiar with a certain type of Elizabethan pedagogues in Holofernes. The need of selecting capable teachers of good repute is frequently im¬ pressed upon those having the charge of children. The counter¬ part of much that is said concerning teachers may be found in modern school reports. Education in Sweden. — Chapter XI (pp. 767-797) is taken up with a general view of the educational system of Sweden, which has been abridged from a more complete account published by the Govern- THE COMMISSIOHEK^S HSTTRODUCTTOH. XXXIX ment of Sweden in connection witli its exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition, and furnished to this Office tlirongli tlie coiirtes}^ of Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, ro3^al commissioner for Sweden to the exposition. The school system is a tlioroughly modern one, which has been developed on lines adapted to local conditions, and which presents characteristic features and exhibits tendencies that merit the attention of those engaged in the work of school administration. Sweden has both aristocratic and democratic tendencies, the latter now predominating. The campaign waged in that country against the abuse of intoxicating liquors, which has attracted general atten¬ tion elsewhere, is to be noted as throwing light on the higher aspira¬ tions of the Swedish people. The system of schools, both higher and lower, though based on legislation enacted by the Riksdag, is also subject to executive regu¬ lation. No measure of any importance, however, is now inaugurated without the consent of the Riksdag. The schools come under the ecclesiastical department; indeed, the connection between education and the church is very close. The diocesan board (bishops and chap¬ ter) superintend all the public schools of each diocese, and to a certain extent the private schools, especially State-aided ones. The mass of the people receive their education in the common schools. Both the establishment of these schools (at least one in every parish, or district) and attendance upon them are obligatory. The local control is exercised by a board elected by the church assem¬ bly (the rector of the parish being president), with a certain degree of supervision b}^ the civil authorities. Teachers are permanent and nonpermanent; the permanent teacher is elected by the church assem¬ bly from a list of three candidates nominated by the school board, and must be a graduate of a public normal school (of which there are 13); nonpermanent teachers are employed b}^ the board either for a definite or an indefinite term. In the upper department of the common schools about two-thirds of the teachers are men; in the ^Gnfant” department (the two lowest grades) they are almost exclu¬ sively women. Teachers are pensioned from public funds (a per¬ manent teacher $200), while the teachers themselves contribute to a fund for widows and orphans. Attendance begins at 7 years of age. The course is 2 years in the infant department and 4 in the common school proper. The coui-se of instruction is arranged by the school board under the guidance of a ^Liormal plan” issued by the ecclesiastical department, embracing the subjects prescribed bylaw. These include the usual elementar}^ common school branches ; also religion, geography, history, geometry, natural science, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and gardening. Sloyd is optional. The Swedish sloyd system is particularly described on pages 774-775. Some of the larger towns have school kitchens for XL EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. instruclion in cooking, and baths. The food prepared in the kitchens is used to furnish tree lunches for the poorer pupils. For those who have passed through the common schools provision is made for more advanced instruction in the common school branches by continuation schools, higher common schools, etc. The so-cahed Swedish people’s high schools,” course 1 or 2 years, of which there are a few in the country districts (774 pupils in 1900, average age of admission about 20), are of this character, and not high schools as understood in this country. In some of them the second year’s course is arranged on the lines of a thorough school of agriculture. Bo^^s for whom an education is desired beyond that imparted by the common schools, or a preparation for the universities or higher special schools, must have recourse to the secondary schools, of which there are 82 public, with a course following upon a three-years’ course in the common schools. The information given in the text of Chapter XI regarding these schools has been in part superseded through a reform measure which passed the Riksdag in 1904, the chief features of which have been communicated to this Office by Doctor Lagerstedt and are given in a footnote to page 784. It appears from this that a completely organized secondary school for boys is here¬ after to have a ^'modern” course of 6 years preparing for practical pursuits, and a course of 9 years preparing for the universities; the two courses have the first 5 years in common; the last 4 years of the university preparatory course (i. e., after the divergence of the two) is known as the gymnasium,” and of these there are two kinds — Latin and modern gymnasiums. The most important feature of the new law, perhaps, is the cur¬ tailment of the time given to the ancient classical languages. Here¬ after Latin will be studied only during the last 4 years of the course and Greek during the last 2 years — a reduction of 2 years in each case. The time given to Latin had previously been reduced, about 30 years ago, from 8 years to 6. The classical languages are thus being steadily forced into the background. This is also mani¬ fested b}^ the smaller number of pupils who study them. In 1875, 85 per cent of all the pupils in the last 4 years studied Latin, in 1901-3 only 47 per cent. Other important features of the new reform are (1) the institution of a secondary school board, to which are to be transferred affairs hitherto managed by the ministry of education or the chapters of the dioceses, and (2) the authorization of coeducation in public secondary schools, the first instance of the kind in Sweden. Private secondary boys’ schools, or mixed schools, preparing for the universities are only 5 in number, in consequence of the smallness of the fees exacted at the public schools ($8, the yearly maximum). THE COMMISSIONEE^S INTKODUCTIOH. XLI Two of these schools are coeducational. Private secondary schools for girls are numerous, there being 120 of these, having altogether 13,000 pupils, and all with two exceptions having come into exist¬ ence since the middle of the last century; 5 prepare for the university entrance examination, taken now yearty by 50 or more girls. Sweden has two State universities, coming under the ecclesiastical department, and established at Upsala (in 1477) and Lund (in 1668), respectively, both of these places being country towns, as is the case with the two chief university seats in England. Details regarding the government, organization, students, etc., of these universities are given on pages 790-793. It may be noted here that each has four faculties, namely, theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, the latter being divided into the section of humanistics and that of mathematics and natural sciences. The rector is elected by the consistory of professors for 2 years from among the professors in ordinary; the latter are appointed by the Government from among the candidates who present themselves on public notice of vacancy being given, after due consideration of their respective merits and recommenda¬ tion by the faculty concerned, consistor^y and chancellor; or, in case of an eminent scientific man, the appointment may be offered directly without competition. The courses of study are unusually long, 6 to 8 years being required for the degree of licentiate of philosophy, 7 for candidate’s degree in law, 9 for same in theology, and 11 for licentiate’s degree in medicine; this abnormal length of time results in part from the nonpractical arrangements in regard to teacliing, for which a remedy is now being sought by a royal committee. Besides the two Swedish state universities there are two classed as private, though subject to a measure of Government control; these are the universities of Stockholm (1878) and Gottenborg (1891). Sweden occupies advanced ground with regard to the education of defective and neglected children. The instruction of the deaf and blind is made obligator}^ upon the local authorities, as is the case in a few of the States in our own country. The Swedish schools for the deaf are establishments upon a large scale, counting as a rule 100 pupils or more, with newly erected and costty buildings. An institution at Venersborg for blind deaf-mutes is said to be the only one of its kind in the world. It has now 14 pupils, of whom only 6, however, are blind deaf-mutes. Liberal provision is made for feeble-minded children, there being 36 institutions for this class, though not all are schools; a normal school for teachers of feeble¬ minded children is conducted at Stockholm. The work and influence of Hampton (Chapter VI, pp. 559-579). — At a meeting held at New York in February, 1904, under the direction of the Armstrong Association, addresses were made by a number of XLIl EDUCATIOi^ EEPORT^ 1904. prominent men in which the educational needs of the South, espe¬ cially as related to the elevation of the colored race, were considered from various standpoints. A letter from ex-President Cleveland was read, in which he referred to the general agreement as to the necessity of a better equipment of the negTO population for self-support and usefulness and the obligation upon patriotic citizens to encourage institutions having this object in view, and which had proved their merit by their results. Mr. Andrew Carnegie, the chairman of the meeting, in his address dwelt upon the menace to the state of an ignorant voting population. It is only through education in its widest sense, he said, that the backward elements of society can become proper!}" qualified to have a voice in the government, and an educational test for the suffrage should be adopted and strictly applied to black and white alike. President Eliot of Harvard spoke of the necessity of the ^‘prompt formation of a sound public opinion about the right treatment of backward races,’’ and asserted that Hampton possessed the keyword to the situation, viz, education and productive labor. He discussed at some length the chief points of resemblance and of difference between northern and southern opinion regarding the negro. The two sections, in his view, are agreed in regard to keeping the two races pure, as well as in having separate schools wherever the colored children are sufficiently numerous to justify it, while the northern whites are even more averse than the southern whites to coming into personal contact with the negro. On the other hand, in the North the idea of political equality does not carry with it that of social equality, as seems to be apprehended in the South. Moreover, while public opinion at the North is in favor of giving the negro good oppor¬ tunities for education of every grade, in the South diverse views are held on the subject. Some southern whites think that any kind or degree of education whatever works an injury to the negro; others think he should be educated, but only for manual occupations, while still others recognize the need of negro professional men with an adequate equipment. The same dread of an ignorant and corruptible suffrage exists in the North and in the South, but in the North a remedy is sought through the medium of universal education. In regard to the value of the peculiar type of education which charac¬ terizes Hampton, i. e., education through manual training and labor at trades and crafts, there is coming to be a striking agreement between northern and southern opinion, as is witnessed by the rapid introduction of such features during recent years into urban school systems in the North. President Eliot asserts that there is a growing appreciation in the North of the peculiar difficulties attending the solution of the educa- THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XLIII tional problem in the South, and an increasing disposition to approA’c of some constitutionally devised means of national aid, since the National Government contributed in a degree by its action to the existing state of affairs. The northern whites ^Gvould like to see a way found for the National Government to spend as much money on solving the southern 'negro problem as it has been spending for six years past on the Philippine problem.’’ Doctor Frissell, the principal of Hampton, spoke of Hampton’s methods and results. The idea of labor is the underlying motive. All education there is to fit the student to work. The young are taught how to live and labor. The academic work is subsidiary. This kind of training, in Doctor Frissell’s view, has three results: It forms character, it produces economic independence, and it develops an adequate degree of intelligence; he refers to the records of living graduates for confirmation of his views, and cites particular instances to show the influence they have had throughout the South in stimulat¬ ing and uplifting the negro race. Every negro school in the South is crowded to-day.” The missionary activities of one graduate have so transformed conditions in tidewater Virginia that in 33 counties more than 70 per cent of the negro farmers own and manage their land. Near Portsmouth, Va., is a model negro settlement, built up through the efforts of a former Hampton student, which numbers 300 colored residents, and where “there has never been an arrest, nor has there been a saloon in the town.” The address of Dr. Booker T. Washington (pp. 573-579) was devoted mainl}^ to throwing light on the question whether the colored race is responding to the efforts that have been made to place it upon a higher plane of civilization. He stated that the negroes have come to have aspirations ; that their minds have been awakened and strength¬ ened; they want land and houses, churches, books, and papers. The percentage of colored illiteracy is being rapidly reduced each succeed¬ ing decade, as shown by the Federal census. Contrary to the idea general!}^ entertained, the colored people contribute largely to their own education. The State superintendent of Florida says, and adduces figures to shove, that “the education of the negroes of middle Florida does not cost the white people of that section one cent.” In Mississippi, also, they are said b}^ an eminent authority to be pay¬ ing in a large measure for their own education. The present oppor¬ tunities for education, however, are very inadequate, owing to lack of funds; but whatever has been expended has been well repaid, not a single graduate of Hampton or Tuskegee, for instance, can be found in any jail or State penitentiary. Statistics are quoted and other evidence to disprove the unwarranted assertion that the negro grows in crime as education increases. Joel Chandler Harris is authority XLIV EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. for the statement that “the overwhelming majority of the negroes in all parts of the South, especially in the agricultural regions, are lead¬ ing sober and industrious lives.” Sometime since Doctor Washington sent out letters to representative southern men asking them for their opinion, as the result of their own observation, on various points relating to the progress and position of the negro. One hundred and thirty-six replies were received, a summary of which is given on pages 576-577. The near approach to unanimity exhibited by these replies in regard to most of the matters that were made the subject of inquiry would seem to indicate a gen¬ eral belief among the Southern people that education had improved the morals of the negro and made him more valuable as a citizen, as a workman, and as a business man. Moreover, there is in these replies but little trace to be seen of the existence of any wide-extended preju¬ dice against his acquiring property or against employing him as a skilled workman. The conviction is forced upon one examining the grouping of the answers to the several questions that active opposi¬ tion in the South to the negro’s advancement must be of insignificant proportions if these answers reflect in any adequate degree the atti¬ tude of the public mind in the matter. Temperance instruction in public schools. — Chapter VII (pp. 581-632) contains a number of documents illustrative of the present position of instruction in the effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics. On pages 581-588 the revised law (1901) of Connecticut is given, together with a statement of a committee appointed by the Connecticut Council of Education. The enactment of this law was secured by the joint action of the school people and the temperance people of Connecticut, probably, the committee says, the first instance of such cooperation in any State in support of a temperance educational bill. The new statute differs from the old one in not prescribing temperance instruc¬ tion below the fourth grade nor in the high school; in not requiring the use of text-books belov/ the sixth grade, and in not requiring any text-books to devote a definite space to this instruction. Following this is a report by the Nev/ York State Central Committee on Scientific Instruction as to the results of the study of physiology and hygiene, being a reply to the State Science Teachers’ Association. The central committee sought for their information as to the effects of this study upon the children of the State through the medium of inquiries addressed to their parents and to patrons of the schools. Numerous extracts from the replies received by the committee are given, which go to show that “there is a growth of widespread intelli¬ gent practice of general hygiene resulting from this study,” and that it is “strengthening the children to resist temptation to use” alcoholic drinks and tobacco, and is “helping them and their parents to abandon such use when already begun.” THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION, XLV Some months since a French economist, F. Dupre La Tour, paid a visit to the United States for the purpose of making a study of the various methods employed here for combatting the evils resulting from the abuse of alcoholic drinks. The results of his investigations were embodied in a paper published in the Musee Social, a translation of which is given on pages 602-625 of this report. While his observa¬ tions were intended primarily for the instruction of his own country¬ men, they are not without their value to us in enabling us to see what in our aims or methods particularly impressed an intelligent French observer, or induced comparison with conditions existing in France. Coming from a country where the activities of such temperance societies as exist are limited to the promotion of temperance in its literal sense, and where, indeed, the president of one of the principal ones is himself a wine merchant, he could not but be impressed with the radical character of the views held and methods advocated by temperance reformers in the United States. The total abstinence from alcoholic beverages on the part of the individual and the com¬ plete suppression of the liquor traffic are root-and-branch measures which have almost no counterpart in France. The difference in the attitude of the people of the two countries Mr. La Tour attributes to the greater abuse of alcoholic drinks in the United States, which calls for extreme remedial measures, and which is due to racial, climatic, dietary, and other conditions, and to social customs, all of which result in making the United States what he calls a country favorable to alcoholism. The different agencies and influences for saving people from falling into the drink habit and rescuing those who have become victims to it are considered in turn by Mr. La Tour, including the work of the religious denominations, the temperance societies (notably the Women’s Christian Temperance Union), temperance instruction in the schools, the demand for abstinence from alcoholic drinks made upon employees by railroad corporations and other employers, the action of trades unions, the stand taken by life-insurance companies and the force of public opinion. The law for the instruction of public- school pupils in temperance is considered a “most excellent” instru¬ mentality, but the question is raised whether it is not presuming too much on the patience of the pupils to compel them to listen eight years in succession to the same teaching, as tlie text-books of the series “vary very little;” also they give to the pupils “ideas of physi¬ ology which are a little exaggerated.” In taking up the different measures for suppressing or restricting the liquor traffic, Mr. La Tour discusses prohibition, the license system, local option, and the State dispensary system. The question of the saloon in politics also engages his attention. He displays throughout a keen insight into and a ready grasp of the conditions XLVI EDUCATIOi^ EEPORT^ 1904. prevailing in this country, which, together with his friendly criticisms from the point of view of an outside observer, render his paper a valuable contribution to the literature of the subject. Following Mr. La Tour’s report is given (pp. 625-630) the trans¬ lation of another suggestive document proceeding from a foreign source, and tending to show that the movement against the abuse of alcoholic drinks is taking definite shape in other countries. The document referred to is an order issued by the Prussian minister of education, which outlines the character of the instruction to be given in the Prussian elemLentary and secondary schools regarding ^Hhe injurious effects of immoderate indulgence in spirituous beverages” (die Nachteile des iibermLassigen Genusses geistiger Getranke). So far as appears from the text of the order no attempt is made to pre¬ scribe the methods of the instruction, or the frequency or length of the lessons, or the grades in which they are to be given, but the order is confined to a simple statement of such points regarding the nature of alcohol and the evils resulting from its use as are to be impressed upon the attention of the pupils. The injurious effects of overindulgence upon the physical and the moral well-being of the individual, upon the family, and upon the community are successively considered, the statements being reinforced by a few homely illustrations and simple but significant statistics. Chapter VII closes with a report on temperance instruction in western Massachusetts (pp. 630-632), by G. T. Fletcher, reprinted from the Massachusetts School Keport. While not approving in all cases of the text-books in use and methods employed, Mr. Fletcher finds that ^Lnuch good to the children and to the community has been achieved.” Juvenile criminality in Germany. — Chapter IX (pp. 703-713) con¬ tains an account of juvenile criminality in Germany. The statistics on which this discussion is based were collected and published by the Imperial Statistical Bureau, and show that the number of young persons convicted increased annually up to the 3"ear 1901; moreover, it increased in greater proportion than the number of convicted adults. The author accounts for this partl}^ through the increasing disposi¬ tion to place responsibility on children whose ethical judgment is not sufficiently developed. The general opinion of those well qualified to pronounce on the subject is that the criminal code has set the age limit for punishment by law too low, fourteen years. This code assumes that responsibility is incurred at that age, in view of the degree of intellectual development commonly then reached; but the author pleads for education, not punishment by law, because though children may have learned to distinguish between right and wrong, between mine and thine, etc., the moral sense and the will power are THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XL VII often still lacking to uphold intellectual discrimination, to withstand temptation and subdue desires. It is one thing to know what is wrong, and quite another to resolve to abstain from doing wrong. The author is urgent in favor of establishing courts for children, and the confinement of juvenile apart from adult criminals. He strongly denounces the custom of sentencing children to brief terms in jail, where they come in contact with vicious adult criminals, and pass, so to speak, through a school of crime. He also recommends the post¬ ponement of the age of criminal responsibility from 14 or 16 to 18 ^T-ears of age. Grammar of the HlingU language— In circular No. 2 of this Bureau for 1890, some Eskimo-English and English-Eskimo vocabularies were published which were prepared by Ensign Roger Wells, jr., U. S. Navy, and Interpreter John W. Kelly. These vocabularies \vere republished as Chapter XXVI of the Report for 1896-97. They were expected to be of use to teachers going to Alaska. It is now possible to continue the work then begun by publishing a grammar and vocabulary of the Hlinglt language of southeastern Alaska, which constitutes Chapter X of this present Report. This work is the joint production of Mr. William A. Kelly, the principal of the training school at Sitka, Alaska, and Miss Frances A. Willard, a teacher at that school, and it is believed that it will be of great assistance both to the teachers in that part of Alaska and to the native scholars as well, besides being a contribution of value to students of languages generally. Mr. Kelly has been among the Alaskan Indians for twenty years, having been at first in charge of the educational work of the Presby¬ terian Board of Missions in Alaska, and being afterwards appointed district superintendent under the United States Bureau of Education. Miss Willard was born a member of the Illingit tribe, was rescued while yet an infant from an unpromising future among her own people through the benevolence of the wife of a missionary, was christened with the name she ahvays afterwards bore, and was carefully edu¬ cated for miany years at a well-known private school for girls at Eliza¬ beth, N. J., where she was given, and faithfully improved, all the best advantages, acquired all the refinements of a ^veil-educated young woman, and became remarkable for really unusual literary attainments. Her death in 1904 was not only a calamity to her own people, to whose civilization she had devoted herself, but it was also a loss to science. The present work is therefore especially valuable, from the famili¬ arity of the authors with the Hlingit language and their ability to present the subject in such a manner as their experience has shown to be most serviceable to learners. The student will be struck with the concise yet clear and practical exposition of the grammar of this XL VIII EDUCATION KEPOET^ 1904. Alaskan tongue, which belongs to the Turanian or agglutinated languages and is thoroughly alien in its construction to that of the European family of languages. University of Paris. — In Chapter V (pp. 519-558) Dr. John W. Hoyt gives a history of the University of Paris during the Middle Ages. The historical antecedents and causes of the movement which resulted in the gathering of teachers and students at Paris are pointed out, including both the civil and ecclesiastical conditions of the time. The organization of the students into ^Aiations’’ and of the teachers into faculties is traced, together with an account of the scope of the medieval studies, the scholastic method of teaching, and the influ¬ ence of the university upon contemporary life and the history of France. The recent interest in Oxford University occasioned by the Khodes bequest has made the organization and purpose of the great universities of the Middle Ages an object of special study in this country with a view to understand better the survivals found even in our later and latest foundations on the border lands. Development of the public school system in the South. — In Chapter XVI (pp. 999-1090) Dr. A. D. Mayo gives an historical account of the final establishment of the American common school S3^stem in the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, covering the period from the close of the civil war to the beginning of the present century. In all of these States the friends of popular edu¬ cation had to contend not only with the widespread prejudice against educating the negroes at public expense, but also with the more or less active opposition of those who were antagonistic to any system of free public schools for either race. The story of the alternate suc¬ cesses and reverses of those who were waging the camipaign in behalf of the schools until success finally rewarded their efforts is graphic¬ ally told by Doctor Mayo, whose labors in the South in the cause of education, extending over the greater portion of the period included in his narrative, have given him an intimate acquaintance with the course of events in that section, and render him peculiarly qualified to speak upon the subject. Schools of Alasha. — Chapter XXXYI (pp. 2257-2268) contains an account of the schools in Alaska, which, owing to the delay of the report, has been brought down to the 1st of July, 1905. The his¬ torical table, showing the length of school term and enrollment of pupils, begins on page 2263 and includes three pages, giving the months taught and the enrollment for the years beginning 1892-93 and extending to 1903-4. For the years 1903 and 1904 the total enrollment and average attendance are given by months. Owing to the fact that the natives have a winter residence different from the summer residence, the schools vary much from month to month in average attendance, and, as is shown by the comparatively large THE COMMISSIONER '’S INTRODUCTION. XLIX number in total enrollment for the year, there must be in many cases sets of children who come to school in the fall and early spring and other sets who come in the summer time or in the winter. As is tlie case with the rural schools in the States, the number enrolled is the most important item of statistics, for it shows how many different individuals in the population are reached by school influence; nor is it possible to say that some of the older children who attend school in the severe weather of some of the winter months do not learn more in a few da3^s than the young children during a much longer period of school attendance in the summer. For advancement in higher studies such as are pursued in the grammar school grades of the elementary schools in the States or in our high schools, what is learned by a long session is out of all pro¬ portion to a short session. But in the case of the rudiments of reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography the ratio is reversed, and in one week’s time the pupil learns more than half as much as he would learn in two weeks’ time. Many of the natives are ex¬ tremely bright, judged by the readiness of their memory for forms and sounds. They pick up words cjuite fast and learn the alpha¬ betic symbols readily. They do not make so much progress in syntax or in the construction of the white man’s sentence. They learn to count readily and to add small numbers, but they do not seize very well the operations of subtraction and multiplication. Multiplica¬ tion is an abbreviated method of addition based upon a knowledge of units of different orders indicated by the position of the digit, namely, units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc., each place to the left or right being ten times more or ten times less than its neighbor in value. A bare statement of the operation of multiplication shows that it rests upon the use of reflection as much as memory. From this it may be readily understood why the multiplication of written arithmetic is quite difficult for the natives of any tribal civilization. But if subtraction and multiplication are difficult, division has a higher order of difficulty. For it proceeds by analysis, taking to pieces large numbers which are indicated by digits of difl'erent or¬ ders — a process which requires one more stage of reflection than multiplication or subtraction of written numbers. It requires a reduction of the remainders left to the next lower order of digits and the addition of the same to the digits belonging to that place or order. It is of interest to notice, on page 2260, the report of Joseph Weinlick at the school at the Moravian mission near Bethel. After some years of little result in thes attempt tonteach his pupils arith¬ metic he was able to make somp ’progress in teaching addition, sub¬ traction, and multiplication i'd these children, but ’division is yet a mystery to them. ” v ■ ED 1904 M - IV L EDUCATIOIT EEPORT^ 1904. On page 2261 in tlie report of Mrs. Otha Thomas, the teacher at Kotzebue, a hint is given as to the method or device by which a little education at school becomes fruitful to an entire family or to many families- through the teaching of bright pupils who instruct younger and older members of the family at home. ^^One of these particularly bright lads, who lived at a point about 225 miles dis¬ tant from Kotzebue, took a number of old books from the school and taught his smaller friends their letters.’’ Tlie reindeer history is epitomized on the three pages, 2266-2268. Nine comparative tables are given, showing the distribution of the deer at the 15 stations and the increase or progress from 1893 to 1905. Table 1 shows the increase of fawns surviving, those of 1893 being 79, and each successive year showing an increase until the fawns of 1905 numbered almost 3,000. Table 2 shoves the annual importations of deer from Siberia, there being 9 annual importations in the fourteen years from 1892 to 1905, making in the aggregate 1,280 imported deer. From these 1,280 the entire 10,241 deer, reported in the herds on July 1, 1905, were descended. Table 3 shows the annual mortality of the herd for fourteen years, and includes the numbers that died by disease, by old age, by acci¬ dent, or males that were slaughtered for food, either by the natives or the missions, or sold to miners or other white immigrants for food. The slaughter or transfer of female deer is strictly prohibited in all the herds in Alaska. Table 4 shows the sex of the ol^ deer living on July 1, 1905, and the sex of the fawns born in the spring of 1905. There are 7 instances out of the 30 where the sex is not given — 3 in the case of adidts and 4 in the case of fawns. The report as to sex of fawns is not so important, because the average is 103 males to 100 females* The sex of the adults at Nulato by later returns is known to have been 47 males and 147 females, and that at Betties 75 males to 225 females. This makes the stations reporting 14 out of the 15, giving 2,584 adult males and 4,504 females, a ratio of 36^ per cent of males to 63^ per eent of females, the same being a ratio of 4 to 7, or 100 males to 175 females. The previous year, July 1, 1904, the ratio was 38 per cent adult males to 62 per cent adult females, showing a slight increase in the proportion of females in the herds in 1905. The ratio of fawns born in 1904 was 105 males to 100 females, a slightly larger proportion than for 1905, possibly due to a greater severity of the season of 1904. This table. No. 4, settles for all prac¬ tical purposes the qtiestibn the iruth^of rumors of loose manage¬ ment of the herds in ^Alaska with regard, to the sale or slaughter of female deer in Alaska. A proportion of 4 males to 7 females ought to be considered satisfactory. THE COMMISSIOHEr/s INTRODUCTION. LI Table 5, page 2267, shows the various loans of deer to missions for the training of apprentices and to the 5 Lajilanders for their annual services as teachers. There are 10 stations at missions to which loans have been made. The loan to Wales of 1894 was counted as a gift since 1899, when the deer taken by the Government for the relief of the whalers at Barrow were returned to their respective sta¬ tions. Three other mission stations have returned the deer bor¬ rowed — Golofnin Bay and Tanana, 50 each, and Teller station, 100. Four stations, Nulato, Bethel, Carmel, and Kotzebue, with an aggre¬ gate of 371 deer loaned, make returns in the year 1906. Besides these the Lapp herders Sara, Spein, Niliina, Bahr will return their loans of 100 each in the summer of 1906, making with the 371 returned from the missions an aggregate of 771 deer from loans returned in 1906 to the Government. In this table, No. 5, there should be entered an¬ other station. Cape Nome, where in 1894 a herd of 100 was loaned to a native Eskimo, Antisarlook. After his death, which occurred in 1900, his herd passed by inheritance to his wife, Mary Antisarlook, who has placed her deer in the charge of the Government, paying to the Government 25 deer per annum for their keeping, by an arrange¬ ment effected by the Bureau for the purpose of saving from destruc¬ tion the remnant of a fine herd left by Antisarlook at his death. In Table 6 the number of apprentices at each station, together with their several holdings in reindeer earned by their apprentice¬ ships of five years each, are giv5n. Seventy-eight apprentices owned 3,817 deer. In Table 8 the relative holdings of the Government, the mission stations, the Lapp herders who form r teaching force, and the appren¬ tices who are natives, are given. The Government holding is 3,073, the stations hold 2,127, the Lapp herders 1,189, and the apprentices 3,817. Reduced to percentages the Government owns, either under direct control or under loan to others, 30 per cent of all the deer; the mission stations own 21 per cent, the Lapp herders 11 per cent, the apprentices 38 per cent. The missions and Lapp herders form the teaching force, and the greater part of the mission herds goes to rewarding successful apprentices. The missions and Lapps own 32 per cent of the deer, while the apprentices own 38 per cent. Thus outside of the Government ownership more than half of the deer are in the hands of the apprentices already and their quota increases from jesbY to year. It is in place here to mention the policy of management that has prevailed to date with the reindeer as an educational apparatus m Alaska. There are_^ three classes of reindeer stations in Alaska — first, mis¬ sion stations; secondly, relief stations, and, thirdly, stations in which the reindeer and the schools are entirely under the Government. Lll EDUCATIOIT EEPOET^ 1904. 1. The first and by far the largest number are included in the class of mission stations that have received loans of small herds of deer for three years or five years, as shown in Table 5 (p. 2267), said sta¬ tions entering into agreem.ent to furnish apprentices for instruction in the care of herds, and to reward the successful apprentices by the gift of a certain number of reindeer at the close ot the apprenticeship of five years, and further agreeing to return the number of deer in good condition equal to the number loaned, and a like proportion of male and female deer, and with other agreements as to the pre¬ vention of the slaughter of female deer, etc. Below I give a brief history of each of the mission stations, show¬ ing the beginnings and the present status as to number of deer and as to distribution (a) to apprentices, (b) to station, and (c) to Gov¬ ernment, and the cost to the Government for supplies as well as the cost to the Government for superintending the herds. Next I bring together in three tables the most important of these items. The first table below, total number of deer at the mission stations in 1905, shows how all the stations are observing the regulation which forbids the slaughter of female deer and permits to some extent the slaughter of male deer. It shows that the male to female deer are in the proportion of 2,178 to 3,711, and that the total num¬ ber of deer at the mission stations is 8,585 (including loans from Government and the herds of Lapp herders), out of the total of 10,241 for all the herds reported on Jftly 1 of the present fiscal year, 1905-6. The second table shows the cost to the Government of the rein¬ deer herds at the mission stations, showing an expense of only $358.38 for supplies (which was for services in removing herd), and for cash expenditure for superintending herd only $1,060.60, giving a total of less than $1,500 for the entire expense to the Government, paid from the appropriation of Congress for the support of the reindeer experiment, the same being an average of 16^ cents per year for each reindeer. The third table show^s the distribution of reindeer at the mission stations in 1905 — first, the number in charge of the mission stations; secondly, the number of Lapland herders who have received the loan of reindeer as wages for five years of instruction in herding; thirdly, showing the number of apprentices (including also apprentices who have become herders on their own account) and the number of deer belonging to said apprentices, and, lastly, the number of reindeer in the mission herds directly under control of the Government or due to the Government upon the expiration of the loans now pending. It will be seen that the number of deer belonging to the 65 appren¬ tices is 3,236; the number belonging to the stations is somewhat less, namely, 2,698; the number belonging to the Lapland herders is 1,688, and the number owned by the Government at these mission THE COMMISSIONEP/S INTKODUCTION. LIII stations is 1,070 loaned and due some time in the future, and 928 under present direct control of the Government (held subject to its order), some of theim kept in the mission herds -awaiting transfer to new stations, making a total belonging to the Government in these mission herds of 1,998. This third table answers the question whether the mission stations or the apprentices have accumulated the largest number of deer. The history of the mission stations shows that the missions in providing support for apprentices assume the chief expense in the reindeer instruction. Estimating the expense per apprentice at $500 per year, an expense which has to be assumed in some stations under the Government and which is liable to be incurred at any time if the superintendent of the herd is not a careful manager, pre¬ venting the sharing of rations, on the part of the apprentice with his family, the 65 apprentices at the missions would cost an annual sum of $32,500. Estimating the expense at missions at one- third of this sum, by reason of the thrift which directs the Eskimo families to derive most of their support from what is called native food (whale, walrus, seals, wild birds, and game), the minimum amount contributed to the support of reindeer instruction by the mission stations is something over $10,000 per annum, or two-thirds as much as the Government appropriation of $15,000. 2. The second class of reindeer stations are relief stations. Of these there are two, Gambell and Barrow. Gambell Station, on St. Lawrence Island, is kept there because of the importance of the island, due to its position near Bering Strait and to the danger of shipwreck to the whaling vessels bound for the Arctic seas. For the original loan of 70 reindeer at St. Lawrence Island the present herd showed in 1904 a total of 212 deer, of which the Govermnent owned 154 and 4 apprentices owned 58. The cost to the Govern¬ ment for supplies is very large, and also for the superintendence of the herd. Point Barrow is the northernmost land of the continent of America and a strategic point for the whaling fleets of the United States. I have explained below the circum.stances of the 125 deer left at the station, 100 of which were for the Presbyterian Mission. As I have stated, the Presbyterian board declined to take the loan, urging financial reasons for their inability to support the Eskmio appren¬ tices, but directing their missionaries to do all in their power to make the reindeer herd a success. The 100 reindeer of 1898 have increased to 629 deer, nearly all in the hands of the 10 appreutices. LIV EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. CONDITION OF THE MISSION HERDS. ^yales (Congregational mission) received herd of 118 reindeer from Teller 1894; regarded as a gift after the relief expedition of 1898 to Barrow and never returned. In 1904, July 1, it had 402 adult males, 717 adult females, 369 fawns, making a total of 1,488. Two colonies of reindeer were estab¬ lished from Wales during the summer of 1904; in August, 1904, at Sliishmaref, 389 deer, and the last of December, 1904, 365 at Deering. Counting in the two colonies Vvith the Wales herd, .the aggregate is 1,389 adult deer and 560 fawns, making a total of 1,949 deer for Wales with its tv/o colonies, of which Wales retains 669 adult deer and 273 fawns, making a total of 942. Shishmaref and Deering, the two colonies, are also presented separately below. Number of deer belonging to the station in 1904, 360; in 1905, 216; number of deer owned by 9 apprentices in 1904, 389; in 1905, 537; number of deer owned by the Government in 1905, 189. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, noth¬ ing; 1906, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, noth¬ ing; 1905, nothing; 1906, nothing. Sliishmaref (colony of Congregational Mission). — In August, 1904, 389 reindeer driven from Wales to establish a new herd at Shishmaref. In 1905, July 1, it had 321 adult deer and 139 fav/ns, making a total of 460. The Wales Mission owns 166 deer; 7 native appren¬ tices transferred from Wales own 294 deer; Government owns none. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, noth¬ ing; 1906, nothing. Cpst to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, nothing; 1905, nothing. Deering (Society of Friends). — One hundred head of reindeer loaned to the station January 18, 1905, for five years. Two Eskimo herders, acting as teachers, colonized from Wales (see Wales above) with 265 deer; total at station, 365 deer. In 1905, July 1, 106 adult males, 225 adult females, 148 fawns, making a total of 479 deer. The station has 128 deer, of which 100 are borrowed and returna¬ ble on January 18, 1910; 3 Eskimo apprentices own 351 deer. Number of apprentices, 3. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1905, nothing. Cost to the Government for transfer of deer and superintending herds: 1905, S558.38. Golofnin Bay (Swedish Lutheran Mission). — Fifty deer loaned to station January 16, 1896, and 50 deer returned to Government three years later, 1899. TI-IE COMMISSIONEP/S INTRODUCTION. LV In 1904, July 1, it had 257 adult males, 382 adult females, 285 fawns, making a total of 924. In 1905 it had 297 males, 511 females, 356 fawns, making a total of 1,164. Number of deer belonging to the station in 1905, 462; number of deer belonging to 12 Eskimo apprentices, 383; number of deer held by the Lapp herder superintendent, Nils Klemetsen, 287, 100 of these being returnable to the GoYernment July 1, 1907. Number of deer belonging to the Government in 1905, 32. Where a herd of 100 is loaned to a Lapp teacher, its cash value per annum is estimated at $600, equivalent to an annual increment of 30 fawns at $20 each. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, $600 (as above explained); 1905, $600, rental value of herd. Teller (Norwegian Lutheran Evangelical). — A Government station pure and simple from 1892 to 1900; a Norwegian Lutheran Evan¬ gelical Mission established there September 1, 1900; 100 deer loaned to mission for live years (the same number were returned September 1, 1905, and were marked for the Government although retained in the herd). At the time of this loan, in addition to the 100 loaned to the Norwegian Lutheram Mission there were 221 deer belonging to the Government and 339 belonging to 5 Eskimo apprentices, making, with the 100 loaned to the mission, a total of 660 deer. In 1901, November 11, 194 of the Government deer were transferred to Kot¬ zebue to form a new station, furnishing a loan of 95 deer to the Friends mission and 99 deer to the Lapp teacher Nilima, each for live years (see Kotzebue below). In 1904 it had 225 adult males, 469 females, and 379 fawns, making a total of 1,073. In 1905 it had 223 adult males, 426 adult females, 292 fawns, making a total of 941. Number of deer belonging to the station in 1904, 314; in 1905, 270; number of deer owned by 5 apprentices in 1904, 351; in 1905, 434; number of deer owned by the Government in 1904, 408; in 1905, 215. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, noth¬ ing; 1906, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, $500 (Bango, herder); $900 (Brevig, superintendent of station); 1905, $250 (Bango, herder). UnalaMeet (Swedish Evangelical Union). — One hundred reindeer loaned July 1, 1903; return due July 1, 1908. Ole Bahr, a Lapp, had received a loan in 1901 of 100 deer for five years, securing his serv¬ ices as superintendent of the herd; he brought with him to this station 197 deer, making a total of 297 deer. Parts of herds were LYI EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. transferred to this herd from Eaton^ Teller, and Golofnin Bay stations, increasing the herd to more than 1,500 before the year 1904. In 1904, July 1, it had 546 adult males, 791 adult females, and 581 fawns, making a total of 1,918. In 1905 it had 678 adult males, 850 adult females, and 500 fawns, making a total of 2,028. Number of deer belonging to the station July 1, 1905, 289; to the Government herder. Ole Bahr, 333; to 17 Eskimo apprentices, 913; number of deer belonging to the Government, 492. Cost to the Government for supplies; 1904, nothing; 1905, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, the rental value of Bahr’s herd, $600; salary of Bals (herder), $500; total, $1,100; 1905, rental value of Bahr’s herd, $600. Bethel (Kuskokwim Biver; Moravian). — February 26, 1901, 176 deer were loaned to the Moravian Missionary Society, Bethel, for five years. July 1, 1901, a herd of 100 deer was loaned to Nils Persen Sara, Lapland herder, for five years’ services, the same number of deer to be returned July 1, 1906. Another herd of 100 deer was loaned to Per M. Spein, Lapland herder, for five years’ services, the same number to be returned July 1, 1906. Total number of deer at the station, 376. In 1904, July 1, it had 280 adult males, 459 adult females, 307 fawns, making a total of 1,046. In 1905, July 1, it had 280 adult males, 613 adult females, and 436 fawns, making a total of 1,329 deer. Number of deer belonging to the station in 1904, 458; to the two Lapp herders, Sara and Spein, 525; to 4 Eskimo apprentices 41 ; to the Government 22. Number of deer belonging to the station in 1905, July 1, 567; to the two Lapp herders, 698; to the 4 Eskimo appren¬ tices, 64. In 1906 there will be 376 reindeer due the Government for the loans to the mission and Laplanders. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, noth¬ ing; 1906, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, $1,200, the same being the estimated rental value of $600 for each of the herds owned by the Lapp herders; in 1905, $1,200 (rental value.) Kotzehue (Society of Friends). — Ninet3"-five reindeer loaned Sep¬ tember 2, 1901, for five years, the same number to be returned Sep¬ tember 2, 1906. July 1, 1901, Alfred S. Nilima, a Lapp herder, was loaned 99 deer for five 3^ears, the same to be returned July 1, 1906, for services as herder. Total number of deer at the station, 194. In 1904, July 1, it had 482 adult deer with 232 fawns, making a total of 714 deer. In 1905, Jul3^ 1, it had 181 adult males, 315 adult females, 236 fawns, making a total of 732 deer. Two Eskimo herd¬ ers, with 220 deer, had been transferred to a new station at Kivalina during the winter of 1904-5 (see Kivalina). Counting the number THE commissioner’s INTRODUCTION. LAHI transferred with the 732 deer the total without transfer would have been 952. Number of deer belonging to the station July 1, 1904, 239; to the Lapp herder, 245; to 6 Eskimo apprentices, 230. (Due from the station and from the herder, 194 deer in 1906.) Number of deer belonging to the station in 1905, July 1, 310; to the Lapp herder, 370; to 4 Eskimo apprentices, 40; belonging to white men, 12 male deer, trained to harness and kept with the herd. (Due the Govern¬ ment from the station and from the herder, 194 deer in 1906.) Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, $600 (estimated rental value of herd); 1905, $600, rental value of herd. Kivalina. — In the winter of 1904-5 two native herders, Electoona with a herd of 172 deer, and Otpelle with a herd of 48 deer, making a total of 220 deer, were transferred to Kivalina, an importamt place on the iLrctic Ocean southeast of Point Hope. Number of deer belonging to the Government in 1905, none; belonging to the station, none; belonging to the two Eskimo appren¬ tices, 220. Cost to the Government for transferring herd in 1905, $110.60. Cost to the Government for superintending herds, nothing. Nulato (Roman Catholic) . — One hundred reindeer loaned to station March, 1901, to be returned March, 1906. In 1904 it had 150 adults and 66 fawns, making a total of 216 deer. In 1905 it had 194 adults, 96 fawns, making a total of 290. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, nothing; 1905, nothing. Cost to the Government for superintending herds: 1904, $500; 1905, $500. SUMMARY. The present status of the mission herds is summed up in the three tables following. Total number of deer at the mission stations, 1905. Adults. Fawns. Total. Male. Female. Total. Wales . 253 416 669 273 942 Shishmaref . 113 208 321 139 460 Deering . 106 225 331 148 479 Golofnin Bay . 297 511 808 356 1, 164 Teller . 223 426 649 ' 292 941 Unalakleet . 678 850 1,528 893 500 2,028 Bethel . . . 280 613 436 1,329 732 Kotzebue . 181 315 496 236 Kivalina . 153 67 220 Nulato . 47 i47 194 96 290 Total . 2,178 3,711 6,042 2,543 8,585 LVIII EDUCATION" EEPOKT^ 1904. Cost to the Government for reindeer herds at mission stations, 1905. For supplies. For superintending herd. By annual rental value of deer loaned Lapp teach¬ ers, and not in cash. By cash. Wales . Nothing. Nothing. S358. 38 Nothing. Nothing. Nothing. Nothing. Nothing. Nothing. Nothing. Shishmaref . Deering “ . $200. 00 Golofnin Bay . 8600. 00 Teller . . . 250. 00 Unalakleet . 000. 00 1,200.00 600.00 Bethel . • . Kotzebue . Kivalina . b 110.60 500. 00 Nulato . Total . 358. 38 3, 000.00 1,060. 60 a For one year an allowance for supplies was made to the herders on account of driving the herd from Wales to Deering. b For transferring herd to colony. Distribution of reindeer at mission stations, 1905. Belong¬ Lapland herders. Apprentices and native herders. Under direct control of Government or due from stations and herders. ing to station. Number. Deer be¬ longing to them. Number. Deer be¬ longing to them. Wales . 216 8 537 189. Shishmaref . 166 7 294 Deering . a 128 3 3.51 100 due January, 1910. 32; 100 due July, 1907. 215. Golofnin Bay . 462 1 0 287 12 383 Teller . 270 5 434 Unalakleet (Eaton) . a 289 1 o 333 17 913 492 , 200 due July, 1906 and 1908. 376 due February, 1906. 194 due September, 1906. Bethel . 0.567 2 0 698 4 64 Kotzebue . 0 310 1 0 370 4 40 Kivalina . 2 220 Nnluto . . . 0 290 3 100 due March, 1906. Total . o 2, 698 5 0 1, 688 65 3,236 1,070 due, 928 under* direct control. afncluding number due Government. CONDITION OF HERDS AT THE RELIEF STATIONS. Gambell (St. Lawrence Island). — During the summer of 1900, 70 reindeer from Siberia were landed at St. Lawrence Island. Mr. Sheldon Jackson, the general agent of education in Alaska, before employment by the Bureau of Education in 1885 had labored to establish Presbyterian missions for natives in southeast Alaska. When the reindeer experiment began he selected St. Lawrence Island and Point Barrow, and at his suggestion he was authorized by the Commissioner to offer reindeer herds to the Presbyterian missions at these two places. The Presbyterian Board of Flome Missions in New York, however, found it impossible to accept the loan in either THE COMMISSIOHEK^S IHTRODHCTIOH. LIX case. They have never appointed a missionar}’' at St. Lawrence Island and they declined to accept a reindeer lierd at Point Barrow on account of the expense acconipan3"ing it. (See explanation for this under Point Barrow.) It seems that Mr. Jackson was reluctant to give up his plan of cooperation v/ith the Presbyterian Missionar}^ Board at St. Lawrence and Barrow, and hoped that the successful experience with reindeer herds on the part of other missions woidd induce the Presb^Terian Missionary Board to withdraw its objections and accept the herd on the usuad conditions and support its quota of apprentices. Mr. Jack- son kept the two herds in the name of the Presb^derian Missionary Board until 1905. Had the plan been adopted by the Missionary Board it would have saved to the Government the annual expense of supplies at those stations, namely, for Gambell an average of S2,250 a 3'ear, and for Barrow an average of $800 a year, and besides this expense for supplies it would have saved tlie cost of one-half of the expense for the superintending of the herd, or $600 a 3^ear at each place, or a total of more than $4,000 a year. In 1904, July 1, there were in the reindeer herd on St. Lawrence Island 60 adult males, 87 adult females, 65 fawns, making a total of 212. There were 4 apprentices owning 58 deer. The Government owned 154 deer. Severe storms during the winter of 1904-5 caused great mortality among the fawns born early in the spring season. In 1905, Jul}" 1, there were 64 males, 91 females, and 34 fawns, making a total of 189. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1904, $3,092.58; 1905, $888.72; 1906, $2,776.41. Cost to the Government for superintending herd: 1904, $3,274.29; 1905, $1,100; 1906, $600. Point Barrow (PresbjTerian Mission). — In September, 1898, 100 deer were offered as a loan to the Presbyterian Board of Home Mis¬ sions for their station at Point Barrow, the same number to be re¬ turned in September, 1903. The deer were left on the request of the ' United States agent, Sheldon Jackson, at Point Barrow b}^ Lieutenant Jarvis, of the Revenue Service, v/ho represented the Secretary- of the Treasury in the settlement with the reindeer stations on the Arctic for reindeer borrowed by the Government for the relief expedition to Point Barrow to succor certain whaling vessels at or near that point imprisoned in the ice in the winter and spring of 1898. In August, 1899, 25 deer were given to Ojello, Eskimo herder at the station. Total deer at station, 125. The Presbyterian board declined the loan for financial reasons, and offered instead to render all the assistance in their power to the rein¬ deer station by selecting good apprentices and making them self- supporting so far as possible b^^ teaching and directing them how to LX EDUCATION KEPORT; 1904. gather at proper seasons and store native food (whales driven ashore, walrus, seals, wild birds, hsh, etc.) in caches for winter use. In 1905, July 1, it had 169 adult males, 298 adult females, and 162 fawns, making a total of 629 deer. Number of deer belonging to 10 apprentices in 1905, 546; belonging to Government, 83. Cost to the Government for supplies: 1903, S814.99; 1904,8855.35; 1905, nothing. the care of Mr, Spriggs, the present superintendent of the station, the native food supply for apprentices has been sufficient to support the 10 apprentices at that station with the aid of the Government supplies, amounting to ($814.99 in 1903; $815.35 in 1904, which have lasted over to end of the fiscal year 1905) $1,630.25 for three fiscal years, the same being an average of $543.42 per year, or $54.34 for each apprentice, which is less than a third of the average expense to the mission stations for deer apprentices, and about one-tenth the maximum cost to the Government for such apprentices. Cost to the Government for superintending herd: 1904, $1,500; 1905, $1,125. The number of apprentices is three times as large as the size of the herd (629) warrants, and is far larger than is advisable. This has happened through the fact that no information was received at this office which gave a clue to the plan of the mission until the summer of 1905. There were two years when the Government revenue cutter could not reach Point Barrow on its summer cruise on account of ice. Number of trained sled deer. station. Number trained. Number in train¬ ing J une 30, 1905. Total. Unalakleet . 38 15 53 Eaton . 32 23 55 Nulato . 6 2 8 Kotzebue .. . . 40 40 Bethel . 62 62 Gambell . 20 2 22 Barrow . 22 22 Golofnin . . 52 25 77 Shishmaref . 20 20 Wales .... . 41 1 41 Peering . . 14] 14 Kivalina « . Teller . 45 j 16 61 lliamnad . . . . Betties a . Total . . 392 83 475 a No report. APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. In the following table (Parts I and II) the appropriations made by Congress for the Bureau of Education each year since its establish- THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION, LXI merit in 1867 are given, classified so as to show the specific object for which each sum was appropriated: Historical table showing the appropriations for the Bureau of Education, including education and reindeer in Alaska. PART I. Year ended June 30. Salaries. Library. Distribut¬ ing docu¬ ments. Collecting statistics. Schools in Reindeer Alaska. in Alaska. 1867 and 1868 . 812,592.00 1869 1870, 1871 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881 . 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. . 9,400.00 5,400. 00 8,640. 00 10,240. 00 17,640.00 17,640.00 18,360.00 18,360.00 18, 160. 00 17,440. 00 17,320.00 17,320.00 22,180.00 25,380. 00 44,580. 00 44,580 00 44,580. 00 45,420.00 45,420.00 45,420.00 45,420. 00 45,420. 00 47,220. 00 48,620.00 48,820.00 48,820. 00 48.820. 00 51.820. 00 52,020. 00 52,020. 00 52,020. 00 52,020. 00 53,020. 00 54,120. 00 54,740. 00 52,940. 00 52,940.00 53,140. 00 81,000.00 1,000.00 1,675. 00 1,675.00 1,675. 00 1,675.00 1,675. 00 1,675. 00 1,675.00 1,675.00 1,675. 00 1,675. 00 1,675. 00 1,675.00 1,175. 00 1,175. 00 1,175. 00 1,000. 00 1,000. 00 1,000. 00 1,000. 00 1,000. 00 750. 00 500. 00 500. 00 500.00 500. 00 500. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 250. 00 o 81,500. 00 o 2, 500. 00 1,000. 00 5,000.00 6,000. 00 2,000.00 2,000.00 2,000. 00 3,000. 00 2.500. 00 2,500.00 2,000.00 2,000. 00 2,000. 00 2,000. 00 2,000.00 1.500. 00 2.500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2, 500. 00 2,500.00 2, .500. 00 2,500.00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 83,000.00 13,000.00 13,000,00 13,000.00 11,000.00 11,000.00 8,000.00 8,000.00 8,000.00 7,000.00 15,000.00 15,000.00 2,200.00 2,200. 00. 2,200. 00 3,000. 00 3,000.00 2,000. 00 2,500.00 2.500. 00 3,000. 00 3,000.00 2,000. 00 1.500. 00 2.500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500.00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500.00 2,500. 00 2,500. 00 2,500. GO 825,000.00 15,000.00 25,000.00 40,000. 00 50,000.00 50,000. 00 50,000. 00 40,000.00 30,000. 00 30,000. 00 30,000. 00 30,000. 00 30,000. 00 30,000.00 30,000. 00 30,000. 00 35,882.00 19,742. 00 103,377.30 145,153. 65 50,000. 00 86,000. 00 7,500. 00 7,500. 00 12,000. 00 12,000. 00 12,500. 00 25,000. 00 25,000. 00 25,004). 00 25,000. 00 25,000.00 25,000. 00 15,000. 00 aAnd for moving Bureau. .PART II. Year ended June 30. Furniture and sta¬ tionery. Stationery. Contingen¬ cies. Fuel and lights. Furniture. 1867 and 1868 . 1869 . .56,000. 00 a 10, 600. 00 1870 . $600. 00 1,260. 00 1,260. 00 1,260.00 1,260.00 1,260.00 1,260. 00 700.00 700. 00 700. 00 700. 00 700.00 950. 00 9.50. 00 2,777.00 2,990.00 2,02.5. 00 2,732. ro 1,326. 00 1871 . $600. 00 1,000. 00 1,000. 00 1,000. fO 2,000. 00 2,000. 00 1,500. 00 1872 . 1873 . $275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 275. 00 400. 00 400. 00 1874 . 1875 . $1,000.00 1,000.00 750. 00 750. 00 750. 00 750.00 750.00 750.00 750. 00 1876 . . . 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . - 1881 . 1882 . . 1883 . 1 . 1884 . 1 1885 . I;:;;;;;:;;:; 1886 . 1887 . . 1 1 . 1888 . . Printing annual Rent. reports. S84. 00 2,673. 00 2,550. 00 5,224. 00 2,95.5.00 4,257.00 1,468.00 3,720. 00 5,864.00 2,000. 00 3,900. 00 6,671.00 8,647.00 9,647.00 11,665. 00 10,061.00 17,294.00 15,664.00 15,3.50. 00 10, 566. 00 87,200.00 6,000. 00 6,000. 00 6,000. 00 6,000. 6,000. 4,000. 4,000. oFor stationery, blank books, freight, express, library, miscellaneous items, and extra clerical help. ssss LXII EDUCATION EEPOKT; 1904. Historical table showing the appropriations for the Bureau of Education, including education and. reindeer in AlasJca — Continued. PART II — Continued. Year ended June 30. Furniture and sta¬ tionery. Stationery. Contingen¬ cies. Fuel and lights. Furniture. Printing annual reports. Rent. 1889 1 $1,581. 00 1,510.00 1,196.00 999.00 1,553.00 1,416. (X) 1,292.00 1,035.00 1,191.00 1,063.00 1,149.00 1,207.00 1,021.00 1,615.00 1,271.00 1,606.00 1,560.00 ( 814,556.00 15,862.00 84,000.00 4,000. 00 4,000.00 4,000. 00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000. 00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,600.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 4,000.00 1890 . ! 1891 1892 . 24,111.00 1893 . 1894 . 22,2.58.00 38,730.00 25,748.00 61,454.00 30,976.00 32,822.00 32,992.00 33,444.00 34,466.00 31,280.00 31,800.00 1895 . 1896 1897 . . . . 1898 . i . 1899 ■ ■ ■ 1900 . . . 1901 . 1 . 1902 1903 . 0.84,649.00 03,441.00 0 2,089. 00 i 1904 . 1905 1906 . 1 1 1 i a Miscellaneous printing and binding. All of which is respectfully submitted. Wm. T. Harris, Commissioner. The Hon. Secretary of the Interior. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Table 1. — The total 'population, the school population, aiul the adult male population. The school population. Estimated num ber State or Territory. Estimated total popu¬ lation in Estimated number of children 5 to 18 3^ears of age in 1904. Per- centa^e of boys. of male persons 21 years of age and over in 1904. 1904. Boj'S. Girls. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 United States . 81,241,246 11,603,631 11,425,117 23,028, 748 50.38 22, 601, 884 North Atlantic Division . 22, 502, 587 2, 750, 754 2, 748, 866 5, 499, 620 50.02 6,699,439 South Atlantic Division . 11,077,704 1, 772, 172 1,749,748 3,521,920 50.32 2,648,855 South Central Division . 15,244,015 2, 533, 579 2, 469, 257 5,002,836 50.62 3, 660, 737 North Central Division . 27,927,947 3, 977, 446 3,901,002 7, 878, 448 50.48 8,003,375 Western Division . 4,488,993 569, 680 556,244 1,125,924 50. 59 1,589,478 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 707, 818 82, 867 81,064 163,931 50. 55 221,799 New Hampshire . . 425. 612 45, 822 46,025 91,847 49.89 135,474 Vermont . . 348, 129 41,411 • 39,947 81, 358 50.90 109, 752 Massachusetts . 3,031,906 335, 161 338, 529 673, 690 49. 75 912, 176 Rhode Island . 461, 776 54,051 54, 420 108,471 49.83 136,999 Connecticut . 973, 284 111,497 111,677 933, 445 258,629 223, 174 49.% 300,392 New York . 7, 775, 182 2, 059,165 926, 379 1,859,824 49.81 2, 337, 799 607,210 New Jersey. . . . . 255,958 514, 585 49.74 Pennsylvania . 6, 719, 715 897, 610 885, 130 1,782, 740 50.35 1,937,838 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 191,231 25, 748 24,947 1 73, 659 50,695 50. 79 55,917 Maryland . 1,216,304 173,935 347, 594 50.04 337, 166 District of Columbia . 298,050 31, 185 33,581 64, 766 48. 15 89, 636 Virginia . . 1,933,464 307, 734 303,821 6ll, 555 50.32 467, 228 West Vurginia. . . . 1,037,204 163, 136 156,738 319,8.74 51.00 268, 374 North Carolina . 2, 004, 154 1,415,984 337, 125 329,657 666, 782 50.56 442,076 South Carolina . 2-16, 774 243,440 490, 214 50.34 299,521 Georgia . 2, 367, 923 395, 996 393,943 789, 939 50. 13 534, 789 Florida . . 583, 390 90, 539 89,962 180, 501 50. 16 154, 148 South Central Division: Kentucky . 2, 262, 590 354, 618 345, 654 700, 272 50.61 572, 822 Tennessee . . . 2, 121,856 345, 296 333, 486 678, 782 50.87 511,802 Alabama . . 1,954,817 330, 566 321,952 652, 518 50. 66 442,407 Mississippi . 1, 655,938 285, 057 243, 193 277, 962 563,019 50.63 372, 719 Louisiana . 1,486,841 240, 774 483,967 50.25 3.50, 876 Texas . . 3,373,982 570, 789 558, 145 1,128,934 50.56 816,219 Arkansas . 1,384,904 236, 484 231,337 467,821 50.55 331,217 Oklahoma . . 526,275 84, 271 80,611 164,882 51. 11 144, 272 Indian Territory . 476,812 83, 305 79, 336 162,641 51.22 118,403 North Central Division: Ohio . 4,351,633 581,259 569, 748 1,151,007 50.50 1,268,410 Indian-a . 2,646,086 370,699 361,473 732, 172 1,428,613 50. 63 757, 798 Illinois . 5,219,630 716, 592 712,021 50. 16 1,517, 187 Michigan . . 2, 530,016 345, 401 338, 968 684,369 50.47 752,] 22 Wisconsin . 2, 219,326 331,278 327, 196 658,474 50.31 612,381 Minnesota . 1,927,838 '286, 087 280, 310 560, 397 50.51 .557 901 Iowa . . . 2, 359,677 340, 236 332,035 672, 271 ,50.61 671,599 Missouri . 3,277,657 487, 724 477, 874 965, 598 50.51 903,800 North Dakota . 370,410 422,758 56,667 54, 271 110, 938 51.08 110,494 South Dakota . 66, 822 64,022 130, 844 51.07 1 18, 545 Nebraska _ •. . 1,067,756 162,971 158, 851 321,822 50.64 300,904 Kansas . . . 1,535,160 231,710 224, 233 455, 943 50.82 432, 234 W^estern Division: Montana . 283,493 31,988 31,118 63,106 50.69 1 18, 765 W' yoming. . 104,. 523 590, 280 13,066 11,894 24,960 52. 35 42, 806 Colorado . 73, 118 72,681 145, 799 50. 15 203,098 New Mexico . 209,322 32, 637 31, 457 64,094 50.92 59,031 Arizona . 136, 807 18,068 17,297 35, 385 51.09 49,041 U tah . 303, 137 49, 38r 49,381 98, 762 50.00 73, 578 Nevada . 42, 335 4,640 4,373 9,013 51.48 17,711 Idaho . 191,060 27, 941 26,759 54, 700 51.08 63,671 W'ashington . 582, 451 74, 829 72, 473 147, 302 50. 80 219,922 0 regon . 451,868 60, 488 58, 489 118,977 50.84 157, 882 California . . 1,593,717 183, 524 180,322 363, 846 50.44 583, 973 LXIII LXIV EDUCATION EEPOET; 1904. Table 2. — Density of population, urban population, nativity and race classification, value of manufactures , illiteracy, and relations of the adult male and of the school population. [Note. — The statistics in this table, except those in column 12, are from the U. S. Census of 1900.] The total population, o ® B The adult male popula¬ tion (21 years and over). Number of children 5 to 18 years of age to every 100 persons of the total populatioru State or Territory. o w §A in incorpo- ces of 8,000 Per cent of native and foreign white and of colored. §-E. B o S Oo p. . ) every 100 sn 5 to 18 age. Per cent of illit¬ erates (unable to write) among adult males. gs Per cent i rated pi a and over Native white. Foreign white. Colored.® Value 0 products populatic O) — . w gp; o 3 o Native white. Fo reign white. Negro. O 00 1900. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 United States. . 25.6 32.6 74.4 13.4 12.2 S74. 53 98.3 4.9 11.5 47.4 31.3 28.3 North Atlantic Div. . 129.8 57.0 75.6 22.5 1.9 140. 22 121.8 2.0 15.2 15.3 28.3 24.4 South Atlantic Div . . 38.9 17.0 62.2 2.0 3.5.8 35.48 75.2 11.5 11.3 51. 1 33.0 31.8 South Central Div... 23.1 11.4 67.2 2.5 30.3 20. 44 73.1 11.1 18.8 52.5 33.9 32.8 North Central Div... 34.9 30.6 82.1 15.8 2.1 68.08 101.6 2.9 7.9 24.8 32.4 28.2 Western Division. . . . 3.5 31.2 76.1 18.6 5.3 63.96 Ul.l 2.4 7.7 13.4 25.6 25.1 North Atlantic Div.: Maine . 23.2 23.7 86.3 13.4 .3 84. 23 135.3 3.1 21.4 17.3 28.0 23.2 New Hampshire . 45.7 38.6 78.4 21.4 .2 127. 22 147.5 2.0 24.0 14.8 24.8 21.6 Vennont . 37.6 11.2 86.7 13.0 .3 80.80 134.9 4.1 23.3 19.7 27.2 23.4 Massachusetts . . . 348.9 67.0 68.8 29.9 1.3 171.99 135.4 .9 13.8 10.5 25.5 22.2 Rhode Island. . . . 407.0 66.1 66.6 31.2 2.2 204. 60 126.3 2.0 18.2 15.4 25.7 23.5 Connecticut . 187.5 52.0 72.1 26.1 1.8 184.01 134. 6 1.0 15.6 13. 1 25.9 22.9 New York . 152.6 68.5 72.5 26.0 1.5 141.97 125.7 1.8 12.1 11.3 28. 1 23.9 New Jersey . 250. 3 61.2 73.4 22.8 3.8 133. 15 118.0 2.3 13.4 18.3 29.0 25.0 Pennsylvania. . . . 140.1 45.5 81.9 15.6 2.5 125. 73 108.7 2.5 20.2 17.5 30.6 26.5 South Atlantic Div.: Delaware . 94.3 41.4 75. 9 7.5 16.6 101.42 110.3 7.1 17.6 42.7 31.8 26.5 Maryland . 120.5 46.9 72.3 7.9 19.8 82. 62 97.0 5.1 10.7 40.5 31.3 27.9 Dist.of Columbia. 4,645.3 100.0 61.7 7.0 31.3 101. 53 138.4 .9 5.0 26.1 27.0 21.7 Virginia . 46.2 14.7 63.3 1.0 35. 7 30.91 76.4 12.2 10.5 52.5 32.4 31.6 West Virginia. .. . 38.9 7.7 93.1 2.4 4.5 33.20 83.9 10.7 22.5 37.8 34.1 30.8 North Carolina . . 39.0 5.1 66.5 .2 33.3 22. 10 66.3 18-9 5.7 53. 1 33.6 33.3 South Carolina... 44.4 7.5 41.2 .4 58.4 18. 44 61.1 12.3 5. 2 54.7 33.2 34.6 Georgia . 37.6 11.0 .52.7 .6 46.7 21. 85 67.7 11.8 5.6 56.4 34.4 33.4 Florida . 9.7 15.0 52.6 3.7 43.7 40. 06 85.4 8.3 9.2 39.4 34.0 30.9 South Central Div.: Kentucky . 53.7 16.9 84.4 2.3 13.3 33.22 81.8 14.3 8.6 49.5 34.4 31.0 Tennessee . 48.4 13.4 75.3 .9 23.8* 21.92 75.4 14.1 7.7 47.6 34.1 32.0 Alabama.. . 35.5 7.3 53.9 .8 45. 3 20.04 67.8 13.8 8.0 59.5 34.4 33.4 Mississippi . 33.5 2.6 40.8 .5 58.7 12.08 66.2 8.1 9.5 53.2 33.7 34.0 I.ouisiana . 30.4 22.8 49.1 3.7 47.2 28.14 72.5 16.9 24.6 61.3 31.1 32.6 Texas . 11.6 11.3 73.8 5.8 20.4 17. 16 72.3 5.8 25.4 45. 1 34.8 33.5 Arkansas . 24.7 5.4 70.9 1.1 28.0 16. 19 70.8 10.5 6. 4 44.8 34.2 33.8 Oklahoma, 10.3 5.0 88.4 3.9 7.7 6.61 87.5 2.7 6.3 32.0 31.3 Indian Territory. 12.6 0.0 76.0 1.2 22.8 4.25 72.8 10.7 16.8 41.3 34.1 North Central Div.: Ohio . 102.0 38.5 86.7 11.0 2.3 92.50 110.2 3.2 9.6 21.8 31.7 26.5 Indiana . 70.1 24.2 92.1 5.6 2.3 64.84 103.5 4.4 9.6 27.7 33.8 27.7 Illinois . 86.1 47.1 78.2 20.0 1.8 107. 84 106.2 2.8 7.8 18.7 32.2 27.4 Michigan . 42.2 30.9 76. 8 22.3 .9 65. 01 109.9 2.4 10.2 14.0 30.3 27.1 Wisconsin . 38.0 30.7 74.6 24.9 . 5 73.45 93.0 1.9 9.3 12.7 33.6 29.7 Minnesota . 22.1 26.8 70.4 28.8 .8 50.95 98.5 1.0 6.4 6.9 32.5 29.4 Iowa . 40.2 16.8 85.7 13.7 .6 28. 43 99.9 1.6 5.2 22.0 33.1 28.5 Missouri . 45.2 30.8 87.9 6.9 5.2 54.88 93.6 5.4 6.8 31.9 33.6 29.5 North Dakota . . . 4.5 3.0 62.4 35.3 2.3 11.18 99.6 1.0 6.3 16.5 }23. 7 / 30.0 South Dakota . .. 5.2 2.6 72.8 22.0 5.2 10.97 90.6 .8 4.9 16.3 \ 31.0 Nebraska . 13.9 15.8 82.5 16.6 .9 39.19 93.5 1.0 5.1 11.6 28. 1 30.1 Kansas . 18.0 14.0 87.7 8.6 3.7 29.00 94.8 1.7 6.4 28.1 29.8 29.7 Western Division: Montana . 1.7 27.0 67.4 25.6 7.0 ■ 100. 17 188.2 .8 6.7 10.4 10.2 22.3 Wyoming . .9 24.1 78.3 17.9 3.8 26.11 171.5 .8 7.8 21.2 9.4 23.9 Colorado . 5.2 38.1 81.2 16.8 2.0 66.60 139.3 2.4 7.1 13.9 22.5 24.7 New Mexico . 1.6 0.0 85.5 6.8 7.7 13.78 92.1 23.6 30.9 16.3 31.9 30.6 A rizona. 1 1 0.0 57. 4 18.2 ' 24.4 104.54 138.7 4.5 30.9 11. 1 16.8 25.9 Utah . 3.4 25.2 79.4 19.1 1.5 30.00 74.5 1.2 4.6 4.7 35. 1 32.6 Nevada . .4 0.0 63.3 20.3 16.4 19.31 196.5 .8 7.0 22.9 12.6 21.3 Idaho . 1.9 0.0 82.0 13.5 4.5 12. 15 116.4 1.1 5.7 15.4 11.3 28.6 W^ashington . 7.7 31.9 76.1 19.7 4.2 72.76 149.3 .5 3.9 11.5 27.0 25.3 Oregon . 4.4 23.9 82.4 13.0 4.6 48. 10 132.7 1.1 3.4 9.5 32.3 26.3 California . 9.5 43.7 73.2 21.3 5.5 77. 27 160.5 1.1 8.1 14.6 24.5 22.8 a Including Mongolians and Indians. 'b Less cost of raw material. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXV Table 3. — School ages in the several States — State school censuses. state or Territory. Age for free at¬ tendance at the public schools. Age for compul¬ sory at- tend- ance.a School census. Date of latest school census reported. Age of persons enumer¬ ated. Number of persons enumer¬ ated. Boys. Girls. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 (j 7 8 North Atlantic Division: 5-21 7-15 1904 5-21 206,214 New hlampshire . 5- 8-14 1904 5-16 31,728 31,413 63,141 Vermont . (6) 8-15 1904 5-18 39,997 38,718 78,715 Massachusetts . (P) 7-14 1903 5-15 251,882 254,227 506,109 Rhode Island . (b) 7-13 1904 5-15 46,701 46,539 93,240 (b) 7-14 1903 4-16 213,014 New York . 5-21 8-16 1904 5-18 878,682 882,304 1,760,980 4-20 7-14 (c) 6-21 8-16 1902 6-16 1,004,728 South Atlantic Division; Delaware (1893) . 6-21 (d) 1893 6-21 15,827 17,758 33,585 6-21 <5 8-16 (c) District of Columbia . 6-17 8-14 /1904 6-17 / 28,703 / 31,058 /.59,761 5-21 1900 5-21 354,722 336,590 691 ,312 West Virginia . 6-21 8-14 1904 6-21 169,124 157,110 326,240 North Carolina . 6-21 (d) 1903 6-21 686,009 South Carolina . 6-21 (d) (c) Georgia (1903) . 6-18 (d) 1903 6-18 353,608 349,525 703,133 Florida . 6-21 id) 1900 6-21 182,600 South Central Division: Kentucky (1903) . 6-20 7-14 1903 6-20 304,2.55 291,332 595,587 Tennessee . 6-21 (d) 1904 6-21 388,516 378, 206 776,722 Alabama (1902) . 7-21 (d) 1901 7-21 676,285 Mississippi (1903) . 5-21 (d) 1902 5-21 314,545 313,850 628,395 Louisiana (1903) . 6-18 (d) 1899 6-18 209,154 195,603 404,757 Texas . 7-17 (d) 1904 8-17 398,794 383,899 782,693 Arkansas . 6-21 id) 1904 6-21 262,893 2.54,540 517,433 Oklahoma . 6-21 id) 1904 6-21 105,522 99,194 204,716 Indian Territory (1902)i7. .. id) 1901 5-21 79,915 70,501 156,416 North Central Division: Ohio . 6-21 8-16 1904 6-2i 641,186 609,021 1,250,807 Indiana . 6-21 6-14 1904 6-21 396,780 372,062 768,842 Illinois . 6-21 7-14 1904 6-21 730,745 718,591 1,449,336 Michigan . 5-20 7-15 1904 5-20 376,583 368,427 745,010 Wisconsin . 4-20 7-14 1904 4-20 388,716 377,832 766,548 Minnesota . 6-21 8-16 (c) Iowa . 5-21 7-14 1904 5-21 365,823 357,543 723,366 Missouri . 6-20 (d) 1904 6-20 505,582 489,668 995,250 North Dakota . 6-20 8-14 1904 6-20 61,213 57,599 118,812 South Dakota . 6-21 8-14 19065,608 65,964 66, 535 87.21 82. 15 81. 78 Massachusetts . 273,661 306,777 37 L 492 474, 891 494, 042 72.34 71.76 72. 56 76.21 73. 33 Rhode Island .. a 34, 000 40, €04 52,774 67,231 70, 843 a 59. 24 59.59 62. 65 66. 79 65. 31 Connecticut _ 113,588 119,694 126, 505 155,228 163,141 SO. 83 76. 97 72.02 74. 54 73.10 New A'ork . 1,028,110 1,031,593 1,042,160 , 1,209,574 1,300,065 82. 98 77.10 70.71 69. 57 69. 90 New Jersev .... 169,4.30 204, 961 234,072 ; 322,575 352,203 63. 20 64.77 62.21 68.52 68. 44 Pennsylvania. . 834,614 937,310 1,020, 522 , 1,151,880 1,200,230 76. 35 74. 37 69. 53 68. 90 67.33 South Atlantic Div.: 1 Delaware . 20.058 27,823 31,434 36, 895 c 36, 895 50. 04 65. 20 66. 19 75. 33 C75. 33 Maryland . 115,683 162, 431 181,251 I 222,373 209.978 46. 70 58. 13 60. 37 67.00 60. 41 Dist. Columbia. 15,157 26, 439 36,906 46,519 49, 789 41.60 55. 40 63. 10 76.81 76. 88 Virginia . 131,088 220,736 342,269 370, 595 d 375, 601 32. 34 45. 00 60. 51 63. 19 d61.94 West Virginia.. 76,999 142,850 193.064 232,343 244,040 49. 47 69.21 75. 27 78. 58 76. 29 North Carolina. a 115,000 252,612 322, 533 400, 452 491,838 a 31. 23 55. 87 56.39 63. 55 73. 76 South Carolina. 66, 056 134,072 201,260 281,891 292,115 27. 28 40. .56 47.08 60.74 59.59 Georgia . 49. 578 236, 533 381.297 482,673 d 502.014 11.89 46.24 58. 45 65.30 d 64. 33 Florida . 14,000 39,315 92, 472 , 108,874 122,636 21.21 44. 16 71. 10 66. 57 67.94 South Central Div.: Kentucky . « 178,457 £276,000 399.660 500,294 ad 501,482 65.64 75 27 ad72. 52 Tennessee . a 140.000 300,217 447,950 i 485, 354 502, 3.30 a 32 .’66 '58.'2i 74.05 75. 09 74. 00 Alabama . 141,312 179, 490 301, 6l5 1 376, 423 / 365, 171 40. 36 42.60 55. 83 61.67 / 57. 01 Mississippi . 117,000 236, 654 334, 158 1 386, 507 d 403, 647 40.60 61.29 70. 62 73. 27 d 72. 84 Louisiana . 57,639 77,642 120,253 196, 169 d 208. 737 24. 78 25. 87 31.58 43. 62 d 43. 85 Texas . 63,504 a 220, 000 466, 872 659,598 722,904 21.00 a42. 40 59 50 64. 67 64.03 .Arkansas . 69,927 81,972 223,071 314,662 339. 542 40. 29 30.81 55. 41 71.02 72. 58 Oklahoma . 99,602 152,886 79.82 92. 72. Indian Ter. 9 . ..\ 1 a 38, 422 1 - . . a 23. 62 North Central Div.: 1 Ohio . 719,372 729, 499 797.489 829, 160 835,607 84.04 76. 69 76. 54 75. 40 72. 60 Indiana . 450,05" 511,283 512,955 564, 807 550. 732 78. 64 82.39 79.21 81.10 75 22 Illinois 672 78" 704,041 778,319 958,911 978, 554 81.01 74. 61 71. 97 72.68 68. 50 Michigan . 292, 466 362, 556 427.032 ' 504.985 497,299 79. 66 78. 08 73. 45 77. 13 72.67 tVisconsin . 265, 285 299. 457 351,723 445.142 461,214 1 73. 92 73. 78 69.77 72. 51 70. 04 Minnesota . 113,983 180.248 280.960 399, 207 423,663 i 75. 92 75. 87 74. 59 77.59 74. 80 Iowa . 341,938 426,0.57 493,267 ; 566,223 545,940 - 84. 44 83. 52 85. 51 89.06 81.21 Missouri . 330, 070 482, 986 620,314 1 719,817 731,410 , 56. 03 68. 85 74. 43 78. 63 75. 75 North Dakota . 1 71 5> 1 35,543 1 77,686 95,224 1/7 QQ OA 11 AC (71.26 81.26 85.84 South Dakota.. ^ “ J j ucu io, t io \ 78,043 98. 822 106, 822 . Oo ’181.04 79. 49 81.64 Nebraska . 23,265 92.549 240.300 ! 288.227 278.930 58. 79 68. 48 i 75.35 89. 50 86. 70 Kansas . 89, 777 2.31,434 399, 322 389,582 a 390, 236 74. 22 73.23 88.56 89.21 a 85. 59 Western Div.; 1 Montana . a 1,657 4,270 16,980 39, 430 d 44,881 70.24 63.77 71.14 72.80 d 72. 63 Wyoming . a 450 2,907 7,052 14,512 c 14, 512 a 45. 34 77.44 54. 46 65. 66 c 65. 66 Colorado . 4,357 22,119 65, 490 117,5.55 134,260 42.28 60. 82 72. 20 88. 19 92. 08 New Me.xico. . . . a 1,320 4,755 18,215 36, 735 39, 704 a 4. 42 13. 32 42. 25 61. 43 61.95 Arizona . 0 4,212 7,989 16,504 21,088 0.00 I 53.16 52. 72 51.94 59. 63 U tah . 16,992 24,326 37,279 73,042 75,662 53.36 50.61 55. 26 81.02 76. 61 Nevada . 3, 106 9,045 7,387 6,676 7,319 53. 97 79.73 73.80 74. 06 81.20 Idaho . 906 5,834 14,311 1 36,669 54, 480 46. 06 77. 85 62. 66 79. 18 99.60 Washington . . . a 5, 000 14,780 55,964 i 115,104 161,651 a 69. 00 72.36 70. 58 87.86 109.74 Oregon . 21,000 37,533 63,254 I 89, 405 103,877 67.73 75. 02 74. 78 82.13 87.31 California . 91,332 158, 765 221,756 269, 736 299.038 63. 63 73. 37 77.38 79. 56 82.19 Per cent of school population (i. e., of children 5 to 18 years of age) enrolled. a Approximate. ^> Pupils of legal school age only, c In 1899-1900. d In 1902-3. e Highest number enrolled. / In 1901-2. g Returns imperfect. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXYII Table 5. — The school enrollment of 1903-4, classified hy sex. Percentage of the total popu¬ lation enrolled at different dates. State or Territory. Number of different pupils of all ages enrolled. Percent of the total population enrolled. 1 Boys. Girls. Total. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899- 1900. 1903-4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 United States . a 8, 169, 618 a 8, 086, 420 16, 256, 038 19. 14 19. 67 20. 32 20.51 20.01 North Atlantic Division. a 1,929,275 a 1,914, 633 3, 843, 908 21.95 20. 20 17.89 17.31 17. 08 South Atlantic Division . a 1,153, 140 a 1,171, 766 2, 324, 906 10. 05 16. .36 20. 16 20. 90 20. 99 South Central Division. . a 1,621,500 a 1,013,621 3,235,121 11.56 1.5. 38 20. 90 22. 05 21.22 North Central Division.. a 2, 979, 734 0 2,915,897 5, 895, 631 24.80 23. 23 22. 43 22. 19 21.11 Western Division . a 485, 969 o 470, 503 956, 472 13. 99 10. 32 17. 03 19. 93 21.31 North Atlantic Division: 131,170 24. 25 23.09 21.13 18. 85 18. 53 New Hampshire . 33,216 32,457 65, 673 22. 41 18. 54 15.89 15. 96 15. 43 Vermont . 33, 629 32,906 06, 535 b 19. 77 22. 04 b 19. 74 19.20 19. 11 494, 042 18. 31 17. 20 16. 59 16. 93 16. 29 Rhode Island . 35, 769 35,074 70, 843 15. 11 14. 69 15. 27 15. 69 15.34 163,141 20. 83 19. 22 16. 95 17.09 16. 70 New York . 654, 082 645,983 1,300,065 2.3. 18 20. 30 17.37 16. 04 16. 72 New Jersey . 176, 798 175, 405 352, 203 18. 20 18. 12 16. 20 17. 12 17. 10 Pennsylvania . 002, 181 598, 049 1,200, 230 23. 24 21.89 19. 41 18. 28 17. 86 South Atlantic Division: c 36, 895 15. 79 18. 98 18. 66 19. 98 c 19. 98 Maryland . 209, 978 14. 55 17. 37 17. 08 18. 72 16. 85 District of Columbia. 23, 005 26, 184 49, 789 11.23 14. 88 16. 02 16. 09 10.70 Virginia . 375, 601 10. 47 14. 59 20. 67 19. 99 d 19. 57 AVest Virginia . 125,721 118,319 244, 040 10. 85 23. 10 25.31 24. 23 23. 53 North Carolina . 246,969 244.869 491,838 10. 45 18. 05 19. 93 21.14 24. 54 South Carolina . 138, 021 154,094 292,115 9. 05 13. 46 17. 49 21.03 20. 63 Georgia . 245,608 256, 406 £1502,014 4. 08 15. 34 20. 75 21.78 d2l. 49 Florida . 60, 402 62, 234 122, 6.30 7.19 14. 59 23. 03 20. 60 21. 02 South Central Division: Kentucky . 250,521 250, 901 dc 501, 482 13. 21 16. 74 21.50 23. 30 lde22. 48 Tennessee . 252,038 250, 292 502, 330 10. 90 19. 46 25. 34 24.02 23. 67 Alabama. /365, 171 13. 85 14. 22 19. 93 20. 59 /19. 03 Mississippi . ! 199, 404 204, 243 d 403, 647 13. 70 20.91 25. 92 24. 92 £^24. 77 Louisiana . [ 104, .527 104,210 d 208, 737 7. 73 8. 26 10. 75 14. 20 dl4. 29 Texas . : ! 360,253 302, 651 722,904 7. 26 13. 82 20. 88 21.04 21.43 Arkansas . 171,401 168,141 339, 542 13. 72 10.21 19. 77 23. 99 24. 52 Oklahoma . 78, 680 74,206 1.52, 886 25.01 29. 05 Indian Territory?. . . e 38, 422 e8. 06 North Central Division: Ohio . i 426, 790 408, 817 8.35, 607 26. 50 22. 81 21.72 19.94 19. 20 Indiana . 277,812 272, 920 550, 732 26.34 25. 85 23. 40 22. 44 20. 81 Illinois . 492, 905 485, 649 978, 554 25. 99 22. 88 20.34 19. 89 18. 75 Alichigan . 248, 742 248, 557 497, 299 23. 98 22. 15 20. 39 20. 86 19. 06 AVisconsin . 232, 733 228, 481 461,214 24. 60 22. 76 20. 85 21.51 20. 78 Minnesota . 423, 663 24. 47 23. 09 21. 58 22. 79 21. 98 Iowa . 545, 940 28. 19 26. 23 25. 80 25. 37 23. 14 Missouri . 3G6, 585 364, 825 731, 410 18. 74 22. 27 23. 15 23. 17 22. 32 North Dakota . 49, 396 45, 828 95, 224 1 (V 0/< 10. 15 / 19.45 24.34 25.71 South Dakota . 54, 889 51,933 106, 822 > y. o4 1 2.3. 74 24. 60 25. 27 Nebraska . 141,883 137,047 278, 9.30 16. 61 20. 40 22.69 27. 03 20. 12 Kansas . 197, 707 192, 529 c 390, 236 22. 28 23. 23 27. 98 26. 49 e25. 42 AA'estern Division: Montana . d 44, 881 7. 54 10. 90 12. 85 16. 20 d 16. 20 AVyoming . 7,359 7, 153 c 14, 512 4. 55 13. 98 11.62 15. 68 C15.68 Colorado . 66, 563 67, 097 134, 260 9. 33 11.38 15. 89 21.78 22. 75 New Mexico . 21,948 17, "50 39, 704 1. 40 3. 98 11.86 18.81 18. 97 Arizona . 10,860 10, 228 21,088 0.00 10. 42 13. 40 13. 42 15.41 Utah . 38, 008 37, 654 75, 002 18. 61 16. 90 17. 93 26.39 24. 96 Nevada . 3,630 3, 683 7,319 7. 04 14.53 16. 14 15. 77 17. 29 Idaho . 27, 521 26, 959 54, 480 5.59 17. 89 16. 96 22. 67 28.51 AVashington . 82,140 79,511 161,651 18. 62 19. 68 16. 02 22. 22 27.75 Oregon . 52, 873 51,004 103,877 21.63 21. 47 20. 16 21.62 22. 99 California . 152,311 146, 727 299, 038 15. 61 18. 36 18. 36 18. 16 18. 76 o Estimated in part. b Pupils of legal school age. Hn 1899-1900. d In 1902-3. c Approximate. /In 1901-2. 9 Returns imperfect. LXVIII EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. Table 6. — Per crnt of the school 'population (i. e., children 5 to 18 years of age) enrolled in the public schools, for a period of years. Year. United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division, 1870-71 . 61. 45 77. 95 30. 51 34. 17 76. 87 54. 77 54. 43 57. 52 61.04 64. 39 66. 37 66. 12 66. 26 65. 63 64. 96 64. 82 65. 93 67. 05 1871-72 . 62. 20 77. 33 32. 27 37. 94 77. 04 1872-73 . 62. 36 76. 79 35. 86 38. 67 75. 97 1873-74 . 64. 40 77. 77 42. 10 40. 82 76. 98 77. 54 1874-75 . 65. 54 78. 59 44. 61 42. 47 1875-76 . 64. 70 78. 55 46. 72 37. 36 77. 05 1876-77 . 63. 92 76. 83 47. 02 38. 51 75.60 77. 38 1877-78 . 65. 75 77. 09 48. 85 43. 50 1878-79 . 64. 64 76. 18 46. 72 44. 71 75. 28 1879-80 . 65. 50 75. 17 50. 74 46. 43 75. 84 74. 59 1880-81 . 65. 03 74. 28 51. 49 47. 03 1881-82 . 65. 03 74. 56 51.90 47. 02 74. 15 1882-83 . 66. 39 74. 15 54. .30 50. 68 75. 13 1883-84 . 66. 96 72. 83 56. 25 53. 59 75. 06 68. 01 1884-85 . 67. 96 73. 23 57. 17 56. 57 75. 46 68. 53 68. 03 1885-86 . 68. 14 72. 63 57. 68 56. 82 76. 08 1886-87 . . . 67. 98 72. 23 58. 98 56. 21 75. 77 67. 97 1887-88 . 68. 33 71. 60 58.68 58. 67 75. 96 68. 53 69. 39 1888-89 . 68. 20 70. 60 58. 40 58. 28 76. 63 1889-90 . \ . 68. 61 70. 45 59. 22 60. 14 76. 46 70. 01 1890-91 . . . . . 69. 40 70. 04 GO. 15 63. 01 76. 25 75. 49 1891-92 . 69. 51 59. 50 63. 72 76. 30 77. 98 1892-93 . 69. 70 68^ 99 61.94 63. 92 76. 23 77. 16 1893-94 . 71.32 70. 45 63. 08 66. 00 78.04 77. 45 1894-95 .... . 71. 54 71. 53 62. 21 65. 83 78. 17 79. 32 1895-96 . 71.80 71.57 62. 46 66. 75 78. 16 79. 72 1896-97 . 72. 36 72. 12 64. 49 67. 75 78. 06 78. 27 1897-98 ... ... 72. 68 71. 78 66. 25 67. 36 78. 66 78. 00 1898-99 . . 71. 96 71. 69 64. 93 66. 54 77. 75 77. 85 1899-1900 . 72. 43 70. 86 65.73 67. 28 78. 65 79. 51 1900-1901 . 71. 67 70. 71 66. 65 65. 22 77. 36 80. 69 1901-2 . 71. 45 70. 31 66. 55 65. 12 76. 85 82. 49 1902-3 0 . 70. 67 69. 84 65.99 64. 60 75. 49 82. 46 1903-4 0 . 70. 59 69.89 66.01 64. 66 74. 82 84. 95 a Subject to correction. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXIX Table 7. — The average daily attendance at various 'periods, and its relation in 1903- Ji. to the enrollment- Average number of pupils actually present at school each day. Number attend- State or Territory. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1903-4. ing uauy for each 100 en¬ rolled in 1903-4. 1 2 3 4 5 (> 7 United States . 4,545,317 6,144,143 8, 153,635 10,032,772 11,318,250 69. 62 North Atlantic Division . 1,627,208 1,824,487 2,036,459 2,036,892 2,860,074 74. 56 South Atlantic Division . 368,111 776,798 1,126,683 1,344,334 1,503,917 04. 69 South Central Division . 535, 632 902,767 1,467,649 2,015,457 2,074,304 04. 12 North Central Division . 1,911,720 2,451,167 3,188,732 4,080,460 4,188,517 71.04 Western Division . 102,646 188,924 334,112 5.55,029 685,444 71.66 North Atlantic Division; Maine . 100,392 103,115 98,304 • 97,097 98,257 74. 90 New Hampshire . 48,1.50 48,966 41,526 47,276 48,673 74. 11 Vermont . a 44, 100 48,606 45,887 47,020 48,845 73. 41 Massachusetts . 201,750 233,127 273,910 366,136 391,771 79. 30 Rhode Island . 22,485 27,217 33,905 47,124 51,692 72. 97 Connecticut . 62,683 73,546 83,656 111,564 123,317 75. 59 New York . 493,648 573,089 642,984 857,488 963,780 74. 13 New Jersey . 86,812 115,194 133,286 207,947 239,505 68. 00 Pennsylvania . 567,188 601,627 682,941 854, 640 900,234 75. 01 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . a 12,700 17,439 19,649 0 25,300 o& 25,300 o b 68. 57 Maryland . 56,435 85,778 102,3.51 134,400 130,065 61.94 District of Columbia . 10,261 20,637 28,184 35,463 39,300 78. 93 Virginia . 77,402 128,404 198,290 216,464 c 224,769 C59. 84 West Virginia . 51,336 91,604 121,700 151,254 158,264 64. 85 North Carolina . a 73,000 170,100 203,100 206,918 0 318,055 o 64. 67 South Carolina . 0 44,700 0 90,600 147,799 201,295 214,133 73. 30 Georgia . 31,377 145,190 240,791 298,237 c 310, 400 C61.83 Florida . 0 10,900 27,046 64,819 75,003 83,631 68. 19 South Central Division: Kentucky . 120,866 178,000 225,739 310,339 oc 309, 836 OC61.78 Tennessee . o 89,000 208,528 323,548 338,566 344,882 68. 66 Alabama . 107,666 117,978 182,467 297,805 d 240,000 d 65. 72 Mississippi . 0 90, 000 156,761 207,704 224,520 c 233, 175 c57. 77 Louisiana . 0 40,500 0 54,800 87,536 146,323 c 155,794 c74. 64 Texas . 041, 000 o 132,000 291,941 438,779 461,938 63. 90 Arkansas . 0 46,600 0 54,700 0 148,714 195,401 212,131 62. 48 Oklahoma . 63,718 93,495 61. 15 Indian Territory « . 0 23,053 O60.00 North Central Division: Ohio . 432,4.52 476,279 549,269 616,365 618,495 74. 02 Indiana . 295,071 321,659 342,275 429,566 416,047 75. 54 Illinois . 341,686 431,638 538,310 737,576 783,503 80. 07 Michigan . o 193,000 o 240,000 o 282,000 355,226 0 388,092 o 78. 04 Wisconsin . o 132,000 0 156, 000 200,457 0 309, 800 0 288,300 o 62. 51 Minnesota . 50,694 0 78,400 127,025 243,224 272,500 64. 32 Iowa . 211,562 259,836 300,309 373,474 373,023 68. 33 Missouri . 187,024 0 281, 000 384,627 400,012 464,706 63. 54 North Dakota . * n 1 j 20, 694 43,500 58,442 61.37 South Dakota . j' ljUTU O; OOU 1 48,327 o 68,000 0 73,700 o 68. 99 Nebraska . 0 14,300 60, 156 146, 139 181,874 180,771 64. 81 Kansas . 52,891 137,669 243,300 261,783 0 270,878 o 69. 41 Western Division; Montana . 0 1,100 o3,000 10,596 0 26,300 c31,471 c70. 12 Wyoming . 0 2.50 1,920 04,700 0 9,650 0 6 9,650 o h 66. 50 Colorado . 2,611 12,618 38,715 73,291 95,117 70. 85 New Mexico . 0 880 3,1.50 0 13,000 22,433 29,582 74.51 Arizona . 0 2,847 4,702 10,177 13,022 01.75 Utah . 12,819 17,178 20,967 .50,595 56,183 74. 26 Nevada . o 1,800 5,401 5,064 4,698 5,182 70.80 Idaho . o600 3,863 o9,500 21,962 39,817 73.09 Washington . 0 3, 300 10,546 36,946 74,717 110,774 68. 53 Oregon . o 15,000 27,435 43,333 64,411 72,464 09.76 California . 64, 286 100, 966 146,589 197, .395 222, 182 74. 30 o Approximately. 6 In 1899-1900. c In 1902-3. d In 1901-2. c Returns imperfect. LXX EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, Table 8. — (1) Average length of school term at various periods; {2) aggregate number of days schooling given to all pupils; {3) the same compared with the school population and the enrollment {columns 8 and 9). State or Territory. Average number of days' the schools were kept during the year. a Aggregate number of days’ school¬ ing given in 1903-4. Average number of days’ schooling given for every child 5 to 18 years of age in 1903-4. Average number of days attended by each pupil en¬ rolled in 1903-4. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899- 1900. 1903-4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 132. 1 130.3 134.7 144.3 146.7 1,660,507,716 72.1 102.1 North Atlantic Division. . South Atlantic Division . . South Central Division . . . North Central Division. .. 152 97.4 91.6 133.9 119.2 159.2 92.4 79.2 139.8 129.2 166.6 99.9 88.2 148 135 177. 5 112.1 99.8 15.5.9 141.5 176.5 117.2 107.9 156 147.9 505,802,866 176,184,578 223,777,095 653,395,209 101,347,968 92 50 44.7 82.9 90 131.6 75. 8 no! 8 106 North Atlantic Division: 98 109 112 141 139 13,657,723 83.3 104.1 70 105. 3 117.7 147. 05 146. 55 7,133,028 77.7 108.6 115.6 125. 5 136 156. 15 155 7,570,990 93. 1 113.8 169 177 177 189 185 72,477,635 107. 6 146.7 170 184 188 191 193 10,051,380 23,316,778 92.7 141.9 172. 4 179 182.5 189. 01 189. 08 104.5 142.9 176 178.5 186.5 175 177 179,960,763 45,209,005 96.8 138.4 178 192 192 186 182 87.9 128. 4 127. 2 133. 4 147. 6 166. 0 162. 7 146,425,564 b 4,303,530 82. 1 122 South Atlantic Divisions. Delaware . 132 158 166 170. 1 bl70. 1 b87.9 b 116. 6 Maryland . 183 187 184 183 181. 4 23,593,791 7,113,300 c 27, 421, 818 67.9 112.4 District of Columbia.. Virginia . 200 93. 2 193 112.8 178 118. 2 179 120 181 cl22 109.8 C45.2 142.9 CIS West Virginia . 76.8 90 97 106 123 19,466,472 28,370,506 60.9 79. 8 North Carolina . d50 50 59. 25 70.5 d89. 2 d42.5 d 51 1 South Carolina . Georgia. . . d 100 59 70 dG5 69.6 83.3 88.4 112 94.5 cn8 20,234,230 c 36, 627, 200 9,053,731 cd 27,885,240 35,522,846 e 24,600,000 c 28, 680, 525 c 20, 253, 220 54,157,633 19,685,757 9,349,500 d 3,642,374 98,959,200 57,414,486 d 125,370,113 d 64,035, 180 41.3 c46. 9 69! 3 C73 Florida . 120 93 108 50. 2 73.8 South Central Division: Kentucky . d no 102 94 117.5 cdQO cd 40. 3 cd 55. 6 Tennessee . . .... dll 68 86 96 103 52.3 70.7 Alabama . 66. 5 81. 3 73.5 78.3 el02. 5 c38. 4 c 67. 4 Mississippi . no 74.5 d 86 101.2 n23 C51.8 c71. 1 Louisiana . dC>h 78. 8 100. 6 120 n30 c42. 5 C97 Texas . d 140 71.7 100 108.2 117. 24 48 74.9 Arkansas . d 75 77. 5 92.8 42. 1 58 Oklahoma . j 95.3 100 56.7 61.2 Indian Territory /. . . . dl58 d22. 4 d94.8 North Central Division: Ohio . 165 152 166. 5 165 100 86 118.4 Indiana . 98. 5 136 1.30 1.52 138 78.4 104.3 Illinois . 146. 7 150 1.55. 4 152 160 d 87. 8 d 128. 1 Michigan . 140 150 156 163. 8 el65 d93.6 d 128. 8 Wisconsin . 15.5 165 158.6 3160 A109 d 48,722,700 d74 d 105. 8 Minnesota . d83 94 128 169 159.9 43,570,066 76. 9 102.8 Iowa . 130 148 1.56 100 160 59,683,680 68,953,834 8,315,151 d 10, 146,945 30,300,934 d 37,922,920 cd 3,367,397 bd 1,064,000 15,066,533 2,514,470 1,666,816 8,596,004 822,383 88.8 109.3 Missouri. . . 90 1 7-r dl04 dQQ 129. 4 144 148 71. 4 94.3 North Dakota . (113 155.7 142.3 75 87.3 South Dakota . /5 {l45 il29. 1 dl38 dll. 5 d95 Nebraska . 72 82 140 135 139 94.2 108.6 Kansas . 116 120 135 126. S5 dl40 d83.2 d97. 2 Western Division: Montana . . dS9 96 142. 7 107 &107 cd 54. 5 cd 75 Wyoming . d 200 119 dl20 dllO i'dllO bd 48. 1 bd 73. 3 Colorado . 92 d 132 144. 4 149.8 158. 4 103.3 112. 2 New Mexico . d 111 111 d 67 *90. 6 85 39.2 63.3 Arizona . 0 109 126 125 128 47. 1 79 Utah . 152 128 133 151 153 87 113.6 Nevada . 142 143 140 154 158.7 91.2 112. 4 Idaho . d 45 94 d69. 8 106 136 5,415,112 99 99.4 Washington . d80 d91 97.2 127. 0 129.5 14,345,233 11,482,254 37,007,766 97.4 88.7 Oregon . d90 90 118. 2 116. 6 158. 4 96.5 110.5 California . 123 146.6 157. 6 166.2 166.5 101.7 123.8 a Certain States report their school term in months; these months have been reduced to days by multiplying by 20 in each case. b In 1899-1900. c In 1902-3. d Approximately, e In 1901-2. /Returns imperfect. g In 1893-94. h In 1900-1901 . iln 1897-98. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXXI Table 9. — Number and sex of teachers — Percentage of male teachers. State or Territory. Whole number of different teachers employed. Percentage of male teachers. Male. Female. Total. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1903-4. 1 O 3 4 5 G " 7 8 9 United States . 113, 744 341,498 455, 242 41.0 42.8 34.5 29.9 25.0 North Atlantic Division.. 17, 283 95, 873 113,156 26.2 28.8 20.0 18.4 15.3 South Atlantic Division. . 18, 332 34, 191 52, 523 63.8 62.5 49. 1 40.7 34.9 South Central Division. . . 28, 654 40, 149 68,803 67.5 67.2 57.5 47. 4 41.7 North Central Division. .. 43, 678 148,606 192, 284 43.2 41. 7 32. 4 28.3 22. 7 Western Division . 5,797 22, 679 28, 476 45.0 40.3 31. 1 24.7 20. 4 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 791 5,902 6,093 0 24. 4 0 27 2 O16.0 o 16. 4 11.8 New Hampshire . 194 2,201 2,395 15.0 16.8 9.8 8.9 8.1 Vermont . 324 2, 986 3,310 16.5 16.8 12.0 13.6 9.8 Massachusetts . 1,247 13, 494 14,741 12.7 13.2 9.8 8.8 8.7 Rhode Island . 177 1,878 2, 055 a 20. 4 20.2 12.6 9.5 8.6 Connecticut . 341 4,169 4,510 o22. 1 0 22.8 o 1:3. 4 09. 0 7.5 New York . 4,901 33,632 38, 533 22.9 26.0 16.9 14.9 12.7 New Jersev . 1,052 7, 642 8,694 32.5 28.5 18.4 12.9 12. 1 Pennsylvania . 8, 256 23, 969 32, 225 42.8 45. 5 34.2 32.0 25.0 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . &210 6 621 6 831 0 29.9 0 46.6 0 31. 0 25.3 b 25. 3 Maryland . 924 4, 183 5, 107 45.0 42.6 27.8 21.7 18. 1 District of Cohunhia.. 176 1,249 1,425 8.2 7.8 13.0 13.1 12. 4 Virginia . c2,377 c 6, 667 c9,044 64.5 61.8 41.5 31.5 c 26. 3 West Virginia . 3,720 3,877 7,597 79.0 75.2 63. 4 57.9 49.0 North Carolina . 3.838 5,598 9,436 an. 2 0 71.3 59. 1 49. 4 40.7 South Carolina . a 2, 526 o3, 290 5,816 62. 4 59.5 49.6 043.5 0 43. 4 Georgia . c 3, 6.30 c6,712 c 10, .342 71. 4 0 65. 2 53.3 44.0 c35. 1 Florida . 931 1,994 2,925 0 65. 7 61.6 48.0 36.9 31.8 South Central Dirfsion: Kentucky . a C4.513 a c 5, 936 o c 10, 449 0 66.0 64.6 49.8 45. 5 0 c 43. 2 Tennessee . 4,220 5,393 9, 613 O75.0 74. 4 61.8 054.O 43.9 Alabama . d 3, 103 d 3, 200 d 6, 303 66.8 63.8 62. 9 30.1 d49.2 Mississippi . c 3, 028 c 5, 894 c 8, 922 O60.8 61.2 49.6 44.2 C33.9 Louisiana . cl, 339 c 3, 479 c 4, 818 50.9 46. 1 44.7 47.9 C27.8 Texas . 6,613 9, 746 16, 359 a 77.0 O75.0 61. 1 48.9 40.4 Arkansas . 4,162 3, 600 7, 762 0 75.6 78.4 68.5 59. 7 53.6 Oklahoma . 1, 356 2, 315 3,671 42. 8 36.9 Indian Territory e. . . . a/ 320 a/ 586 a/ 906 035.3 North Central Division: Ohio . 9,094 17, 4.58 26, 552 43.2 47.8 43.1 40. 4 34.2 Indiana . 6, 585 9,671 16, 256 60.5 57. 5 51. 1 46.2 40.5 Illinois . 6,248 21,223 27, 471 43.5 39.7 32.5 26. 4 22.7 Michigan . 2,684 14,081 16, 765 26.3 29.2 22.3 20.3 16.0 Wisconsin . 1,947 11, 722 13, 669 0 28.8 28.9 19.8 18. 4 14.2 Minnesota . 1,867 11,216 13, 083 33.7 35.9 23.9 19. 4 14.3 Iowa . 3,606 26,019 29, 625 39.0 33.6 20.6 17.2 12.2 Missouri . 5 210 11,826 17, 036 65. 3 o8. 1 44. 4 37. 6 30. 6 North Dakota . 1,245 4,113 5, 358 L n OA 7 n AC\ Q / 28.3 28.8 23! 2 South Dakota . 946 4,079 5,025 Ih 4U. O 1 29.0 24.4 18.8 Nebraska . 1,389 8,325 9,714 51.9 40.7 27. 1 21.8 14.3 Kansas . a 2, 857 a 8, 873 o 11,730 47.2 45. 1 40.8 32.7 0 24 4 Western Division: Montana . C216 cl, 052 cl, 268 O60.3 38.5 22.9 16.6 C17.0 W yoming . b89 b 481 6 570 0 28.6 44.3 22. 4 15.6 b 15. 6 Colorado . 738 3,550 4, 288 48.8 36. 4 26.2 20.9 17.2 New Mexico . 412 440 852 0 91. 7 78.0 0 62. 2 o 55. 2 48.4 Arizona . no 409 519 47. 5 38. 8 27. 3 21. 2 Utah . 553 1,165 1,718 55.0 54.5 46.6 36.5 32.2 Nevada . 39 318 357 32. 4 46.7 16.3 11. 1 10.9 Idaho . 366 1,065 1,431 0 64.3 57. 4 0 33. 4 31.2 25.6 Washington . 1,131 3,644 4, 775 o46. 5 37.4 40.6 28.9 23.7 Oregon . 847 3,199 4,046 o51. 7 48.3 43. 3 28.4 20.9 California . 1,296 7, 356 8, 652 40.0 33.6 21. 4 17.8 15.0 a Approximately. b In 1899-1900. c In 1902-3. d In 1901-2. e Returns imperfect. / Includes some employees. LXXII EDUCATIOX KEPOKT, 1904, Table 10. — Teachers^ wages — Number of scboolJiouses-— Value of school property — Private school enrollment. State or Territory. Average monthly salaries of teachers. Number of build¬ ings used as school- houses.a Estimated value of all public school property. Priv Number of pupils enrolled. ate schools. Total pub¬ lic and private en¬ rollment. N Per cent of pupils in pri¬ vate schools. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 $ United States . b $50. 96 b $41. 54 257, 627 $685, 101, 343 1,313,000 17,569,038 7. 47 North Atlantic Division.. b 67. 55 b 43. 57 42,888 279, 218, 286 482, 800 4, 326, 708 11. 16 South Atlantic Division.. b 32. 12 b 29. 51 38, 261 28, 615, 462 121,600 2, 446, 506 4. 97 South Central Division... b 43. 51 b 35. 77 54,063 38, 382, 145 142,700 3, 377, 821 4. 22 North Central Division... 54. 54 42. 30 107, 339 278, 382, 058 498, 700 6, 394, 331 7. 80 Western Division . 70. 98 56. 42 15,076 60, 503, 392 67, 200 1,023, 672 6. 56 North Atlantic Division; 1 38. 51 28. 40 3,924 5,435,916 New Hampshire . c 45. 87 c 29. 78 1,729 4,127,957 12,072 77,745 15. 53 Vermont . 47. 36 30.04 2,223 3,034, 187 7,226 73, 761 9.80 Massachusetts . 145. 48 55. 37 d e 4, 289 d 49. 934, 764 88, 446 582, 488 15. 18 Rhode Island . 122. 28 52. 23 537 6,011,012 19, 186 90,029 21.31 Connecticut . 106. 63 45. 78 1,591 13,259,923 30, 104 193,245 15. 58 11,936 107,553,134 213, 105 1,513, 170 14. 08 New Jersey . 107. 02 54. 46 1,958 19,861,393 / 47, 453 / 370, 028 / 12. 83 Pennsylvania . 51.96 39. 14 14, 701 70, 000, 000 48, 704 1,248,934 3. 90 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . g h 36. 60 g b 34. 08 /550 / 1 , 043, 997 Maryland . « 2, 362 h i 4, 790, 000 District of Columbia.. j 94. 48 1 J 64. 31 142 ■ *5,594,827 1 6, 000 55, 789 1 10. 75 Virginia . d 34 56 d 27. 20 d7,412 d 3, 907, 064 dn5,500 d 391, 100 d 1 3. 96 W est V i rci u i n. 1 6, 200 4, 806, 048 TO 1, 894 TO 220, 709 TO , 86 North Carolina . 28. 55 2,5.38 7,212 2,927,071 n 26, 198 « 361, 556 «7. 25 South Carolina,- j 25. 96 j 23. 20 4,889 *2,000,000 Georgia . d 7, 082 d 2, 256, 403 0 27,285 0 442,932 0 6. 16 Florida . 44. 03 ,35. 93 2, 412 1, 290, 052 P 2, 000 P 114, 384 Pi. 75 South Central Division... Kentucky . p50. 90 P 39. 18 d 8, 561 *6,117,962 d 17, 480 d 51 8, 962 d 3. 37 Tennessee . 39. 00 34.00 6,910 4, 922, 531 27,007 529, 337 5. 10 Alabama . /31.00 /27. 00 c? 7,058 P 2,200,000 26, 722 *■ 388, 722 *■6. 87 Mississippi . d 33. 54 d 29. 46 d 7, 249 d 2, 190,000 d 7, 500 d 411, 147 dl.82 Louisiana . d 36. 25 d31. 43 d e 3, 433 d 12,680,000 d 14, 497 d 223,234. d6. 49 Texas . 55. 24 43. 27 5 11,458 14,590,675 Arkansas . t 38. 21 t 33. 27 5,533 3, 355,292 7,864 347, 406 2. 26 Oklahoma, 44. 00 38. 00 3,261 « 2, 123, 000 Indian Territory *'.... ehm TO 202, 685 ^2,833 41,255 ^6. 87 North Central Division: Ohio . d 45.00 d40. 00 13,079 51,062,804 23, 569 859,176 2.74 Indiana . 56. 84 50. 64 9,845 27,030,319 i 4, 500 *561,231 U80 Illinois . 67. 33 57. 95 12,907 61,783,578 147,875 1,126, 429 13. 13 Michigan . 57. 33 40. 55 8,293 25,514,662 55,065 552, 364 9. 97 Wisconsin . y 55. 50 y 35. 26 7, 453 f 16, 574, 795 53,113 514,327 10.33 Minnesota . 58.30 40. 56 8,061 20,761,499 z 20, 073 z 372, 165 z5.f9 Iowa . 48. 24 35.51 13, 956 22, 666, 498 50, 534 596, 474 8. 47 Missouri . 44. 05 43. 11 10, 586 24,767,525 70, 308 801,718 8. 77 North DaPnta, 47. 87 40. 90 3, 495 3, 757, 253 South Dakota . P 40. 03 P 33. 52 4,031 4, 244,816 TO 1,888 TO 89, 914 j TO 2. 10 Ne,bra,ska, 55. 24 41. 40 6, 767 10,919,922 Kansa a aa 46. 00 aa 39. 00 8, 866 9, 298, 387 Western Division: Montana . d 76. 89 d 52. 04 d734 d 4, 832, 014 d 1,839 d 46, 720 ! d3.94 Wyoming . f73.68 / 43. 36 /524 / 453, 607 Z175 z 11, 428 zl.53 Colorado . 73. 47 55.69 1,946 10, 265, 046 2,889 137,149 2. 11 New Mexico . P 64. 77 P 64. 77 e729 830, 165 5,366 45,070 11.91 Arizona . . 81.05 69. 59 f 498 882, 790 1,678 22,766 7. 37 Utah . 77. 43 54. 39 693 3, 537, 772 *2,814 *• 79, 345 * 3. 55 Nevada . 103. 47 63. 39 «328 269, 965 323 i 7,642 4. 23 Tdahn 67. 07 52. 84 974 1,798,456 Washington . 60.24 49. 70 2, 506 8, 732, 996 5,143 166,794 3. 08 Oregon . 54. 22 42. 05 2,190 4,390,838 5,781 109,658 1 5. 27 California . P 87. 01 P 67. 19 3,954 24, 509, 743 bb 37, 226 336,264 j **11.07 *The reports of private schools are more or less incomplete, and the number of pupils as given may he taken to represent the minimum number of private pupils in the States furnishing this item. In forming the totals the States not reporting are estimated, a Including buildings rented. ?> Aver¬ age for those States reporting salaries, c Iligh-school teachers’ wages not included, d in 1902-3. « Number of schools. / In 1899-1900. ? In 1889-90. Approximately. * In 1900-1901. j In 1897-98. * Total cost of sites and buildings. ^ Estimated, to In 1893-94. « In 1891-92. o in 1892-93. P In 1901-2. 9 In 1896-97. In 1898-99. « Does not include 381 independent districts. ^Excluding the wages of teachers holding State certificates. « Statistics incomplete. Returns imperfect, to “ Public-school’ ’ property only, a: Includes some college students, y Outside of cities. « In 1894-95. oa Does not include cities of the first and second class, hb Includes only pupils of school census age (5-17.). STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXXIII Table 11. — (1) Length of school term. {2) The aggregate number of days’ schooling given compared with the school population. Average length of school term, in days. Average number of days’ schooling given for every child 5 to 18 years of age. Year. The United States. North Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Central Di¬ vision. North Central Di¬ vision. Western Division. The United States. North Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Atlantic Di¬ vision. i South Central Di- Adsion. North Central Di- A’ision. Western Division. 1870-71 . 132. 1 152.0 97. 4 91. ‘6 133.9 119.2 48.7 70.2 18. 1 21.8 59. 6 45.9 1871-72 . 133. 4 151.9 103.4 97.7 136. 1 121.8 49.5 68.9 20.3 25.8 59.8 46.0 1872-73 . 129. 1 154.6 97. 4 89. 1 129. 6 118.3 47.8 67.9 21.7 23. 4 56.8 45.0 1873-74 . 128.8 154.8 95. 6 81.1 132.6 119.0 49.6 70. 4 24.5 21.9 59.8 46. 1 1874-75 . 130. 4 1 158.7 95.2 81.0 134.6 132.5 51.0 72.9 26. 1 23.5 60.2 53.6 1875-76 . 133. 1 ! 158.0 95.6 82.5 139. 1 130.3 51. 4 73.7 26.8 20. 1 62.2 54. 4 1876-77 . 132.1 1 157.2 91. 4 80.3 139.8 130. 1 51. 1 73.6 26.3 19.8 62.3 54.3 1877-78 . 132.0 157.6 89.7 86.7 140. 1 129.9 53.2 75. 6 26.8 24.3 64.3 54.5 1878-79 . 130.2 160.1 88.6 81.9 136. 4 132.0 52.0 75.0 25.7 23.9 62.3 56.7 1879-80 . 130.3 159.2 92. 4 79.2 139.8 129.2 53. 1 74.5 29.3 24.2 64. 4 54.9 1880-81 . 130. 1 158.7 92. 4 82.1 138.8 133.8 52.0 72.2 28.5 25.0 62.7 56.9 1881-82 . 131.2 160.6 95.9 82.5 137. 1 136.2 52.9 73.3 30.6 25.6 63.2 58.0 1882-83 . 129.8 161.0 95.9 82.5 137. 1 132.6 53.8 74. 4 32.0 26.8 63.9 57.3 1883-84 . 129.1 156.0 95.6 85.9 138. 6 133.8 55. 5 72.5 32.7 30.0 67. 7 61.6 1884-85 . '130. 7 163. 1 93.4 87.5 139. 1 131.8 56.8 77.2 33.7 31. 4 67.3 58.3 1885-86 . 130. 4 161. 6 93.4 86.9 140. 4 130.8 57.3 76.7 33.7 32.0 68.7 59.6 1886-87 . 131.3 165.9 95.3 87.5 139.5 131.6 57.7 77.8 34.8 32. 1 68.7 59.1 1887-88 . 132.3 164. 4 95.7 87.6 144.0 130.7 58.7 76.8 35.5 33.6 71.3 57.3 1888-89 . 133.7 164. 1 95.0 88.9 147.5 135.7 58.9 76.7 35. 4 34.0 71.6 61.7 1889-90 . 134.7 166.6 99.9 88.2 148.0 135.0 59.2 76.8 37.3 33.9 71.9 61.2 1890-91 . 135.7 168.1 103.8 92.0 145.8 136.9 60.7 78. 1 38. 1 35.8 73.2 65.9 1891-92 . 136.9 169. 1 105.3 94. 1 146.8 139.1 61.5 78.3 38.2 37.7 73.6 71. 1 1892-93 . 136.3 169.6 103. 4 9.3.0 146.6 138.8 62.3 78.7 39.2 37.5 75. 1 70.8 1893-94 . 139.5 172.3 108.3 97.5 150.2 137. 1 65.9 82.2 42. 4 41.3 79. 1 72. 4 1894-95 . 139.5 172. 8 106.5 92.8 150.8 142. 4 66.9 84.8 42.0 39.0 81.0 77.6 1895-96 . 140.5 175.5 107.8 92.2 151.9 142.0 68. 1 86.8 42.1 39.8 82.3 78.7 1896-97 . 142.0 173.3 110.9 96.3 152.8 148.6 69.7 88.9 43.0 42.3 83.1 82.5 1897-98 . 143.0 174.3 113.8 97.4 152.8 151. 7 71.2 90. 4 46.9 42.5 84.8 82. 1 1898-99 . 143.0 174.0 112.3 98.4 154.5 141.6 70.0 90.0 43.6 43.3 83.3 76.3 1899-1900 . 144.3 177.5 112. 1 99.8 155. 9 141.5 71.8 91.0 45.4 44.8 85.7 76. 7 1900-1901 . 143.7 177.1 113.2 98.2 155.6 140.3 70.3 90. 4 47.7 42.1 83.0 77.0 1901-2 . 144.7 177. 4 115.0 101.2 155. 1 144.3 71.9 91.7 48.5 43.8 84.7 82. 4 1902-3 a . 147.2 178.5 118.0 105.6 156.9 146. 3 71.8 92.3 49.0 43.9 83.6 85.3 1903-4 a . 146.7 176.5 117.2 107.9 156.0 147.9 72.1 92.0 50.0 44.7 82.9 90.0 a Subject to correction. LXXIV EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904, Table 12. — School moneys received. Income of From taxation. Total State or Territory. perma¬ nent school funds and rent of school lands. From State taxes. From local taxes. Total from taxation. From other sources, State and local. revenue (exclud¬ ing bal¬ ances on hand and proceeds of bond sales) , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 United States . $10,193,093 $42, 552, 909 1193,215, 794 $235, 768, 763 $33, 172, 139 $279,133,995 North Atlantic Division... 780, 708 14,030,160 78, 439, 500 92, 469, 660 19,248,540 112,498, 908 South Atlantic Division. . . 308, 830 5,235,716 8,285,395 13, 521,111 1,955,250 15, 785, 191 South Central Division .... 1,920, 963 7, 657, 635 8,036, 705 15, 694, 340 2,118,093 19,733,396 North Central Division.... 6,226, 415 9,152,171 84,146,403 93, 298, 574 8, 289, 330 107,814, 319 Western Division . 956, 177 6, 477, 287 14,307,791 20, 785, 078 1,560,926 23, 302, 181 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 60, 540 577, 333 1, 584, 963 2,162, 296 0 2, 222, 836 New Hampshire . 20, 071 62, 032 1, 069, 241 1,131,273 80, 411 1,231,755 Vermont . 71,888 183, 094 15,086 138,317 133, 225 139,888 880, 018 15,854,800 1,478,880 1,024,335 15,988,025 1,618,768 a 04, 763 264,949 84, 842 1,160,986 16, 436, 668 1,718, 696 Rhode Island.- . Connecticut . 144,874 399, 131 2,894,412 3, 293, 543 334, 632 3, 773, 049 New York . 52,011 4, 259, 776 30,095,329 34,955,105 cl2, 635,064 47,042,780 New Jersey . 231,944 2,874,283 0, 026, 677 8, 900, 960 9,314 9,142, 218 Pennsylvania . 0 5,440,175 17,949,180 23, 395, 355 5, 774, 565 29,169,920 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1899-1900).. d 117,379 89, 432 175, 735 205,107 25,030 407, 576 Maryland . 42, 981 712,112 1,801,602 2,513,714 271,309 2,828,004 District of Columbia... 0 0 « 1, 576, 354 1,576,354 0 1,576, 354 Virginia (1902-3) . 54, 220 1,008,761 1,008,542 2,017,303 65, 367 2, 130, 890 West Virginia . 63, 463 422,015 1,821,894 2, 243, 909 241,071 2, 548, 443 North Carolina . 0 1,254,814 377, 481 1, 032, 295 308, 148 1,940,443 South Carolina . 0 / 779, 754 200, 868 9S0, 622 P 280, 330 1,260,952 Georgia (1902-3) . (h) 800,000 593, 257 1,393,257 747, 132 2,140, 389 Florida . 30, 787 108,828 729, 602 898, 490 16, 803 940, 140 South Central Division: Kentucky (1902-3) f _ (h) 1, 095, 575 882,713 2, 578, 288 144,851 2, 723, 139 Tennessee . 136,030 271,614 1,828,002 2,099,010 505, 887 2,741,533 Alabama . 155, 882 831,210 115,155 946, 365 150,000 1,252,247 Mississippi (1902-3) _ 187,740 /1, 250, 000 296, 008 1,540,668 124,570 1,858,990 Louisiana (1902-3) . 79, 293 469, 544 / 890, 372 1,359,916 127,008 1,566,217 Te.xas . 1,362,012 2,362, 430 1,441,960 3, 804, 390 898, 622 0,065,024 Arkansas . 0 542, 685 /1, 240, 648 1,783,333 1,121,161 47,040 1,830,373 1,227,789 Oklahoma . iS 234, 577 886. 584 k 106, 628 Indian Territory i . 0 0 k 454, 603 454, 603 13, 481 468, 084 North Central Division: Ohio . 246, 455 1,858,228 14,707,114 10,565,342 1,027,005 17,838, 802 Indiana . 625, 851 1,098,869 6, 698, 302 8,397,231 611,009 9, 634, 691 Illinois . 840, 259 925,067 18, 349,038 19,274, 705 769, 453 20, 884, 417 Michigan (1902-3) . 352, 798 1,572,163 6,229,280 7,801,443 717,054 8,871,295 Wisconsin . 210, 420 1,231,095 5, 542, 037 6, 773, 732 1,035,078 8,019,230 Minnesota . 1,344,155 617, 4.50 5,288,289 5, 905, 7.39 cl, 0.34, 182 8,284,076 Iowa . m 214,525 0 i 9, 316, 776 9,316,770 1,104,768 10,636,069 Missouri . 732, 152 1,046, 0.37 6, 853, 512 7, 899, 549 572, 154 9, 203, 855 North Dakota . 317,020 0 1,624,337 1,624,337 140, 458 2,087,815 South Dakota . ' n 420, 472 0 1,662,195 1,602,195 102,841 2,185,508 Nebraska . 496, 109 202,062 3,252,332 3, 454, 994 978,154 4,929, 257 Kansas . 0 420, 199 0 4,022, 531 4,622,531 190,574 5, 239, 304 Western Division; Montana (1902-3) . Pi 14, 727 493,236 585,069 1,078,-305 84,710 1,277,742 Wyoming (1899-1900)... 43, 265 0 223, 260 223, 266 25, 223 291,754 Colorado . 182, .321 0 3, 560, 287 3, 560, 287 ■ 429,880 4, 172, 494 New Mexico . (9) r 21 4, 644 (U 214,644 / 102, 246 316, 890 Arizona . 0 32, 439 284, 182 316, 021 84, 900 401,521 Utah . ( i) 403, 762 1, 126,079 1,529, 841 111,3.33 124, 885 1,654,726 Nevada . 120, 303 (U 14,019 97,314 33, 139 270,775 Idaho . t 71,821 619, 482 691,303 119,414 810,717 Washington . (U « 1,032, 210 1,759,252 3,391,462 183, 417 3, 574, 879 Oregon . 241,234 0 1,407,892 1,407,892 122,975 1,772,101 California . 248, 327 3, 615, 156 4, 044, 968 8, 260,124 250, 131 8, 758, 582 a Includes money borrowed, b State contribution to high school instruction and cost of supervision. c Includes receipts from sale of bonds. d May include some State taxes, c Includes United States appropriation. / Includes poll tax. ^Includes “dispensary funds.” b. Not reported separately. i Approximately. i Included in State taxes. ^ Includes some unclassified receipts. I Returns imperfect. m In 1902-3. n Includes fines, etc. o Includes some receipts from “other sources.” V Includes proceeds of school land sales, e Included, if any, in State taxes, r Includes local taxes and income from perma¬ nent fund. « Included in State apportionment. i State apportionment. M Includes interest on the permanent fund. v Includes taxes on railroads and collateral in¬ heritances. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXXV Table 13. — The school revenue compared with the school population and the adult male population {21 years and upward); percentage analysis of the school revenue. Amount each adult male must contrib¬ ute to provide $1 for each per¬ son 5-18 years. Per cent of the whole revenue de¬ rived from— State or Territory. Amount raised for each person 5 to 18 years of age. Amount raised per adult male. Perma¬ nent funds and rents. State taxes. Local taxes. Other sources. 1 3 1 5 6 7 8 812. 12 $12.35 $1.02 3. 65 15. 25 69. 22 11. 88 20. 46 16. 79 .82 .70 12. 47 69. 72 17. 11 4. 48 5. 96 1. 33 1.96 3.3. 17 52. 48 12. 39 3. 94 5. 39 1. 37 9.73 38. 81 40. 73 10. 73 13. 68 13. 47 .98 5. 77 8. 49 78. 05 7. 69 20. 70 14. 66 .71 4. 10 27.80 61. 40 6. 70 North Atlantic Division: 13. 55 10.01 . 74 2. 72 25.97 71. 31 0. 00 13. 41 9.09 .68 1.63 5.03 86. 81 6.53 14. 27 10. 58 . 74 6. 19 11.91 76. 32 o5. 58 24. 40 18.02 .74 1. 12 6.81 96. 46 1.61 15. 85 . 79 .88 8. 14 86. 05 4. 93 16. 90 12. 56 . 74 3. 84 10. 58 76. 71 8. 87 25. 62 20. 38 .80 . 11 8. 94 64. 43 c 26. 52 17. 77 15.06 .85 2.54 31. 44 65. 92 \ 10 Pennsylvania . 16. 36 15. 05 .92 0. 00 18. 67 61. 53 19. 80 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1899-1900) . 8. 32 7. 55 .91 d 28. 80 21.94 43. 12 6. 14 Maryland . 8. 14 8. 39 1.03 1. 52 25. 18 63. 71 9.59 District of Columbia. . 24. 34 17. 59 . 72 0. 00 0. 00 e 100. 00 0. 00 Virginia (1902-3) . 3. 52 4. 61 i!31 2. 54 47. 20 47.20 3. 06 West Virginia . 7. 97 9. 49 1. 19 2. 49 16. 56 71. 49 9. 46 North Carolina . 2. 91 4. 39 1.51 0. 00 64. 67 19. 45 15. 88 South Carolina . 2. 57 4.21 1.64 0. 00 / 61. 84 15. 93 g 22. 23 Georgia (1902-3) . 2. 74 4. 05 1. 48 (ft) 3. 25 37. 38 27. 72 34. 90 Florida . 5. 20 6. 14 1. 17 17. 85 77. 12 1. 78 South Central Division: Kentucky (1902-3)* . 3. 94 4. 81 1. 22 (ft) 4.96 62. 26 32. 42 5. 32 Tennessee . ; . . . 4. 04 5. 35 1. 33 9.91 66. 68 18. 45 Alabama . . 1.92 2. 83 1. 47 12. 45 66. 38 9.20 11. 97 Mississippi (1902-3) . 3. 35 5.07 1.51 10. 10 / 67. 24 15. 96 6. 70 Louisiana (1902-3) . 3.29 4.54 1. 38 5. 06 29.98 / 56. 85 8. 11 Texas . 5. 37 7. 43 1.38 22. 46 38. 95 23. 77 14. 82 Arkansas . 3. 91 5. 52 1. 41 0.00 29. 65 / 67. 78 2. 57 Oklahoma . 7. 45 8.51 1. 14 U) 0. 00 19. 11 72. 21 ft 8. 68 Indian Territory l . 2. 88 3. 95 1. 37 0. 00 k 97. 12 2. 88 North Central Division: Ohio . 15. 50 14. 06 .91 1.38 10. 42 82. 44 5. 76 Indiana . 13. 16 12. 71 .97 6. 50 17. 63 69. 52 6. 35 Illinois . . 14. 62 13. 76 .94 4. 02 4. 43 87. 87 3. 68 Michigan (1902-3) . i;3. 04 11. 84 .91 3. 98 17. 72 70. 22 8. 08 Wisconsin . 12. 18 13. 09 1.08 2. 62 15.36 69. 11 12. 91 Minnesota . 14. 63 14. 85 1.02 16. 23 7. 45 63. 84 c 12. 48 Iowa . . 15. 82 15. 83 1. 00 TO 2. 02 0. 00 i 87. 60 10. 38 Missouri . 9. 53 10. 18 1. 07 7. 95 11. 37 74. 46 6. 22 North Dakota . 18. 83 18. 89 1. 00 15. 19 0. 00 77. 80 7. 01 South Dakota . 16. 70 18. 44 1. 10 n 19. 24 0.00 76. 06 4. 70 Nebraska . 15. 32 16. .38 1. 07 10. 06 4. 11 65. 98 19. 85 Kansas . 11.49 12. 12 1. 06 o8. 14 0. 00 88. 23 3. 63 Western Division: Montana (1902-3) . 20. 68 10. 99 .53 V 8. 98 38. 60 45. 79 6. 63 Wyoming (1899-1900) . 13. 20 7. 70 .58 14. 83 0. 00 76. 53 8. 64 Colorado . 28. 62 20. 54 . 72 4. 37 0. 00 85. 33 10. 30 New Mexico . 4. 94 5. 37 1.09 (9) 0. 00 r 67. 74 (1) 70. 78 / 32. 26 Arizona . 11. 35 8. 19 .72 8. 08 21. 14 Utah . 16. 76 22. 49 1. 34 (1) 46. 64 24. 40 68. 05 . 7.55 Nevada . 30. 04 15.29 .51 5. 18 35.94 12. 24 Idaho . 14. 82 12. 73 .86 (0 U) 13. 61 tS. 86 76. 41 14. 73 Washington . 24. 27 16. 26 .67 M 45. 66 49.21 5. 13 Oregon . 14.89 11. 22 .75 0. 00 79. 45 6.94 California . 24.07 15. 00 .62 2. 83 V 41. 28 53. 03 2. 86 a Includes money borrowed. & State contribution to high school instruction and cost of supervi¬ sion. c Includes receipts from sale of bonds, May include some State taxes. c Includes United States appropriation. /Includes poll tax. Includes “Dispensary fund.” ft. Not reported separately. * Approximately, f Included in State taxes. * Includes some unclassified receipts. ^ Returns imper¬ fect. TO In 1902-3. ri Includes fines, etc. o includes some receipts from “ Other sources.” p Includes proceeds of school land sales. 9 Included, if any, in State taxes, r includes local taxes and income from permanent funds. « Included in State apportionment. « State apportionment. « Includes interest on the permanent fund, v Includes taxes on railroads and on collateral inheritances. LXXVI EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Table 14. — Progress of school expendiiure. State or Terri- Total amount expended for schools. Expended per capita of total population. tory. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1899-1900. 1903-4. 1870- 71. 1879- 80. 1889- 90. 1899- 1900. 1903- 4. 1 2 3 4 o 6 7 8 9 10 11 United States S69,107,612 •878, 094, 687 $140,506,715 $214,964,618 $273, 216, 227 $1. 75 $1.56 $2. 24 $2. 84 $3. 36 N. Atlantic Div. 29, 796, 835 28, 538, 058 48, 023, 492 83, 910, .564 105, 332, 839 2.38 1.97 2. 76 3. 99 4. 68 S. Atlantic Div. 3,781,581 5, 130, 492 8, 767, 165 12,921,797 15,907,956 .63 .68 .99 1.24 1. 44 S. Central Div. . 4, 854, 834 4, 872, 829 10, 678, 680 14, 753,816 19, 870, 733 .73 . 55 .97 1.08 1.30 N. Central Div. 28, 430, 033 3.5,285.635 62, 823, 563 86,165,827 107, 663, 687 2. 14 2. 03 2.81 3. 27 3.85 Western Div. . . 2, 244, 329 4,267,673 10,213,815 17,212,614 24,441,012 2. 15 2.41 3. 37 4. 21 5. 44 N..4tlanticDiv.: 950, 662 1,067,991 1,327,553 1, 712, 795 2,080, 109 1.51 1.65 2.01 2. 47 2. 94 1 New Hamp- shire . 418, 545 565,339 844, 3.33 1,0.52,202 1, 376, 899 1, 176, 784 1.30 1.63 2. 24 2. 56 1 3.24 Vennont... Massachu- 499, 961 446,217 711,072 1, 074, 222 1.51 1.34 2.14 3. 13 3. 38 setts . Rhode Is- 5, 579, 363 4, 983, 900 8,286,062 13, 826, 243 16, 436, 668 3. 73 2.80 3. 70 4. 93 5.42 461, 160 1,496,981 526,112 884,966 2, 157,014 17,54.3, 880 1,548,675 3,189,249 1,804,762 3, 795,260 2. 05 1.90 2. 56 3. 61 3.91 Connecticut 1,408', 375 2. 74 2. 26 2.89 3.51 3. 90 New York. 9,607,904 10,296,977 33,421.491 43,750,277 2. 17 2. 03 2. 92 4.60 5. 63 New Jersey P e n n s y 1- 2, 302, 341 1,873, 465 3, 340, 190 6,608, 692 8, 838, 515 2. 48 1.66 2. 31 3.51 4. 29 vania . 8, 479,918 7, 369, 682 12,928, 422 21,476,995 26, 073, 565 2. 36 1.72 2. 46 3.41 3. 88 S. Atlant. Div.; Delaware.. . 153, 509 207, 281 a 275, 000 453, 670 b 453, 670 1.21 1. 41 al.63 2. 46 b2. 46 Maryland . . District of 1,214, 729 1,544, 367 1,910, 663 2, 803, 032 2, 755, 288 1.53 1.65 1.83 2. 36 2.21 Columbia 373, 535 438, 567 905, 777 1,076,620 1,576,354 2. 77 2. 47 3. 93 3. 86 5.28 Virginia. . . . 587, 472 946, 109 1,604,509 1,989,238 c 2, 137, 365 .47 .63 .97 1.07 cl. 11 W. Virginia 577, 719 707,553 376, 062 1,198,493 2, 009, 123 2,531,655 1.26 1. 14 1.57 2. 10 2. 44 N. Carolina 177, 498 714,900 9.50, 317 2,075,566 .16 .27 .44 .50 1.04 S. Carolina. 275,688 324, 629 450,936 894,004 1,191,963 .38 .33 .39 .67 .84 Georgia. . . . 292, 000 471,029 1, 190, 354 1,980,016 c 2, 240, 247 .24 .31 .65 .89 c. 96 Florida . 129, 431 114,895 516,533 765, 777 945, 848 .66 .43 1.32 1.45: 1.62 S. Central Div.: Kentucky. . a 1,075,000 1,069,030 2,140,678 3, 037,908 ac 2, 662, 863 a. 80 .65 1. 15 1.41 cl. 19 Tennessee. . a 758, 000 a 370, 000 744, 180 1,526,241 a 890, 000 1,751,047 2,602,141 a. 59 .48 .86 .87 1.23 Alabama. . . a 500, 000 923, 464 1,252,247 cl, 868, 544 a. 36 a. 40 a. 59 .50 .64 Mississippi. 950,000 830, 705 1,109,. 575 1,385,112 1.11 .73 .86 .89 cl. 15 Louisiana. . 531,834 411,858 817,110 1,135,125 4,465,255 1, 369, 810 cl,. 551, 232 .71 .44 .73 .82 cl, 06 Texas. a 650, 000 a 1,030,000 3, 178, .300 1, 016, 776 6,200,587 1,729,879 a. 74 a. 65 1. 42 1. 46 1.84 Arkansas.. . a 520, 009 287,056 a 1.02 . 36 .90 1.04 1.25 Oklahoma.. 686, 095 1,. 359, 624 643,616 1.72 2. 58 Ind. Ter.d. . 1.35 N. Central Div.: Ohio . 6,831,035 a 2, 897, 537 7,166,963 4,491,850 10,602,238 5,245,218 13,335,211 8, 182, 526 15,802, 002 9, 363, 450 21,792,751 2. 52 2. 24 2.89 3.21 3. 63 Indiana _ a 1.70 2. 27 2.39 3. 25 3. 54 Illinois . 6, 656, 542 2,840,740 7,014,092 11,645, 126 17, 757, 145 2.57 2. 28 3. 04 3. 68 4. 18 Michigan. . . 2,775,917 5, 349, 366 3,801,212 7, 297, 691 9,158,014 2. 33 1.70 1 2.55 3.01 3. 62 Wisconsin. . 1,932,539 2,177,023 5, 493, 370 7,885,050 1.70 1. 65 ; 2. 25 2.65 3. 55 Minnesota.. 960,558 1,328,429 4,187,310 5,630,013 8,073,323 2. 06 1.70 3.22 3. 21 4.14 Iowa . 3, 269, 190 4,484,043 6,382,953 8,496,522 10, 696, 693 2. 70 2. 76 3.34 3. 81 4. 53 Missouri.... 1,749,049 2,675,364 5,434,262 7,816,050 9,878,198 .99 1.23 2.03 2. 52 3.01 N. Dakota.. S. Dakota. . } a 23, 000 245,000 f 626,949 1 1,199,630 1,526,090 1,605,623 2, 316, 346 2, 239, 135 j-al.29 1.81 U3. 43 13.65 4. 78 4. 00 6. 25 5. 29 Nebraska... 365,. 520 1,108,617 3, 3T6, 332 4, 403, 222 4,774,146 2.61 2. 45 3. 19 4. 13 4. 47 Kansas . 904, 323 1, 818, 337 4,972,967 4, 622, 364 5,684,579 2. 24 1.83 3. 48 3.14 3. 70 W. Div.: Montana. . . c 35,600 78, 730 364, 084 923, 310 cl, 236, 253 a 1.62 2.01 2. 76 3.79 c4. 46 Wyoming. . a 7, 000 28, 504 0 225, 000 253,551 b 253,551 o. 71 1.37 <13. 71 2. 74 f>2. 50 Colorado. . . 67, 395 395,227 1,681,. 379 2, 793, 648 3, 984, 967 1.44 2. 03 4.08 5. 18 6. 75 N. .Mexico. . a 4, 900 28,973 0 85, 000 343, 429 353,012 a. 05 .24 a. 55 1.76 1.69 Arizona. . . . 0 61,172 132,194 220,245 181,914 394, 685 161,481 299,7.30 438, 828 1,657,234 257,501 1.51 1 3.05 2. 44 3.21 Utah . a 117,000 1,094,757 a 1.28 .92 j 1.90 3. 96 5. 47 Nevada _ Idaho . a 85, 000 19,003 224, 622 400,043 a 1.93 1.17 3.54 1. 18 ! 3.53 j 2.00 5.30 2. 47 6. 08 5. 24 38,411 169,020 1, 001, 394 Washing¬ ton . a 35,000 a 160,000 112.615 9.58. Ill 2, 375, 753 1,594,420 4,053,468 a 1.30 1.50 ' 2.74 4. 59 6. 96 Oregon . 307,0.31' 805,979 1,803, 339 a 1.65 1.76 J 2.57 3. 86 3. 99 California. . 1,713, 431 2,864,571 5,187,162 6,909,351 9, 401, 465 2. 93 3. 31 1 4.29 4.65 1 5. 90 a Approximately. b In 1899-1900. cin 1902-3. d Returns imperfect. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXXVII Table 15. — The school expenditure of 1903- Jf. classified. State or Territory. Paid for sites, build¬ ings, furni¬ ture, libra¬ ries, and apparatus. Paid for teachers’ and superin¬ tendents’ salaries. Paid for all other pur¬ poses, prin¬ cipally main¬ tenance. Total ex¬ penditure, excluding payments of bonds. 1 2 3 4 o United States . $49,453,269 $167,824,753 $55,938,205 $273,216,227 North Atlantic Division . 23,842,402 58,846,270 22,644,167 105,332,839 South Atlantic Division . 1,803,262 11,753,793 2,3.50,901 15,907,956 South Central Division . 2,035,898 15,421,518 2,413,317 23,370,130 19,870,733 North Central Division . 16,963,470 4,808,237 67,330,087 107,663,687 Western Division . 14,473,0&5 5,159,690 24,441,012 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 438,268 0 1,275,471 366,370 2,080,109 New Hampshire . 215,121 795,990 6 365,788 1,376,899 Vermont . 102,601 728,913 345,270 1,176,784 Massachusetts . 3, 252, 392 9,536,660 3,647,616 16,436,668 Rhode Island . 278, 022 1,151,455 2,290,871 375, 285 1,804,762 Connecticut . 722,989 781,400 3,795,260 New York . 12,093,296 25,155,684 6,. 501, 297 43,750,277 New Jersey . 1,579,170 4,933,185 2,326,1(0 8,838,515 Pennsylvania . 5,160,543 12,978,041 7,934,981 26,073,565 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1899-1900) . 79,306 279,556 94,808 453,670 Marvland . 137, 758 2, 186, 453 431,077 2,755,288 District of Columbia . 282,958 985,685 307,711 1,576,354 Virginia (1902-3) . 205,313 1,676,777 2.54,275 2,137,365 West Virginia . 370,294 1,590,429 570,932 2,531,655 North Carolina . 272,950 1,350,163 452,453 2,075,566 South Carolina . 110,678 1,011,944 69,341 1,191,963 Georgia (1902-3) . 234,969 1,963,397 41,881 2,240,247 Florida . 108,036 709,389 128, 423 945,848 South Central Division: Kentucky (1902-3) c . 295,655 2,219,178 148,030 2,662,863 Tennessee . 340,546 1,962,266 299,329 2,602,141 Alabama . (d) 902,509 c 349, 738 1,252,247 Mississippi (1902-3) . 54,007 1,573,416 241,121 1,868,544 Louisiana (1902-3) . 99,625 1,255,352 196,255 1,551,232 Texas . 620,378 4,896,305 683,904 6,200,587 Arkansas . 166,606 1,472,652 90,621 1,729,879 Oklahoma . 296,087 162,994 798,094 €265,443 1,359,624 Indian Territory/ . €341,746 € 138, 876 643,616 North Central Division: Ohio . 1,179,179 1,328,577 10,. 557, 909 4,084,914 €1,064,421 15,802,002 Indiana . 6,970,4.52 9,363,450 Illinois . 4, 143, 193 12,812,511 4,837,047 21,792,751 Michigan . 1,265,896 1,365,590 5,688,103 2,204,015 9,158,014 Wisconsin . 4,8.52,159 1,667,301 7,885,050 Minnesota . 1,656,308 4,9.58,947 1,458,068 8,073,323 loAva . 992,361 6,541,754 6 3, 162,. 578 10,696,693 Missouri . 6 2,525,692 5,637,694 1,176,175 1,714,812 9,878,198 North Dakota . 564,039 576,132 2,316,346 South Dakota . 348,999 1,365,151 .524,985 2,239,135 Nebraska . 825,914 3,105,836 842,396 4,774,146 Kansas . . 767, 722 3,663,396 S' 1,253, 461 5,684,579 Western Division: Montana (1902-3) . 367, 131 651,728 217,384 1,236,253 Wyoming (1899-1900) . 27,597 180,386 45,568 2.33,. 551 Colorado . 587,019 2,288,749 1,109,199 3,984,967 New Mexico . 52, 693 250, 123 50, 196 353,012 Arizona . 56,916 256,714 125,198 438,828 Utah . 330, 221 831,244 495,769 1 1,657,234 Nevada . 36,527 95,584 €125,390 2.57, .301 Idaho . 261,670 482,685 6 2.57,0.39 1,001,394 W ashington . 859, 468 2,246,662 947,338 4,0.53,468 Oregon . 356, 196 1,161,349 2&5,794 1,803,339 California . 1,872,799 6,027,8.51 1,500,815 9,401,465 « Includes janitors’ wages. & Includes debt paid, c Approximately. Not reported separately. c Includes some unclassified expenditures. / Returns imperfect. g Includes repairs. LXXVIII EDUCATION REPORT; 1904. Table 16. — (i) Expenditure per pupil (based on average attendance); (2) average daily expenditure per pupil; (3) percentage analysis of school expenditure. Expenditure per capita of average attendance. Average daily expenditure per pupil. Per cent of total ex¬ penditure devoted to— State or Territory. For sites, build¬ ings, etc. For sala¬ ries. For all other pur¬ poses. Total per pupil. For sala¬ ries. only. Total. Sites, build¬ ings, etc. Sala¬ ries. All other pur¬ poses. 1 2 3 4 o 6 8 9 10 United States . $4. 37 S14.83 U. 94 §24. 14 Cents. 10. 1 Cents. 16.5 18.1 61.4 20.5 North Atlantic Division.... 8. 32 20. 53 7. 90 35. 75 11.6 20.8 22.6 55.9 21.5 South Atlantic Division. . . . 1.20 7.81 1.56 10. 57 6.7 9.0 11.3 73.9 14.8 South Central Division . .98 7. 44 1. 16 9. 58 6.9 8.9 10.2 77.6 12.2 North Central Division . 4. 05 16.07 5. 58 25. 70 10.3 16.4 15.8 62.5 21.7 Western Division . 7.01 21. 12 7. 53 35. 66 14.3 24. 1 19.7 59.2 21. 1 North Atlantic Division; Maine . 4. 46 a 12. 98 3.73 21. 17 9.3 15.2 21. 1 a 61. 3 17.6 4.42 16.35 b 7. 52 28.29 11. 1 19.3 15. 6 57. 8 6 26.6 Vermont . 2. 10 14. 92 7.07 24. 09 9.6 15.5 8.7 61.9 29.4 Massachusetts . 8. .30 24. 34 9.31 41.95 13.2 22.7 19.8 58.0 22. 2 Rhode Island . 5.38 22. 28 7. 26 34. 92 11.5 18. 1 15.4 63.8 20.8 Connecticut . 5. 86 18. 58 6.34 30. 78 9.8 16.3 19.0 CO. 4 20. 6 New York . 12. 55 26. 10 6.75 45.40 14.0 24.3 27.6 57.5 14. 9 New Jersev . 6. .59 20. CO 9.71 36.90 11.3 20.3 17.9 55.8 26.3 Pennsvlvania . 5. 73 14. 42 8.81 28. 96 8.9 17.8 19.8 49.8 30.4 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1899-1900) . . . c3. 13 cll.05 c3. 75 c 17. 93 C6.5 CIO. 5 17.5 61.6 20.9 Maryland . 1.06 16. 81 3.31 21. 18 9.3 11.7 5.0 79.4 15.6 District of Columbia . . . 7. 20 25. 08 7. 83 40. 11 13.9 22.2 17.9 62.6 19.5 Virginia (1902-3) . . 92 7. 46 1. 13 9.51 6. 1 7.8 9.6 78.5 11.9 West Virginia . 2. 34 10. 05 3.61 16.00 8.2 13.0 14.6 62.8 22.6 North Carolina . r. 88 c4. 24 cl. 42 c 6. .52 C4.8 c7.3 13.2 65.0 21.8 South Carolina . ..52 4. 73 .32 5.57 5.0 5.9 9.3 84.9 5.8 Georgia (1902-3) . . 76 6.33 .13 7. 22 5.4 6. 1 10.5 87.6 1.9 Florida . 1.29 8. 48 1.54 1L31 7.9 10.5 11.4 75.0 13.6 South Central Division: Kentuckv (1902-3) c . .95 7. 16 .48 8. 59 8.0 9.5 11. 1 83.3 5.6 Tennessee . .99 5. 69 .87 7. 55 5.5 7.3 13. 1 75.4 11.5 Alabama . 3. 76 c 1. 46 5.22 c3. 7 c5. 1 (d) 72. 1 C27.9 Mississippi (1902-3) . .23 6. 75 1.03 8.01 5.5 6. 5 2.9 84.2 12.9 Louisiana(1902-3) . .64 8. 06 1.26 9.96 6.2 7.7 6.4 80.9 12.7 Texas . 1.34 10. 60 1.48 13. 42 9.0 11.4 10.0 79.0 11.0 Arkansas . .79 6. 94 .43 8. 16 7.5 8.8 9.6 85.2 5.2 Oklahoma . 3.17 8. 53 c2. 84 14. 54 8.5 14.5 21.8 58.7 C19.5 Indian Territorv / . c7. 07 cel4. 83 c e 6. 02 c 27. 92 c9. 4 C17.7 25.3 c53. 1 e21.6 North Central Division: Ohio . 1.91 17. 07 6.57 25. 55 10.7 16.0 7.5 66.8 25.7 Indiana . 3. 19 16. 75 c 2. 56 22. 50 12.1 16.3 14.2 74.4 cll.4 Illinois . 5. 29 16. 35 6.17 27.81 10.2 17.4 19.0 58.8 22. 2 Michigan . c3. 26 c 14. 66 c5. 68 c 23. 60 c8.9 cl4. 3 1.3.8 62.1 2L 1 Wisconsin . c4. 74 C16.83 c5. 78 c 27. 35 clO.O c 16. 2 17.3 61.5 21.2 Minnesota . 6. 08 18. 19 5. 36 29.63 11.4 18.5 20.5 61.4 18.1 Iowa . 2.66 17. 54 b8. 48 28. 68 10.0 17.9 9.3 61. 1 b 29. 6 Missouri . b 5. 44 12. 13 3. 69 21.26 8.2 14. 4 &25.6 57. 1 17.3 North Dakota. 9. 65 20. 12 9. 86 39. 63 14. 1 27. 8 24. 3 50. 8 24.9 South Dakota . c4. 74 c 18. 52 c7. 12 c 30. 38 cl3. 4 C22.0 15. 6 61.0 23. 4 Nebraska . 4.57 17. 18 4. 66 26. 41 10.2 15.8 17.3 65.0 17.7 Kansas . C2.83 r 13. .52 eg 4. 63 c 20. 98 c9. 7 C15.0 13.5 64.5 9 22.0 Western Division: Montana (1902-3) . 11.66 20.71 6.91 39. 28 cl9. 4 c.36.7 29.7 .52.7 17.6 Wyoming (1899-1900) . . . c2. 86 c 18. 69 c4. 72 c 26. 27 C17.0 C23.8 10.9 71. 1 18.0 Colorado . 6. 17 24. 08 11.66 41.89 15.2 26.4 14.7 57.4 27.9 New Mexico . 1.78 8. 46 1.70 11.94 10.0 14.0 14.9 70.9 14. 2 Arizona . 4. 37 19. 71 9.61 33.69 15.4 26.3 13.0 58.5 28.5 Utah . 5. 88 14.80 8. 82 29. 50 9.7 19.3 19.9 50.2 29.9 Nevada . 7. 05 18. 44 c24. 20 49. 69 11.6 31.3 14.2 37. 1 C48. 7 Idaho . 6. 57 12. 13 b6. 46 25. 16 8.9 18.5 26. 1 48.2 6 25.7 Washington . 7. 75 20.27 8. 57 36. 59 15. 7 28.3 21.2 55.4 2.3.4 Oregon . 4.91 16. 03 3. 94 24.88 10. 1 1.5.7 19.8 64.4 15.8 California . 8.43 27. 13 6. 75 42.31 16.3 25.4 19.9 64. 1 16.0 a Includes janitors' wages. Includes debt paid, f Approximately, d Not reported separately. e Includes some unclassified expenditures. / Returns imperfect. 9 Includes repairs. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXXIX Table 17. — Amount expended for common schools each year since 18G9-70. Expended for— 1869- 70.., 1870- 71.. 1871- 72.. 1872- 73.. 1873- 74.. 1874- 75.. 187.5- 76.. 1876- 77.. 1877- 78.. 1878- 79.. 1879- 80.. 1880- 81 . . 1881-82.. 1882- 83.. 1883- 84.. 1884- 85.. 188.5- 86.. 1886- 87.. 1887- 88.. 1888- 89.. 1889- 90.. 1890- 91 . . 1891- 92.. 1892- 93.. 1893- 94.. 1894- 95.. 1895- 98.. 1896- 97.. 1897- 98.. 1898- 99.. 1899- 1900 1900- 1901 , 1901- 2... 1902- 3 0.. 1903- 4 0.. Year. Sites, build¬ ings, furni¬ ture, etc. Teachers' and superin¬ tendents’ salaries. Totaf All other expenditure, purposes. $23,395,624 26,207,041 26,448,047 29,344,559 30,294,130 30,007,088 29,436,940 32,590,112 32,376,476 31,415,233 31,229,308 35,4.50,820 39,872,278 39,962,863 46,289,074 49,453,269 $37,832,566 42,580,853 45,935,681 47,932,050 50, 785,656 54,722,250 55,358,166 54,973,776 56,155,133 54,039,731 55,942,972 58,012,463 60,594,933 64,798,859 68,384,275 72,878,993 76,270,434 78,639,904 83,022,502 87,568,306 91,836,484 96,303,069 100,298,2.56 104,560,339 109,202,405 113,872,888 117,139,841 119,310,503 124,192,270 129,345,873 137,687,746 143,378,507 151,443,681 157,110,108 167,824,753 $22,463,190 24,743,093 26,174,197 29,316,588 33,292,750 32,499,951 33,769,012 35,995,290 38,685,408 39,579,416 41,826,052 44,272,042 46,855,755 48,058,443 55,938,205 $63,396,606 69,107,012 74,234,476 70,238,404 80,054,286 83.. 504. 007 83,032,578 79. 439., 826 79,083,260 76,192,375 78,094,087 83,042,964 88,990,466 96,750,003 103,212,837 110,328,375 113,322,545 115,783,890 124.244.911 132,539,783 140,506,715 147,494,809 155,817,012 164,171,057 172,-502,843 175,809,279 183,498,965 187,682,269 194.292.911 200,154,597 214,964,618 227,. 522, 827 238,262,299 251,457,025 273,216,227 a Subject to correction. LXXX EDUCATIOX REPOKT^ 1904, Table 18. — (1) School expenditure per capita of population; {2) same per capita of average attendance. Year. Expended per capita of population. Expended per pupil. United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Divi¬ sion. United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Divi¬ sion. 1870-71 . $1.75 $2. 38 $0. 63 80. 7.3 $2.14 12. 15 $15. 20 $18. 31 $10. 27 $9. 06 $14. 87 $21. 87 1871-72 . 1.83 2. 40 .68 .81 2. 31 2. 27 15. 93 18. 86 10. 46 9. 08 16. 36 23. 57 1872-73 . 1.84 2. 44 .68 .74 2. 31 2.42 16.06 19.89 9. 25 8.39 16. 53 25. 04 1873-74 . 1.88 2. 51 .76 .68 2.38 2. 40 15.85 19.89 9.01 7. 55 16. 57 24. 36 1874-75 . 1.91 2. 55 .80 .73 2. 36 2. 76 15.91 20.17 8. 98 7. 51 16.69 26.85 1875-76 . 1.85 2. 45 .79 . 55 2. 37 2. 78 15. 70 19. 14 8. 65 6. 70 16. 91 26.35 1870-77 . 1.72 2.29 .72 .51 2. 21 2. 61 14. 64 17.89 7. 68 6.25 15. 93 24.69 1877-78 . 1.67 2. 15 .70 .56 2.14 2. 73 13. 67 16. 55 7. 21 5. 98 15. 08 25.82 1878-79 . 1.56 2. 03 .63 . 55 2.00 2. 53 12. 97 16. 05 6. 76 5.65 14. 22 23.39 1879-80 . 1.56 1.97 .68 . 55 2. 03 2. 41 12.71 15. 64 6. 60 5. 40 14.39 22. 59 1880-81 . 1. 63 2. 08 .72 .58 2. 09 2. .54 13.61 17.14 7. 22 5. 72 15. 19 23. 81 1881-82 . 1. 70 2. 11 .78 .64 2. 19 2. .59 14.05 17. 35 7. 63 6. 25 15. 79 24.32 1882-83 . 1.80 2. 22 .82 .68 2. 34 2. 74 14. 55 18. 17 7. 46 6.17 16.69 25.39 1883-84 . 1.88 2. 25 .84 .74 2. 48 2. 83 14. 63 18. 37 7. 44 6. 26 16. 90 24.69 1884-85 . 1.96 2. 38 .88 .82 2. 53 2. 90 15. 12 19. 19 7. 32 6.74 17. 53 26. 31 188.5-86 . 1.97 2. 36 .88 .87 2. 54 2.88 15. 06 19. 11 7.33 6. 93 17. 45 25. 52 1886-87 . 1.97 2. 35 .90 .87 2. 55 2. 76 15. 07 19. 38 7.33 6. 88 17. 45 24.85 1887-88 . 2. 07 2. 48 . 95 .87 2. 68 2. 96 15.71 20. 60 7.61 6. 60 18.29 27.38 1888-89 . 2.17 2.59 .98 .94 2. 76 3. 28 16. 55 21.64 7. 77 7. 12 19.30 29. 37 1889-90 . 2. 24 2. 76 .99 .97 2. 81 3. 37 17. 23 23. 58 7. 78 7. 28 19. 70 30. 57 1890-91 . 2. 31 2. 78 f.06 1.04 2. 85 3.91 17. 54 23. 66 8. 52 7. 78 19. 42 33.42 1891-92 . 2. 40 2. 90 1.06 1.07 2. 94 4. 20 18. 20 24.89 8.74 7.82 20. 13 33. 55 1892-93 . 2. 48 3. 02 1.09 1.06 3. 06 4.20 18. 58 25. 01 8. 65 7. 72 20. 62 33. 57 1893-94 . 2. .55 3. 13 1.12 1.09 3. 23 3. 77 18. 62 26. 21 8. 61 7. 58 21.29 29. 06 1894-95 . 2. 55 3. 28 1.11 1.09 3. 13 3. 67 18. 41 26. 84 8. 58 7.69 20. 26 27.32 1895-96 . 2. 62 3. 49 1.13 1.10 3. 12 3. 73 18. 76 28. 45 8. 87 7. 60 20.09 27. 16 1896-97 . 2. 63 3. 65 1. 17 1.04 3. 06 3. 56 18. 67 28. 77 9. 32 7.09 19. 75 25. 86 1897-98 . 2. 67 3. 75 1. 19 1.03 3. 07 3. 81 18. 76 29. 34 8. 97 7.09 19. 47 28. 29 1898-99 . 2. 70 3. 71 1.24 1.04 3. 15 3. 84 19. 38 29. 28 9. 96 7.17 20. 62 28. 50 1899-1900 . 2. 84 3. 99 1.24 1.08 3. 27 4.21 20.21 31.82 9.61 7.32 21.12 30. 98 1900-1901 . 2. 94 4. 20 1.28 1.10 3. 38 4. 25 21. 23 33. 70 9. .53 7. 78 22. 46 30. 93 1901-2 . 3. 03 4. 22 1.33 1. 16 3. 52 4. 62 21.53 33. 39 9.91 8. 16 22. 83 32. 26 1902-3 a . 3. 15 4. 44 1.34 1.22 3.61 4.80 22. 75 35. 19 10.17 8. 92 23. 98 32.85 1903-4 a . 3. 36 4. 68 1. 44 1.30 3. 85 5. 44 24.14 36. 75 10. 57 9.58 25. 70 35. 66 a Subject to correction, STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXXXI Table 19. — Wealth and school expenditure, 1880 and 1800. State or Territory. United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division.. South Central Division... North Central Division. . Western Division . North Atlantic Division: Maine . New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia. Virginia . AVest Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division: Kentucky . Tennessea . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . Indian Territory . North Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . AVestern Division: Montana . AVyoming . Colorado . New Mexico . Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . AVashington . Oregon . California . True valuation of real and personal property. o Expenditure for publie schools(excluding debt paid) . 1880 1890. 1880. 1890. 1880. 1890. Cents. Cents. H3, 642, 000, 000 804,829,040,611 S78,094,087 $140,506,715 17.9 21.7 17,533,000,000 21,435,491,864 28,538,058 48,023,492 16.3 22. 4 3,759,000,000 5,132,980,666 5,130,492 8,767,165 13.6 17. 1 3,882,000,000 6,193,230,433 4,872,829 10,678,680 12.6 17.2 16,186,000,000 25,255,915,549 35,285,635 62,823,563 21.8 24.9 2,282,000,000 6,811,422,099 4,267,073 10,213,815 18.7 1,5.0 511,000,000 489,134,128 1,007,991 1,327,553 20.9 27. 1 363,000,000 325,128,740 565,339 b 844,333 15. 6 26. 0 302,000,000 265,567,323 446,217 711,072 14.8 26.8 2,623,000,000 2,803,645,447 4,983,900 8,286,062 18.9 29.6 400,000,000 504,162,3.52 526,112 884,966 13.2 17.6 779,000,000 835,120,219 1,408,375 2,157,014 18.1 25.8 6,308,000,000 8,576,701,991 10,290,977 17,543,880 16.3 20.5 1,305,000,000 1,445,285,114 6,190,746,550 1,873,465 7,369,082 c 3,340, 190 14.4 23. 1 4,942,000,000 12,928,422 14.9 20.9 136,000,000 175,678,795 207,281 275,000 1.5.2 15.7 837,000,000 1,085,473,048 1,544,367 1,910,663 18.5 17.6 220,000,000 343,596,733 438,567 905,777 19.9 26.4 707,000,000 862,318,070 946, 109 1,604,509 13. 4 18.6 3.50,000,000 438,954,881 707,553 1,198,493 20.2 27.3 461,000,000 322,000,000 584,148,999 376,062 324,629 714,900 8.2 12.2 400,911,303 4.50,936 10. 1 11.2 606,000,000 852,409,449 471,029 1,190,3.54 7.8 14.0 120,000,000 389,489,388 114,895 516,533 9.6 13.3 902,000,000 1,172,232,313 1,009,030 2,140,678 11.9 18.3 705,000,000 887,956,143 744, 180 1,526,241 890,000 10.6 17.2 428,000,000 622,773,504 500,000 11.7 14.3 354,000,000 454,242,688 830,705 1,109,. 575 23.5 24. 4 382,000,000 495,301,597 411,8.58 817,110 10.8 16.5 825,000,000 2,105,570,766 1,030,000 3,178,300 12.5 15. 1 286,000,000 455,147,422 287,056 1,016,776 10.0 22.3 3,238,000,000 3,951,382,384 7,166,963 10,602,238 22. 1 26.8 1,681,000,000 2,095,176,626 4,491,8.50 5,245,218 26.7 2.5.0 3,210,000,000 5,066,751,719 7,014,092 11,645,126 5,349,366 21.9 23.0 1,580,000,000 2,095,016,272 2,775,917 17.6 2,5.5 1,139,000,000 1,833,308,523 2,177,023 3,801,212 19. 1 20.7 792,000,000 1,691,851,927 1,328,429 4,187,310 16.8 24.7 1,721,000,000 2,287,348,333 4,484,043 6,382,953 26. 1 27.9 1,562,000,000 2,397,902,945 2,675,364 5,434,262 17. 1 22.7 ■ 118,000,000 / 337,006,500 1 425,141,299 1 245,000 / 626,949 \ 1,199,630 1 20.8 r 18.6 1 28.2 385,000,000 1,275,685,514 ^ 1,108,617 3,376,332 28.8 26.5 760,000,000 1,799,343,501 1,818,337 4,972,967 23.9 27. 6 40,000,000 4.53,135,209 78,730 364,084 19.7 8.0 54,000,000 169,773,710 28,505 225,000 5. 3 13.3 240,000,000 1,145,712,267 395,227 1,681,379 16.5 14.7 49,000,000 231,4.59,897 28,973 85,000 5.9 3.7 41,000,000 188,880,970 61,172 181,914 14.9 9.6 114,000,000 349,411,234 132,194 394,685 11.6 11.3 156,000,000 180,323,668 220,245 161,481 14. 1 9.0 29,000,000 207,896,591 38,411 169,020 13.2 8.1 62,000,000 760,698,720 112,615 958,111 18.2 12.6 154,000,000 590,396,194 307,031 805,979 19.9 1.3.7 1,343,000,000 2,533,733,027 2,864,571 5,187,162 21.3 20.5 Exj)cnded for public schools on each ?100 of true valua¬ tion of all rea and personal property. a From United States census reports. b Includes debt paid, if any. c Amount of revenue. ED 1904 M - YI LXXXII EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. Table 20. — Permanent school funds and school lands. State or Territory. Permanent common school funds, State and local, o Productive school lands. Total value of Unproductive school lands. Acres un¬ der lease. Estimated value of same. pe nnanent funds and productive lands. Acres not under lease. Estimated value of same. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 $193,201,855 North Atlantic Division . 22,637,222 4,658,695 48,812,249 99,615,712 17,537,977 South Atlantic Division . North Central Division . Western Division . . North Atlantic Division: 442,758 (&) 880,218 4,770,548 2.57,413 3,054,541 8,921,803 4,309,881 0 0 $730,744 (b) $1,610,962 0 1 “ 1 i 1 1 r P) 1 . (G South Atlantic Division: d 350,000 0 0 d 350,000 0 0 District of Columbia . Virginia (1902-3) . 0 1,783,828 e 1,000,000 200,000 0 0 0 0 0 1,783,828 0 0 0 0 West Virginia . North Carolina . 0 0 200,000 $.500,000 $500,000 South Carolina . Georgia . if) 1,324,867 2,315,627 2,512,500 2,135,313 3,466,667 io) 1 . 1 Florida . 1 South Central Division: Kentucky (1901-2) . Tennessee . Alabama (1902-3) . Mississippi (1902-3) . Louisiana . 1 . Texas . 37,253,642 1,128,500 •511,792,664 11,792,664 49,046,306 7,000,000 7,000,000 Arkansas . Oklahoma . 2,0.50,000 20,000,000 Indian Territory . North Central Division; Ohio (1901-2) . 4,003,677 10,637,564 17,429,569 5,211,867 3,609,213 15,978,478 4,7.56,4.57 13,151,372 4,764,923 4,095,938 7,976,006 8,000,648 618,777 48,000 1 1,251,901 0 Indiana . 1 723 35,813 Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . 0 0 1,160 0 0 3,609,213 15,978,478 25,148 1,000,000 150,000 5,354,088 Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . 1 .. North Dakota . (h) 1,197,899 1,920,4.58 200,160 1,476,638 1,309,925 m 1,720,000 949,760 *2,166,154 705,925 497 310,280 1,000,000 2,691,980 m 1,675,000 2,477,440 21,661,540 j 7, -059, 251 2,000 930,840 1,500,000 1,345,990 m 3,3.50,000 3,090,800 South Dakota . 17.968,484 *12,000,000 600,480 2,500,000 1,004,580 m3, 440,000 1,187,200 22,064,422 19,976,006 8,601,128 3,118,777 1,0.52,580 m 4,691,901 1,187,200 Nebraska . Kansas (1902-3) . Western Division: Montana (1902-3) . Wyoming (1899-1900) _ Colorado . New Mexico (1902-3) . Arizona . Utah . 444,418 1,602,275 1,241,968 3,431,627 4,604,261 4,294,750 72,000 126,000 570,418 1,838,361 2,757,541 Nevada . Idaho (1902-3) . 57,584 757,867 575,840 1,817,808 942,410 9,424,100 Wfl.sbine'tou Oregon 1 California . 1 i a Including unpaid principal due on contracts for purchase of school lands. b Some local funds; amount not known, c Riparian lands; amount not determined. d Approximately. e Limited to $1,000,000 by constitutional amendment of 1902. / Half the Western and Atlantic R. R. and some stock of the Georgia R. R. 9 Oyster lands; amount not known. h Included in column 6. i Includes lands under lease. j Constitutional minimum price, $10 per acre. k Estimated by State superintendent. I In 1901-2. m In 1902-3. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXXXTIT Diagram 1. — Number of pupils enrolled in the common schools of the United States. LXXXIV EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Diagram 2. — Per cent of population enrolled in common schools. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. LXXXV Diagram 3. — Length of school term. C35^CO<00-^N3Co-fi.OiCr5^CO 90 1870-71 1874-75 1879-80 1884-35 1389-90 1894-9$ 1899-00 1904-65 \ \ K 7 - ssss S S S S OT S S S S S S oc K Year. I tut I 132.1 133. 1 129. 1 128. 8 130. 4 133.1 132.1 132. 0 130. 2 130.3 130.1 131.2 129.8 129.1 130. 7 130.4 131.3 ^ o w O i»ao-yy . 1899- 1900... 1900- 1901... 1901- 2 . 1902- 3 . 1903- 4 . 1 ii 3§; looy-au . 1890- 91 . 1891- 92 . 1892- 93 . 1893- 94 . 1894- 9.5 _ 1887- 88 . 1888- 89 . Year. No. of days. ^tCO^ICOOOOOiCnCT^OOO'-I^^W LXXXVI EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. Diagram 4. — School erpendihire per capita of population. STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS, LXXXVII Diagram 5. — Niimber of secondary students m pntdic and private secondary schools. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882- 83 1883- 84 1884- 85 1885- 88 1886- 87 1887- 88 1888- 89 800.000 750.000 School year. In public high schools. In private high schools. In both classes of schools. 1871 . 38, 280 700.000 1872 . 48, 660 1873 . 56, 640 1874 . 61, 860 1875 . 68, 580 1876 . 22 982 73, 740 96, 722 650.000 1877 . 2L 925 73, 560 98,485 1878 . 28,124 73,620 101,744 1879 . 27, 163 74, 160 101, 323 1880 . 26, 609 75, 840 102, 449 1881 . 36, 594 80, 160 116, 754 600. 000 1882-83 ... 39, 581 88, 920 128, 501 1883-84... 34, 672 95, 280 129, 952 1884-85... 35,307 97, 020 132, 327 1885-86... 70, 241 86, 400 156, 641 550.000 1886-87... 80,004 83, 160 163,164 1887-88... 116,009 69, 600 185, 609 1888-89... 125, 542 79, 440 204, 982 1889-90... 202, 963 94, 931 297, 894 1890-91... 211,596 98, 400 309, 996 500.000 1891-92... 239,556 100, 739 340, 295 1892-93... 254,023 102, 375 356, 398 1893-94... 289, 274 118, 645 407,919 1894-95... 350,099 118, 347 468, 446 dsf) noa 1895-96... 380, 493 106, 654 487, 147 , UU\J 1896-97... 409, 433 107, 633 517, 066 1897-98... 449, 600 105, 225 554,825 1898-99... 476,227 103, 838 580,065 1899-1900. 519, 251 110, 797 630, 048 400.000 1900-1901. 541,730 108, 221 649,951 1901-2.... 650, 611 104, 690 655, 301 1902-3.... 592,213 101, 847 694,060 1908-4.... 635.808 103,407 739,215 CM CO lo CO o> 05 Oi Oi o> CO CO CO 05 05 0> 350.000 300,000 250.000 200.000 LXXXYIII EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. Diagram 6. — Fcr cent of population enrolled as secondary students in private and public secondary schools for a series of years. PER CENT. 1871- 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882- 83 1883- 84 1884- 85 1885- 86 1886- 87 1887- 88 1888- 89 1889- 90 1890- 91 1891- 92 1892- 93 1893- 94 1894- 95 1895- 96 1896- 97 1897- 98 1898- 99 1899- 1900 1900- 1901 1901- 1902 1902- 1903 1903- 1904 .975 .950 .925 .900 .875 .850 .825 .800 .775 .750 .725 .700 .675 .650 .625 .600 .575 .550 .525 .500 .475 .450 .425 .400 .375 .350 .325 .300 .275 .250 .225 .200 .175 .150 .125 .100 .075 .050 Per cent in — Total. Year. Public high schools. Private high schools. 0.051 .054 .059 ■. 056 .053 .071 .074 .063 .063 1*^2 !i36 .194 .205 .324 .331 .369 .383 .425 .509 .539 .574 .618 .642 .687 .701 .701 .741 .795 0.097 .120 .137 .145 .157 .164 .160 .155 .152 .151 .156 . 160 .174 .173 .150 .142 .116 .130 .152 .154 .155 .154 .174 .172 .151 .151 .145 .140 .147 .140 .133 .128 .130 lo/i . 1872 . 1873 . 1874 . 1875 . 1876 . 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . 1881 . 1882- 83... 1883- 84... 1884- 85... 1885- 86... 1886- 87... 1887- 88... 1888- 89... 1889- 90... 1890- 91... 1891- 92... 1892- 93... 1893- 94... 1894- 95... 1895- 96... 1896- 97... 1897- 98... 1898- 99... 1899- 1900. 1900- 1901. 1901- 2.... 1902- 3.... 1903- 4.... 0.215 .214 .214 .208 .204 .Til .240 .237 .236 .212 .278 .310 .335 .470 .485 .524 .537 .599 .681 .690 . 725 .763 .782 .834 .841 .834 .809 .925 y (>J / A / / C 'O/ h/ / 1 j / 1 r / r ' > r V / - f 1 Dt a i A / \ iv ^ t ibi IC STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS LXXXIX Diagram 7. — Showing number of college students each year since 1812. 1872 1873 1874 187§ 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882- 83 1883- 84 1884- 85 1885- 86 1886- 87 1887- 88 1888- 89 1889- 90 1890- 91 1891- 92 1892- 93 1893- 94 1894- 95 1895- 96 1896- 97 1897- 98 1898- 69 1899- 1900 1900- 1901'. 1901- 1902 1902- 1903 1903- 1904 , 1904- 1905 140,000 130,000 120,000 110,000 100,000 90,000 80,000 70,000 School year. 1872 . 1873 . 1874 . 1875 . 1876 . 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . 1881 . 1882- 83... 1883- 84... 1884- 85... 1885- 86... 1886- 87... 1887- 88... 1888- 89... 1889- 90... 1890- 91... 1891- 92... 1892- 93... 1893- 94... 1894- 95... 189^96... 1896- 97... 1897- 98... 1898- 99... 1899- 1900. 1900- 1901. 1901- 2.... 1902- 3.... 1903- 4..., College students. 23,392 30, 900 32, 175 32, 540 32, 107 32, 728 37, 442 38, 227 39, 048 39,155 39, 769 41,464 49. iS73 40, 421 41,737 42, 535 45, 949 54, 920 59, 699 66, 146 71,611 77, 487 81, 952 86, 864 87,113 91,390 93, 303 99, 906 104, 250 108, 184 114, 130 118, 029 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 _ 20.000 xc EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Diagram 8. — Showing what per cent of the total population was enrolled as college students during each year since 1872. PER CENT. O »- O C) o o coCYCoQpociO^O^Q)Q)C^Cp<^03Cpc:j>C^C^>Y»^»Y'~.»-~^ CM00'!h‘O'O'^0sO)C>’~C\(‘^'4'O<&'^00c{)A'lc\4c44'*O?OllQ0Qj<4Ac!4c4r;J. ^^^v.^^^^^^^^^^^^v.C0C0Q^C0C0ac,Q0C0C0C00JO>OsQ)O5C0C55O)Q>O,O oococococoao°c>QD°o=ococooo=ooococoooQo«ttcoooooQoooooco=o05C!sci50io> .19 .18 .17 .16 .15 .14 .13 .12 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .06 .05 .04 .03 .02 .01 School year. Per cent. 0. 059 .074 .076 .074 .072 .071 .079 .078 .078 .076 .074 . 075 . 076 .070 .071 .071 .075 .088 .093 .102 .108 .114 .119 .123 .122 .126 .126 .132 .135 .138 .143 .145 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 70 73 . 74 . 75 . 76 . 77 . 78 . 79 . 80 . 81 . 82- 83... 83- 84... 1884- 85... 1885- 86... 1886- 87... 1887- 88... 1888- 89. . . 1889- 90... 1890- 91... 1891- 92... 1892- 93... 1893- 94... 1894- 95... 1895- 96... 1896- 97... 1897- 98... 1898- 99... 1899- 1900. 1900- 1901. 1901- 2.... 1902- 3.... 1903- 4 _ 1 % /i n COmiERCI.yL EDUCATION. 1. Private “Commercial Colleges.” Special courses for tlie higher education of persons desiring to enter upon business careers are of comparatively recent date in this country. For man^^ years tlie only provision made for business training was to be found in private commercial or business colleges, many of which have rendered and are still rendering excellent service in their special field. Their work, hoAvever, cannot be called higher training, as it is confined mostly to preparing young persons for clerical positions, and includes such subjects as writing, arithmetic, and book¬ keeping, to which are added a little commercial geography and commercial law. The re¬ quirements for admission are very meager, and there is given only a very limited amount of general culture. In 1904 there were reported to this Office 499 business colleges with an attendance of 138,363 students. The instruction given by this class of schools is fairly represented by the subjects included in the courses of study of the two institutions following: Eastman School, Poughkeepsie, N. F.— Arithmetic, accounting, bookkeeping, banking, commercial law, commercial geography, business practice and office methods, stenography, typewiting, economics, and government. Peirce School, Philadelphia, Pa. — Bookkeeping, business practice, auditing, commercial arithmetic commercial law, commercial geogi'aphy, business forms and customs, stenography, and typewiting. In addition to the above studies, instruction is given in penmanship and English, and some of the institutions of this grade make provision for instruction in modern languages. The courses of study vary in length from three to thirty months. 2. High School Business Courses — Business High Schools. In 1904 there were reported 717 public high schools maintaining regular business courses, in wdiich there were enrolled 42,213 students, while 3,192 schools gave instruction in book¬ keeping to 85,313 students. The number of pupils in business courses in public high schools has increased so rapidly that it has been found necessary in a number of the larger cities to provide separate business high schools. The courses of study maintained by these business high schools vary in length from two to four years. The courses in San Francisco and Wash¬ ington require two years of work; those in Louisville, Brooklyn, Philadelphia (schools for girls), and Pittsburg require three years; and those in Los Angeles, New York, and Sjnacuse require four years. The dates when the separate schools were established are as follows: Washington, 1890; Los Angeles, 1895; Louisville, 1898; Brooklyn, 1899; San Francisco and Philadelphia, 1900; New York, 1902; Syracuse, 1903. The regular course in the high school of commerce of the borough of Manhattan, New York City, extends through four years, and is as follows: First year. — Required: English (4 periods), German, French, or Spanish (4), algebra (4), biology with special reference to materials of commerce (4), business knowledge and practice (6) , drawing (second half year, 2), physical training (2), music (1). Second year. — Required: English (3), German, French, or Spanish (4), plane geometry (3), chemistry with special reference to materials of commerce (4), history with special reference to economic history and geography (3), stenography (3), drawing and art study (2), physical training (2). Electives: Ger¬ man, French, or Spanish (4), bookkeeping and business forms (3), business arithmetic (1), commercial geography (1). Third year. — Required: English (3), German, French, or Spanish (4), geometry and algebra (3), physics (5) , history with special reference to materials of commerce (3) , drawing and art study (1) , physi¬ cal training (2). Electives: German, French, or Spanish (4), bookkeeping and business arithmetic (3), stenography and typewriting (3), drawing and art study (2), commercial geogi’aphy (1). XCI XCIl EDUCATTOX EEPOKT, 1904. Fourth 2/ear.— Required: English (3), German, French, or Spanish (4), economics and economic geog¬ raphy (4), history of United States with special reference to industrial and constitutional aspects (4), physical training (2). Electives: A foreign language (4), advanced chemistry (4), economic biology (4), trigonometry and solid geometry (4), elementary law and commercial law (4), advanced bookkeeping, business correspondence and ofhce practice (4), stenography and typewriting (4), drawing and art study (4), modern industrialism (1). There is offered also a fifth year which is open to all students who have graduated from a high school course of four years. The studies of the fifth year are as follows: Required: English (3), logic (3), physi¬ cal training (2). Electives: A foreign language (4), advanced mathematics (4), advanced physics (4), industrial chemistry (4), economic geography (4), history (4), banking and finance, transportation and communication (4) , administrative law and international law (4) , accounting and auditing (4), business organization and management (4), drawing (4), advanced economics (3). 3. Higher Commercial Education. For some time a large number of universities and colleges have maintained business courses modeled more or less after those of the business colleges mentioned above. The number of such institutions in 1904 reporting students in business courses below college grade was 173. Included in this number are Roman Catholic and other institutions whose commercial courses extend through a number of years and include a considerable number of general culture studies of secondary grade. As the departments of economics of our well-equipped universities were developed, there was introduced gradually instruction in subjects of special value to persons looking forward to business careers. While for a long time no formal courses for business training were offered, it was possible, through the system of elective studies in vogue, for students to select studies that would assist them in preparing for business life. The first step in the organiza¬ tion of business courses of college grade was made by the University of Pennsylvania in 1881, when the Wharton School of Finance and Economy was opened for instruction. During the past ten years the movement for the establishment of courses of study in commerce of college grade has made marked progress, and such courses are now offered by the universities of California, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin, Dartmouth Col¬ lege, New York University, and others. In nearly all cases the requirements for admission are the same as those for admission to general culture courses leading to degrees. The first two years of the courses are usually made up of general culture studies, such as English, modern languages, mathematics, his¬ tory, and theoretical economics, while the studies of a technical nature, with few exceptions, are placed in the last two years of the course. Very few of the institutions have laid down hard and fast courses of study, but the principle of allowing students to select studies suit¬ able for their purposes is followed in most cases. The University of California has established a college of commerce whose curriculum '‘is intended to afford an opportunity for the scientific study of commerce in all its relations, and for the higher education of business men and of the higher officers of the civil service.” The course leads to the B. S. degree and requires the completion of 129 units, of which number elementary or general culture studies comprise 69 units; 34 units are devoted to technical studies in practical economics, 12 units to studies in law, and 14 units to electives in a special field. The students have the use of the collection of the Pacific Commercial Museum. The college of commerce and administration of the University of Chicago has been cre¬ ated “ to provide professional training for the practical work of business in various branches.” The work of the college is on the same plane as that of the other undergraduate colleges of the university and leads to the Ph. B. degree. The work of the junior college (the first two years of the course) is the same for all students in the college. On entering the senior college the student will elect one of the four groups into which the work is divided, namely, (a) banking, (&) transportation, (c) trade and industry, (d) journalism. The James Millikin University at Decatur, Ill., offers a course in commerce and finance extending through four years of preparatory work and four years of college work leading COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. XCIII to the A. B. degree. The purpose is ^'to furnish a scientific training of college grade for that rapidly increasing class of prospective business men who realize the growing com¬ plexity and rapidly changing character of modern commercial life and the necessity for thorough preparation for it.” The commercial museum of the institution contains a con¬ siderable number of the materials of commerce. The University of Illinois has arranged courses of study to furnish training for (1) gen¬ eral business, (2) commerce and the consular service, (3) banking, (4) transportation, (5) insurance, (6) journalistic work. The courses extend through four years and lead to the A. B. degree. A considerable collection of commercial products, raw’ and finished, has been made in the various departments of the university and is used by students in the busi¬ ness courses. At various times, especially during the senior 3^ear, classes in the Imsiness courses are required to make visits of inspection to industrial and m.ercantile establish¬ ments. The commercial course of the Indiana University extends through four j’ears and leads to the A. B. degree. It includes fifteen hours of English (hour m.eaning one recitation per week during a university term), fifteen hours of mathematics, fifteen hours of science, thirty hours of language, sixtj’-two hours under the direction of the department of economics and social science, of which fort3^-eight hours must be in that department, twenty-eight hours of optional studies selected from groups of designated electives, and fifteen hours of free electives. In the school of political and social science of the University of Iowa there is a course in commerce and a course in government and administration, each extending through four years and leading to the A. B. degree. To provide practical instruction a commercial museum has been founded. The Universit3^ of Kansas has organized courses in business extending through four 3^ears and leading to the degree of A. B. The courses are (a) general business, (h) banking, (c) insurance, (d) journalism, and comprise elective studies open to all students. The first two 3’ears of the courses are the same as the other courses of the university leading to the A. B. degree, specialization beginning with the junior year. The University of Michigan has organized a course in commerce in the department of literature, science, and the arts. In the case of candidates for a degree enrollment in the course in commerce takes place at the beginning of the third 3’ear of residence in the uni¬ versity and may be continued either for two years, leading to the bachelor’s degree; or for three years, leading to the master’s degree. Undergraduates are expected to elect ten hours per semester and graduate students thirteen hours per semiester from the special or technical courses in commerce and industry. The Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance of Dartmiouth College comprises two 3’ear3 of work. The first 3’ear of the school requires for admission three 3mars of college work and is coordinate wdth the senior year of the college. On the completion of the work of the second 3’ear of the school the degree of master of commercial science is conferred. It is the purpose of the school to direct its work not only toward first giving the man a broad basis of business education, but more and more toward imposing upon this broad basis a training that will meet the demand for men in specific businesses. There is offered instruction of particular value in preparation for banleing, brokerage and investments, transportation, insurance, commerce, and journalism. The commercial museum contains exhibits of domestic industries, comprising samples of raw materials, partly finished and finished products and by-products, lantern slides, photographs, maps, charts, and other illustrative matter. New York University has a school of commerce, accounts, and finance, giving instruction in both day and evening classes. To obtain the degree of bachelor of commercial science requires an attendance of two years at the day sessions or of three j-ears at the evening sessions. Its courses of study are intended to lay the groundwork for successful careers in the following vocations: General business (manufacturing and mercantile), expert public accountant, banker, stock and bond broker, credit man, insurance, real estate business, XCIV EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. advertising manager, teacher in high schools and colleges of commerce, and consular service. There have been added recently five one-year special courses requiring an attendance of four evenings a week for the benefit of men engaged in business. These special courses are one each in accounting, banking, general business, real estate, and insuiance. The course in commerce and administration of the Ohio State University extends through four years and leads to the A. B. degree. The selection of studies is left largely to the student. The Wharton School of Finance and Comm.erce of the University of Pennsylvania offers several courses of study. The four-3^ear course leads to the B. S. degree. The work of the first two years of the course is largely prescribed, while that of the last two jmars is elective and is specialized along the lines selected by the student for his chosen career. The special two-year course in business practice and barJring consists of prescribed studies, and upon its completion a certificate of proficiency is granted. The evening school of accounts and finance was established in 1904, and the regular course offered in it extends through three years. The Universit^^ of Texas in its school of political science has arranged groups of studies in preparation for work in commerce, journalism, administration, diplomatic and consu¬ lar service. The groups are not open to freshmen nor to sophomores unless they are of high rank, and are intended to extend over two to three 3"ears of the student’s work. These groups maj^ be counted as regular work for the A. B. degree. The University of Vermont maintains a course in commerce and economics extending through four j^ears and leading to the A. B. degree, which aims to give training for business m general rather than for any particular business. The University of Wisconsin offers courses in comm.erce extending through four years and leading to the A. B. degree. Required studies comprise nearly all the work of the first two j^ears, and with the exception of elementar}^ economics and commercial geography consist of those which have long been considered as fundamental and necessary in a liberal educa¬ tion. The required work of the junior and senior years includes continuation courses in modern languages, money and banking, transportation, commercial law, and business administration. In addition, the student is required to select one of the elective groups and a certain number of free electives. The elective groups now available are in banking and finance, transportation, manufacturing industries, agricultural industries, and consular service. Others maj" be arranged on consultation with the director. In the following pages are given the topics under which instruction in commercial branches of study is given b}^ the several universities and colleges, including such instruction offered in the departments of economics of a number of institutions where no definite courses in commerce are announced. The general culture studies that are prescribed or that may be elected in the several courses are not included. Instruction in commercial branches hy universities and colleges {including higher institutions giving elementary and secondary instruction in commercial branches). Howard College, Birmingham, Ala. — Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial arithmetic. St. Bernard College, St. Bernard, Ala. — Bookkeeping, commercial law. Spring Hill College, Spring Hill, Ala. — Bookkeeping, stenography and typewriting. University of Arizona, Tucson, Bookkeeping, commercial law, business forms, stenography and typewriting. Ouachita College, Arkadelphia, Ark. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, business forms, stenography and typewriting. Arkansas Cumberland College, Clarksville, Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography and typewriting. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. — Commercial law, banking, transportation, tariff history and problems, industrial history of the United States, trusts, labor problem. Philander Smith College, Little Rock, Stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, commercial law. University of CaZz/ornfa.— Introduction to commercial geography, lectures on commerce, introduction to economics, economics of industry, materials of commerce, geography of international trade, Ameri¬ can agriculture, history of commerce, modem industrialism, theory and history of banking, practical banking, money, international exchanges, statistics, insurance, economic factors in American history, COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. XCV industrial and commercial development of the United States, labor, principles of accounting, invest¬ ment market, financial history of the United States, modenr industrial processes, mechanism and technic of trade, business forms and practice, economic position of the great powers, consular service, customs tariffs and regulations, modem colonial economics, communication and transportation, com¬ mercial resources of the Spanish-American countries, history and theory of prices, commerce of China and Japan, commercial law, elementary law and jurispmdence. St. Vincent’s College, Los Angeles, Cafi— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, commercial arith¬ metic, banking, commercial law. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Cafi— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. St. Mary’s College, Oakland, Uofi— Business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typewriting, business practice and office methods, stenography, commercial law, commercial geography, history of commerce, insur¬ ance, statistics, transportation, trade organization. Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal. — Bookkeeping, banking, stenography, typewriting, com¬ mercial geography; commercial law, finance. St. Ignatius College, San Francisco, Cal. — Bookkeeping, stenography. University of the Pacific, San Jose, Cofi— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, com¬ mercial geography, stenography, typewriting. Santa Clara College, Santa Clara, Cal. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, tjyewriting. Leland Stanford Junior University , Stanford University, Cal. — Banking, American transportation system, railway rates and finance, corporations and trusts, commerce of the Pacific, industrial history of England and United States, labor problem, communications, law of contracts. University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. — Money and banking, industrial history of the United States, economic and commercial geography, transportation. College of the Sacred Hear', Denver, CoZo.— Bookkeei)ing, commercial law', stenography, typewriting. University of Denver, University Park, Colo. — Commercial geography, history of commerce, American diplomacy in the Orient. Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn. — Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.— Lave of contracts, insurance, corporation economics, industrial history of the United States, commerce and commercial policy in the nineteenth century, railroads. Hovjard University, Washington, D. C. — Commercial law^ commercial geography, bookkeeping, ste¬ nography, typewriting, commercial history, transportation, insurance, production. St. John’s College, Washington, D. (7.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial geography, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. John B. Stetson University, De Land, UZa.— Bookkeeping, business arithmetic, commercial law', com¬ mercial geography, stenography, typewriting. St. Leo College, St. Leo, E’to.— Commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, stenography, commercial law', accounting. Rollins College, Winter Park, i^Zo.— Bookkeeping, banking, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typew'riting. North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega, Go.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, com¬ mercial law, commercial geography, commercial economics. University of Idaho, AIoscoio, /dafto.— Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial law'. St. Viateur’s College, Bourbonnais, III. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, business forms, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typew'riting. Carthage College, Carthage, 7d.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business forms, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. St. Ignatius College, Chicago, III. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, business forms, stenography, type¬ writing. University of Chicago.— YLiS,Xovj of commerce, commercial geogi’aphy, modern industries, organiza¬ tion of the retail market, economic geography of North America and Europe, insurance, mathematics of insurance, laws of insurance, accounting, modern business methods, commercial law, problems of American agriculture, organization of business enterprise, banking, commercial crises, raihvay trans¬ portation, statistics, contracts, bills, and notes. James Millikin University, Decatur, 7ZL— Commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, accounting and office practice, stenography, typewriting, materials of commerce, history of commerce, introduction to commerce, commercial geography, auditing, commercial organization and management, elementary law', foreign commerce of the United States, industries and resources of the United States, money and banking, commercial law, corporation finance, distribution and transportation, relation of science to business, administration of corporate and public industries, insurance, international law', and diplo¬ macy. Eureka College, Eureka, 7d.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, commercial law, business forms, banking. Northwestern University, Evanston, III. — Modern industrial and commercial historj', money and banking, commercial geography and international trado, financial and tariff history of the United States. Ewing College, Ewing, III. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, banking, com¬ mercial geography, stenography, typewriting. XCVI EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Greenville College, Greenville, 7ZZ.— Bookkeeping, commereial geography, commercial and elementary law, business practice, history of commerce, introduction to commerce, trust finance, transportation, banking, commercial credits, international law, stenography, typewriting. Northwestern College, Naperville, 7ZZ.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, busi¬ ness practice, business forms, stenography, typewriting. St. Bede College, Peru, III. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography- St. Francis Solanus College, Quincy, 7ZZ.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, tpyewriting. Augustana College', Rock Island, 7ZZ.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, t5^pewriting. University of Illinois, Urhana., 7ZZ.— Corporation management and finance, industrial consolidations, public control of trade and industry, railway management, railway systems, statistics, economics of insurance, corporation accounting, commercial geography, history of commerce, domestic commerce and commereial politics, foreign commerce and commercial politics, history of commercial policy of the United States, history of eommercial relations of the United States, domestic and foreign markets of the United States, consular and diplomatic service, seminary in railwmy administration, seminary in commerce, commercial law*, law' of contracts, insurance law, materials of commerce (agricultural, chemi¬ cal, geological, vegetable, zoological), commercial grading of grains. Westfield College, Westfield, 7ZZ.— Bookkeeping, business practice, eommercial law, stenography, type¬ writing. Wheaton College, Wheaton, III. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business prac¬ tice, stenography, tj'pewriting. Indiana University , Bloomington, Ind. — Principles of commerce, commercial geography, economic his¬ tory of England and United States, transportation, money, banking, money market, accounting and business practice, business organization and management, insurance, seminary in economics. St. Joseph’s College, Collcgeville, 77i(Z.— Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Moores Hill College, Moores Hill, 7??^.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, ste¬ nography, typewriting. University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame. Ind. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, ste¬ nography, typewriting. Taylor University, Upland, 772d.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, corporation accounting, banking, stenography, typewriting. Henry Kendall College, Muscogee, Ind. P.— Stenography, typewriting. Charles City College, Charles City, 7ou;a.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, business practice, commer¬ cial arithmetic, comniercial geography. Amity College, College Springs, 7oica.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, commerce, transportation, commercial arithmetic. Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, com¬ mercial law, business forms, stenography, typewriting. Upper Iowa University, Fayette, 7otca.— Bookkeeping, business practice, business arithmetic, commer¬ cial law, business forms, stenography, typewriting. Iowa College, Grinnell, 7oa’a.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law', stenography, typew'riting. Lenox College, Hopkinton, Iowa. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenogra¬ phy, typew'riting. Simpson College, Indianola, Iowa. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law', commerce, transportation, stenography, typew'riting. University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. — Industrial historj^, economic and commercial geography, resources of the United States, economics and commerce, currency and banking, corporation finance and theory of accounting, transportation, sta-tistics, consular service, commercial policies, taxation, insurance, materials of commerce, commercial law. Graceland College, Lamoni, Iowa. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business practice, commer¬ cial law, economics, stenography, typewriting. Palmer College, Le Grand, loiva. — Bookkeeping, commercial law', commercial arithmetic, business practice, banking, stenography, typew'riting. Iowa Wesleyan University, 7i7'oanZ PZm.soTjZ, 7oa’a.— Bookkeeping, eommercial arithmetic, commercial lav/, commercial geography, banking, insurance, real estate, wholesaling, commission and commercial exchange. Cornell College, Mount Vernon, 7o^ca.— Bookkeeping, business forms, business practice, commercial law, commercial geography, stenograxjhy, typewriting. Central University of Iowa, Pella, 7ozca.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, business practice, stenogra¬ phy, typewriting. M orning.ride College, Sioux City, 7ozra.— Bookkeeping, stenography, t5rpewriting. Buena Vista College, Storm Lake, 7oira.— Bookkeeping, banking, business practice, commercial law, stenography, typew'riting, business forms. Western College, Toledo, 7oica.— Bookkeeping, banking, business practice, business arithmetic com¬ mercial law, business forms, stenography, typev/riting. St. Benedict’s College, Atchison, A"ans.— Bookkeeping, commercial law'. COMMEKCIAL EDUCATION XCVII Baker University, Baldwin, Kans. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, commercial geography, banking, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. Emporia College, Emporia, Bookkeeping, banking, stenography, typewriting, commercial law, commercial geography, theory of insurance. Highland University, Highland, Autis.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenogi'aphy, typewriting. Campbell College, Holton, Aa«5.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, banking and commercial credits, history of commerce, commercial geography, business practice, stenography, typewriting. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. — Law of contracts, history of commerce, commercial geogra¬ phy, financial historj'- of United States, economic resources and activities of European countries, cor¬ porate finance, transportation, labor problems, accounting, social and economic statistics, banking, building materials, law of insurance and agency, insurance. Kansas Christian College, Lincoln, Aa«5.— Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial law, banking, typewriting. Bethany College, Lindsborg, Bookkeeping, banking, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. Ottawa University, Ottawa, Azores. —Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kans. — Bookkeeping, banking, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Kansas V/esleyan University, Salina, Kans. — Bookkeeping, business i^ractice, commercial law, com¬ mercial arithmetic, business forms, stenography, typewriting. Cooper College, Sterling, A'ans.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Friends University, Wichita, Kans. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business practice, stenography, typewriting. St. John's Lutheran College, Winfield, Anns.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithme¬ tic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Southwest Kansas College, Winfield, Kans. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Berea College, Berea, Ky. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geog¬ raphy, stenography. Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky. — Bookkeeping, banking, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Bethel College, Russellville, Ky. — Bookkeeping, business methods, stenography, typewriting. St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Ky. — Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Kentucky Wesleyan College, Winchester, At/.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La. — Commercial geography, bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting, sociology, economic factors and principles, banking, corporate economics, public finance, law of contracts, private corporations, civil law, American government. Jefferson College, Convent, La. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business forms, business prac¬ tice, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Centenary College, Jackson, Aa.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business forms, business practice, banking, accounting, railroading, Spanish, stenography, typewriting, inter¬ national law. College of the Immaculate Conception, New Orleans, Aa.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans, La. — ^Commercial geography, transportation. Rock Hill College, Ellicott City, if d.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. iff. St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Md. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Harvard University, Cambridge, if ass. — Statistics, transportation, banking, labor, economics of cor¬ porations, international trade, commercial crises and cycles of trade, principles of accounting, indus¬ trial relations, commercial law, economics of agriculture, insurance, corporation finance. Albion College, Albion, Mich. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, stenography, typeivriting, banking, and finance. Alma College, Alma, Jffc/i.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, accounting, banking, stenography, typewriting. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, JffcZi.— Political economy, social and industrial reforms, corpo¬ rations, principles of industry, resources and extractive industries of the United States, distributive industries of the United States, wholesale trade, commercial law, insurance, theory of annuities and insurance, development of industrial society, finance, transportation, banking, manufactures of the United States, retail trade, technic of foreign trade, business organization and accounting, mathe¬ matics of insurance and statistics, seminary in commerce. St. John's University, Collegeville, Jlfmw.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business forms, commercial geography, political economy, civil government. St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn. — Bookkeeping, commercial law. Macalester College, St. Paul, Minn. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. ED 1904 M — VIl XCVIII EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, iirmn.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithme¬ tic, commercial geography, business ethics, commercial law, stenography, typewriting, political econ¬ omy, history of commerce. Parker College, Winnebago, Jfww.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business forms, commer¬ cial law, commercial geography, stenography, typewriting. Rust University, Holly Springs, Jlffss.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, busi¬ ness forms. Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College, Westside, iifws.— Bookkeeping, commercial law. Southwest Baptist College, Bolivar, Mo. — Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Pike College, Bowling Green, Jfo.— Bookkeeping, business forms, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, business practice, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Missouri Wesleyan College, Cameron, Jlfo.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, banking, stenography, typewriting. Christian University, Canton, Mo. — Bookkeeping, business practice, banking, commercial law, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. University of Missouri, Columbia, Jfo.— Agricultural economics, economic geography of the United States, banking, tariff history of the United States, railway transportation, history of commerce, com¬ mercial law. Westminster College, Fulton, Mo. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. La Grange College, La Grange, Afo.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. William Jewell College, Liberty, Mo. — Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Christian Brothers College, St. Louis, Mo. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting, St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commer¬ cial geography, stenography, typewriting. Tarkio College, Tarkio, Afo.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, stenography, typewriting, business forms, corporation accounting and finance. Montana College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Bozeman, Mont. — Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, commercial arithmetic, commercial law. Bellevue College, Bellevue, Nebr. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, com¬ mercial law, stenography, typewriting. Cotner University, Bethany, Aebr.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenogra¬ phy, typewriting. Union College, College View, Aeftr.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Doane College, Crete, iVefcr.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Grand Island College, Grand Island, Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. Nebraska Wesleyan University, University Place, Aeftr.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, com¬ mercial law, stenography, typewriting York College, York, Ae&r.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, stenography, type¬ writing. Nevada State Umrerszfy.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Dartmouth College^ Hanover, N. if.— History and theory of money, credit, and banking, corporations, resources and industries of the United States, commercial history and policy, development of economic thought, theory and practice of accounts, public finance, transportation, labor, statistics, present day economic theory, commercial mathematics, modern east Asia, theory and practice of accounts and audit, cost systems, practical banking, domestic and foreign exchange, money markets and speculation, corporation finance and investments, investment values, foreign commerce of the United States, com¬ mercial geography of undeveloped countries, tropical American trade, mechanism of trade, relation of science to business (chemistry, biology, physics) , relation of the employer to labor, railroad service, rail¬ road operation and administration (from the accountant’s standpoint), economics of insurance, mathe¬ matics of insurance, practical workings of insurance, corporations and corporate administration, bank and railroad and steamship administration, business management, plant construction, commercial law, diplomacy. St. Anselm’s College, Manchester, N. H.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. St. Benedict’s College, Newark, N. J. — Bookkeeping, commercial law. Seton Hall College, South Orange, N. J.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N. Af ex.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Mesilla Park, N. Afex.— Bookkeeping, busi¬ ness forms, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. St. Bonaventure’s College, Allegany, N. Y. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. St. Francis College, Brooklyn, N. F.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. St. John’s College, Brooklyn, N. F.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, commercial law, history of commerce, stenography, typewriting. Columbia University, New York, N. Y. — Commerce and commercial policy, money and banking, taxa¬ tion and finance, iabor, trusts, fiscal and industrial history of the United States, railroads, practical economic problems. COMMEKCIAL EDUCATION. XCIX Manhattan College, New York, N. T— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business practice, com¬ mercial law, commercial geography, history of commerce, stenography, typewriting. New York University, New York,N. F.— Accounting practice, accounting procedure,theory and prac¬ tice of cost accounts, philosophy of accounts, auditing, accounting principles, accounting of executors and trustees, investment accounts, special accounts, political economy, practical economic problems, business organization and practice, commercial geography and history of commerce, commerce of the United States, domestic commerce and transportation, raw materials of industry, industrial values, industrial and commercial history of the United States, practical finance, practical banking, money and credit, theory and history of banking, foreign exchange and the money market, investment and specula¬ tion, panics and depressions, corporation and trust finance, financial history of the United States, law of contracts, agency and elementary law, sales and mortgages, partnerships and corporations, bills and notes, assignees and receivers, wills, administration and bankruptcy, insurance law and practice. Niagara University, Niagara University, N. F.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, type¬ writing. St. Mary’s College, Belmont, N. C. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Biddle University, Charlotte, N. (7.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Elon College, Elon College, N (7.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Lenoir College, Hickory, N. C.— Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. North Dakota^Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N. Bookkeeping, commercial arithme¬ tic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Fargo College, Fargo, N. Dak. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. University of North Dakota, University, N. Da/c.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Red River Valley University, Wahpeton, N. DaA:.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arith¬ metic, commercial law, commercial geography, stenography, typewriting. Mount Union College, Alliance, Ohio. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, busi¬ ness practice, stenography, typewriting, commercial geography. Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, com¬ mercial law, stenography, typewriting, money, and banking. Baldwin University, Berea, Ohio. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, history of commerce, stenography, typewriting. St. Xavier College, Cincinnati, 0/ifo.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. Ohio State University, Columbus, History of industrial society, industrial and financial history of the United States, transportation, economic geography, economic geography of the United States, distribution of products’, credit and banking, history and geography of commerce, theory and tech¬ nique of commerce, art of commerce, business laws and forms, corporation problems, St. Marys Institute, Dayton, Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. Defiance College, Defiance, 0/ifo.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, 0/ifo.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law^ stenography, typewriting. Findlay College, Findlay, Oftfo.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. Hiram College, Hiram, 0/jzo.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Marietta College, Marietta, 0/^^o.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. Franklin College, New Athens, Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. Scio College, Scio, 0/ifo.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business forms, ste¬ nography, typewriting. Heidelberg University, Tiffin, 0/mo.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, business practice, business forms, stenography, typewriting. Otterbein University, W esterville, 0/ito.— Bookkeeping, commercial law. stenography typewriting. West Lafayette College, W est Lafayette, 0/i?o.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business practice, stenography, typewriting. Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, 0/mo.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, history of bank¬ ing, finance, practical banking, commercial geography, commercial and industrial history, commercial law, commercial technology, international law, political economy, stenography, typewriting University of Wooster, Wooster, O/i/o.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, ste¬ nography, typewriting. University of Oklahoma, Norman, Ofc/a.— Economic history of England and the United States, money and banking, industrial combinations, labor problems, economic geograpny, transportation, business law, insurance, economic statistics, business administration. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, O/t/a.— Bookkeeping, commercial law business forms, stenography, typewriting. c EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, Albany College, Albany, Ore^.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, business practice, stenography, typewriting. Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Or eg. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Dallas College, Dallas, Oregf.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law. McMinnville College, McMinnville, Ore^.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business practice, political economy, business forms, stenography, typewriting. Philomath College, Philomath, Orcgf.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, commercial law, business practice, stenography, typewriting. St. Vincent College, Beatty, Pa.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, political economy. Grove City College, (?rot’e Pa.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business practice, commer¬ cial law, stenography, typewriting. Juniata College, Huntingdon, Pa.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, business practice, stenograph}^ typewriting. Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. — Raw materials of commerce (animal, vegetable, and mineral products), business forms, business practice, commercial geography, commercial arithmetic, bookkeep¬ ing, stenography, typewriting, history of commerce, transportation, banking and finance, ethics of business, commercial law. La Salle College, Philadelphia, Pa.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial geography, stenog¬ raphy, typewriting. Temple College, Philadelphia, Pa.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commer¬ cial geography, business forms, business ethics, political economy, stenography, typewriting. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.— Commercial and economic geography, American com¬ merce and commercial relations, commercial policy, transportation, railway rates and traffic, organi¬ zation of international commerce, stock and produce exchanges, tariff history of the United States, accounting, industrial processes, industrial management, marketing of products, business law, cost accounts, life insurance, fire, marine, and fidelity insurance, the law and practice of insurance, invest¬ ments, practical banking, money, credit, and foreign exchange, corporation finance, public finance, real estate. Holy Ghost College, Pittsburg, Pa.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business forms, business practice, commercial law, political economy, stenography, typewriting. Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa.— Bookkeeping, banking, stenography, typewriting, com¬ mercial law. Volant College, Volant, Pa. — Bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting. Brown University , Providence, R. I. — Money and banking, public finance, labor movement, industrial corporations, tariff, industrial history of England and United States, insurance. Presbyterian College of South Carolina, Clinton, S. U.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, com¬ mercial law. South Dakota Agricultural College, Brookings, S. Dak. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, commerce, economics, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. Huron College, Huron, S. PaA:.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, commercial arith¬ metic, stenography, typewriting. Dakota Wesleyan University, Mitchell, S. PaA:.— Bookkeeping, history of commerce, commercial geography, industrial history, business law, modern industries, modern business methods, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. South Dakota School of Mines, Rapid City, S. Pa A:. —Bookkeeping, commercial geography, commercial law, products and fabrics, stenography, typewriting. Redfield College, Redfield, S. Dak. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenogra¬ phy, typewriting. University of South Dakota, Vermilion, S. Pal-.— Bookkeeping, commercial and economic geography, business practice, transportation, commercial law, American commerce and commercial relations, economics of agriculture, corporation accounting, insurance, finance, corporations, banking. Carson and Newman College, . 7 elf erson City, Penn.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law- stenography, typewriting, banking. Christian Brothers College, Memphis, Penn.— Bookkeeping, industrial products, commercial geogra¬ phy, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. Milligan College, Milligan, Penn.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Sweetwater Military College, Sweetwater, Tenn. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial geogra¬ phy, stenography, typewriting. St. Edward’s College, Austin, Tex. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. University of Texas, Austin, Tex. — History of industry and commerce in the United States, money and banking, labor problems, monopolies and trusts, transportation, international trade, commercial geography, modern business methods, theory and method of statistics, elementary American law. Howard Payne College, Brownwood, Pea:.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Fort Worth University , Fort Worth, Tex. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business forms, business practice, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. COMMEECIAL EDCJCATIOIn. 01 Polytechnic College, Fort Worth, rea;.— Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial geography, business practice, stenography, typewriting. Burleson College, Greenville, Tea:.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, stenogra¬ phy, tjTpewriting, business forms. Texas Christian University, North Waco, Tex. — Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial arithme¬ tic, commercial law, stenography, tj’pewriting. Trinity University , Waxahachie, Tex. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, busi¬ ness practice, history of commerce, materials of commerce, banking, auditing, stenography, typewriting. Brigham Young College, Logan, Bookkeeping, banking, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commerce, transportation, stenography, typewriting. University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UtoTi.— Industrial history of Europe, economic history of Ameri¬ can colonies, American industry and commerce, industrial problems, corporation finance, American public finance, transportation, banking, business law. University of Vermont, Burlington, General economics and taxation, money, banking, foreign ex¬ change, railroad economics and corporation finance, economic history of the United States, economic history of Europe, industrial organization and resources of the United States and of the other leading countries, accounting, commercial mathematics, stenography, typewriting, commercial law. Bridgewater College, Bridgewater, Ua.— Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, busi¬ ness practice, commercial geography, stenography, typ)ewriting. Fredericksburg College, Fredericksburg, Va. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, type¬ writing. Hampden-Sidney College, Hampden Sidney, Va. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic. Roanoke College, Salem, Va. — Bookkeeping, business practice, banking, commercial arithmetic, com¬ mercial law, stenography, typewriting. Vashon College, Burton, Wash. — Bookkeeping, commercial geography, commercial law, business prac¬ tice, stenography, typewriting. State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, industrial history of England and United States, commercial arithmetic, commercial geography, stenography, typewriting. Gonzaga College, Spokane, Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Morris Harvey College, B arbour sville, W. Fa.^Bookkeeping, commercial geography, history of com¬ merce, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. Bethany College, Bethany, W. Va. — Bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, business forms, business practice, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. Wesleyan University of West Virginia, Buckhannon, W. Va. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, commer¬ cial geography, stenography, typewriting. West Virginia University , Morgantown, W. Va. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, commercial geogra¬ phy, history of commerce, stenography, typewriting. Lawrence University , Appleton, Wis. — Bookkeeping, commercial law, stenography, typewriting. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. — Public finance, money and banking, economic geography, business administration, commercial law, labor legislation, elements of agricultural economics, histor¬ ical and comparative agriculture, agricultural industries, manufacturing industries, social statistics, economic statistics, financial history of the United States, corporation finance and securities, transpor¬ tation and communication, special problems in transportation, foreign systems of railways, insurance. Marquette College, Milwaukee, lUfs.— Bookkeeping, business practice, commercial law, commercial arithmetic, stenography, typewriting. University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. — Bookkeeping, commercial geography, commercial law, stenography, tj^ewriting. STATE LAWS RELATING TO HUMANE EDUCATION. CALIFORNIA. Statutory School Studies. — Sec. 1665. Instruction must be given in the following branches in the several grades in which they maybe required, viz: * * * humane education: Promded, That instruction in * * * humane education * * * may be oral, no text-books on these subjects being required to be purchased by the pupils: Provided further, That county boards of education may, in districts having less than 100 census children, confine the pupils to the studies * * * [humane education not in the list] until they have a practical knowledge of these subjects. — School Law of California, 1903, p. 38. COLORADO. Sec. 78. * * * School boards shall * * * cause to be given in each school week two lessons of not less than ten minutes’ duration each on the subject of humane treatment to animals. — Colorado School Laic, 1903, p. 63. SUGGESTIONS OF STATE SUPT. HELEN L. GRENFELL REGARDING HUMANE EDUCATION. * * * In order to make this line of instruction effective, it is necessary that a teacher should seize every opportunity to inculcate humane lessons, and there is a never-ceasing opportunity through the every-day life of the child and the teacher. Abstract lessons are ineffective for the young in all ethical lines, and the teacher should therefore lead the child to observe and report his own experi¬ ences, and should, in return, through interesting stories of conditions actually existing, illustrative of cruelty through ignorance as well as maliciousness, train him to a thorough appreciation of his duty toward animals. * * * The underlying principle in connection with this work is not that we are trying to pre¬ vent, simply, the suffering of animals, but the moral degradation of the person who causes the suffering. The work of humane education may be correlated with the usual school studies. It naturally is joined with work in literature, reading, nature study, language, and ethics. While this entire line of work is one in which the originality of the teacher may especially be shown, so far as methods and accomplishments are concerned, the following suggestions are made: Have pupils recite memory gems or read poems by standard authors touching upon the subject. Nearly every great author offers examples. * * * The teacher may read Black Beauty, Beautiful Joe, or similar stories to the school, or from especial publications in this line. * * * Through nature study an excellent opportunity is given to teach habits of kindness to animals, and the teacher should lead the child to observe, write about, and talk about common animals, to notice their habits, and to learn to care for them properly. * * * In connection with art, instructive pictures of animals by standard artists may be shown, and will invariably interest the child. Those of Rosa Bonheur and Landseer are among the many. If mothers’ meetings are held in the district the subject should be brought up for discussion, and the cooperation of those attending should be secured, since Lhe home sympathy and influence is most important in the work. Some person of prominence may be invited to address the pupils on the humane treatment of animals, in connection with some special programme, or as a distinct lecture. * * * MAINE. * * * And it also shall be the duty of all teachers in the public schools of this State to devote not less than ten minutes of each week of the school term to teaching to the children under their charge the principles of kindness to birds and animals. — School Laics of Maine, 1901, Sec. 97. CII EDUCATION BEPORT, 1904. cm MONTANA. Sec. 1861. All common schools shall be taught in the English language; and instructions shall be given in the following branches, viz: * * * Also a system of humane treatment of animals as embodied in the laAVS of Montana. Such instruc¬ tion to consist of at least two (2) lessons of not less than ten minutes each per week. The principal or teacher in every school shall certify in each of his or her reports that such instruction has been given in the school under his or her control. — Political Code, Art. 8, Chap. 6, as amended in 1903. OKLAHOMA. AN ACT to provide for moral and humane education in the public schools of the Territory of Oklahoma. Be it enacted hy the legislative assembly of the Territory of Oklahoma. Section 1. That in each and every public school within the Territory of Oklahoma it shall be the duty of each and every teacher to teach morality in the broadest mean¬ ing of the word, for the purpose of elevating and refining the character of school children up to the highest plane of life; that they may know how to conduct them¬ selves as social beings in relation to' each other, as respects right and wrong and recti¬ tude of life, and thereby lessen wrong-doing and crime. Section 2. That in each and every public school within the Territory of Oklahoma, in addition to the other branches of study now prescribed, not less than one-half hour of each Tveek, during the whole of each term of school, shall be devoted to teaching the school children attending said school kindness to and humane treatment and protection of dumb animals and birds; their lives, habits, and usefulness, and the important part they are intended to fulfill in the economy of nature, and such studies on the subject as the Board of Public Education may adopt. Section 3. That no experiments upon any living creature shall be permitted in any public school within the Territory of Oklahoma. Section 4. That it shall be the duty of the superintendent of public instruction for the Territory of Oklahoma, the superintendent of public instruction of each county, the superintendent of public schools of each city, and the principal of each and every public school in said Territory, to see that the provisions of sections one, two, and three of this act are strictly complied with in the public schools under his supervision. Section 5. That no teacher in the public schools of the Territory of Oklahoma shall be entitled to receive any portion of the public school moneys as compensation for services unless such teacher shall have complied with the provisions of this act. Section 6. All acts or parts of acts in conflict herewith are hereby repealed. Section 7. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and approval. Approved, March 4, 1905. PENNSYLVANIA. AN ACT To provide a system of humane education, to include kind treatment of birds and animals, in our public schools. Section 1. Be it enacted, &c.. That a system of humane education, which shall include kind treatment of birds and animals, shall be included in the branches of study now required by law to be taught in the common schools; such instruction to be given to all pupils, up to and including the fourth grade, of the public schools of the Commonwealth, and to consist of not more than half an hour each week during the whole term of the school. Section 2. That no experiment upon any living creature, to demonstrate in physi¬ ology, shall be permitted in any public school of the State. CIV STATE LAWS EELATIKG TO HUMANE EDUCATION. Section 3. The principal or teacher in every school shall certify, in each of his or her monthly reports to the school board, that such instruction has been given in the school under his or her control. Section 4. This act shall take effect immediately. Appeoved — The 27th day of March, A. D. 1905. SOUTH DAKOTA. AN ACT Pertaining to the humane treatment of animals. Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of South Dakota: Section 1. That there shall be taught in the public schools of this State, in addi¬ tion to other branches of study now prescribed, a system of humane treatment of animals. Section 2. Each school supported wholly or in part by the public funds of this State, or of any county or city in this State, shall instruct all scholars in the laws of this State, as embodied in the penal code or other laws pertaining to the humane treatment of animals, and such studies on the subject as the board of education may adopt, such instruction to consist of not less than two lessons of ten minutes each during each week of the school year. And no experiment upon live animals to demonstrate facts in physiology shall be permitted in any school in this State. Section 3. This act shall take effect and be in force immediately after its passage. TEXAS. Section 100. * * * Suitable instruction shall be given in the primary grades [of all public schools] once each week regarding kindness to animals of the brute creation and the protection of birds and their nests and eggs. — General Laws of Texas, 1905, Chap. 124. WASHINGTON. Sec. 65. * * * Attention must be given during the entire course to the cultiva¬ tion of manners, to the laws of health, physical exercise, ventilation, and temperature of the schoolroom, and not less than ten minutes each week must be devoted to the systematic teaching of kindness to not only our domestic animals, but to all living creatures. — School Laws of Washington, 1901, p. 48. WYOMING. AN ACT providing that a system of humane treatment of animals shall be taught in the public schools of Wyoming. Be it encated by the legislature of the State of Wyoming: Section 1. That there shall be taught in the public schools of Wyoming, in addi¬ tion to the other branches of study now prescribed, a system of humane treatment of animals, as embodied in the laws of Wyoming; such instruction to consist of not less than two lessons of ten minutes each per week. The principal or teacher of every school shall certify in his or her reports that such instruction has been given in the school under his or her control. Section 2. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. [Approved February 6, 1901.] CHAPTER 1. EDUCATION IN CANADA, AUSTRALIA, AND NEW ZEALAND. CANADA. Dominion of Canada, comprising seven provinces, Vvdtli an extent of 3,G53,94G square miles and a population estimated at 5,371,051 in 1901. TREVIOUS ARTICLES ON EDUCATION IN CANADA IN THE COMMISSIONER'S REPORTS. “ Education in Ontario,” Report 1892-9.1, Yol. 1, Chapter VI ; “ Notes on education at the Columhian Exposition,” ibid.. Chapter X, pages 1213-121.5 ; Manitoba school question,” Report 1894-95, Yol. 1, Chapter YII. ” Current and historical survey of the systems of education in the several provinces,’* Report 1897-98, Yol. 1, Chapter lY. ” Education in Canada : Outline of the public systems of education witli current statis¬ tics ; Industrial and technical education; Historic foundations of the Ontario sys¬ tem,” Report 1898-99, Yol. 2, Chapter XXIX. “ Education in Canada : Detailed accounts of the systems of education in the several provinces, with comparative statistics ; Table of higher institutions,” Report 1902, Yol. 1, Chapter YIII. TOPICAL OUTLINE. Outline of the Canadian systems of public instruction. Current statistics. Teachers' salaries. Statistics of colleges and universities. By the British North American act of 18G7 the right to legislate on matters respecting education vims left to the governments of the four provinces (Onta¬ rio, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick), which were then united under the general name of Dominion of Canada. The same right has bemi assured also to the provinces that have since entered the confederation (Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, British Columbia, Northwest Territories). Prior, however, to the federation of the provinces, education had become a matter of general interest. Ontario, “ the core of the confederation,” had at the time of its adoption a well-organized system of public schools. Quebec had brought its parochial schools under public supervision and the smaller maritime provinces had proved their interest in the cause both by legislation and liy grants for schools from public funds. From the beginning two forces were at work directing the educational activ¬ ities of the people. Both the English and French settlors had brought with them traditional respect for parochial schools and for ecclesiastical control of ED 1904 M - 1 1 2 EDUCATIOI^ EEPOET, 1904. education ; but the English settlers were also deeply imbued with those ideas that were making for the supremacy of civil authorities in all secular affairs, and the conditions of the new country favored the growth of this tendency. The first system of public education organized in the provinces, that of Ontario, was distinctively a system under public or government control, and as such has been the model followed more or less closely by all the other provinces excepting Quebec. The Ontario school lave of 1843, the basis of the system, embodied features drawn from the school systems of New England and New York, but it differed from these especially by the larger provision for centralized control. The minister of public instruction in Ontario is more than the executive head of the system. xVs a member of the legislature he initiates and largely directs school legislation, while his judicial functions and powers of appoint¬ ment give great weight to the policies he advocates. No other province has reposed equal authority in the chief ofhcer of education, but ail have sought to secure uniformity of school provision and educational standards by means of centralized government control. In Quebec the schools are sectarian ; that is, they are distinctively either Eoman Catholic or Protestant schools. The former are under ecclesiastical control, which for this purpose is organized in accordance with the provisions of the school laws ; the Protestant schools are in like manner under Protestant control. In Ontario and the Northwest Territories provision is made for separate schools for Protestants and for Catholics, where desired, and the sup¬ porters of these separate schools are exempt from the payment of local taxes for the support of the public schools. The separate schools are under govern¬ ment inspection and in general are under the same regulations as the public schools. The public elementary schools are free schools, excepting in Quebec, where fees are charged which may not exceed 50 cents a month nor be less than 5 cents a month. In the model schools and academies of this province, which corre¬ spond to the grammar and high schools of our own States, the fees may be higher.® In the high schools of Ontario fees are charged, but may be and often are remitted at the discretion of the school authorities. With these exceptions the public schools of the several provinces are free, tiieir support being derived from provincial grants and local (municipal) appropriations and school taxes. The mode of apportioning the legislative grant among the school districts differs in the different provinces, but in all there is apparent the purpose to make the provincial, appropriation a means of stimulating rather than of lessen¬ ing local effort in behalf of the schools. In Ontario the legislative grant is apportioned to the schools on the basis of average attendance in each, respectively. In Quebec the legislative grant is a The following extract from a letter from the department of public instruction, Quebec (dated June 30, 1004) throws light upon certain peculiarities of school classifi¬ cation and administration in that province : The terms “model school” and “academy,” as used in this province, are likely to I>e misleading to strangers, and there is now a proposal to change our nomenclature so as to remove the difficulties which now exist in this direction. Our public schools are “elementary,” covering the first four years' work; “model,” covering the fifth, sixth, and seventh years, and “ academy,” coh ering the eighth, ninth, and tenth years. The work is continuous, so that the last year of one grade qualifies for the first ye‘ar of the next. Inasmuch as many school municipalities defray the expenses of schools of all grades from a general fund, it is impossible to know exactly the total cost of ele¬ mentary education as distinguished from secondary education. Our clerk of statistics reports that the elementary schools receive approximately 90 per cent of the total contributions for school purposes On 1903 reported to he $3,471,989), and that the secondary schools receive the remaining 10 per cent. EDUCATIO^T m CANADA. 8 apportioned to the several school iiiiuiicipalities (areas for local school admin¬ istration) in proportion to their respective populations upon proof that they have complied with the law as to the maintenance of schools and the qualifica¬ tions and remuneration of teachers. Special arrangements are made in the case of very poor municipalities. In Nova Scotia the legislative grant for public schools is a fixed sum (."^190,000 annually), divided between the legally qualified teachers in conjoined proportion to the number of “ authorized days taught ” and to the class of license held by the teacher. In ^Manitoba each municipality « is required to appropriate a specified amount ($20 for each teacher employed for each month the school is kept ofien) in addition to a variable amount, depending upon the current expenditure for the schools. The need of some regulation proportioning the provincial grant to the amount raised locally is recognized in New Brunswick, where many districts seem con¬ tent to leave their schools to the meager provision from the legislative gTant, although fully able to bear a part in their financial support. In all the provinces the public school systems include secondary schools cor¬ responding to the high schools of our own country. These high schools have generally an extended curriculum and prejiare students for matriculation in the universities. The history of higher education, in the older Canadian provinces antedates that of public provision for elementary schools. As early as 1708 an appro¬ priation of 500,000 acres of land was made for the establishment of a univer¬ sity and grammar or preparatory schools in Toronto, but the charter for the university was not secured until 1827. Laval Uni’s'ersity was founded by the Semi¬ nary of Quebec (ecclesiastical organization) in 1852 and secured a royal charter the same year. The influence of these and of kindred institutions may be traced throughout the subsequent history of education in the Dominion. They have aided mate¬ rially in maintaining a high standard of secondary education. The high schools of Ontario prepare students for the matriculation examination at the university, and the precedent thus set has been followed in the other provinces. Everywhere the disposition is manifest to keep an open road from the public schools to the universities and to do away entirely with class distinctions in education. The following tables present in summaries the principal statistics of the public schools in the several provinces. For convenience of reference the educational statistics are preceded by a table of populations in which the population is classified as Roman Catholic and Protestant, a distinction of much importance on account of .its bearing upon the provision for separate schools, as already explained. ® For purposes of civil administration a municipal organization is adopted in Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia. This organization comprises: “ (a) The townships, being rural districts of an area of 8 or 10 square miles; (b) villages with a population of over 750 ; (c) towns with a population of over 2,000 ; such of these as are comprised within a large district, called a county, constitute (d) the county municipality ; (c) cities are established from the growth of tov.’us when their population exceeds 15,000.’’ (Can¬ ada Statistical Yearbook.) 4 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. Population of Dominion of Canada, 1901. Provinces. Roman Catho¬ lics. Other denomi¬ nations. Grand total. Ages for school attend¬ ance. Com¬ pul¬ sory school ages. Age and number of reg¬ istered pupils. School popu¬ lation. Under 5 years. 5 to 21 years. Above 21 years. Ontario . 390, a55 1,429,186 129, .578 125, 698 35,622 34,227 45, 796 30,089 8,446 1,792,592 219,712 329,996 205,422 219,325 144, 430 57, 463 128,851 44,263 2,182,947 1,648,898 459,574 331, 120 254,947 178, 657 103,259 158,940 52, 709 5 to 21 5 to 16 5 to 15 5 to 15 5 to 21 5 to 16 «8tol4 1,111 461,258 b308,870 d 88, 430 rf56,485 50,265 125 c6,011 e7,845 e 3, 748 105 580,105 379,005 Quebec . Nova Scotia . 7 to 12 2,ia5 187 90 New Brunswick... Manitoba . . . 63,881 British Columbia. _ Prince Edward Island . . 7 to 12 8 to 13 7 to 12 (/) Northwest Terri¬ tories . 5 to 18 ! Unorganized Ter- tories . . 1 Canada . 2,228,997 3,142,054 5,371,051 1 i i a Full-term law of 1801. c Above 16 years. e Above 15 years. lo to 10 years. do to 15 years. t IQ weeks in each year — S consecutive. Enrollment in public schools, elenientamj and high. Provinces. Date of school statis¬ tics. Public schools (chiefly elementary). Enrollment. Average attend¬ ance. Male. Female, j Total. Total. Ratio to enroll¬ ment. Ontario . . . Quebec . . Nova Scotia.. . . . . New Brunswick . 1902 1902-3 1902-3 1903 1903 1902-3 1903 1903 1 (4( t 232,880 ■ 158,987 49, 789 iG) 221,208 167, 196 48,979 1 454,554 326,183 98, 768 65,927 57,409 24,499 19,956 33,191 261, 727 243,123 55,213 34,873 36,479 16,357 12,112 57. 5 74 56 53.04 63.54 66.7 60. 69 Manitoba . . . British Columbia .. . . . Prince Edward Island. . Northwest Territories . 12,559 10,845 11,940 9,111 1 Expenditures for public schools. Provinces. Year. Teachers’ salaries. Sites, build- i n g s , a n d furnishings. Care of school- houses. a * © a: Si o © p, 73 O Ontario . . 1902 $3,198,132 ($1,54C 1,305) 1 $86, 723 Qncbfic Nova Scotia New Brunswick . 1903 1903 1902-3 1903 1903 Manitoba . 697,996 214, 481 $128, ,310 British Columbia Prince Edward Island _ Northwest Territories _ 120, 875 10, 771 2, 142 22,829 i 1 C 0-1 $4,825,160 3,414, 061 936, 458 629,991 1,. 509, 276 604,357 166, 617 $10. 61 $2. 21 10. 31 1. 9.48 ^ 2. 9.55 : 1. 24.66 3.38 8.34 1.61 213, 764 EDUCATION IN CANADA. 5 Income — Sources and amounts. Provinces. Year. Legisla¬ tive grant. Municipal appropria¬ tions. Other local soui-ces. Total. Ontario . Quebec . . 1902 1902 1902-3 1903 1903 1902-3 1903 $383,666 180,088 263,092 192, 7a5 191,991 473,802 123, 919 $3,959,912 1,835,113 121,016 (469, 796,065 130,555 f42. $1,422,924 1, 398, 860 552,350 165) $5,766,502 3,414,061 936, 458 661 , 9(H1 1,588,954 604, a57 166,617 Nova Scotia . New Brunswick . . . Manitoba . . . British Columbia I . Prince Edward. Island . 698 ) Northwest Territories . Teachers and salaries. Provinces. Number of teachers. Percentage o f m a 1 e teachers. Average annual salaries of teachers. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Ontario . ... ... Quebec . . Nova Scotia . . N e w Brunswick _ Manitoba . 2, 294 '( ( \ 1,319 441 363 7,073 9,2,25 2,053 1,495 9,367 |l0,552 2, 494 1,815 2,094 607 572 1, 152 24.49 12.5 17.68 20 $436. 00 « 238. 00 to 1,168. 00 a 188. 00 to 809. 00 a 199. 77 to 522.86 $313. 00 a 113. 00 to 391. 00 a 167. 00 to 457. 00 a 186. 30 to 328.81 British Columbia _ Prince Edward Island.... Northwest Territories ... 274 298 1 47.9 (3:i8.00) fl 187. 87 to 325. 80 I a 144. 29 to 196. 28 1 " 1 a The average salarj^ in these cases is given in the olScial reports for each class or grade of teachers ; the amounts tabulated are the highest and lowest averages given. For full details see pp. 6, 7. By reason of a clerical error the averages given for New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island in the Report of the Commissioner for 1902, page 426, are incorrect. teachers’ salaries. The financial status of the teachers of public elementary schools is just now exciting great attention throughout our country. The moment is therefore opportune for considering the salaries paid in other countries, particularly in those most like our own in their regard for education. The statements which follow in respect to salaries in Canada are taken from the official reports of the several provinces. Ontario. — The following table shows the present rates of teachers' salaries in Ontario in comparison with the same at stated intervals for a period of thirty years; Tea eh crs’ sola ri cs. Average salary. Highest Year. saiary In province. In counties, etc. In cities. In towns. paid. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. 1867 . $1,350 $346 $226 $261 $189 $532 $243 $464 $240 1872 . 1,000 360 228 305 213 628 245 507 216 1877 . 1,100 398 264 379 251 7a5 307 583 269 1882 . 1,100 415 269 385 248 742 331 576 273 1887 . 1,450 425 292 398 271 832 382 619 289 1892 . 1,500 421 297 383 269 894 402 648 298 1897 . . 1,.550 391 294 347 254 892 425 621 306 1901 . 1,.550 421 306 3.59 262 915 470 649 315 1902 . 1,600 436 313 372 271 935 479 667 317 6 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. With respect to the foregoing presentation, the minister of education observes that while the average salaries for teachers in the province are higher for both men and women than at any previous period and while the salaries in the cities and towns are considerably higher, the salaries in the counties, etc., or rural and village sections, are not as high as formerly. When these salarie-s are considered in connection with the increased cost of living and of obtaining the necessary qualifications, it will be seen that they are still very low. [Report of the Minister of Education, 1903, p. ix.] Quchcc. — According to the report of the superintendent of public instruc¬ tion for 1902-3 the average salaries of teachers in the elementary schools are a.s follows: Roman Catholic elementary schools : Average salary of male lay teachers with diplomas — In towns _ $.340 In the country _ 2.38 Average salary of female lay teachers with diplomas — In towns _ .$158 In the country _ 3 _ 113 Protestant elementary schools : Average salary of male lay teachers with diplomas — In towns _ 1, 108 In the country _ 415 Average salary of female lay teachers with diplomas— In towns - ^ _ 309 In the country _ 153 Roman Catholic model schools and academies : Average salary of male lay teachers with diplomas — In towns _ 002 In the country _ ^ _ 345 Average salary of female lay teachers with diplomas — • In towns _ 104 In the country _ : _ 138 Protestant model schools aud academies : xVverage salary of male lay teachers with diplomas — In towns _ 1, 054 In the country _ 027 Average salary of female lay teachers with di[>lomas — In towns _ 391 In the country _ 255 [Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1902-3, tables, pp. x, xi, xii.l V EDUCATION IN CANADA. 7 'Nova Scotia. — The teachers of public schools in Nova Scotia are divided into four classes, according to the grade of license held. The average salaries and the percentage of teachers in each class are shown in the following table ; Per cent of total teachers in each class. Average salaries. Class. Men. Women. A . . - . Per cent. $809 438 $4.57 393 B . . . - _ _ _ - . . fO C _ _ - . - . - . - . 37 3.53 330 D . . . 38 188 167 The superintendent of education states that male teachers are now only about one-fifth of the whole number, the female teachers numbering 2,053 to 441 male teachers. The teachers of Class A form no more than 5 per cent of the teachers of the province. However, 71 of these are male and only 24 female. All these are engaged as a rule in high school work, either in the acad¬ emies or other high schools, and a few in the superior common schools. [Report of the Superintendent of Education, 1903, tables, pp. xv and xvi, also p. xxii.l Nciv Bniusivicli. — The following tabulation shows the average annual salaries of teachers for the year 1903 : Common schools. Class of teachers. Average salaries. Men. Women. First. . $522. 86 291. 22 199. 77 $328. 21 337.34 188. 30 Second . . . . . . . . . . .. . . Tliird _ _ _ _ _ In the superior schools (common schools with advanced classes )_ the average salary was $570 .96 and in the grammar schools (county high schools) salaries ranged from $600 to $2,400. [Report of the Chief Superintendent of Education, 1903, Table YHI, p. A 23, and Table XIII, p. A 35.1 British ColumTjia. — The report of the superintendent of education for 1902-3 contains a complete list of teachers and salaries, from which it appears that the range of salaries in the schools belov/ the high school grade is from $40 to $105 a month. Only one salary is given at the latter figure, and only a small proportion of salaries fall as low as $40. The usual salary is $50, $55, or $60 a month. In the high schools the salaries for principals range from $100 to $140 a month, and for assistants from $50 to $90. [Report 1902-3, pp. xlvi-lx.] Prince Edicarcl Island. — Tlie classification and average salaries for teachers in Prince Edward Island for 1903 were as follows : Class of teachers. Men . Women. First.. . $.325. 80 $196. 28 188. 36 Second . 2.36. 43 Third . . . . . . . 187. 87 144.29 [Estimated from Table XYIII, Report of the Chief Superintendent of Education, 1903.] 8 EDUCATIOiq- REPORT, 1904. The higher educational institutions of Canada.a Name. Universities. University of King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia _ _ _ _ University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick . . McGill University, Montreal, Quebec.. . Dalhousie College and University, Halifax, Nova Scotia . . . . University of Toronto and University College .. University of Acadia College, Wolfville, Nova Scotia _ University of Queen’s College, Kingston, Ontario. University of Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, Quebec _ _ _ _ _ _ University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario c _ University of Trinity College, Toronto.. . . Laval University, Quebec and Montreal . University of Mount Allison College, New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . University of Manitoba, Winnipeg . Victoria University, Toronto, Ontario . . McMaster University, Toronto, Ontario _ University of St. Joseph’s College, St. Joseph, N e w Brunswick . . . . Colleges. St. Michael’s College, Toronto, Ontario . j St. Francis-Xavier College, Antigonish, Nova Scotia e^. . . . . . . . Knox College, Toronto, Ontario _ _ _ Assumption College, Sandwich, Ontario . . Presbyterian College, Montreal, Quebec _ Presbyterian College, Halifax, Nova Scotia _ Wesleyan College. Montreal . . . Wesley College, Winnipeg, Manitoba _ _ St. John’s College, Winnipeg, Manitoba _ St. Boniface College, Winnipeg, Manitoba _ Woodstock College, Woodstock, Ontario _ Wycliffe College, Toronto, Ontario _ _ Albert College, Belleville, Ontario _ _ Stanstead Wesleyan College, Stanstead, Quebec. St. Francis College, Richmond, Quebec _ St. Anne College, Church Point, Nova Scotia _ Halifax Ladies’ College and Conservatory of Music, Halifax, Nova Scotia _ Church School for Girls, Windsor, Nova Scotia . Acadia Seminary, Wolfville, Nova Scotia _ St. Jerome’s, Berlin, Ontario . . . Montreal Diocesan Theological College _ Havergal College, Toronto.. . . . Ridley College, St. Catharines . . . . . . Bishop Bethune College, Oshawa _ _ Alma College, St. Thomas _ _ _ Upper Canada College. Deer Park . . St. Andrew’s College, Toronto _ _ _ Congregational College, Montreal. . . Huron College (Divinity), London _ Manitoba College, Winnipeg . . . Prince of Wales College, Charlottetown . . Date of foun¬ dation. Endow¬ ment. Value of property owned. Income. Approxi¬ mate number of students. 1790 $140,000 $250,000 $8,500 25 1800 b 8, 964 134 18.21 2,074,504 1,874,937 346,448 1,100 1818 420,000 100,000 2,800 350 1827 3, 700, 000 2,922,250 200,000 2,125 1838 241,970 130,000 18,528 113 1841 500,000 200,000 54,000 875 1843 192,918 1.54,, 200 16,388 40 1848 300, 000 50, 000 500 18.52 490,000 380,000 31, .500 140 1852 None. 180,000 None. ell, 304 1862 i 120,000 1.50,000 15,000 125 1877 / 150, 000 70, 000 368 1836 487, 455 4()4,740 44,013 335 1887 900,000 2.50,000 75,000 ‘ 200 1864 80,000 25,000 200 1852 None. 175,000 225 18.53 50,000 125,000 15,000 175 1844 300,000 200,000 19,(X)0 75 1854 110,000 25,(X)0 175 1867 278,000 160,000 22,(X10 50 1820 165, 0(K) 60,000 13,000 25 1873 110,000 60, OCX) 8,(XI0 43 1888 75, 000 150,000 23,000 200 1866 186, 000 100,000 12,000 50 1818 130,000 15,(X)0 190 18.58 200,000 100,000 24,000 135 1877 100,000 80,000 11,000 44 18.54 90,000 25,000 325 1872 31,000 99, 400 17, .500 300 1854 15,000 2,9(K) 3,000 110 1890 10,000 50,000 100 1887 75,000 30,000 450 1891 71, OH) 24,000 83 1879 50,000 20,000 200 1885 None. 40, 000 6,000 92 1873 1.50, 000 105,000 10, 000 30 1894 103,000 56,fX)0 290 1889 75, 000 25, 000 100 1889 1. . . 15,000 11,000 45 1881 100, 0(X) 18,000 180 1829 1 400,000 63,000 285 1899 j.... 25,000 30, 000 2.50 1839 115, (KIO 3;5,aX) 10,000 14 1863 .55, 000 45,000 .5,000 18 1871 120,000 100,000 26, OCX) 200 1860 160 « From statistical yearbook of Canada, 1903. Government grant. ^ Buildings destroyed by fire December 2, 1003. ^ Quebec Seminary, an ecclesiastical organization, defrays all expenses. « The Quebec branch has 42.1 students ; the remainder are connected with the Montreal branch. f Acres of land. No statement received from the authorities. EDUCATION IN CANADA 9 The higher edueational institid ions of Canada — Coiitiiiiiod. Name. Q Classical colleges — Quebec. (<■ Cliicoiitimi . Joliette . . . . L’Assompliou . . L6vis _ _ Montreal: Loyola . St. Mary’s _ St. Snip ice . . Niqolet - Quebec (Seminary) _ Rigaud. _ _ Rimouski _ Ste. Anne de la Pocatiere Saint Hyacintbe _ St. Laurent _ _ St. Marie de Monnoir _ Ste. Therese . Sherbrooke . . . Three Rivers .., _ Valleyfleld . 1873 1846 1833 1853 1896 1848 1767 1803 1665 1850 1862 1829 1809 1847 1853 1825 1875 1860 1893 Ladies' colleges, c Wesleyan Ladies’ College, Hamilton, Ontario ... Ontario Ladies’ College, Whitby, Ontario . . Alma Ladies’ College, St. Thomas, Ontario . . Mount Allison Ladies’ College, Sackville, New Brunswick. . . . . . . . Ottawa Ladies’ College, Ottawa, Ontario . St. Margaret’s College, Toronto . Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Toronto. . . Mount St. Bernard, Antigonish, Nova Scotia _ 1860 1874 1881 1854 1872 1897 1889 1883 Academy. Mount Allison, Sackville, New Brunswick 1843 Agricultural colleges, etc. Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario.. Provincial School of Agriculture, Truro, Nova Scotia . . . . . . . School of Practical Science, Toronto, Ontario... School of Agriculture, L’Assomption, Quebec.. . School of Ste. Anne de la Pocatiere, Quebec _ 1874 1885 1878 1859 Endow¬ ment. Value of property owned. $83, .500 1.50,000 145,000 271,100 ^ $95, 000 ?)163,0(K) M4.5,0(K) h 276, 000 108,600 MOO, 000 445,000 445, 000 266, 000 326, 000 87, .500 58,500 180,000 180,000 200,000 68, .500 101,670 220,000 98,. 500 123,864 f>97,600 b 62, .500 ?>212,0(X) M80,000 200, 000 b 76, 000 102, 270 & 226, 000 ?M63,(K)0 & 126, 500 80,00) 132,529 100,000 121,000 .50,000 30, (MM) 40,000 40,00)0 32,000 340,900 Income. Approxi¬ mate number of students. 173 3:i8 288 592 184 286 465 318 5.88 306 136 367 324 513 .227 324 247 292 256 $17,000 144 28,023 170 18, (MX) 160 15, .500 40, 000 11, 000 195 146 150 no 100 89 fn8,.584 rf 1,967 39,794 4, .500 4,000 135 48 403 24 12 "The classical colleges in Quebec are a combination of school and college, attended by both boys and young men. They confer certain degrees, and are mostly affiliated with Laval University. It not being possible to separate them, the pupils in these colleges are counted twice over, viz, in this table and in the one in the preceding table. Includes value of furniture. " There are good ladies’ colleges in the Province of Quebec, but the returns of the superintendent of education for the Province of Quebec are so incomplete that no satis¬ factory analysis can be made. Government grant. 10 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. Denominational and private institutions not having degree-eonf erring powers, 1903. NOVA SCOTIA, Name of institution. Teachers. Pupils. Average daily attend¬ ance. Males. I Females. 1 Total. St Andrew's School . 5 98 ! 28 Tlie Miss Forbes’ School . . . 2 5 i6 21 13 Maritime Business College - - 9 173 1 160 3.33 115 Halifax Badies’ College . 12 130 130 120 Hali f ax Conservatory of Music . . . . . 20 66 868 434 Harrow House School . . 3 33 83 32 Academy of the Sacred Heart . 17 97 97 97 Mount St. Vincent Academy . 16 101 101 . 100 Collegiate School . . . 4 42 _ 42 42 Church School for Girls . _ _ _ 12 _ ; 90 90 90 Horton Collegiate Academy . . 10 86 _ _ 86 ! 84 Acadia Seminary . . 16 172 172 Acacia Villa School . . 6 53 ; 3 56 56 Stella Marie Convent . . 8 . 92 92 46 St. John Baptist Academy . . 3 52 : 67 119 76 Our Lady of Lourdes School . . 3 54 69 123 100 Total. 1903 _ _ _ _ 141 592 1..365 ; 1,957 1 971 Total, 1903 _ _ _ _ 112 344 I 1,141 1, 485 730 The following table, giving statistics of illiteracy in Canada in 1891 and 1901, shows the effects of the ever-increasing provision for public education.^ Census year. 1 Illiterates. Per cent of total pop¬ ulation. Canada - - - - - 1891 1.449,446 29.99 1901 1,32.2, 816 24.63 British Columbia . . . . . . . ' 1891 84. 198 34. 88 1901 55,902 31. 29 Manitoba _ _ _ ... . _ 1891 43,282 28.38 1J«)1 67,8.33 26.58 New Brunswick _ _ 1891 ! 98,438 30. 64 1901 1 87, 442 26.41 Nova Scotia . . . . . . 1891 119,675 26. 57 1901 ! 110,425 24.03 Ontario . . . . . . . . . . 1891 ! 4.54,253 21.48 1901 ! 395,690 18. 13 Prince Edward Island . . . 1891 1 27,126 24. 87 1901 , 21,296 2'!. 62 Quebec . . . . . .. _ _ 1891 609,925 40. 98 1901 1 487,. 591 29. 02 Northwest Territories _ .. .. . . . . . . 1891 62, .549 63. 20 . 1901 j 96,6:38 45. 66 The smallest number in a group of 100 is in Ontario. 18.12 illiterates. Of these 10.27 consist of persons under five years old. In 1891 21.48 in every ICO were illiterates ; of these 11.34 were under five years of age, leaving a net of 7.8.5 persons five years and over in 1901 and 10.14 in 1891. The Province of Quebec shows a great decrease in the number of illiterates. In 1891 the province had 40.98 persons in every group of 100 who could not read; in 1901 there were 29.57 persons in each 100 group. In 1891 those under five yefirs formed 14.71 and in 1901 14.41 of the number of illiterates. This leaves a net of 20.27 in 1891 and of 15.16 in 1901 of illiterates over five years of age in ea.ch group of 100. From Statistical Year Book of Canada, 1903. EDUCATION IN AUSTKALIA. 11 Taking into account the somewhat decreased proportion of children under five in 1901 as compared with 1801, the statement stands: In 1891 Canada had of all illiterates 29.99 in every group of 100. Of these 12.48 were under years of age, leaving a net of 17.51 illiterates over five years. In 1901 Canada had 24.62 illiterates in every group of 100 of the popnlation. Of these 11.96 were under five years, leaving 12.66 illiterates; so that there has been an actual decrease in the ten years of 4.85 illiterates over five years in every group of 100. AUSTRALIA,. [For previous articles in the Reports of the Commissioner of Education see: Secondary Education in New Zealand, by Sir Robert Stout, K. C. M. G., Report for 1800-01, Vol. 1., pp. 45—04. — Education in New Zealand, Report for 1892-0.3, Vol. 1, pp. 258-261. — Systems of Public Education in Australia. New Zealand, and Tasmania, Report for 1807-98, Vol. 1, pp. 189-214. — Education in Australasia, Report for 1898-99, Vol. 1, pp. 08-87.] TOPICAL OUTLIXE. Brief account of the Australian federation. Current statistics of public schools and of private schools and universities. Brief outline of the systems of public education. Salient particulars from current reports. Neiv South IVales: Report of the special educational commission appointed to investigate foreign systems and advise reforms for New South Wales. Queensland: Work of the itinerant teacher; the “gram¬ mar schools;’’ technical education; educational expenditure. South Australia: Scholarship funds; agricultural education. Victoria: Manual training; technical education; total educational expenditure. Vest Australia: Special difficulties of sparse population; teachers’ training and salaries; promotions; manual training; total educational expenditure. The Commonwea.lth of Australia, consisting of the six colonies (now denom¬ inated Original States) of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland. South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania, was proclaimed at Svdney, Janu¬ ary 1, 1901. Legislative power is vested in a Federal Parliament, consisting of the King, a Senate, and a House of Representatives, the King being represented by a Governor-General. The Senate consists of Senators (six for each of the orig¬ inal States) chosen for six years liy the electors, voting in each State, except Queensland, as one electorate. In general, the Senate will be renewed to the extent of one-half every tlu-ee years, but, in case of prolonged disagreement with the House of Representatives, it may be dissolved and an entirely new Senate elected. The House of Representatives consists, as nearly as may be, of twice as many members as there are Senators, the numbers chosen in the several States being in proportion to the respective numbers of their people, as shown by the latest statistics of tlie Commonwealth, but not less than five shall be chosen in any original State, For the first House of Representatives the number is 75, distributed as follows; New South Wales, 26; Victoria, 2.3; Queensland, 9 ; South Australia, 7 ; Western Australia, 5 ; Tasmania, 5. Every House of Representatives will continue for three years from the date of its first meeting, unless sooner dissolved. Electoral qualifications are those of the several States; the qualifications of persons eligible for either House are prescribed by the Constitution. Every Senator or IMember of the House of Representatives must be a natural-born subject of the King, or have been for five years a naturalized subject under a law of the United Kingdom or of a State of the Commonwealth; He must be of full age. must possess electoral qualification in his State, and must have resided three years within the Commonwealth. The legislative powers of the Federal Parliament are extensive, and emlirace, among other matters, commerce, railways, shipping, light-houses, etc. ; finance ; defen.se ; postal, telegraph, and like services ; census and statistics ; marriage and divorce ; emigration and immigration ; currency, banking, weights and measures ; conciliation and arbitration in industrial disputes. The several 12 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. State parliaments retain legislative authority in all maters which are not transferred to the Federal Parliament. With respect to money bills the House of Representatives has special powers, and provision is made for cases of dis¬ agreement between the two Houses. The Executive power, vested in the King, is exercisable bj" the Governor- General, who is assisted by an executive council of seven ministers of state. These ministers are, or must become within three months, members of the Fed¬ eral Parliament; they are paid salaries not exceeding in all £12,000 (;j?60,000) a year. The Constitution provides for a Federal judicature, for an interstate com¬ mission on trade and commerce, for the transfer of State officials, State prop¬ erty, and State debts to the Commonwealth, for the collection and expenditure of duties during the transition period, and for alteration of the Constitution. Difficulties have already arisen in connection with the interpretation of the Constitution, and a measure has been passed providing, among other things, for the establishment of a high court with extensive appellate and Federal jurisdiction. The site for the permanent capital of the Commonwealth, which must be situ¬ ated in New South Wales and at a distance of at least 100 miles from Sydney, has not yet been selected; in the meantime the Federal Government has its seat at ^Melbourne. [From Statesman's Yearbook, 1904.] The area and population of the six States comprised in the federation are as follows ; Area, square miles. Popula¬ tion, 1901. Popula¬ tion per square mile. 1. New South Wales 310, 700 668, 497 903, 690 87, 844 975,920 26,385 1, 354, 846 496,596 362,604 1,201,070 184,124 172,475 4.38 .74 2. Queensland . . 3. South Australia _ _ _ _ _ _ 40 4. Victoria.. . . . . . . . . 5. West Australia ... _ _ .. . . 6. Tasmania _ _ _ _ .. _ _ _ _ 14 .17 6. 5 The leading industries of the colonies — agriculture, grazing, and mining — imply for a large proportion of the population all the conditions that pertain to rural life. The increase of the urban population is, however, noticeable. In New South Wales more than one-third the people (41 per cent) are in towns of above 9,000 inhabitants ; Sydney, the capital, has 481,830. Of the population of Victoria 51 per cent are in towns having each more than 20,000 inhabitants ; the capital, Melbourne, has 490), 079. The populations of the capital cities of the several States were as follows at the last census : Capital. Population, 1901. Melbourne (Victorial . . Sydney (New South Wales) Adelaide ( South Australia ) - Brisbane (Queensland) . . Perth ( West Australia) _ Hobart (^Tasmania) . . 498,079 4^1, 830 165, 723 119, 428 27, 553 24,655 Under the conditions of population here indicated the difference between urban and rural schools is very iiiarked. The standards expressed in the law are only attainable in the large centers, and this is so clearly recognized that special adjustments are authorized by law in all the States for isolated com¬ munities and pioneer settlements. EDUCATION IN AUSTEALIA. 13 The principal facts in the current record of the public school systems are here presented. To complete the summary the statistics of lu’ivate schools and uni¬ versities are also given. Staiistics of piihlic day schools, 100.2. o o .d A d Average at¬ tendance. Teachers. Expenditure. Y ear. Compulsory s( age. a p d ® Is 'o Number. Per cent of enrollment. Men. Women. Total. Total. Per capita of enrollment. Per capita of population. New South Wales - _ 1902 6-14 243,667 97,131 62,926 225,922 155, 916 5,401 2,391 l,a51 5,066 $4,074,415 1,413,061 726,960 2,825,632 $16. 72 14. .54 11. .54 $2.99 2. 84 2. 03 Queensland- .. South Australia 1902 1902 6-12 7-13 72,809 42,690 150,271 74.95 67.80 1,141 1,247 Victoria _ I 1902-3 6-13 66. 41 1,917 3,149 12. .50 2.35 W'est Australia . 1902 6-14 22,765 18,448 81.03 261 416 677 426,510 18.73 2.31 Tasmania . . 7-13 19,553 14,541 74.36 215 373 588 302,858 15.48 1. 75 Statistics of private schools, niiivcrsitics, and colleges, 1902. Private schools. Universities. Province. Number. ! Enroll¬ ment. Teachers. Number. Stu¬ dents. New South Wales . . . . . . Queensland . . . . 868 180 .58,9.39 12,867 10, 602 43,182 10, 373 3,339 692 («) 746 South Australia _ _ _ . . 227 1 598 Victoria- . . . 872 2,379 1 ^^619 Tasmania . - . . 215 “ Also tln-ee thoolosical colleges and one college for women. * Also 621 students attending lectures. THE SYSTEMS OF PUULIC EDUCATTOX. Control of the systems. — The control of education in each of the States is vested in a minister appointed for this ]'>articular interest or combining it with some closely allied interest; thus in New South Wales the minister of education has charge also of industry ; in South Australia education and agri¬ culture are combined. To the chief officer is consigned not only the general administration of the system but also its local direction. He decides as to the establishment of school districts and schools and controls the school funds and properties. In Victoria and New South Wales appointments of teachers and inspectors emanate from a ci’s-il-service board ; in the other States they are made by the minister. Local boards of advice are constituted by election (in Queensland appointed by the Governor), and their representatives carry great weight in respect to the school affairs of their several districts, but the authority remains in every case with the minister. Sources of support. — In all the States the schools are supported by appropria¬ tions from the public treasury ; instruction is gratuitous excepting in New South Wales, v.Tiere a weekly fee is required of 3d. per child, but not to exceed Is. in all for the children of one family. Power is given, however, to the minister or the local board to remit the fees in cases where the parents are unable to bear the charge. 14 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. Completeness of school provision. — The classes of schools recognized in the several laws give evidence of the widely different conditions under which the schools of different districts are maintained and also the efforts to adjust the school provision to these varying conditions. The typical school is called simply the public or State school. It must main¬ tain a certain average enrollment and must be kept in session the full time. QTiere are also provisional schools ; that is, schools which may be kept open for the full time annually, but whose average enrollment is below the standard, and half-time schools in districts where the number of children is too small to justify the expense of a full-time school. In such cases a teacher is appointed for two or more districts and holds the school in each on alternate days or for a half session each day, according to the distance to be traveled. Ilouse-to- house schools have also been recognized as a temporary expedient. The plan of conveying children at public expense from isolated districts to a central school has been recently adopted and is gradually superseding that of special and half-time schools. In Victoria this plan is extensively employed and has virtually eliminated the half-time schools. Night schools, and in some of the colonies infant schools, complete the public provision for popular education. Compulsonj attendance.- — Attendance upon school is compulsory for all chil¬ dren of legal school age (this varies in the several colonies, as shown in the detailed statements) unless they are educated privately or exempt by law. Secular character of the schools.— In ’Slctoria and Queensland the public schools are strictly secular ; in South Australia unsectariaji religious instruc¬ tion is allowed; in New South Wales and West Australia provision is made for religious instruction in the schools at an hour when children may be withdrawn if their parents object to their presence. In addition to the very complete provision for elementary education main¬ tained by the several governments every State in the Australian federation makes appropriations for secondary education either by a system of State scholarships open to competition or by grants to the individual institutions. Technical education is also fostered in all the States and technical schools or classes aided by public funds are found in nearly all the chief cities ; fur¬ ther particulars of the work are given in the citations from current reports. The t-hree Australian universities have been extensively aided by legislative appropriations and the University of South Australia by grants of land. These institutions are authorized to confer the same degrees as the universities in England, with the exception of degrees in divinity, and woineii are admitted to all their privileges. The University of Sydney, New South Wales, opened in 1852, receives from government a yeai-Iy subsidy amounting with special aid to £12,317. Melbourne University, Victoria, was established under a special act of the Victorian legislature, and the Imilding was opened on October 3, 1855. The insti¬ tution received in 1901-2. by way of endowment, £15,000 out of the general reve¬ nue. It is both an examining and a teaching body, and in 1850 received a royal charter empowering it to grant degrees in all faculties except divinity. Affiliated to the university are three colleges — Trinity, Ormond, and Queens — in connection with the Church of England. Presbyterian, and Wesleyan churches, respectively. The school of mines at Ballarat is also affiliated to the univer¬ sity. From the opening of the university to the end of 1902 4,784 students matriculated and 2,939 direct degrees were conferred. In 1902 the students who matriculated numbered 124, the direct graduates numbered 122, and there were G21 students attending lectures. * * * The University of Adelaide, South Australia, incorporated in 1874, is author¬ ized to grant degrees in arts, law. music, medicine, and science. Its endow¬ ment amounts to £131,200 and 50,000 acres of land. EDUCATION IN AUSTEALIA. 15 Particulars from current reports. — The following details from the latest offi¬ cial reports of the several States are of special interest. NEW SOUTH WALES. School attendance. — In addition to the enrollment in public elementary schools, 243, GG7 scholars, there were 1,G22 pupils in attendance in 1902 at other schools aided by the State, classified as follows : The Sydney Grammar School _ G2G The School for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind _ 98 The Reformatory and Industrial Schools _ 90S Total _ 1.G22 Scientific and technical education. — A comparative statement of the total enrollment of students of the colleges and branch schools for the years 1S9G and 1897 is given below : 1890. 1897. Syd-aey Technical College . 3,302 578 2,285 951 3.678 72ti 2,342 912 Suburban classes . . . . . County classes . . . . . . . . Classes connected with public schools . . . . Total . - . . . . 7,119 « 7, 6.58 a The correspondiug- total for 1902 was 12,110. The year under review has been marked by the publication of the “ interim report of a commission of two persons appointed April 11, 1902, to proceed to Europe and America for the purpose of inquiring into existing methods of instruction in connection vrith primary, secondary, technical, and other branches of education and of recommending for adoption whatever improvements ” might in the judgment of the commissioners be advantageously introduced in New South Wales. The report thus far submitteil, which deals wholly ^vith primaiy educatidn, comprises special reports by each of the two commissioners, setting forth with great fullness the characteristic features of primary education in the several countries visited. These reports are preceded by an analytical study of the conditions in New South Wales interspersed with critical comparisons with those of the countries visited and accompanied by recommendations as to the changes which are necessary to bring education in New South Wales to the- level desired. The following citations from the report relate (1) to special conditions alfect- ing education in New South Wales; (2) to the chief defect iu the system emphasized in the report; and (3) summarized conclusions as to the reforms needed. (1) Under the caption “State of education in New South Wales” attention is called to the fact that the task of educating a large and very sparsely popu¬ lated community is far greater than might at first sight appear, and the adminis¬ tration of public education has had a gigantic problem to deal with. There has obviously been much zeal and devotion in its work, and there is mechanical precision in its scheme. The greatness of the work undertaken should command public respect for it. How far it meets public needs will be discussed later. It has already been indicated that reform is needed. Some idea of the magni¬ tude of the work of the department may be had from the following statement : 16 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Total numljcr of schools under the department of puhlic instruction of New SoutJi Wales open in 1902. High schools _ 4 Public _ 1,903 Provisional _ 404 Half time _ 400 House to house _ 20 Evening _ 43 Total _ 2,840 The State is divided into thirty-five inspectorial districts, five of these being in the metropolitan area. For these districts there are 31 inspectors’ headquarters, Sydney being the headquarters of five inspectors. * * * Approximately 114,000 miles are covered annually by the inspectors of the department. This traveling extends over an area of about 281,000 square miles. (2) The pupil-teachcr system. — The most serious defect in the educational system of New South Wales is the employment as teachers of young people of immature education, of immature physical and moral development, utterly with¬ out experience in teaching, and therefore without professional knowledge of its scope and significance. Until recently they could be taken at 14 years of age, a limit which, it was suggested at the departmental conference of January, 1902, should be merely changed to 15. * * * It is quite impossible in a country employing untrained and poorly educated persons as teachers to make popular education comparable to that of the coun¬ tries where teachers are required to be previously well educated and trained, and if the State should decide to adhere to the practice of employing pupil- teachers it should he with the full knowledge that in so doing it is electing to maintain a system of education decidedly inferior to the systems of Europe and America, and one that can not possibly produce satisfactory results. * * * The removal of aspirants to a teaching staff from systematic education at so early an age as 14 or 15 (or even 16) and the endeavor to make good their edu¬ cational limitations by private reading, by instruction to be had from a more or less exhausted primary teacher, by the year spent in the training school, etc., can not be viewed with complacency if it be desired to make our education com¬ parable to that of other countries. Let it be borne in mind also that, inade¬ quate as it is, the training-school experience is that of only a relativelj" small number. Thus the whole case is even less favorable than above implied. In regard to the outlook of a teaching staff, a matter of no small importance, it may l»e said that under the best of circumstances tea^'hers, as a consequence of their daily association with children — that is, with those who can not meet them on a level of equal intelligence and information and can not sutdect their opinions to criticism, as would an adult — need a corrective, viz, one which will tend to broaden the view and give a more normal outlook upon the totality of things. There can be no doubt whatever that the professional emi)loyment of children as members of the teaching staff places that staff under such limi¬ tations as must, in their infiuence upon the spirit of the community, be regarded as detrimental ; for under any regime that tended to leave teachers generally restricted in outlook their power of educating — i. e., of developing children’s characters and minds — must be correspondingly defective. The training system of New South Wales — that is, the teaching of pupil- teachers by primary school teachers, coupled with a year spent at the training college by some (not all) of the teachers — can not be considered as an alter¬ native to the Euro])ean method — i. e., as an alternative in any way comparable therewith. * * * Summarized conclusions. — The system of education in New South Wales indicates, by its scheme of training its teachers, by its absence of scientific and literary equipment in its training schools, by its curriculum, by its treat¬ ment of the subjects in its curriculum, by its lack of proper educational equip¬ ment in its schools, by its inattention to proper hygiene, that it needs to he radically reformed; and one of the most important elements of the reform will be the better education and training of its teachers. These conclusions and the recommendations to which they lead are dis¬ cussed by the commissioners at great length. Space permits here only a single EDUCATION IN AUSTEALIA. 17 quotation from this section of the report, .vrhich indicates the admirable spirit in which tlie commissioners approach tiie most delicate part of their task. The following recommendations are based upon the several assumptions hereunder mentioned, viz : («) That the educational system of New South Wales should aim at becom¬ ing at least the equal of the best systems in other parts of the world. (h) That to attain to equality with either European or American education the whole spirit and methotl of the existing system of prima.ry education must be transformed in respect of (1) the professional education and training of teachers, and (2) the development of the curriculum. (c) That merely mechanical changes in the machinery of the department or mere changes in the curricula, or additions of new features thereto, in themselves will not suffice. {d) That the chief acti^•ity of the inspectors and other officers of the depart¬ ment, especially in the immediate future, will have to be mainly educative, with a viev." to bringing the existing teaching staff into touch with the spirit of modern education. (c) That in departing from the present regime the change should operate steadily and continuously until a new system is fully developed. It may be added that change in the teaching method and in the whole scheme of inspectorial activity, while important, is but mechanism, and the supreme need is a deeper understanding, not so much of educational mechanism, as of the spirit and the philosophy of the European and American systems. The attempt to provide a higher education and sounder professional training for future teachers will have to be supplemented by an attempt also to give a new direction to the activity of those at present on the teaching staff of the department. These things, together with better curricula, and equipment, ai*e necessary to real reform. QUEENSLAND. WorJc of the itinerant teacher. — The services of the itinerant teacher were continued during the year. Visits were paid to 95 families with 291 children over 5 years of age and 98 under 5 years, and in 67 of these families 210 children over 5 years of age are receiving instruction from relatives or tutors. In 45 of the homes the children were found to have reached or exceeded a fair standard of proficiency in the very elementary instruction that had been imparted to them, in 13 of the iioines the proficiency was only moderate, and in 9 of them did not reach even a moderate standard. The State also maintained 1,825 children in orphanages at an expense of $119,235. Secondary education. — In addition to the public elementary schools — there are 10 grammar schools in Queensland — 6 for boys and 4 for girls. Each grammar scliool is governed by a board of seven trustees appointed by the gov¬ ernment, and of these four are nominated by the governor in council and the others by a majority of the subscribers to the funds. The trustees hold office for three years and are eligible for reelection. They are empowered to make regu¬ lations for the filling of all vacancies that may occur in their number for the unexpired portion of the term of office, for the determination of fees to be paid by the scholars, for the salaries to be paid the teachers, and generally for the management, good government, and discipline of the school. All such regula¬ tions are subject to the approval of the governor in council. Endowment at the rate of £1,000 per annum is paid by the State to each grammar school, making a total endowment of £10,000 annually to the grammar schools. On December 31, 1902, the aid granted by the State from the first institution of grammar schools reached a total of £281,937 Is. 3d. Of that amount £18,901 11s. 4d. represents special loans and is being repaid by quar¬ terly installments of principal with interest. Technical education. — Technical instruction is given in institutions mostly connected with schools of art, where special training can be obtained at small cost and generally outside tlie usual working hours. There were 22 institutions of this kind maintained in 1902, with 5,084 students. For this work Parliament ED 1904 M - 2 18 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. voted the sum of £10,650 (S53,250) for the year 1902-3, subject to the condition tiiat the aid extended in any case should not exceed 15s. for every £1 raised locally. Expenditures. — As shown by tabulated statistics the public expenditure for primary education for the year 1901-2 was £282,612 ($1,413,061). The total expenditure for all educational purposes was £316,334 (-$1,581,670). SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Ill addition to the expenditure for primary education, the government grants funds for scholarships, which enable the holders to carry on their studies in higher schools and universities. The amount thus appropriated in 19(s2 was $7,362. For tiie advanced school for girls under the charge of the minister of education the government apr*ropriated -$G,432. The total enrollment in the schools was 115, of which number 45 students held scholarship's entitling them to free tuition. Ill addition to the scliool of agriculture, which has been recently consolidated with the school of mines, classes in agriculture have been opened in several centers. VTCTORTA. During the past year great progress has l>een made both in the preparation of teachers to give instruction in one form or another of manual training and in introducing the subject into the schools. The paper Avork training classes for teachers carried on tliroughout the State are well attended both by men and women students, who freely give up their Saturdays to the worli:, and not infrequently travel from 5 to 20 miles at their own expense to do so. Th.ese classes are conducted by ex-students of the training college, wlio obtained the necessary (lualifi cation during 1901, and they are visited periodically by the organizing inspector, Mr. Byatt. Although a considerable number of teachers are qualified to teach cardboard work, the lack of the necessary material has, up to the present, prevented its introduc¬ tion to the classes for which it is intended. The teachers who in 1901 were selected to undergo a course of training in woodwork (Sioyd), attained the nec¬ essary standard of proficiency and v.ere appointed to centers which are at present in active operation throughout the State. The expenditure for this work for the year ending .June 30, 1902, amounted to .$27,870. Domestic economy. — Eleven centers have been equipped for teaching domestic economy to girls and were maintained for the year 1901-2 at a total expense of $14,022. Technical education. — The number of technical schools (including those termed “schools of mines”) receiving aid from the State on June 30, 1902, was the same as in previous years, viz, 18. Five of these afford instruction in science, art, and trade subjects ; 5 in art and science ; 2 in art and trade ; while 5 schools confine their teaching to art and 1 to science subjects only. Five schools, viz, the AVorking Men's College, Melbourne, .and the schools of mines at Ballarat, Bendigo, Bairnsdale, .and S^awell, are classed as certified science schools, and are eligible to receive State school exhibitioners (holders of government scholarships). In these schools full courses in mining, engineering, geology, etc., extending over three or four j’ears have now been established. The total expenditure in connection with technical schools for 1901-2 was £22,958 3s. 1(7. (.$114,790). During the coming year the question of relating the work done in these schools more closely to the industrial life of the district will be carefully con¬ sidered, It is intended to withdraw sul)sidy from those sch(X)ls w^hich are not able to attract a sufficient number of students, and wiiich do not in their teaching supply a real need in local industrial requirements. Expenditure. — The total public expenditure for education for the year ending June 30, 1902, wms $4,001,014. EDUCATION IN AUSTEALIA. 19 V:ESTEEX AUSTRALIA. One of the great difficiilties in this sparsely peopled State is, naturally, to provide education for the settlers in the country districts and on the gold fields. The farms are large, and it is not easy to place schools within reach of ail the children. The country provisional schools are the most expensive to iJi'ovide, as buildings have to be erected, and the teacher paid an adequate salary, though there may be only a dozen or so scholars to teach. It is doubt¬ ful what method will have ultimately to be pursued. In America and Canada an attempt has been made, apparently with success, to centralize the instruc¬ tion in larger schools and to convey the children of scattered settlers from a distance daily or v.^eekly or even to establish boarding houses for them. The cost per head in the provisional schools is £7 Is. lid. (about i|36) on the average attendance and £5 13s. r>d. ($28) on the enrollment. The cost per head in special schools in the northwest is as much as £8 Gs. Gd. ($41) on the average attendance. The cost per head for the children of the vchole State in government schools is £4 10s. 9d. ($22) on the average attendance, or £3 14s. Id. ($18) on the enrollment. The government, however, recognizes that, in spite of the expense, education must be provided for these isolated settlei's, who are doing such valuable work in developing the resources of the country. * * * Teachers' training and salaries. — The great event of the year has been the opening of the training college for teachers. The college has been established at Claremont, about halfway between Perth and Fremantle, and is open both for day and resident students of both sexes. It is clearly advantageous, for many reasons, to the students that they should be in residence, but the position of the college enables those whose parents reside in the metropolitan district to reach it easily. The college can accommodate sixty students, and, as the course of training is for three years, should send about twenty trained teachers per annum. There is no fear that this number of teachers would ever be too many for the vacancies in the schools. Apart from the present influx of children, which is abnormal, the ordinary growth of population and the ordinary retire¬ ment of teachers through marriage, age, or other causes will always be in excess of that number. •''= * * It has been pointed out in the reports of previous years that the average sal¬ ary of the teachers has been very low, and that it was essential, if a good start was to be secured, that they should receive a wage above, rather than below, that ruling in other professions in the State. Since the new^ scale of salaries has been in operation there has been a satisfactory increase in the average salary, which is now £151 10s. 9d. ($757) for heads and adult assistants. This, how¬ ever, is not a sufficiently large sum when it is borne in mind that it is not as much as most mechanics receive, and the remuneration of the lower branches of the service is still very small. During the year a fresh adjustment of salaries has been made by the abolition of bonuses for successful teaching. This system has been found unsatisfactory. It is practically impossible to award bonuses on any other basis than that of school reports, and the school report may be good owing to the efforts of one or two individuals of the staff, whose work has bene¬ fited others on the staff v.- ho have not deserved such bonus ; or, on the other hand, the weak teachers may have deprived the deserving ones of the bonus to which their real efforts should entitle them. The Government, in making arrangements for the abolition of this system, was enabled to set by a somewhat larger sum of money for increasing the regular salaries of such of the staff as had previously received these sums. * * * Promotion. — The old system of examination of individual children by the inspectors has now been entirely abolished, and in all the schools the teachers are given the responsibility of judging the suitability of children for promotion from one standard to another. The promotion of bright children has been more rapid under the new system. There is a slight increase iu the number of chil¬ dren reaching the upper standards, and the inspectors note that the system not only encourages the bright children by giving them an opportunity of passing on more quickly to higher work, but at once equalizes the classes, makes the task of the teachers less difficult, and gives them also more scope for originality. There is said to be a marked improvement in the tone of the school work and the intelligence of methods. The schools can now be judged by the inspectors on these poipts, and they are not obliged to spend their whole time in testing the “ passing ” capacity of individual scholars. Much more assistance can be 20 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. given to the teacliers under the new system, as the inspectors are able to spend more time in showing better methods and giving advice. Manual training. — Needlework, which is most necessary for girls, is being taught throughout the schools, and the inspectors are taking care suflBcient time is given to it. The important subjects of manual training and cookery have been developed during the year. Though the numbers passing through the Perth and gold-field centers (special classes) have been slightly less than in previous years, this is due to the fact that other centers are being prepared, and that classes of teach¬ ers have been held by Mr. Hart and Miss Devitt to enable their systems to be extended much more widely throughout the State. While they wore holding classes for teachers some boys and girls had for the time to stand down. There have, however, been 473 boys instructed in the use of tools in the metropolitan district ; 146 girls have been through the cookery course, while in the gold fields 270 and in Northam 46 boys have received instruction from well-qualified teach¬ ers in other parts of the State — for example, at Donny brook, etc. — teachers have begun courses of instruction after seeing the work as carried out in Perth. In addition to a class for some months in Perth, a summer course during the Christ¬ mas holidays was attended by over 20 teachers at Bunbury. * * * The technical school has made great strides under Mr. Purdie's direction, and now can boast of being a most flourishing institution, the temporary and inad¬ equate buildings which house it in no way damping the ardor of the teachers or students. « Expenditure. — The amount expended in 1002 for primary education (.$426, .510) was 78 per cent of the entire educational expenditure for the j'ear, viz, .$545,985. NEW ZEALAND. The following particulars with respect to the operations of the Neve Zealand system of education for 1902-3 have been furnished to this Office by Mr. Mark Cohen, editor of the Dunedin Evening Star, whose comments add great interest to the facts presented : Partly through the operation of the school attendance act of 1901 and partly from other causes, such as the increase in the number of schools in sparsely populated districts, attendance at public schools has improved, and there seems to be good reason to hope- that it may still further improve. The standard of regularity of attendance reached in 1900 and 1901 — namely, 84.1 per cent of the average weekly roll number — rose to 84.9 in 1902. This figure is a high one compared with the corresponding figures for the British Isles and for the sev¬ eral States of the Australian Commonwealth. According to the latest returns which are available, the avei-age attendance in primary day schools in England was 83.6 per cent of the net enrollment, in Scotland 82.9 per cent, and in Ire¬ land 65 per cent. For the Australian States the numbers were : New South Wales, 72.6 per cent; Victoria, 66.5; Queensland, 81.3; South Australia, 79.9; West Australia, 81.6; Tasmania, 74.4. These returns are for 1901 in the case of Scotland, Ireland, and New South Wales, and for 1902 in the others. The number of children of Maori and mixed race attending the public schools has increased during the year by 340 — namely, from 2,688 to 3,028 ; the number of such children in the Maori village schools was greater by 444 in 1902 than it was in 1901 ; in the Maori boarding schools there was an increase of 7. In the aggregate there were 6,626 children of Maori and mixed race receiving instruc¬ tion last year, as against 5,835 the previous jeav ; that is, there was a total increase of 791. The proportion of boys to girls is almost the same as for 1900 and 1901 — 52 per cent to 48 per cent. Taking the average for the last four years, for every 100 boys on the rolls of the schools there are 92.4 girls. The ratio of the children under 10 years of age to those over that age is slightly lower than it was last year. The actual percentages are,, respectively, 51.9 and 48.1 of the roll number. EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 21 The foilowiiig table of attendance at schools on March 31, 1901, is interesting: Males. Females. Total. Public schools . 68,810 2,m 2, Si)4 3,808 2,215 iiiii 132, 741 4,984 6,497 8,356 5,055 Colleges, etc . . . Private schools . . . . . . . Denominational schools ... . _ Home instruction _ _ Total . . . 80,019 77,614- 157,633 The number of schools open at the end of 1902, if 92 half-time schools are counted as equivalent to 40 full-time schools, was 1,708, or 31 more than were open in December, 1901. On December 31, 1902, there were employed in the State schools 3,704 teach¬ ers, of whom 2,957 were adults and 747 pupil teachers. The average number of children in attendance was 30.7 to each teacher. Out of the total number of adult teachers 1,272 were men and 1,685 women ; in other words, for every 100 men engaged in teaching in the public schools of the colony there were, at the end of 1902, 132 women so employed. Comparison with the principal Australian States and with England shows that for every 100 adult male teachers the nuin- ber of adult female teachers was: In New South IVales, 00; Victoria, 87; Queensland, 108; South Australia, ISO ; England, 293. In this colony the pro¬ portion of fem.ale to male teachers in 1892 VvUis 94 of the former to 100 of the latter, so that the proportion of female to male teachers has increased in the interval from 94 to 132 per cent of males. On which fact the secretary of edu¬ cation comments thus : “It will be seen that the substitution of women for men as teachers in our primary schools is a process that has been going on for some time in various countries, although it has not yet reached in New Zealand the stage it has reached in England and America, or even in South Australia.” The number of pupil teachers actually employed in New Zealand at the end of the year was 747, or about one-fifth of the total number of the staff of the schools. The effect of the public school-teachers’ salaries act has been to improve the stafling of the schools by reducing the average number of children under the charge of one teacher. It is to be feared, however, that in some cases the num¬ ber of children actually under the charge of a single teacher considerably exceeds the number that the act appears to indicate. It vcould probably tend to greater efficiency if, subject to the conditions of classification and suitability of the several teachers for the various classes of each school, the average number under the instruction of any teacher or teachers did not in general greatly exceed the number indicated by the scale of staffs in the schedule to the act, which allows not more than 00 children for each adult teacher, and not more than 30 for each pupil-teacher, or on the average not more than 45 for each member of the staff. But neither school committees nor education boards appear inclined to take advantage of this provision in the act, with the result that the lot of the second male assistant is an exceedingly unhappy one just now, seeing that the standard of living throughout the colony has been raised on the average over 20 per cent ; and teachers of this class are leaving the service by the score, in order to improve their worldly position. The total of all salaries and allowances at the rates paid at the end of the year was £418,504 18s. 7d. (i?2,092,824). This includes the salaries and lodging ailo\vances of pupil teachers, as well as all salaries, house rent, and other allow¬ ances paid to adult teachers. The average salary per teacher was therefore £113 Os. 6d. ($505). The principal item showing an increase is that of teachers’ salaries and allowances, £419,701 ($2,098,505) for 1902, as against £382,001 ($1,310,805) for 1901, but out of this the sum of £6,742 ($33,710) was paid as th(? iast installment of the increases to salaries for 1901. The net increase over 1901 was therefore £24,156 ($120,780) on this head. Another item showing a consid¬ erable increase is the expenditure on manual and technical instruction, which was £11,605 ($58,025) for 1902, as against £7,611 ($38,055) for 1901. At the beginning of 1902 there were 09 IMaori schools, and during the year this number has been increased by 8. The total cost of educating the iNlaori children during the year was £26,940, or about £7 per pupil. A field in which there has been marked advance during the year has been the manual and technical department, to yfiiich much attention has been devoted. 22 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. The total number of recognized classes at the end of 1902 was 911. Of the lat¬ ter, 5C8 are classes for manual instruction in primary schools, 279 are technical classes (properly so called) for adults, while 64 are continuation classes. The total number of these classes is now 1,629. The work is being taken up in the small as well as the large centers and to an increasing extent in the country. During the past year a ^'ery important new departure has been taken — pro¬ viding “ free places ” in the technical and secondary schools. All children who succeed in passing the sixth standard grade or year at the age of 14 years are entitled to free tuition for two years at the nearest secondary school, and sim¬ ilarly free scholarships (tenable for two years) are granted on certain conditions in connection with the technical schools. And these boys and girls who during the currency of these scholarships make satisfactory progress with their studies are entitled to receive an additional two years’ instruction at the respective schools they attend. So far 16 out of the 25 secondary schools in the colony have accepted the terms on which the Government have offered monetary assist¬ ance to the governing bodies of these institutions, and there has been a large inrush of pupils to these schools. The same end is to be attained in the country districts by the establishment of district high schools, the number of which is nearly 60, as against the 15 in existence two years ago. The process of freeing the secondary schools is, however, to go on gradually until the dream of the advanced section of our educationists — the entire freeing of the national system from the lowest rung of our educational ladder to the highest, to wit, from the kindergarten to tiie university — has been realized. The present minister of education (the Hon. J^Ir. Seddon) is evidently in sympathy with this school of educational reformers, for on a recent occasion from his place in Parliament he is reriorted to have said : “ It is not the intention of Govern¬ ment to stop here, but to go on until the way is open for any boy or girl of promise in New Zealand to receive the highest education which the colony has in its power to give. With this end in view, the Government have determined to provide house allowance for one jmar for two pupils in the fifth standard in each educational district — 26 in all — who are specially gifted and have received the highest number of marks, but who are, from outside causes, unable to con¬ tinue their school course; and to establish 24 ‘ national scholarships,’ the object of which will be to enable holders to go from primary schools to secondary schools and thence to the university, full provision being made for the cost of tuition and for their m-aintenance.” Sir Robert Stout (former minister of education) was recently appointed chancellor of the New Zealand University in succession to Sir James Hector. The Hon. W. C. Walker, after seven years’ occupancy of the portfolio of educa¬ tion, in July last resigned that position and his seat in the university, in order to become speaker of the legislative council. During Mr. Walker’s administra¬ tion of the education department several notable reforms have been inaugurated, the principal being the extension of “ freedom of classification ” to all the branches of the primary school course. Education is meanwhile administered by the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, premier of the colony. A parliamentary committee has been set up for the consideration of the entire field of education in the colony, but it is not expected that they will be able to do more than present an interim report this session. F^upemnnuatlon for teacliersi. — Mr. Cohen furnishes also an account of the efforts made during the last twenty-five years, having for their object the estab¬ lishment of a scheme for the superannuation of aged and infirm teachers. Owing [he says] to a variety of causes none of these schemes wem ever brought to a successful issue. The chief causes of failure seem to have been (1) the want of a colonial scale of salary, (2) the lack of organization among teachers themselves, and (3) the impracticability and financial unsoundness of the schemes proposed. The passing of the “ public school-teachers salaries’ act, 1901,” removed the first cause of failure, and as a result of the splendid progress made by the New Zealand Educational Institute, teachers no longer lacked organization. It now only remained for some one to formulate a practicable, financially sound, and acceptable scheme. A working basis was submitted in 1902 by a member of the New Zealand Educational Institute, and a bill embodying its proposals was introduced into EDUCATIC)]^}' IN NE\y ZEALAND. 23 Parliamont to'\var(I the clhse of the year's session, but no further legislative action has been taken in the matter. Mr. Cohen expresses the opinion that — • No teachers’ superannuation bill will he brought forward during the present session, if, indeed, during the existence of the present l*arliainent, the feeling of the Government evidently being that it is not wise to further sectionize in the matter of retiring allowances. In all probability [he says] the teachers of the colony will be dealt with sooner or later in this regard as a branch of the civil service, which they ought to have been all along. Mr. Cohen also furnishes interesting particulars with respect to Dr. .Tohn Ilislop, the first secretary of education in New Zealand, whose death occurred May 19, 1904, at the age of S3. This veteran educator was educated at Edinburgh, where he gained first prizes in all classes which he attended at the Edinburgh School of Arts, now the Watt College, and at the conclusion of the prescribed course was awarded the school's di])loma. Aftei' a varied and successful career as teacher, first in Scotland and afterwards in New Zealand, to which colonj' he emigrated in 1856, he was appointed in ISGl secretary to the education board and inspector of schools in Otago and performed the difficult and arduous duties of the dual office for a number of years. He had a large share in the establishment of the boys’ and girls’ high schools, teachers’ training college, school of art, and district high schools throughout Otago. On the establishment of the Otago University, in 1869, Mr. Ilislop became its first secretary and registrar, from which office he retired in 1871. On the establishment of the Caversham Indus¬ trial School, in 1869, the duty of organizing and supervising was intrusted to Mr. Ilislop, in conjunction with the late Mr. St. John Branigan. * * * A record of the services rendered to the public by Doctor Ilislop would be incom¬ plete without reference to the education bill which was drafted by him and passed its second reading in the House of Representatives in 1871. The meas¬ ure was subsequently dropped, and it was not till the session of 1877 that the education act embodying the greater proportion of the clauses drafted by Doctor Ilislop came into force. He became the first secretary of the newly formed education department at Wellington, on the duties of which office he entered in January 1878. He was presented, on leaving Dunedin, with a massive silver vase and an address from 165 teachers who had served under him, as a token of their gratitude, confidence, and good will. About the same time he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Early in 1882, when the education department had been brought into good working order. Doctor Ilislop was granted a year’s leave of absence to visit Great Britain. Before leaving the colony he was entertained at a public dinner in Otago, and a sum of money was placed in his hands with which to procure a life-size portrait of himself in oils. The painting, which was obtained from Horsburgh, Edinburgh, now adorns the walls of the university library. For his well-known services in the cause of education the senatns of the University of Edinburgh (his own “alma mater”) conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL. D. on tiie occasion of his visit to the old country. Returning to New Zealand, Doctor Ilislop resumed his position in the education department, from which he retired in March, 1886. From the time of his retirement to his death Mr. Ilislop was actively" engaged in promoting varied public interests. w n^/r.-’.^'v.i’ ■;' '. 'X'-i ■r^' I L' ite:- vf V'v •v*-'- . • .;(' ' ■^■■' ", '•■! ■ ■ '■; €■:. ' ♦: ■ff CHAPTER II. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. By Franz Boas and Clark Wisslek. During the last thirty years a vast amount of anthropometric material relat¬ ing to physical and mental growth has acciimnlated. Unfortunately, up to the present time there has been little agreement in regard to the methods of collect¬ ing and of treating such material. The following pages contain a discussion of some of the more important problems ndiich have a bearing upon the meth¬ ods of collecting and reducing observations on growth. In a paper published in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for I89G-97 (Chap. XXXTV, pp. 1541-1599), F. Boas discussed some of the data on the growth of American children that were available at the time, and, in a the¬ oretical introduction, he treated some of the problems that confront ns in the discussion of material of this character. In that paper the effect of retar¬ dation and acceleration of growth upon the distribution of measurements was somewhat fully discussed. It was shown that the assumption of a symmetrical distribution of variations in period — i. e., of accelerations and retardations — following the laws of chance gives an adequate explanation of the characteris¬ tics of the observed curves of growth. (Ibid., p. 1552.) The verification of this theory is of great importance, because, if it is correct, it follows that the developmental stage of a child at a certain period depends primarily on phenomena of retardation and acceleration, v\diich influence the whole body at the same time, so that all measurements should show a tendency to vary in the same direction ; either all of them would tend to lag behind the normal average or all would be in advance of ifi If this is so, then the assump¬ tion that is so often made, that during a period of- energetic physical growth there is a rest of mental development and vice versa, would lose much of its probability. Assuming that during the period of growth deviations from the normal in the values of a certain measurement are partly due to variations in period, partly to hereditary and other causes of a permanent character, it would follow that other measurements of the same individual would be affected by the same groups of causes, particularly by the same variation in period. The more rapid the rate of growth, the greater will be the effect of variation in period upon all the dif¬ ferent measurements. Retardation of developmental period, for instance, would considerably depress the values of all the measurements of the individual. Con¬ sequently, the correlations between different measurements ought to be closer during periods of rapid growth than at other periods. We have investigated this problem by means of statistics collected in Worcester, Mass., and Toronto, Ontario, and by Peckham’s measurements collected in Mil¬ waukee, Wis., which the collector had the great kindness to place at our disposal. 25 EDUOATIOI^^ EEPORT, 1904. 26 Unless stated otherwise, the theory and plan of investigation were worked out by F. Boas, while the calculations were made by Clark Wissler. The theory of correlations during the period of growth may he formulated as follows : We assume that the value of a certain measurement depends partly upon variation in period, partly upon other causes, and that the amount of growth is proportional to time. We call r the deviation in time and dr the amount of growth during the period r, while the deviations due to other causes may he called vc. The total deviation, 'q, from the normal for any individual of a given age v/ill then le h=d^r^x. For another measurement of the same individual the corresponding values may be called y, and 7j. Then y=d.,T^-y. W e wull designate averages hv brackets. [>] =oV[r^] + [^"] {^7n=d,d,{T-l,^ixy] If we call [?“] , W] , , [^‘'] , , [?y“] , [^Z/] , resjoectively, /./I'h we have (1) By,y,=d]d,dr^^rd,d,. It appears from this that, if rd^^d.^ remains fairly constant, will be the greater, the greater d^d^dr. It does not seem probable that ?’d^d2 should undergo very great changes during the later periods of growdh. If, therefore, it can be showui that RMiy.2 increases with the rapidity of growth — that is, wuth the value of dyl.^ — our theory would seem to be corroborated. In order to investigate this question, w'e have calculated the correlations between stature, weight, height sitting, length of head, and wddth* of head from the measurements collected in Worcester, Mass. Unfortunately, the series is not long enough to give quite satisfactory results. We give first the general series of averages and variabilities for various measurements. Table la. — Averuges and variahilities of wcasurcmenis of hoys, Worcester, Mass. [Figures printed in italics indicate the nnmher of individuals measured. Measurements are in millimeters and in pounds avoii-dupois.] Age. Stature. Height sitting. ' Weight. 1 Length of head. ! Width of head. Length of forearm. ; Width of hand. r* / 1,129 ±61 622+30 45. 7± 5.5 178.2+6.7 140.7+5.1 309 + 9 i 58+3 U . . i ns no 1 109 105 105 6 13 J 1,179±50 642+28 ! 49. 7± 5.9 179.6+6.4 142.1 + 4.6 319+20 \ 60+4 \ ms SOS ! 202 152 152 16 1 27 Q f 1.228 + 53 663+27 \ 54. 1± 6.4 180.1+5.6 143.6+4.8 331+14 62+3 o _ \ 198 m i 190 120 120 65 ! 85 o ( 1,278 + 5.5 685+30 59. 4± 7.3 181.2+6.3 144.0+4.7 344+15 ' 65+3 V - - - \ S25 i 220 167 167 93 100 10 _ f 1.329 + 59 711 ±31 65. 8± 8.5 181.7+5.5 144.5 + 4.6 359 + 20 67+4 \ ^5^ 228 221 157 158 57 57 11... . . .’. f 1,374+62 727 ±35 71.3+10.3 183.4 + 6.1 144.6+5.0 373+21 69+4 1 ^44 215 210 151 151 105 S 117 1 1,426 + 64 748 ±35 78.4+12.2 183.3+6.1 145.6+5.6 387 + 20 71+4 _ _ _ _ \ ^74 256 256 177 177 100 99 13 _ / 1,479±77 771 ±.39 86.9+15.7 185. 2+6. 4 146.8+4.8 405+ 28 74+5 1 S53 22h 215 168 168 83 83 14... _ _ ' f 1,546±84 808 ±42 98.2 + 16.5 1S7.2 + 6.4 146.9+4.8 427 +28 78+5 \ ms 228 203 155 1 155 75 ' 85 15 _ ■ f 1,620 + 84 842±46 113.8+20.8 188.3+6.2 1 148.1+4.6 445+23 i 80+6 i 4/U 183 1G2 152 i 153 19 53 16 _ _ i 1,660 + 65 866 + 35 122.6+17.1 190.8+6.4 149.2+4.8 454+19 83+4 [ ISO no 93 96 86- 21 ! 27 17. . f l,686+.56 \ 45 • 885 ±.33 51 132.7+14.9 39 191.6+6.0 59 s 149.5 + 4.9 59 ; • STATISTICS OF GEOWTH. 27 Table Ib. — Averages and variadilifies of measurements of girls, Woi'cesfcr, 2[ass. [Figures printed in italics indicate the number of individuals measured. Measurements are in millimeters and in pounds avoirdupois.] Age. Stature. Height si t- . ting. Weight. Length of head. Width of head. Length of forearm. Width of hand. f 1,120 ±47 616 ±27 43. 8 ±4. 8 173.1 ±4. 6 138.0±3.5 304+18 58 ±5 1 lOU .9.9 97 84 87 19 23 r i,m±5G 6.39±29 47.9+6.1 174.7+6.0 139. 1+4.1 315±24 58±3 ‘ ■ . . 1 lUS 129 128 101 101 43 49 Q / 1,221 ±58 660 ±31 51. 9 ±6. 6 175.0+5.9 140. 3 ±4. 3 328 ±18 60+3 O _ _ _ i m IkG 1L3 105 105 64 73 Q J 1,270±54 680 ±28 58.0±8.4 176.3+6.3 140. 2±4. 8 337+15 62±3 i 17U 152 1U7 118 118 59 71 10 . . j 1,330±65 705 ±34 64.1±10.5 17T.8±5.9 142.1 ±4. 5 357 ±22 65±3 t S15 174 170 160 160 65 80 11 . . J 1,372 ±64 726 ±33 70.0±10.4 178.2±.5.4 142.1 ±4. 9 370±.23 67 ±4 \ m 202 199 152 152 88 103 f 1,443 ±72 7.58 ±37 81.0±13.1 180.0 ±5. 4 143.2±4.7 382 ±19 70 ±4 \ 252 2G8 201 165 165 85 116 13 _ _ f 1,499 ±69 788 ±42 89. 7 ±15. 3 181. 7 ±6. 8 144.0±4.9 407 ±24 72±4 \ 213 190 183 m 152 70 82 14 . . J 1.539 ±72 815 ±40 100. 6 ±16. 8 182. 5 ±6. 4 144.0±5.3 413±20 74 ±3 \ ' m 151 lh9 115 115 48 54 15... . J 1,569±53 8a5±32 106. 2±13. 9 184. 3+5. 2 145. 4 ±4. 5 427 ±20 74±4 1 lk7 188 136 109 109 38 36 16. _ _ / 1,572+60 840±29 108. 7 ±12.1 183.7+5.7 144.6+4.9 422±26 74±4 1 107 101 100 91 91 17 19 IT... . } 1, .591 ±52 i 09 853 ±31 69 114. 6 ±1.3. 6 6!, 184.8±5.5 69 145.2±4.3 69 In Table II are contained the coefficients of correlation for various ages and tlie number of observations from which the coefficients have been calculated. Table III contains the values for the product "tbe approximate values of did2. Table ila. — Correlations for hogs, Worcester, Mass. [?i=number of cases; ?’=coeflB.cient of correlation.] Age. Stature and weight. Stature and height sitting. Weight and height sitting. Stature and length of head. Stature and width of head. Height sitting and length of head. Height sitting and width j of head. Weight and length of head. Weight and width of head. Length and width of head. r n r n r n r n r r n r n r n r n r n 6... 0.86 109 0.78 no 0.77 no 0.30 105 0.20 105 0.34 92 0. 24 92 0. 46 92 0. 40 0.30 105 7... .78 202 .81 203 .79 202 .36 155 .27 155 .38 155 .29 152 .41 151 .20 151 .18 152 8 ... .69 190 .83 189 .52 189 .44 121 .19 121 .45 no .30 no .46 121 .25 121 .14 121 9 ... .72 220 .79 225 .70 220 .41 167 .2i3 167 .37 138 .29 138 .39 135 .40 135 .29 167 10... .83 221 .80 228 .82 221 .31 158 .31 158 .25 135 .29 135 .33 128 .34 128 .17 157 11 ... .88 208 .88 211 .87 205 .39 151 .29 151 .28 122 .26 121 ,51 118 .25 118 .12 151 12'... .81 256 .88 256 .87 257 .36 177 .24 177 .26 159 .19 156 .45 159 .26 157 .30 177 13... .74 215 .90 225 .81 215 .32 168 .28 168 .21 129 .25 129 .23 130 .34 130 .15 168 14... .87 203 .92 228 .80 203 .39 155 .11 155 .m 155 .14 155 .54 129 .29 129 .34 155 15 _ .81 162 .85 191 .79 162 .42 152 .33 152 .43 155 .38 155 .48 126 .42 126 .14 152 16... .71 93 .79 116 .67 93 .31 96 .17 96 .25 92 .14 92 . 54 69 .44 69 .28 96 17... .56 39 .rr 51 .51 39 .19 59 .2.5 58 .16 57 •1 57 .37 35 .28 35 .18 58 28 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Table Ilb. — Correlations for girls, Worcester, Mass. [ji=number of cases; r=coefficieiit of correlation.] Age. Stature and weight. Stature and height sitting. Weight and height sitting. Stature and length of head. Stature and width of head. Height sitting and length of head. Height sitting and width of head. Weight and length of head. Weight and width of head. Length and width of head. r n r n r n r n r n r n r n r n r n r n 6... 0. 68 97 0.67 99 0.59 97 0.31 85 0.34 85 0.23 79 0.38 79 0.23 77 0.44 77 0.30 85 1 ... .71 m .74 120 .69 128 .37 101 .17 101 .40 87 .23 87 .50 87 .35 87 .09 101 8... .79 lk5 .81 1U6 .60 152 . 33 105 .12 105 .31 85 .06 85 .39 82 .39 82 .16 106 9... .79 Ihl .81 152 .76, 157 .38 118 .17 118 .83 96 .10 96 .51 91 .25 91 .30 118 10--- .83 170 .84 17k .77 170 .36 160 .18 160 .41 119 .28 119 .28 115 .31 115 .25 160 11..- .88 199 .83 202 .84 199 .37 152 .13 152 .33 123 .14 123 .41 120 .19 120 .29 152 13... .74 201 .84 208 .85 201 .38 155 .44 155 .33 121 .28 121 .36 115 115 .24 165 18... .70 183 .80 190 .73 183 .40 152 .24 152 .52 119 .as 119 51 113 .4:1 113 .32 152 14... .74 lh9 .85 151 .75 156 .37 115 .42 115 .40 102 .42 102 .50 99 .49 99 .39 115 15 ... .57 138 .81 138 .61 135 .14 109 .09 109 .14 98 .17 98 .21 98 .23 98 .26 109 16... . 65 100 .71 101 .71 100 .37 85 .15 85 .45 85 .23 85 .41 85 .37 85 .43 91 17... .59 64 .71 69 .47 65 .33 69 .06 69 .06 69 .06 69 .49 65 .33 65 .29 69 Table III. — Values of RU1M2 of Boys. [ Girls. Age. Stature- Weight. Stature- Height sitting. Weight- Height sitting. Stature- Weight. j Stature — Height sitting. 1 Weight- Height sitting. jRMiM-2- dido. dido. Efj-ifio. did.2. EtJ-itJ-o. dido. Efj-ifj-o. dido. EfXiflo. dido. 6 . 290 200 1,400 1,000 130 80 150 200 800 1,150 80 92 7 _ 230 210 1,100 1,000 120 84 270 200 1,300 1,100 130 88 8. . 240 240 1,200 1,050 180 101 300 250 1,500 1,000 120 100 9 . . 280 290 1,300 1,200 160 139 360 335 1,200 1,210 180 134 10 . . 410 288 l,5tX) 1,010 220 126 560 300 1,800 1,150 280 138 11 . . 520 302 1,900 860 280 113 560 467 1,900 1,430 310 221 13 . 630 406 2,000 1,140 370 172 680 617 1,900 1,950 410 304 13.- . 920 600 2,7a) 1,740 500 290 730 470 2,200 1, 340 430 274 14.. . 1,210 9:33 3,3(X> 2,520 560 482 890 287 2,500 860 510 197 15 . 1,450 695 3,300 1,710 760 368 420 64 1,400 190 270 48 16 . 800 310 1,800 690 390 197 470 33 1,200 150 250 42 17 . 470 125 1,400 300 250 60 420 13 1,100 50 190 16 The preceding tables show at once that during the period of growth the corre¬ lation between the various measurements is greater than in the adult. This is particularly true in regard to those measurements which show the strongest increases, i. e., stature, weight, and height sitting. Table III shows that the greatest values of are found a little later than the greatest values of the products d^d^, the difference in period being about one year in boys and tv70 years in girls. This may be due to the increase of the values 6^, 6^, and 6^ with increasing age (see p. 38). In order to obtain a better insight into the characteristics of the values of r during the period of growth, we have taken the averages of its values for three successive years and have given these averages to the middle years. The results are contained in the following table and are graphically represented in fig. 1 (p. 47). STATISTICS OF GEOWTH. 29 Table IV. — Correlations. Age. Boys. Girls. Stature and weight. Stature and height sitting. Weight and height sitting. Stature and length of head. 1 Stature and width 1 of head. Height sitting and length of head. Height sitting and width of head. Weight and length of head. Weight and width of head. Length and width of head. Stature and weight. Stature and height sitting. Weight and height sitting. 1 Stature and length of head. Stature and width of head. Height sitting and length of head. Height sitting and width of head. Weight and length of head. Weight and width of head. Length and width of head. 7 . 0.78 0. 81 0.69 0. 37 0.22 0.39 0.28 0. 44 0.28 0.21 0. 73 0.74 0.63 0.30 0.21 0.31 0. 22 0.37 0.39 0.23 8 . .73 .81 .67 .40 .23 .40 .29 .42 .28 .20 .76 .79 .68 .36 .15 .35 .13 .47 .3:3 .23 9. . .75 .81 .68 .39 .24 .36 .29 .39 .33 .20 .80 .82 .71 .35 .16 .35 .15 .39 .32 .28 10 . .81 .82 .80 .37 .28 .30 .28 .41 .33 .19 .83 .83 .79 .37 .16 .a5 .17 .40 .25 .28 11. . .84 .85 .85 .35 .28 .28 .25 .43 .28 .20 .81 .84 .82 .37 .25 .35 .23 .a5 .27 .26 12 . .81 .89 .85 .38 .27 .25 .23 .40 .28 .19 .77 .82 .80 .38 .27 .39 .25 .43 .31 .28 13 . . . .81 .90 .83 .36 .21 .29 .19 .41 .30 .26 .73 .83 .77 .38 .37 .42 .34 .46 .41 .32 14.. . .81 .89 .80 .38 .24 .34 .26 .42 .35 .21 .67 .82 .69 .30 .25 .35 .31 .41 .38 .32 15 . .80 .85 .75 .37 .30 .36 .22 .52 .38 .25 .65 .79 .69 .26 .22 .33 .27 .37 .36 .36 16 . .89 .80 .66 .31 .25 .28 .24 .46 .38 .20 .60 .74 .60 .25 .10 .22 .15 .37 .31 .33 We baA’e not plotted the vr.riations of the correlations of head measure¬ ments, because these changes are too small and too uncertain. All the others show very clearly a rise of correlation during the period of rapid growth, fol¬ lowed by a decline during the period of decreasing growth. In accordance with the earlier periods of rapid growth and of decreasing growth the correlations of girls reach their maxima a year or two before those of boys, and it appears that the absolute maxima of correlations of boys are greater, corresponding to their absolutely greater rapidity of growth during the prepubertal period. As a consequence the values of the coefficients of correlation for girls are always a trifle lower than those of boys, except about the eighth, ninth, and tenth years. The correlations of the head may be considered as a whole, and we have taken the averages for all the years. Table V. — Correlations of head measurements ivitli stature, height sitting, and weight. Length of head. Width of head. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Stature . 0. 37 0.33 0.25 0.21 Height sitting . . . . . . . .32 .34 .25 .22 Weight . .43 .41 .32 .33 It seems very doubtful that the slight excess in the correlations for boys is significant. The striking excess of the correlations between measurements indicative of bulk of body and length of head over those between measurements of bulk of body and width of head may be duo in part to the variations in size of the frontal sinuses and of the occipital protuberance, which depend more closely upon the development of the skeleton than the transversal diameter. However, it might seem that, in young children at least, other causes must be looked for to account for the considerable difference between the coefficients. It is quite probable that it is mainly an expression of the closer correlation of antero-posterior measurements among themselves, the length of head being an axial measurement, the same as stature and height sitting. 30 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904, Since, o\^ ing to the insufficient number of cases, the numerical results of the Worcester series are not quite satisfactory, we decided to calculate the same data from a, more extended series, from which we selected the fifth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, and sixteenth years as representative values. The calcula¬ tions vrere made from measurements taken in Toronto and Milwaukee. The results are given in the following tables : Table Via. — Ai'cruges and varial>ilifies of measurements of hoys. Age. City. Statixre. Weiglit. Height sitting. Average. ! i Cases. Average. 0-. Cases. Average. cr. Cases. n Milwa.ukee _ 1,009 ±45 300 41.3 + 4.2 301 592 ±26 297 (Worcester _ 1,179 ±50 203 49.7 ± 5.9 202 642 ±28 203 7 Z Toronto _ 1,104 ±51 930 48.7 ±5.3 930 612 ±31 915 ! Milwaukee _ 1,100 ±49 641 48.9 ±5.1 632 635 ±26 641 [Worcester .... 1,3:29 ±59 252 65.8 ±8.5 221 711 ±81 228 10 < Toronto. . 1,311 ±61 890 64.0 ± 7.5 878 700 ±32 853 (Milwaukee _ 1,313 ±61 553 65.0 ±8.4 545 699 ±30 553 Worcester _ 1,479 ±77 253 86.9 ±15. 7 214 771 ±39 224 13 •Toronto. _ 1,453 ±78 629 82.4 ±11.6 629 756 ±38 600 1 Milwaukee _ 1,453 ±67 365 84.5 ±11.9 365 757 ±35 365 1 ft f Worcester _ 1,600 ±05 120 122.6 ±17.1 93 866 ±a5 116 io \Milwaukee _ 1,048 ±76 58 121.6 ±16.8 57 855 ±46 58 Table VIZ). — Averages and variahUitles of ]neas>ireine}its of girJs. 1 1 Age, ] City. Stature. i Weiglit. Heig :ht sitting. Average. O’, Cases. ^ Average. cr. Cases. Average.! 1 cr. Cases. 5--- Milwaukee _ 1.054 ±45 251 40.0 ±4.2 251 586 If uo 251 [Worcester _ 1,171 ±56 143 47.9 ± 6.1 1.28 639 ±29 129 7 _ •Z Toronto _ 1,159 ±53 800 47.0 ±5.4 844 640 ±32 800 1 Milwaukee 1,162 ±47 593 47.1 ±5.0 597 637 ±26 586 Worcester _ 1,330 ±65 215 64.1 ±10. 5 170 705 ±34 174 10. •j Toronto _ 1,306 ±61 895 61.6 ±8.1 892 699 ±35 848 [Milwaukee _ 1,313 ±58 556 62.6 ±8.0 541 698 ±31 553 (Worcester _ 1,499 -)-09 213 89.7 ±15.3 183 788 ±42 - 190 13... < Toronto . . . 1,481 ±72 669 85.9 ±13.5 671 780 ±48 677 [Milwaukee _ 1,483 ±79 341 87.6 ±14.7 3.33 785 ±40 a33 1 ft (Worcester _ 1,572 ±60 107 108. 7 ±12. 1 100 840 ±29 101 iO — \Milwaukee _ : ■ 1,577 ±48 123 110.6 ±12.8 123 843 j .sr 108 Table VITr/. — Coeffieients of eorrelatlon. Age. Stature- -Weig ■lit. Stature— Height sitting. Weig lit— Height sitting. City. 1 Boys. 1 Girls. ! Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. r Cases. r Cases.! r Cases. r Cases. r Cases. r Cases. 5--. Milwaukee- -- 0.69 (296) 0.60 (250) 0.73 (296) 0.77 (250) 0.69 (296) 0..51 (2.50) (Worcester .78 (202) .71 (128) .81 (205 ) .74 (129) .79 (:202) .69 (128) 7 _ Z Tor on to _ .70 (930) .76 (802) .76 (910) .73 (800) .70 (896) .63 (802) [ Milwaukee .75 (632) .73 (585) .84 (641) .85 (586) .74 (632) .71 (586) Worcester ... .83 (2:21) .82 (170) • .80 (228) .84 (174) .82 (221) .77 (170) 10.._ Z Toronto . .76 (875) .78 (885) .78 (853) .79 (852) .67 (833) .63 (848) [Milwaukee... .79 (546) .83 (546) .80 (553) .93 (553) .77 (545) .77 (541) (Worcester ... .74 (214) .70 (183) .90 (224) .80 (190) .81 (214) .72 (183) 13.-- Z Toronto _ .90 (629) .78 (671) .80 (600) .72 (675) .73 (603) . 6.5 (670) [Milwaukee. . . .83 (359) .77 (329) .95 (365) .85 (333) .82 (.355) .73 (a32) 1ft (Worcester . .. .71 (93) .65 (100) .79 (116) .71 (101 ) .67 (93) .71 (100) 10 - (Milwaukee. .81 (58) .51 (108) .83 (58) .62 (108) .80 (57) .44 (108) STATISTICS OF GEOWTH. 31 TTig av€n*ages for each year give us the following results: Tadle VII ?>. Bhiture— Stature- Weight- Age. Weight. Height sitting. Height sitting. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. 5 . . . 0. GO 0.60 0.73 0. 77 0.69 0. .51 7 . . . . . . . . - . .74 .7.2 .80 .77 .74 . 68 10 . . - . .79 .81 .79 .85 .75 .72 13 . . . . . . . .82 .7.6 .88 .79 .79 .70 16 . . . . . . .58 .81 .66 .74 .57 It will be noticed that the more extensive material agrees well with the meas¬ urements collected in Worcester. The averages for the values of RUiU<^ and of d^d.^ (see Table III, p. 28) give us the following results: Table VIIc. Stature— W eight. Stature— Height sitting. Weight— Height sitting. Age. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. RlXliXo. did,. RlX^fJ.o. did.,. EfixlLo. did.,. BfXlfX.,. did,,. did.,. did.,. 5 _ _ 122 73 203 200 222 200 110 100 118 110 109 84 Ill 88 10 _ _ 390 288 479 300 150 101 168 115 190 126 217 138 13 _ 798 600 796 470 245 174 208 134 392 2<)0 440 274 16.- . . 920 310 390 33 235 69 105 15 490 197 210 42 We may say, thei-efore, that increases of the values of correlations take place during the period of growth, in accordance vrith the demands of our theory of variability in period of development, although the correspondence between the¬ ory and observation can not be definitely determined unless we know the amount of the variability in period dr, which, as appears from equation (1), determines the value of R/q/;2. It seems, therefore, necessary to determiiie the values of dr. Considering this ])roble]n from a general point of vieAV, it will be seen that dr is the variability of period at which a certain physiological stage of devel¬ opment is attained. We may investigate this variability by ineans of various groups of phj’siological data. We may, for instance, determine the variability of the period of pregnancy, of the phases of first and second dentition, of puberty, and of the appearance of the wisdom teeth. In later life we may also include the menopause and death by arterial diseases. Unfortunately it is not easy to obtain satisfactory statistics relating to these phenomena ; statistics relating to the exact period of teething are par¬ ticularly unsatisfactory. We have collected data of this description, and the following pages contain the results of our inquiries. Prcguaiicii. — Schlichtinga gives the following table for the period of ges¬ tation : Archiv fiir Gyngecologie, XVI, p. 2210. 82 EDUCATIOIS' EEPOKT, 1904. 'Table VIII. — Period of pregnancy. Weeks. Qises. Weeks. Cases. 31. . - . . 3 42 . . . 18 35 _ _ _ 18 43. _ _ 10 38.. . . 16 44 _ _ 3 37 _ _ _ 53 45 3 38 _ _ 77 48 . 1 39. _ _ 118 47 . . 40. . . ino 48 1 41 _ 35 Average 38.49 weeks, or 269.4 ±13.4 daj’s. Dentiiion. — -IVliitelieada gives the following table for the appearance of the inner pair of incisors in weil-noiirisbed children. Table IXo. — Appearance of first pair of incisors. Months. Cases. Months. Cases. 2 . . . . 8 8 . 98 3 _ 49 9... . 81 4.. 85 10a . . 42 5 85 11 « . 22 6 _ _ 175 12a . 13 7 . . 100 13 a . . 5 a Interpolation. Average 7.1.'5±2..51 months. Most of the other tables are given in a foi-m which makes it ditlicnlt to determine the average age and its variability directly. In these cases Pear¬ son's Tiethcd of curve fitting & has been applied in a somewhat simplified form, which seems satisfactory owing to the small number of available obser¬ vations. The method adopted will be illustrated by oiir treatment of Wor- onichin’s tables.^ He gives the following data for well-nonrislied children, indicating the percentile frequency of the appearance of the inner incisors at various ages. Table 1X7;. — Percentage of cliUdren that have teeth. Months. Per cent. Months. Per cent. 3 . . 0. 73 8 _ _ 53.65 4. . . . 2.85 9 . . 69.84 5 _ 8.34 10 _ _ 73. 60 6 . . . 16.80 11 _ _ 92. 80 7- . 33.68 12 . 82.60 Assuming that the actual variability of time follows the laws of chance, we can determine from the tables of the probability integral the multiples of cor¬ responding to their frequencies. Using W. F. Sheppard's tables,(^ we find, for instance, for the age of 7 months, that the value of 0.33G8 corresponds to the “ L. Fleisclimann. Klinik der riidiatrik, II, p. 76. Biometrika, Vol. I, pp. 265 et seq. Vol. II, pp. 1 ot seq. c Fleisclimann, p. 77. Biometrika, Yol. II, pp. 174 ct seq. STATISTICS OF GEOWTH. 33 sum total of frequencies under the value of . ! — 0. 'i2d, where *1 is the average, 6 the standard varia.hility. We may, therefore, write tiie eciiuition — ■ 7 = A - 0.42d. In the same way we find — 6-A— 0.9Gd. Any two equations of this kind would give us a pair of values of A and d, from all of which the most probable value may be calculated. For the puri)ose of this calculation we will write, in place of the actual month, the middle month — in our case 8.0 — plus or minus such differences as will give us each particular month. If we call these differences x, the middle month 4/, and the multiples of d found from the table of the probability integral ij, we can vrrite our equations — d/a-a’ =A^yd. A — 31 = X — yd. (2). or by taking the average of these equations for all our observations we find, since [a*] =0 A-3I=-[y-\d. (3). By multiplying (2) by x, we find (A — 31) X = X- — y X d, and taking the average, [.?/a*] d = [a^] . (4). (3) and (4) give us satisfactory values for A and d. Applying this to Table 1X6 (p. 32), we find the following multiples of d corre¬ sponding to the percentile frequencies. Months. X y xy 3 . . . . . -4.5 -2.44 10. 98 4. _ _ -3.5 -1.90 6.a5 5 . . . . . . -2.5 -1.38 3. 45 6 . . . . - . -1.5 - .96 1.44 7 . . . . . . . - .5 - .42 .21 8 . . . . . . + . 5 + .09 .04 9 . .... +1.5 + .52 .78 10 . . . . . . . . +2.5 + . 63 1.57 n... . . . . . +3. 5 4-1.46 5.11 12 . - . . . . 44.5 - .94 4. 05 [y] = _0.34G [.«/] = 3.428 = 8.25. d = ±2.4:1 A -31= +0.83 If the table signifies that each group embraces children of from 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to G, etc., months of age, this would give us an average of 8.83 months. The values for y which correspond to the lowest and highest percentages are, of course, very uncertain, and must be given in an exact calculation a very low weight, ill accordance with the uncertainty of the values of y. The available material for the calculation of the time and variability of the appearance of the first molars is still more unsatisfactory. Fleischmaim a gives the following data : “ Dr. L. Fleisclunann, Kliuik cler Padiatrik, II. Der erste Zahndurcbbrucli des Kindes, p. 82. ED 1904 M - 3 34 EDLTCATIOIS' EEPORT, 1904. Table X. — Xiiniher of children having four molar teeth. Age (months). Cases ob- ! served. Cases having 4 molars. 6-7 . . . . . i 83 8-9 . . . . i 61 10-11 _ _ _ - . . . . ; 53 . 2 12-13 . . . . . . . . 67 1 14-15 _ _ _ _ _ _ i 65 10 16 IT _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 40 18 18-19 . . . . . . . . . 1 51 23 Calculated in the same manner as the preceding table, we find the average age 18.8 ±3.7 months. For the second dentition we have utilized a series of plaster casts of palates of normal children collected by Dr. Walter Channing. These give for the upper teeth the following results : Table XIa. — Xuniher of children having permanent teeth. Boys. I Girls. Age. Cases. Inner in¬ cisors. Outer in¬ cisors. Canines. Bicuspids. First mo¬ lars. Second molai’s. Cases. Inner in- i cisors. Outer in¬ cisors. Canines. Bicuspids. First mo¬ lars. Secon d molars. 6 23 1 15 1 46 18 4 3 7 38 1 30 12 2 1 1 2.5 39 31 11 1 16 36 8 . . . 27 22 7 5 31 26 15 3 14 29 2 9 40 39 27 12 40 3 42 42 25 4 19 42 1 10 . . as 33 21 11 22 33 1 34 32 28 5 25 34 3 11 . . . 21 21 20 13 21 21 2 30 29 29 22 25 30 6 12 . . . 21 21 21 18 21 21 8 22 22 22 19 22 22 7 13 _ _ 12 12 12 11 12 12 8 16 16 14 14 16 16 11 14 . 12 12 12 12 12 12 9 9 9 8 8 9 9 8 15 . 7 7 7 7 7 7 i Table Xlb. — Percentage of children having permanent teeth. Age. Boys. Girls. Inner inci¬ sors. Outer inci¬ sors. Ca¬ nines. Bicus¬ pids. First: mo lars. ’ 1 Sec¬ ond mo¬ lars Inner inci¬ sors. Outer inci- •sors. Ca¬ nines. iji- j cus- i pids. First mo¬ lars. Sec¬ ond mo¬ lars. 6 30 4 Go 3^ 9 6 15 83 2 7 40 6 3 : 3 83 , 79 28 2 41 92 8 . . . 81 26 19 100 84 48 9 45 93 6 9 _ 97 67 1 30 7 100 59 9 45 100 2 10 100 63 33 i (!6 r . 3 94 82 14 73 1 8 11 . 95 6)1 100 9 96 96 73 83 20 12 _ ' 100 85 38 KXl 100 86 100 ; 32 13 91 66 88 88 1 68 14 _ 100 75 90 90 90 15 . . 1 j 100 100 100 1 STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 35 These tables give for the appearance of the permanent teeth tlie following averages and variabilities : ^ Boys. Girls. Inner inci sors . . . . . 7. 5-1-1. 4 7. 0 + 1.0 Outer incisors. . . . 9. 5 -1-2.1 8.9 + 2. 1 Bicuspids - . . . . . . - . . . . 9.8-t-1.6 9. 0+2. 8 Canines .. . .. . 11.2 1-1.4 11.3 + 1.0 Second molars . . . . . . . . 13.2+2.0 12.8 + l.G For the time of appearance of the wisdom teeth Magitot's tables « are avail¬ able. He gives the following distribution for the time of appearance of the wisdom teeth : Table Xlla. — AppcaraViCe of irisdom teeth. Age. Men. Women. 18 - . 9 22 19 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10 18 20 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 30 38 21 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 50 62 22 . . _ -- 53 46 23 _ _ _ _ 40 51 24 . . 31 12 25 _ _ _ _ _ _ 6 10 Total.- . •- _ _ _ _ 241 :259 We may assume that the number of examined individuals for these ages was nearly equal, and on account of the uncertainty of the distribution we may dis¬ regard the cases outside of the limits of 18 and 25 years. If the ages mean those between one birthday and the next birthday, the averages and variabilities will be, for men, 22.2±1.7 years, and for women, 21.8±1.8 years. Statistics which Dr. G. Meylan had the kindness to collect at our request in the gymnasium of Columbia University give the following numbers: Table Xllb. — Presence of wisdon teeth. Ages. Cases. Wisdom teeth present. Per cent. 16 1 17 . . . . . . . . . . 20 7 35 18.- . . 44 14 32 19 _ _ _ 47 25 53 20 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 29 25 86 21 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 18 15 83 22 . - . 13 13 100 23 _ _ _ 6 () 100 24 . . . 8 8 100 25 _ _ - _ _ _ 5 3 60 26 - . . 27 _ _ _ _ _ 3 2 67 Average, 19.3 + 2.1 years. Bui. de la Soc. d’Aulhropologie de Paris, 1S79, p. 156. 36 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. PiOoeriy. — We have collected tlie following statistics of the beginning of men¬ struation : Table XIIT. — Beghiiiing of menstruation. Age. St. Peters- bin*g (Weber). 0 America (Rob¬ erts).^ America ( Star- buck), r London. London. Paris.o Italy, country ( Rob¬ erts), t’ Italy, wealthy. b 5 . 1 6 _ 7 _ 1 8 _ 1 2 9 _ 1 4 14 10 10 _ 10 1 1 5 55 29 1 1 11 _ 70 5 7 53 67 93 2 4 12 _ 171 9 9 90 123 105 8 14 13 _ 415 18 27 183 210 132 14 27 14 _ 556 25 39 266 311 104 17 20 15 _ 453 20 22 291 320 190 19 15 16 _ 348 14 6 234 264 141 17 8 17 _ 200 3 5 181 158 127 10 5 18 _ 77 3 2 105 112 90 8 3 19 .... 40 1 45 42 a5 2 2 20 .... 16 1 26 29 30 2 1 21.... - 8 8 9 8 22 _ 5 3 4 8 23 _ 2 1 5 24 _ 2 25 . - 1 i 15.1 + 1.87 14.7 + 1.73 14.3 + 1.56 15.6+2.1 14.3 + 2.2 15.3+2.7 15.5 + 2.0 14.5 + 1.9 « Floss. Das Weib, 1899, I, p. 327. «'The Lancet, July 25, 1885. Psychology of Religion, p. 40. Join-nal of Medical Scieilce, Edinburgh, 1850, Vol. XI, pp. 2S9-29G. Menoyausc. — Weber a gives the following statistics for St. Petersburg for the percentile frequency of the occurrence of the menopause, the total number of his observations being 578. Table XIV. — Occurrence of menopause. 30-3>. 35-40. 40-45. 45-50. 50-55. Years. Per cent. 4.6 14.0 28.0 41.4 12.0 Average, 44.5 ±5.3 years. Deaths due to arterial diseases. — Finally, we have tried to calculate the vari¬ ability of the time of occurrence of deoths due to tlie phenomena of senility. The most available groups of deaths seemed to be those due to arterial diseases. Doctor Wissler has made an approximate calculation of the distribution of deaths due to arterial diseases in Paris, the method and calculation being con¬ tributed by him. He summarizes his results as follows ; The statistics of Paris for 189G give the number of deaths from arterial affec¬ tions ; & but the values must be reduced to the frequencies of deaths for a given number of individuals. For example, the number of males dying of this class of « See Floss. Das Weib, 1899, I, p. 578. ** Annuaire Statistiqne de la Ville de Paris, XVIP Anne, 1896. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 37 diseases at tlie age from 45 to 40 is 15; tlie totol iiimiber of deatlis of males from ai! causes for the same ages, 1,703, and the total immher of living males, 80,052. For the succeeding years of life the corresponding numbers will be taken fi-om a different group of individuals and can not be compared to the foregoing until both are reduced to the same base. Hence, a table of the frequencies of death at the successive ages must be based upon the life history of a definite number of individuals. If we begin with 1,000 individuals born at the same time and record the deaths from year to year until all are dead, we obtain a series of numbers expressing the relative age frequencies of death. Statistics of this sort are obviously difficult to obtain, and it is customary to calculate their values from the death rates of successive ages. The French mortality tables used in life insurance give the probable number of deaths during each five years of life. These are calculated from the formula in which ?^ = the number living; (I, the annual death rate for tlie period; L, the number of survivors at the end of the period.'^ According to this method the total mortality table for males in Paris in 189G was calculated, beginning with 1,000 individuals 10 years of age. In the fol¬ lowing table the first column gives the number of survivors for the successive age periods and the second column the number of deaths. Since in the vital statistics of Paris all over 80 years of age are grouped together, it was neces¬ sary to make an approximate distribution for these ages based upon the general mortality tables for France. The ratio of the number of deaths due to affec¬ tions of the arteries to the total number of deaths for each age period enables us to calculate the relative number of deaths from these diseases annually for over 1,000 males. These values are given in the third column of our table: Table XV. — MortuVitij tahJc for arterial diseases. Age. Survivals. Total deaths. Deaths from arterial diseases. 10 . . 1,000 997 10-14. . . . . . 3 15-19 . . . - . - . 965 32 0.05 20-24... . . . 924 41 .13 25-29 . . . . 888 36 -00 30-34 . . . - . 838 50 .10 35-39 . 778 60 .14 40-44 . . . . . 712 66 .30 45-49 . . . . . . . . . 641 71 .61 50-54 . 562 79 .60 55-59 . . . . 464 98 .87 60-64 . 363 101 1.13 65-69 . . . . . . . 262 101 i.44 70-74 . . . 167 95 1.26 75-79 . . . . . . 79 88 .50 80-84 . . . 41 38 .35 85-89. . . 8 33 .30 90-94 . . . . . 1 7 .08 95-99 . 0 1 .01 Average, 62.55 ±13.2. In his discussion of the chances of death,« Karl Pearson has dissected the general mortality curve into five component elements, giving probabilities of " E. Dormoy ; Theorie Malliematiqne des Assurances sur la Vie. The Chances of Death, I, p. 26. 88 EDUCATIOIS- EEPORT, 1904. death for infancy, childhood, youth, middle life, and old age. He gives the fol- lo^YiDg variabilities for the time of death ; Infancy Childhood . Youth _ Middle life Old age __ ± 0.943 ± 3.52 ± 7.80 ±12.80 ±18.40 The last of these agrees well with the results obtained from Doctor IVissler's discussion of deaths due to arterial diseases. From the material that has been given the following results for the vari¬ abilities of development in various periods of life have been obtainecL Tadle XYI. — Yariahiliiies of age. Age (years). Observation. Varia¬ bility. 0 . Presrnanev . 4- 0.04 0.6.- . First incisors . . . . . . 4- 0.21 1.6 _ First molars . . . . . . . . . 4- 0.31 Inner nermanent incisors, girls . . . . . .. 4-1.6 7.5- Inner permanent incisors, boys. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -1-1.4 8.9.... _ Outer permanent incisors, girls _ _ _ _ _ 4-2.1 9 Bienspids, girls . ...... .... 4-2.8 9. 5 Outer permanent incisors, boys . . . . ^2.1 9.8 . . Bicuspids, boys _ _ _ _ 4- 1.6 11.2 Permanent canines, bovs 4-1.4 11.3 Permanent canines, givls . . 4- 1.0 12. 8 Second molars, girls. _ _ _ . _ 4 1.6 13. 2... - -. Second molars, boys _ _ _ _ _ _ 2.0 14.9 _ Piiberty , girls _ f _ _ _ _ _ _ A 2.01 19.3 Wisdom teeth, bovs . . 4- 2.1 22 Wisdom teeth, girls . .. _ _ _ 4- 1.8 44.5. . Menopause _ _ _ . _ 4- 5.3 62.5 _ Death due to arterial diseases, men. _ _ _ ... ±13.2 From these data it appears clearly that there is an increase in variability of the time at which certain stages of develojunent are reached. In our series a variety of physiological phenomena have been considered and all give similar results. It must, of course, not Ite supposed that all the different phenomena must necessarily give the same results, since each of them must be affected by certain peculiar conditions aside from the general variability of development that is characteristic of the whole series. It does not appear clearly from the avail¬ able material whether there is a difference in this respect between the two sexes. It is interesting to see that a similar increase in variability takes place in the grouping of children according to mental maturity. This may be observed in the arrangement of children of the same age in different grades in school. In Worcester, for instance, the following distribution was observed. Table XYII. — Distrihution of girls of various ages in school. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 39 It is not surprising to find that these variabilities are less than those obtained from physiological data, since the grading in schools involves not only phe¬ nomena of acceleration and retardation, but also a selective grouping. The peculiar distribution of measurements of children of the same age, but in different grades, to which Porter first called attention, are of such a character that the children who are retarded in grade are also retarded in all their lihjvsical measurements. They are not simply short or light-weight children of their particular age, but all their measurements correspond to those of younger children, while the measurements of children who are ahead of their age cor¬ respond to measurements of older children. The same idienoniena are bi’ought out by our Worcester serie.s. Table XYIII. — Statures of c/irls of the same ages in different grades. Age. Grades. 1. 2. \ 3. : 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. r- 1,139 ±51 US 1,182±50 16 1,187 ±42 58 1,209 ±47 57 1,247±52 26 1,191 ±47 17 1,229 ±53 50 h 263 ±.58 51 1, .308 ±.56 28 1,336 ±43 10 8 1,273 ±56 20 1.282±47 66 1..340±61 77 1,360±61 53 1,420 ±59 ■31 9 10 _ 1,. 347 ±68 60 1,376 ±63 78 1,445±71 47 1,478 ±72 26 1,364±60 20 1,.390 ±65 53 1,433 ±66 79 1,487 ±63 50 11 ..... 1, -109 ±70 12 1,4.59 ±74 US 1,490 ±.55 47 12 _ 1,489 ±48 23 1,533 ±68 30 13 _ It will be seen from Table XYII that the correlation between age and grade is very close. Table XYIII gives the following average ages and average vari¬ abilities of stature for each grade : Grades. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 5. 6. 7. 8. Age _ _ _ _ _ _ 7.7 8.3 9.4 10.5 i 11.7 12.3 12.8 13.6 Yariahility of stature . _ ±.51 ±47 ±.51 ±.57 I ±68 ±63 ±66 ±58 In this series the variabilities increase on the whole in the same manner as in the general Table Ib. This correspondence becomes still clearer when we consider each measurement as corresponding to the age to which it vrould belong according to Table Ib. If we interpolate in Table Ib for 1139 for stature, we find the age of G.O years as corresponding to the average stature. Thus we can substitute for Table XYIII the following table of ages : Age. Grades. 1. 2. 3. 1 4. : 5. 6. ! 7. 8. r. 6.9 7.8 7.9 8 7.7 8.3 8.9 9.0 9 :... . . . . . . 9.0 9.4 9.7 _ 10 _ _ _ _ _ 9.9 10.1 10.7 10.9 11.3 _ 11 . . . .. 10.6 11.2 i 11.5 11.7 12.0 12 _ 12.2 ‘ 12.5 12. 4 12. 8 13. 3 13 . . . . . . . ‘ . 13.1 13. 3 13. 3 14.4 ; 1 40 EDUCATIOI^ REPORT, 1904. If we arrange the variabilities for the grades and ages in accordance with this table of ages corresponding to statures, and smooth the series, which seenis necessary on account of the small number of observations, we find ; Average Variabili¬ Variabili¬ Age. Varia¬ Smooth¬ ties of ties of bility. ed. 1 per year. girls (Table Ib). American girls.a 6.9 . 51 i 7.7 . 50 48 7.8 _ 43 46 i 49 56 53 7.9 _ _ _ _ 47 45 i 8.3 . ... 47 49 1 } 50 58 56 8.9 _ _ . . 53 51 9.0 _ 53 54 9.4 _ 58 55 9.5 _ _ _ 56 53 53 54 57 9.7 _ 47 53 9.9 _ _ 54 53 10.1 _ 56 51 i 10.6-.- - . 43 53 ^ 10. 7 _ _ 61 57 1 65 62 10.9 _ _ 68 63 11.3 - . -- 61 63 11.3--- - . _ 60 61 64 11.5 _ _ - _ _ 63 63 ! > 63 68 11.7 _ 65 66 I 13.0 _ 70 65 13. 3 . 59 65 ! 13.4 . _ 66 65 ! \ 68 72 76 13.5--- - -- - - _ 71 70 1 13.8 _ _ _ 74 73 13. 1 73 65 1,3.3 -- . 48 61 [ 63 13.3--- . - - _ 63 55 69 74 13.3 _ _ _ 65 63 14.4 68 “ See F. Boas, “ Gro\Ytli of Torouto children," Rep. Com. of Education, 189G-97, p. 1556. Thus it appears that the position of a child in the grades conforms in regard to its measurements and variabiiities strictly to the values which would result if its age were considered as variable, so that we find in these observations a good confirmation of our general theory. It would be interesting to know whether the physiological data discussed before have a similar relation to the mea.surement of the body, as we found in the mental variations. Unfor¬ tunately no material bearing upon this point is available. The data collected in Table XVI can be expressed approximately by the formula — d^=0.23t— 0.06^^ which can he used for f<20 years. This formula gives us the following variabilities : Table XI Xc. Age. O't 1 Age. CT^ Age. Ct 5-- . 1.00 1.16 1.33 1.46 1.56 1.70 11 . 1.81 1.90 1.98 2.04 2.10 2. 14 17 . - 2. 18 2.20 2.20 2.20 6 _ 13 . . - 18. . . 7 . 13 19 . . 8- . 14 20 . 9 _ 15 - - 10-- . . 16 . We may also determine a maximum value for this variability from our table of growth. If the variability of stature during the period of growth were due entirely to acceleration and retardation — an assumption which can be STATISTICS OF GIIOWTH. 41 even api'roxiiiiritely correct only (Inriii" tlie early years of cliihlliood — we may use oiir formula on page 20, In accordance with the present assnmx)tion, d, woald disappear, a.nd we have We have used the tables published in F. Boas’s paper on the “ Growth of Toronto chiidren,” « which have been smoothed graphically (figs. 2 and 3, p. 48) and which may be simimai-ized in tlie following table: Tai!LE XlXb. Boys. Girls. Ago interval. Incre¬ ment of statnre. Varia¬ tion. CTf. ; Incre¬ ment of statvire. Varia¬ tion. o-t. 5-6 . 56 + 44 + 0.8 57 ±46 ±0.8 0-7 _ _ 53 + 47 + .9 54 ±48 ± .9 7-8 _ _ _ 50 +50 + 1.0 53 ±50 ±].0 8-9 _ _ _ 48 +.53 + ].l 49 ±55 ±1.1 9-10 _ _ 46 +55 ±1.2 50 ±55 ±1.2 10-11 _ _ _ _ 44 +57 ±1.3 53 ±60 ±1.3 11-13 _ 45 + 62 ±1.4 59 ±66 ±1.2 12-13 _ _ _ _ _ 53 ±66 ±1.3 62 ±74 ±1.2 13-14 . 64 + 75 48 + 72 +1.4 14-15 _ _ _ _ 73 + 85 30 +66 15-10 . - . . 54 +86 15 +59 16-17 _ 37 +76 8 +56 17-18 24 + 71 4 + .56 18-19. . . . . . . 14 + 66 1 + 56 19-30 _ _ _ 7 + 66 20-21 . . . . 3 + 66 21-22 . . . . . . 1 + 66 ! A comparison between Tables XIX« and XlXb shows a fair close corre- Sjiondence, and suggests that, for stature at least, the variabilites obtained from observations on dentition and puberty give too high results. This may be seen also from a consideration of the physical development of children of 15 years, for instance. If the variability were as high as 2.1, as indicated by the data on dentition, there would be an appreciable number of individuals whose development would correspond to tlie stages of 10 and 20 years, vrhich is obviously not true. Similar maximum values may be derived from Table III by disregarding for the early years of childhood the value of of equation (1) on page 20. Then v.'e have — Tims we hnd the following values for dp Age. Boys. Girls. Derived from — 1 Derived from — Average. Stat¬ nre— Weight. .Stat¬ ure— Height sitting. 1 Weight— Height sitting . Average. Stat¬ ure — Weight. Stat- 1 ure — Height sitting. i “Weight- Height sitting. 6 . . 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 7 _ _ _ 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.3 8 . 1.0 1.1 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.3 9 . . . 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.1 10.... _ _ 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.9 1.6 2.0 1.8 11 . . . . 1.6 2.2 2.5 2.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 13 . . 1.6 1.8 2.1 1.8 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.2 13 . . . . 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 L. c., pp. 1515, 1556. 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The irregularity of distribution in this table is not surprising, since the series from which the values ^^'ere obtained is very brief. AVe infer from all this that the variability must be assumed as lower than the one obtained from dentition. Although the amount of this variability is uncertain, it seems worth while to calculate its approximate effect upon the course of growth. If the number of retarded individuals is designated by ??t and the stature for each period by St, we have for s't, or the average observed stature at the period t St') The values of may be taken from the probability integral. For dt— ±1.5 we obtain the following values for -St : — s't ± Age. Boys. Girls. 1 Age. Boys. Girls. 11. . . - 9 + 3 17 . +19 +6 12 . . -13 +19 18 . . . . . +14 +3 IB _ _ _ - 3 +27 19 . . + 9 14 . . . . . . +20 +25 20 . . . . . + 5 15.. . _ _ _ 16.. . . . . . +26 +24 +16 + 10 21 . . + 2 Thus we obtain for the i»robable values for typical statures : Table XX. Age. Boys. Girls. Typical stature. Incre¬ ment. Ob¬ served average. Typical stature. Incre¬ ment. Ob¬ served average. 11 . . . 1,351 1,360 1,369 1,365 12 _ _ 1,392 4i 1,405 1,444 75 1,427 13 . . . . . 1. 4.55 63 1,458 1,514 70 1,485 14 _ _ 1,542 87 1,522 1,560 46 1,535 15 _ _ 1,621 79 1,595 1,581 21 1,565 16 _ 1,673 52 1,649 1,590 9 1,580 17 _ _ _ _ 1,705 32 1,686 1,594 4 1,588 18 _ _ _ 1,724 19 1,710 1,595 1 1,592 19 _ 1,733 9 1,724 1,595 1,595 20 . . . . 1,736 3 1,731 21 . . . 1,736 1,734 The theory of tJie variability of period of development explains a number of Iteculiarities of growth. It is evident that children of accelerated development, at the beginning of the period of rapid increase in ihe rate of growth, must show for several years high rates of grou’th, while the retarded children, who have not reached the period of acceleration, must show low rates of growth. In other words, there must be a strong positive coefficient of correlation between stature and rate of growth, and also between the rate of growth of one year and that of the next year. Later on, when growth is nearly completed, those who are in advance will have nearly completed their growth, while those who are retarded and therefore short will continue to grow rapidly. In other words, the period of a high positive correlation must be followed by one of negative correlation. The existence of such correlation was pointed out by F. Boas in his report on STATISTICS OF GROWTH, 43 the “ GroAvth of Toronto children and, later on, hy Clark Wisslei-.^* In the follo^ying tables we give the data on these correlations calculated in accordance with Pearson's methods. The calcnlations were made hy Mr. William S. Kahn- weiler and revised by Dr. Wissler. AVe designate, as before, by -sa the measnre- ment at the period t; by dt its variability; hy dt the increment during the inter¬ val t and i+1; by dj the variability of the increment: by rt the coeflicient of correlation between ,9t and dt ; and by u the number of cases. Table XXL — Correlations of measurements and their increme)its. STATFRK. ■ Age. Boys. Girls. St CTt dt o-.i rt n •St o-t dt o-a rt 71 5 1,071 1,114 48 58 ± 8 ±0.15 ± .44 16 6 . . j,i2r ± 48 57 ± 6 ±6. 2;5 42 ± 45 59 ± 9 39 1,155 ± 44 53 ± 9 ± .11 62 1,177 ± 53 55 ±11 ± .14 46 8 . . . 1.232 ± 45 49 ± 9 ± .08 64 1,214 ± 43 55 ± 9 ± .24 53 0 . . . . . 1,274 ± 55 51 ±10 ± .25 79 1,279 ± 57 59 ±12 ± .47 51 10 _ 1,3:32 ± 61 50 ± 9 ± .18 73 1,;318 ± 64 62 ±17 ± .18 76 n _ _ _ 1,368 ± 64 47 -'-12 ± .18 71 1,367 ± 61 72 ±22 - .18 83 12 _ _ 1,427 ± 64 .59 ±18 ± .48 77- 1,446 ± 73 65 ±20 - .42 69 13 . . . 1.473 ± 68 75 ±24 ± .29 63 1,497 ± 65 54 ±27 - .:39 49 14 _ _ 1,.559 ± 95 62 ±:30 - .42 32 1,5:38 ± 77 33 ±25 - .63 35 15 . . . 1,622 = 94 52 ±33 - .44 17 1.572 ± 42 17 ±11 ± .11 16 IIEIGITl’ SITTING. 5 - _ 589 ± 24 25 ■rl7 -0.60 17 6 _ _ 618 ± 28 25 ±15 -0. 31 42 618 ± 29 24 ±18 - .32 39 7 639 ± 29 19 ±12 - .25 64 638 ± 24 29 ±16 - .15 44 8 _ 666 ± 27 21 ±17 - .07 66 656 ± 24 22 ±19 - .16 53 9 _ 684 ± 29 24 ±14 - .12 78 68:3 ± 29 27 ±14 - .02 52 10... . . 712 ± 27 25 ±12 - .05 73 699 ± 33 32 ±17 ± .01 76 11 _ _ _ 719 ± :32 24 ±15 - .17 70 724 ± 35 37 ±19 - .15 83 12 _ 744 ± 33 36 ±19 ± .22 76 757 ± 34 42 ±14 - .16 69 13 _ 765 ± 31 46 ±16 ± .04 62 786 ± 3(5 40 ±20 - .42 49 14 _ _ _ 804 ± 50 44 ±16 - .41 32 803 ± 51 31 ±19 - .43 .35 15 _ 839 ± 39 42 ±24 - .05 17 829 ± 21 20 ±16 - .03 16 WEIGHT. 5 . 40 1 4.4 4 5 ±1.0 ±2.4 ±0. 54 17 6 _ 45.9 ± 4.1 4.9 ±1.8 ±0. 5(5 41 43.6 ± 4.2 4.2 ± .11 ;39 7 48.1 ± 5.2 4.8 ±1.7 ± .11 63 48.2 ± 6.7 5.0 ±:3.3 ± .45 46 8 . . . . .54. 3 ±6.2 5.1 ±1.9 ± .48 66 51.5 ± 5.4 6. 1 ±4.3 ± .32 53 9... . . 59.9 ±7.9 5.4 ±2.3 ± .12 76 59.4 ± 9.4 7.1 ±4.9 ± .:35 50 10 . 66.5 ±7.2 5.5 ±3.0 -f- .77 70 62.9 ±10.7 8.0 ±4.8 ± .29 76 11 . . . . 72. 4 ±10.0 6.4 ±3.5 ± .56 70 69. 0 ±12.0 10.0 ±4.9 ± .44 83 12 . . 79.1 ±12.3 7.8 ±4.3 ± .72 76 78. 5 + 12.8 10.5 + 4.4 ± .38 69 13 _ _ _ 86.0 ±12.3 11.6 ±5.5 ± .22 63 90.7 ±13.8 10.9 ±4.8 ± .15 48 14 . . . 100. 6 ±22.5 12.9 ±6.3 - .:37 :32 97. 5 ±17.5 7.7 ±5.3 - .15 :35 15 . 106.5 ±19.8 10. 3 ±5.8 - .25 17 108. 0 ±12.0 3.9 ±:3.5 - .11 16 This table shows the expected results, a maximum of positive correlations during the periods of most rapid growth and a sudden drop to negative correla¬ tions when growth is nearly comi)leted. It is very peculiar that for height sitting the correlations are throughout negative. They move in aiiproximately the same mannei- as those for stature and weight, but they remain negative. Since this measurement is very inaccu¬ rate, it seems desirable to investigate the influence of the error of observation. “ L. c., pp. 15.j0 ff. ^ American Anthropologist, new series, V, pp. 81 ff. 44 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1904. If we call X the variation at the age t, z' the variation of the increment, and y and tj' the errors of observation, we have — .S'/ + 1 =St-f • Therefore cl ~d^z-\ ij' —y. = 4-42£^, when s the standard error of observation. , _ [ {x±y) {z^-y'-y)] _ [xz]~s-^ ’■ ^ tf.'.tfd "■ tf.'-tfd - ■ d'(j' £2 7> = r'— -A_l - In order to determine the value of £, we liave collected a series of measure¬ ments of children in the Horace Mann School. 4Ve took tvro independent meas¬ urements of the height sitting of each of 53 children, the method being inten¬ tionally inaccurate, because it seemed important to obtain a maximum value of s. The differences between the pairs of measurements gave the error of2£2, which was found to be 35.4, and from this the value of £ was determined as ±5.7. In this manner we find for the corrected coefficients of correlation for height sitting and its increments the following values: Age. Boys. Girls. Ago. Boys. Girls. 5 . . . -0. 57 11 _ _ _ -0.12 -0. 11 6 _ -0.;i9 - .28 12 _ _ _ _ _ _ + .80 - .07 7...- _ _ - .20 - .00 18 _ + .12 — .41 8 . . -- . + .08 - .10 14 _ - . . . - .40 - .48 9 _ - .05 + .OS 15 _ _ _ _ - .01 + .08 10 _ _ + .07 + .07 Thus it appears that the negative character of these coefficients is not due to the errors of observation, but that there is almost throughout a tendency for long trunks to grow slowly. Finally, we will give a table of correlations of annual increments of stature and weight, based on a series of obsein ations which were kindly placed at our disposal by Dr. Wilson Farrand, principal of the Newark Academy, Newark, N. J., in which school the measurements were collected in the course of the last ten years. We have the records of 70 boys whose measurements were taken annually between the ages of 12 and 17 years. The calculation of the correla¬ tions between the increments of one annual interval with those of other annual intervals results in the following table: « Table Correlations of annual incrcnients of hoys. STATURE. Ages. 12-13. 13-14. 14-15. 15-16. 16-17. 12-18 . +1.00 +0. 45 -0.02 -0. 62 -0. 70 13-14 _ _ _ _ _ + .45 + 1.00 - .04 - .56 - .66 14-15 _ _ _ _ _ - .02 - .04 +1.00 + .43 - .03 15-16 _ _ _ _ _ - .62 - .56 + .43 +1.00 + .61 16-17 . . - .70 - .66 - .03 + .61 +1.00 “ See Clark Wissler, The growth of boys.” Amer. Anthropologist, N. S., Yol. Y., pp. 84, 85. STATISTICS OF GRO^VTH. 45 Table XXII. — Correlations of annual increments of hoys — Conliiiiied. WE I (JUT. Ages. 12-13. 13-14. 1-1-15. 1.5-16. 16-17. 12-13 . . . . . . 4-1.00 4-0. 39 -0. 05 -0. 43 -0. 41 13-14 . . . 4- .30 4-1.00 4- .09 - .36 — .31 14-1.5 • ... - .05 4- .09 4-1.00 4- .03 4- .01 15-lG _ _ _ _ _ _ - .43 - .36 4- .03 4-1.00 4- .33 16-17.. _ _ _ _ _ - .41 - .31 4- .01 4- .:33 -Bl.OO It appears here clearly that tlie interval 14-15 years forms the divkliiii? line between positive and negative correlations, so that at that age hoys grow inde¬ pendently of the rate of growth of other years, while boys who grow rapidly before that time grow slightly later on, while those who grow slowly before that time grow rapidly later on. AVe have in the preceeding discussions considered from a number of points of view the theory that the peculiarities of growth are due to phenomena of varying rapidity of development, and we have found that all the observed facts may be adequately explained by this theory ; that it conforms with the general varia¬ bility in the rapidity of physiological development, which we developed from observations on gestation, dentition, puberty, senility, and mental achievement From the data thus obtained we have determined a new curve of growth (Table XX), which gives us with the greatest approximation now attainable the typi¬ cal — not the average — statures for each age. It seems important to investigate in how far the differences in the develop¬ ment of various social groups a!*e due to typical diiferences, and in how far they may be considered as effects of acceleration and retardation. The gradual in¬ crease in the variability' of growing individuals up to the prepubertal period and its subsequent decrease, together with our proof that these phenomena may be adequately explained as phenomena of acceleration and retardation, show that retardation of development is partly inade good by a longer continuation of grovrth, but that a complete recovery does not take place. Otherwise, the decrease of variability would be much more than what it actually is. It is true that the absolute amount of recovery can not be stated at the present time. In order to be able to do so, we require a series in which the final development of children retarded in early years would be shown. Doctor AAassler's table (see above. Table XXII) shows, however, clearly that compensation takes place in periods as far apart as four years. It seems safe to conclude that if the vari¬ abilities of various social groups should follow the same laws as those of indi¬ viduals, that then their course may also be explained as due to retardation and acceleration. In order to investigate this question, we can utilize the available observations of social groups. The typical stature of any social group may be said to be equal to the average stature of the Avhole people plus a certain deviation, which, in the great variety of existing social groups, follows the laws of chance, and vrhich may be measured by the standard variability s. An observed value, obtained from a series of n observations of a certain social group, will, furthermore, have an uncertainty measured by . Therefore its deviation from the type will be V n I - 0^ measured by y Provided that e is sufficiently large, so that ~ may be disregarded in comparison to it, its value can be determined as the standard 46 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. deviation of the whole series of social groups that have been studied. We have carried out this calculation for the following groups, wherever the number of available cases was sufficiently large; Worcester, Mass.; Milwaukee (Perk- ham). with subdivisions of German-born children and those of ail nationalities; Chicago (Smedley) ; Oakland, Cal.; Toronto, Ontario, with subdivisions accord¬ ing to the order of birth; Boston (Bowditch), with subdivisions of American nonlaboring class, American laboring class, and Irish laboring class. It did not seem advisable to include in this tentative investigation foreign -countries, because the number of available classes is small and the differences. between tlie statures of children in America and foreign countries are greater than in the groups here considered. Following is the result of our calculation; Table XXIII. — VariahUities of social groups. Boys. Girts. Age. Number of groups. Varia¬ bility. Varia¬ bility. Number of groups. 6 . . . . . D Mm. 11 Mm. 9 10 7 13 8 . . 10 11 11 13 9 . . . . . . . . - . . . . 10 9 10 IS 10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10 9 10 13 11 _ _ _ _ _ 10 11 9 13 13 _ _ _ _ _ 9 14 15 13 13 _ _ _ _ 8 18 16 11 14 . . 7 1 26 14 10 15 _ _ _ _ _ 7 i 25 13 10 10 . . . . . . . . . 5 1 ^ 13 10 We think that, notwithstanding the small number of cases, this table shows that in boys the variabilities of social groups increase up to the fourteenth or fifteenth year, w’hile in girls the increase, which lasts until the thirteenth year, is followed hj a decrease. That is to say, the development hei'e follows the gen¬ eral law of development of the individual. The groups which live under less favorable conditions develop slowly, but have a longer period of growth, with¬ out, however, being able to make up for the early losses by the longer period. In the following tables we have collected the material on which our discussions are based. The publication of our observations in extenso seems justifiable, since the theory of growth recjuires further elaboration in man:v directions. For students of these subjects material ’will be indispensable, and a series of observa¬ tions collected with considerable care and embodying many data will obviate the necessity of beginning every new study \vith the collection of new material. The data vrere collected in Worcester, Mass., in the years 1891 and 1892. Most of the measurements were made in the public schools and high schools, and comparatively few only in private schools. The measurements were taken by F. Boas and by a number of students in the anthropological and psychological departments of Clark University. A preliminary discussion of the material was published by G. M. West.« In the following tables the a,ge is given in years and months. The column “ child '■ indicates the order of birth. All measure¬ ments of length are given in millimeters; weights in pounds avoirdupois. Weight was taken with clothing, but without shoes. Stature was measured standing free, by means of a rod with sliding arm ; height sitting was taken Arcliiv fiir Antliropologn., 1803, p. 13 et seq. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 47 on a level seat, v^Tienever possible the knees above the level of the seat; length of head is the inaxiinnm length; breadth the inaxiiniim breadth; l)readth of Fig. 1. — CorreliitioDS during the period of growth. face the bizygomatic breadth. All of them were taken with pointed calipers. Height of face (1) and (2) are respectively the distances from naison and hairline to the chin. Length of forearm is the distance from the olecranon to 48 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. tbe tip of the middle finger. Brendtii of hand is measured from first to fourth finger ac-ross the knuckles, the hand being held flat. Colors of hair are given mm. mm. Fig. 2. — Typical increases of statures. as black (bla.), dark brown (d. br. ), brown (hr.), light brotvn (1. hr.), blonde (bio.), red. Colors of the ej^es as dark brown (d. br. ), brown (br.), light brown /■ / \ s ✓ / \ \ ✓ ‘ / / 1*1 < t/. . • L Bo) '5._ Vdi idU /o/j jfw . Gir h. - 5 6 _ 7 d 9 10 11 12 13 14 . 15 16 17 . 18 10 Fig. 3. — Variability of stature. (1. hr.), gray (gr.), gray blue (g. bb), blue (bk). The series of repeated meas¬ urements were taken after an interval of approximately one year. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 49 5-year-ol(l hoys. Worcester, Mass. Number. Age. Grade. ! . J Child. Stature. 1 i Height sitting. Length of j head. j Breadth of head. 1 Breadth of face. Weight. 1 Hair. j Eyes. Brothers. i 1 ! u 156 146 _ 11.9 5 4 1,424 147 _ 11.0 3 1 , 366 148 _ 11.6 3 2 1,247 Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 149 121 64 dk.br. dk.br.' 5 135 117 64 br. gi’- 1 4 '"2 148 117 72 br. gr. 1 141 114 56 br. bl. 2 140 118 76 br. bl. 1 2 141 119 69 br. gr. 3 2 140 125 74 br. gr.bl. 1 4 3 141 119 74 bla. gr. 1 143 124 81 br. gr. 2 ] 151 130 89 It. br. bl. 3 145 125 63 br. br. 147 125 69 br. br. 4 7 149 127 68 br. bl. 0 145 126 71 br. gr. 7 3 146 118 59 br. bl. 1 2 1,50 121 67 br. br. 1 1 146 118 59 br. gr. 151 122 82 br. br. 3 140 119 67 br. bl. 2 146 120 86 rd. br. bl. 3 148 122 69 br. br. 2 1 145 124 64 br. gr.bl. 2 4 1:39 121 55 br. gr. br. 1 1 144 125 76 br. br. 4 4 137 118 62 br. br. 1 137 111 56 bio. gr. bl 144 112 65 br. br. 4 1.53 127 74 br. gr. bl. 2 149 116 70 br. bl. 4 ■"2 148 117 64 bio. bl. 1 141 115 60 bio. gr. 139 124 74 br. gr. bl. 1 2 1:39 117 65 dk.blo gr. 1:37 113 60 dk.blo 1. In-. 1 145 124 70 br. bl. ’ i 147 118 1 ‘1 br. br. 1 1 145 122 61 br. gr.bl. ----- 1 144 120 66 It. br. It. br. 1 142 118 66 br. br. 1 1 144 123 1 dk.blo bl. 2 141 118 rd. br. lt.br. 1 3 141 113 br. i gr. 1 148 124 dk.br. ■ gr.bl. 1 ’"2 131 114 bio. 1 br. ----- 2 151 116 dk.br. bl. 4 136 121 bio. i gr. 1 1.50 127 blo. bl. 1 151 123 br. 1 bl. 2 ‘”2 151 124 1 . 1 dk.br. gr.bl. 3 1 147 115 I. blo. bl. 2 2 1.50 126 l.br. bl. 1 1 151 128 dk.br. dk.br. 5 4 1'4.5 122 dk.blo bl. 1 1.50 128 dk.br. bl. 1 : 5 147 122 It. br. It. br. 4 ; 1 141 119 1 dk.br. bl. 1 1.51 1:31 It. br. It. br. 1 6 149 124 blo. bl. 2 1 3 1.52 124 dk.br. dk.br. 1 _ 1 ^ 137 120 It. br. bl. 0, 146 121 It. br. It. br. 1.53 1 1:33 dk.blo gr. 1.51 125 dk.blo gr. ‘"i 149 1:33 dk.br. dk.br. 2 3 151 131 j dk.br. gr. br. 1 1 147 121 I dk.br. It. br. 2 4 146 117 i blo. bl. 2 4 144 118 j d.blo. bl. 2 1 140 114 "5:3^ d. br. gr. 1 1 147 116 63 1. br. bl. 1 1,39 120 d. br. 1. br. 2 4 144 123 l.br. bl. 5 1 134 112 . d. br. l.br. 2 3 O “I 170 190 196 183 179 190 185 186 185 190 187 180 179 187 182 192 186 202 189 184 181 178 170 185 184 180 191 182 187 180 172 188 178 187 183 186 188 181 184 184 197 193 186 182 170 189 180 181 170 184 182 185 187 174 204 194 187 188 178 184 185 204 173 188 188 185 180 182 176 180 189 185 182 Half sister. STATISTICS OF GROWTH, 67 11-year-old hoys. Worcester, Wass. — Continued. ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting, j Forearm. Breadth of hand. To 1 Number. 1 Grade. Stature. j Height sitting. 1 Forearm. j Breadth 1 of hand. 1 149 . 11.9 5 1,480 785 400 77 94 ' 161 _ 11.6 6 1,472 790 415 72 150 . . 11.2 4 1,255 665 325 62 57 i 162 . 11.9 5 1,423 755 375 68 151 . 11.0 5 1,464 750 380 6() 84 163.. . 11.3 5 1,»35 695 3;58 66 152 11.11 1,252 1,397 670 345 68 52 ! 164 . 11.9 4 1,263 673 352 70 65 153 . 11.2 "i 720 370 65 76 165 . 11.5 5 1,355 735 370 154 11.0 4 1,440 1,378 1,413 1.433 770 370 68 88 : 166 . 11.3 6 1,434 1,292 1,358 1,212 1,432 745 395 75 155 11.5 3 730 370 70 71 ! 167 . - 11.0 6 785 330 63 156 . 11.2 4 775 385 74 76 ^ 168 . . 11.3 4 705 360 65 1 57 11 7 5 783 401 78 105 169. n.7 640 340 67 158 _ 11.2 4 1,325 705 365 69 61 i 170. . 11.2 "r 740 390 71 159 . . . 11.0 5 1,308 695 360 64 65 171 _ 11.0 5 1,306 720 370 70 160 - . 11.5 6 1,37. j 730 360 70 65 172 _ 11.9 4 1.400 745 370 72 K E P E A T E D I E A S U R E :\I E N T S . Number in lO-j'ear series, j CD bjj C 1 Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. 1 Breadth 1 of hand. Weight. Number in 10-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. B r eadth of hand. 1 11. ll' 1 1,437 ; 768 383 68 5'J _ 11.9 4 1,419 740 40:i 72' 1 11. Ul! 7 1,339 1 694 36.5 I 68 60 52 . 11.7 4 1,.390 370 70 4 _ * 11.. 0 6 1,414 i 733 .398 ! 68 70 53 - _ 11.7 4 1 , 360 765 37.5 70 5 . . 1 11.10: 6 i;421 1 770 380 67 82 .54 _ 11.8 4 1,3.52 720 360 68 6 _ 11.6 6 C283 j 675 365 64 63 58- . 11.6 6 1,363 740 37.5 68 I 11.4 6 1.403 738 396 69 71 61 _ 11.3 5 1,467 760 390 72 9 ' 11.9 6 1 ; 426 771 375 71 87 62 11.1 6 1,442 765 390 72 10 . . 1 11.7 5 1 1,371 7.55 367 66 73 63 _ 11.4 6 1,514 820 400 74 12 _ 11.7 6 1,396 ! 755 380 70 81 64.- . 11.4 5 1,4.53 750 390 71 13 _ 11.7 6 1.390 1 730 382 70 74 65- _ 11.1 5 1,314 7(K) 360 68 14 _ 11.0 6 1,385 723 390 71 70 66 . 11.7 1, 340 720 355 67 15 . 11.5 6 1,491 786 395 69 80 67 _ 11.4 1,383 745 370 70 16 . .. . 11.1 6 1,371 723 370 67 72 68 11.9 .5 1,315 700 350 62 17 . . 11.5 5 1,408 868 378 77 84 69. . 11.11 5 1,403 765 375 76 18 . 11.2 5 1,320 703 .360 65 59 70 . . 11.1 5 1,342 705 370 68 19 _ 11.11 5 1,381 745 370 68 77 74 . 11.2 4 1,401 765 370 72 21 _ 11.3 5 1,340 715 355 64 70 77 _ 11.3 3 1,364 70-5 36-5 70 22 _ 11.5 5 1,408 752 400 67 73 78 . . 11.7 6 1,345 715 380 71 24 _ 11.8 5 1,424 774 392 72 107 82 . 11.2 5 1,340 720 360 65 25 . 11.1 .5 1,483 750 425 1 69 79 85 11.1 1,367 740 360 72 26. . 11.0 5 1,418 757 382 67 64 86 . 11.4 5 1,3.57 725 380 65 27 . 11.0 5 1,3.52 720 3.50 66 70 87 11.7 4 1,362 710 370 66 28 _ 11.10 5 1,362 725 385 72 79 88 11.6 4 1,-350 710 360 66 30 _ 11.2 5 1,414 730 .375 66 64 91 _ ! 11.8 3 1,301 680 360 65 31 _ 11.11 5 1,261 686 338 67 62 93 . 11.1 2 1,362 745 370 66 32 . 11.1 5 1,496 796 412 73 115 94 . i 11.10 6 1,392 750 360 71 33 _ 11.8 5 1,421 732 .389 72 74 96 . ! 11.11 4 1,273 705 345 67 35 . . 11.1 4 1,496 796 408 7.3 90 97 . : 11.0 6 1.420 750 385 70 36 _ 11.3 4 1,452 776 405 79 81 98. . 11.4 4 1,386 755 370 69 37 . 11.4 4 1,417 760 395 72 76 99. . 1 11.11 5 1, 365 770 360 73 39 . . 11,9 4 1,.359 7.‘30 465 65 70 100 _ 1 11.4 5 1,.360 745 360 69 42 . 11.1 5 1,280 690 340 64 60 101.. . 11.0 3 1,.384 745 390 70 43 . . 11.2 5 1,417 765 380 71 69 102- . ' 11.1 4 1,-396 755 385 68 44 _ 11.3 5 1,295 685 340 67 57 103 . : 11.3 4 1,333 700 365 69 47 _ 11.5 6 l,:i29 i 725 3.50 63 68 105 . ! 11.0 4 1,382 735 360 68 49 _ 11. 11 ] 6 1,472 ; 760 400 74 76 106 . . 11.9 3 1,354 730 365 74 S be ‘S 82 71 57 60 67 79 60 58 89 75 in 'S ' 76 76 76 GO 77 79 ilo 69 66 66 69 67 73 60 71 62 73 72 "n 64 60 61 70 81 61 82 67 82 68 75 67 60 68 72 68 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, ll-year-old hoys. Worcester, Mass. — Contimied. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). 1 Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. (D O 'M . O -s '$ w Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 121 _ 104 168 135 _ _ _ 162 98 68 122 _ _ 150 95 69 136 _ 160 100 72 123 . 1,321 146 100 137 177 113 85 124 _ 1,486 108 138 1.58 103 76 125 . . 1,373 156 102 139 _ 174 110 73 120 _ 1,427 165 108 140 _ 1,342 1.58 101 66 127 _ _ 1.51 100 72 141. _ _ 1.53 101 65 370 128 157 102 67 142 . 155 97 64 325 129 . 170 110 71 143 .... 1.58 100 67 380 130 _ _ 162 107 73 144 _ _ 1.57 103 57 335 131 _ 165 100 71 145 _ 163 105 66 355 132 _ 1.58 97 64 146 . . 164 103 71 385 133 162 102 72 147 168 98 68 360 134.. . . 145 92 70 148 ... 156 97 60 325 12-i/ear-o](l hoys. Worcester, Mass. Number. Age. Grade. ! Child. 1 1 Stature. j Height 1 sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. 1 Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 1. . . 12.3 3 1,477 758 186 151 124 83 br. bl. 1 2 2 _ 12.10 1 1,526 820 183 146 124 90 d.br. d. br. 1 3 12.2 3 1,545 803 187 153 128 176 bio. bl. 1 4... 12. 11 1 1,520 776 176 143 126 86 br. bl. 1 5 _ 12.8 4 1,503 772 193 145 121 89 bla. bl. 3 3 6. . . 12.6 7 4 1,473 748 187 144 125 88 br. br. 3 7 _ 12.1 7 5 1,483 762 193 150 127 95 br. gr. 1 '"2 8.... . 12.9 7 2 1,550 799 183 148 130 89 br. bl. 1 9 . 12.3 5 1,463 769 187 141 116 78 bio. bl. 1 3 10 . . 12. 10 3 1,464 751 188 149 130 105 bio. gr.bl. 2 11 . 12. 11 4 1,600 837 183 141 125 101 br. err. 2 2 12. . 12.4 3 1,581 830 190 144 130 110 bla. bl. 1 1 13 _ 12.8 2 1,378 716 180 151 1.33 78 bla. br. 1 14. . . 12.7 2 1,438 755 182 155 131 88 d. br. bl. gr. 1 1 15 12.1 2 1,450 749 186 150 121 80 br. bl. 1 16 12.11 1 1,371 711 183 147 121 76 1. br. l.bl. 17 . 12.10 1 1,490 747 183 147 119 81 l.br. br. 18 _ 12.10 6 2 1,513 801 192 148 126 88 r. br. bl. 1 1 19 . . 12.4 6 3 1,330 714 182 140 112 63 1. br. bl. 1 1 20. . . 12.7 6 1 1,377 731 191 145 119 74 bio. g.bl. 2 2 21 . . 12.3 6 2 1,317 690 184 1.50 120 55 br. br. 1 22. . 12.5 6 1 1,464 785 183 145 121 96 1. br. bl. 1 23 _ 12.0 4 1,405 730 187 154 130 74 br. 1. br. 3 24 12.5 3 1,376 737 175 141 115 72 d. br. l.br. '"2 3 25. . . 12.7 6 3 1,369 723 173 143 122 70 1. br. br. 1 1 26 _ 12.6 5 2 1,244 667 182 135 113 58 1. br. gr. 2 2 27. . . 12.0 5 2 1,428 737 188 146 121 70 d. br. d. br. 2 2 28 . . 12.4 5 1 1,384 710 170 140 117 62 d. br. g.bl. ..... 29 . . 12.9 5 3 1,354 692 187 156 126 71 br. bl. ..... 30 12.4 1 1,482 760 179 1.50 123 88 1. br. gr. 31 . . 12.2 4 1 1,450 743 181 146 118 87 1. br. bl. 1 32 12.5 8 2 1,620 831 188 147 126 110 d. br. gr. 1 2 33.... . 12.10 4 2 1,385 697 190 144 120 70 bla. br. 1 34 . 12.2 7 1,376 734 181 142 119 72 br. bl. 4 5 35 . . 12.7 5 1,369 725 176 150 125 72 r. gr. 3 4 36 _ 12.1 4 1,373 743 179 154 133 81 d. br. d.br. 3 4 37 _ 12.11 6 3 1,403 732 180 143 118 70 bla. bl. 3 2 38 . 12.0 6 1 1,.507 772 182 152 126 89 br. br. 1 39 . . 12.3 6 1 1,489 770 183 143 124 83 br. 1. br. 2 40.. . 12.0 6 1 1,389 732 188 1.52 125 74 bio. bl. 1 41 . . 12. 1 6 2 1,497 818 185 149 128 92 br. br. 3 2 42 . 12.11 6 1 1,354 700 179 146 121 75 l.br. bl. 1 43 . . 12.9 4 1 1,360 722 175 151 124 67 d. br. br. ■■'2 44 . 12.9 4 1 1,504 771 190 143 125 80 45. . . 12.0 6 1 1,356 704 183 140 122 64 bl. gi‘- 1 2 46 . . 12.10 6 1 1,479 779 179 151 128 83 br. 1. br. 2 1 47 . 12. 2 5 2 1,439 751 185 149 122 76 br. gr. 1 1 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 69 12-i/car-oJd hoys. Worcester, Mass. — Contiiuied. Number. 6d Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. 4^ ’S w CO (D >> 48 . . 12.4 5 3 1,465 747 183 14;) 123 86 r. bl. 49 . 12. 10 5 1 1,493 743 181 137 122 82 bio. gi’- 50. . 12.0 7 5 1,352 695 174 137 123 68 br. bl. 51. . 12.4 7 8 1,407 716 180 ia5 116 68 br. gi'- 52 _ 12.7 7 1 1,438 766 187 1.55 125 91 bio. gi’- 53 _ 12.10 7 2 1,482 784 196 145 125 87 br. bl. 54. . . 12.5 7 3 1,468 744 193 146 120 76 bio. bl. 55.. . 12.5 5 1 1,370 723 186 144 122 65 br. bl. 56 _ . 12.1 4 1 1,406 719 179 141 127 71 bio. br. 57 . . 12.11 5 1 1,488 756 191 151 i.as 94 bio. gi’- 58. . 12. 10 5 2 1, 450 795 ia5 164 131 82 bio. bl. 59 . 12. 10 5 1 1,467 778 178 151 126 84 bio. bl. 60 . 12.11 5 6 1,436 760 172 153 126 71 bla. d. br. 61 _ 12.11 4 1 1,462 785 172 152 124 73 br. bl. 62 _ 12.8 8 5 1,467 765 192 148 123 91 bio. 1. br. 63 _ 12.4 7 7 1,346 689 172 i:36 113 66 br. gr. 64. . 12.9 7 3 1,303 690 175 144 112 58 l.blo. gr. 65 _ 12.5 6 3 1,388 722 178 149 124 74 bio. bl. 66 . 12.2 6 1 1,360 715 186 141 114 81 br. bl. 67 . . 12.10 6 1 1,376 730 168 143 120 73 d.br. br. 68 _ 12. 11 6 1 1,515 805 185 145 120 90 bio. bl. 69 _ 12.11 6 2 1,443 750 185 151 118 80 bla. gr. 70.. . 12.8 6 3 1,355 724 186 143 116 73 br. bl. 71 _ 12.10 6 2 1,390 730 190 145 116 68 br. gr. 72 _ 12.7 6 2 1,443 720 186 140 112 73 d.br. gr. 73 _ 12.6 6 2 1,342 710 176 139 106 62 bio. br. 74.. . 12.9 6 5 1, 403 767 182 143 116 73 bla. bl. 75 _ 12.8 6 4 1,420 736 180 139. 124 75 d. br. bl. 76 _ 12. 1 6 4 1,460 788 176 147 115 72 d. br. bl. 77 . . 12.10 6 1 1,478 774 185 140 112 82 r. br. bl. 78 _ 12.5 5 3 1,368 745 191 155 121 75 br. br. 79.... . 12.7 5 1 l,4a3 717 192 143 122 71 d.br. br. 80 . 12.4 5 3 1,464 750 174 136 118 73 bio. bl. 81. . 12.8 5 3 1,453 769 178 i:36 124 80 br. gi-. 82 _ 12. 10 5 3 1,515 777 187 148 122 93 br. bl. 83 . 12.1 4 2 1,374 754 182 143 114 73 br. br. 84 _ 12.3 4 2 1,360 733 181 143 121 65 r. br. bl. 85 - 12.6 4 3 l,a53 706 178 152 122 67 br. bl. 86 _ 12.6 8 6 1,500 780 199 156 129 95 d. br. br. 87 _ 12.5 7 4 1,463 750 184 144 126 81 bio. bl. 88 _ 12.10 7 2 1,481 753 187 159 138 88 r. bio. br. 89. . . 12.2 7 4 1,397 716 182 148 126 74 br. bl. 90 . . 12.5 7 3 1,401 735 191 149 127 70 br. br. 91 . 12.2 7 2 1,4.51 754 178 147 124 83 d. br. gr. 92. . 12.4 7 2 1,365 698 180 138 116 57 br. bl. 93. . 12.8 6 2 1,490 804 192 148 124 84 br. bl. 94 _ 12. 10 7 2 1,401 721 183 142 113 67 br. d.br. 95 . 12.3 4 6 1,371 710 179 145 116 73 br. bl. 96. . 12.4 4 3 1,338 704 186 146 120 71 d.br. l.br. 97. . . 12.11 7 3 1,407 7:35 189 150 123 81 br. br. 98 _ 12. 11 7 11 1,410 727 170 140 115 76 br. gr. 99 _ 12.4 7 3 1,307 675 185 147 118 71 br. d. br. 100 _ 12. 5 7 1 1,350 7130 185 151 119 71 br. gr. 101 _ 12. 10 7 2 1,416 749 193 150 126 77 d.br. bl. 102 _ 12.5 7 4 1,438 759 181 1.55 130 78 r.br. gr. 103.. . 12.1 7 7 1,498 785 176 150 118 80 br. bl. 104 _ 12.7 7 3 l,4.a5 758 175 140 117 75 br. bl. 105 _ 12.11 6 2 1,344 705 174 144 121 60 d.br. bl. 106 _ 12.2 6 1 1,571 836 189 147 1:10 107 bio. bl. 107 . . 12.8 6 2 1,434 764 184 142 122 85 bio. bl. 108 _ 12.9 9 5 1,482 775 195 148 126 96 br. br. 109 _ 12.7 8 2 1,392 757 185 142 116 75 l.br. bl. no . . 12.8 8 3 1,408 753 194 149 128 83 br. bl. Ill _ 12. 11 6 4 1,887 724 191 141 122 70 d. br. gr. 112 _ 12.1 5 3 1,418 765 175 145 125 77 1. br. bl. 113.... . 12.2 5 4 1,399 755 180 133 114 68 d. br. bl. 114. . . 12. 10 5 4 1,409 736 178 136 115 68 br. gi’- 115 _ 12.7 5 3 1,440 759 174 148 127 78 d. br. gi'- 116 _ 12. 11 5 2 1,367 742 172 149 129 68 l.br. gr. bl. 117.. . 12.1 5 4 1,336 707 175 139 119 66 d.br. gi’- 118. . 12. 11 5 1 1,470 754 176 139 123 85 br. bl. 119 _ 12.0 3 3 1,349 694 184 144 12.5 64 d.br. br. 120. . 12.10 8 5 1,442 743 193 155 133 79 br. gi’- 121 _ 12.9 8 2 1,424 755 180 141 121 75 bio. gr. bl. 122 . 12.10 8 4 1,611 845 190 162 ia5 130 bio. gr.bl. 123 _ 12. 11 8 2 1,401 7.30 186 146 124 74 bio. gi’- 124 _ 12.8 8 3 1,393 723 ia5 148 12.5 67 br. br. 125 _ 12.5 7 1 l,4a5 734 183 144 128 85 bio. bl. 126. . . 12.10 7 2 1,4:38 752 173 139 120 80 bio. gi‘- 3 .... 1 .... 3 a 1 2 1 .... 2 1 2 .... 1 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 2 3 5 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 o 2 2 2 1 3 4 3 4 1 2 2 'i 1 2 2 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 6 5 3 1 3 4 5 6 2 3 2 3 3 Brothers, 70 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 12-year-oJd hoys. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. I J Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. . 12.8 7 2 1,449 760 182 141 125 73 bio. bl. 2 3 128 _ 12.9 7 1 1,454 764 179 138 124 79 bio. bl. 129 _ 12.4 7 2 1,505 788 188 145 121 82 bio. bl. 1 I 130 _ 12.4 7 1 1,534 781 179 149 125 90 br. br. 3 ’”2 131 _ 12.9 7 8 1,417 752 176 141 119 71 bio. gr.bl. 4 1 4 132 _ 12.3 7 1 1,356 730 179 139 118 64 1 bio. bl. 1 1 133 _ 12.4 7 1 1,417 728 180 148 123 72 bio. bl. - 1 134 _ 12.4 6 1 1,408 724 187 146 125 72 bio. br. 1 i:35-- . 12.10 6 1 1,426 738 175 ia5 116 75 1 br. gi*. . 2 ! 136- . 12.5 5 3 1,449 762 182 137 115 70 bio. l.br. 3 137 _ 12.11 5 2 l,:390 703 189 130 110 70 1 bio. gr. 1 138 _ 12.3 5 1 1,342 712 177 i:38 122 58 bio. gi-. 2 ’”2 139 _ 12.5 5 2 1,469 708 185 144 120 83 r. br. gr. 1 140 _ 12.11 5 4 i;486 778 179 1.50 127 74 br. l.br. 2 1 141. . . 12. 10 5 3 1,4.39 771 182 147 122 80 bio. gr. bl. 1 1 142 _ 12.3 4 6 1,406 740 189 143 123 76 br. gi’. 2 0 143 _ 12.6 4 4 1,3.53 714 188 150 122 77 r.blo. bl. 4 144 . . 12.2 3 6 1,340 703 189 149 122 65 1 2 6 145 _ 12.8 2 1 1,464 762 183 136 121 82 j br. 1. br. 146 . . 12.3 2 1,467 736 180 145 130 1 bio. gr. bl. ’”i’ 147 12. 11 3 1,3.55 699 182 134 118 br. br. 1 ”2 148. 12.9 2 1,459 792 197 138 125 br. br. 1 149 _ 12.6 2 1, 4.54 182 147 123 d.br. 1. br. 2 ’ i 150.... 12.8 1 1,480 181 142 124 d. br. d. br. ..... 1 151 _ 12.6 1 1,516 193 139 127 bio. bl. 2 152 12.0 3 1,477 193 147 120 bio. bl. 2 1.53 12.7 7 6 1,529 192 1.50 130 bio. bl. 3 3 1,54 . 12. 10 5 1,509 190 147 126 1 d.br. gr. 3 3 155 . 12.1 6 4 1,440 188 150 126 bio. bl. 2 1 1.56 _ 12.4 5 2 1,414 182 151 125 bio. bl. 1 2 1,57 _ 12.9 1 1,602 185 143 122 : bio. gi’. 1,58 . . 12.6 7 5 1, .507 186 148 134 r.br. d. br. 2 ”3 159.... . 12.3 4 8 1,493 755 181 1,56 128 d. br. bl. 3 2 160 . 12.1 4 4 1.447 736 184 152 130 d.br. gr. 3 2 161 . . 12. 4 5 1 i;463 183 1.50 128 d. br. gr. 1 1 162 _ 12.5 5 5 1,427 183 149 123 l.br. bl. gr. 3 1 163 _ 12.3 5 1 1,444 183 141 119 d. br. bl. 1 164 . 12. 10 6 5 1,388 179 145 125 1. br. bl. 5 3 165 . 12.6 6 3 1,332 178 141 117 d. br. bl. gr. 2 3 166 _ 12.1 6 3 1,382 178 147 121 d, bio. gr. 2 167. . 12.5 1 1,491 759 183 145 125 d. bio. bl. 168 12.3 7 1,347 716 179 145 118 br. bl. 1 1 169. . 12.9 8 1 1,438 728 188 148 125 d. br. bl. 1 1 170 .. . 12.1 8 2 1, 426 764) 18,5 1.50 122 r. bl. 1 1 171 _ 12.9 8 5 1,573 a5i 193 141 120 d. br. d. br. 3 172 _ 12.5 9 2 1, 371 710 184 144 120 ”68’ d. br. d br. ”2’ 1 173 _ 12.0 8 2 1,525 207 1.53 127 93 d.blo. bl. 1 2 174.. . 12.10 5 (> 1,433 183 154 132 d. br. gr. 3 3 175 12.11 5 1,423 755 182 143 120 ’ ' ’so’ r . 1 i ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. 1 Grade. j a; 4^ Cy S Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. 1 Number. bD Grade. P 3 o3 Height sitting. Forearm. 1 Breadth of hand. Weight. 176 . . 12.7 ,5 1,368 740 365 70 65 190 . 12. 8 1,381 720 370 70 69 177 . . 12.4 5 1,462 775 385 66 76 191 _ 12.11 6 1,449 760 400 74 86 178 _ 12.7 4 1,305 710 340 68 65 192. . :i2.8 6 1,424 760 395 70 72 179 12. 11 8 1 393 720 375 68 74 193 12 7 6 1,2.53 665 350 67 64 180 _ 12.7 6 1,482 785 400 71 79 194 . . 12.11 5 1,386 740 395 66 m 181 . . 12.6 7 1,336 710 360 68 61 195 . 12.10 5 1,520 825 415 83 99 182 _ 12.11 7 1,440 755 390 68 79 196. . 12.4 4 1,.377 740 380 66 52 183 _ 12.11 7 1,486 780 400 76 97 197 . . 12.7 5 1,.34.5 700 36.5 66 61 184 _ 12.8 5 1,425 765 380 76 80 198. . 12.6 6 1,445 775 385 70 72 185 12.11 1,522 775 470 70 75 199. 12. 11 7 1,392 720 375 68 66 186 12.6 6 1,487 800 390 91 200 . 12.2 5 1,322 670 385 63 58 187 _ 12.10 5 1,400 7.50 380 74 70 201. . 12.5 4 1,510 820 400 76 113 188 . .. 12.6 7 1,.504 800 400 77 117 202. . 12.1 4 1,448 750 385 70 73 189. . 12.4 4 1,441 740 390 66 74 203 . L2.11 6 1,423 749 400 77 83 STATISTICS OF GEOWTH 71 12-i/ear-ol(I hoys. Worccslci', Mass. — Continued. u E r E A^r E D :m e a s uii e :\i e n t s . N timber in 11-year series. Age. Grade. stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. S’ ‘S Number in 11 -year series. 1 OJ cS 6 1 1 stature. 1 Height 1 sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. A A 1 . 12.8 8 1,422 734 371 « 75 .53 . 12.5 6 1,492 765 415 73 88 2 . . 12.9 8 l,43;i 778 386 75 74 .54 . 12.9 1 6 1,-577 780 420 76 103 4 _ 12.11 1,521 780 407 81 88 55 . 12.1 5 1,4.55 765 :395 70 79 6 12.3 1,323 708 361 64 61 .56 . 12. 2 ! 7 1,510 800 FK) 7.5 91 8 . . 12.8 7 1.364 744 :167 67 88 .57 . 12.3 1 5 l,:385 720 :3!i5 * 3 70 9 _ 12.8 7 1,428 756 398 74 80 58. . . 12.1 5 1,-540 8:30 420 82 116 10 . 12.4 7 1,522 785 425 72 86 60 . 12.11 4 1 , 4.36 745 4(X) 76 82 11 . . 12. 10 7 1,522 811 420 73 94 61 . 12.11 4 1,:396 725 375 70 71 12 . . 12.7 6 1,447 758 392 66 72 62 . 12. 8 8 i,:33:3 690 :360 69 68 14 12.10 5 1,462 i 780 400 66 78 63 . . 12.10 8 1,-531 810 410 77 9fi 15 . . 12.7 6 1,382 ' 7-30 380 70 77 64 . 12.8 7 1,470 815 425 80 1:35 17 . . . 12.0 6 1,462 754 395 70 84 65 . 12.4 7 1, 385 710 :390 71 70 18 . . 12. 5 6 1,333 725 376 69 74 66 . 12.8 7 1,425 7:35 400 70 66 20 12.11 4 1,343 688 380 68 70 68 _ 12.4 6 1,404 770 370 69 67 22 . . 12.6 6 1,305 687 :i65 67 63 69 . 12.10 5 1,416 745 :380 75 77 12.9 5 1,348 711 378 70 70 ! 72. . 12. 1 5 1,416 740 :380 71 74 24 12.7 5 1,390 750 390 68 76 7:3 . 12.8 5 1,401 760 380 7.3 76 25 . . 12.5 5 1,346 7.32 365 68 76 74 _ 12.5 5 1,420 765 415 7.3 101 26 12.1 3 1, 4:1:3 1 7:14 380 68 71 77. . 12. 0 4 1,-384 735 380 71 73 27 12 8 3 1,477 i 780 415 76 10:3 78. . 12.9 5 1,424 7.55 :390 7.5 28 12.8 7 1,500 1 780 410 ■’^5 86 80 . 12.6 7 1, 4.37 7.5.5 :380 7i’ 75 29 . . 12.3 5 1,442 i 790 395 70 80 81 _ 12. 7 1,419 755 390 72 78 31 _ '12.3 6 1,310 ! 700 3.55 65 60 82.. . 12. 11 7 1,4.54 775 385 74 85 32 12 7 6 1 428 1 755 390 72 84 83 . 12.7 7 1,477 755 400 75 82 33 _ 12.5 6 1,410 750 385- 74 74 84. . 12. 10 8 1,475 785 400 82 94 34 _ 12.2 6 1,326 710 355 68 69 85 . 12.6 7 1,-518 780 420 76 98 36 . 12. 11 6 1,492 810 400 76 86 86. . 12.11 7 1,:346 740 360 70 69 37 _ 12. 10 8 I,:i80 720 360 65 63 87 _ 12.7 7 1,.3:30 720 3.50 7.3 80 38... . 12.4 6 1,450 765 390 73 84 89 . 12.6 5 1,464 760 400 72 76 39 T> 6 g 1 422 ! 755 f^5 65 71 94 12 11 5 1 333 715 360 70 71 4:1 _ 12.9 U:142 ! 735 370 70 66 96. . - 12.1 5 1,472 775 385 68 78 45 12 1 "2' 1, .332 1 740 365 69 68 99 12.11 3 1,386 720 400 75 78 49 . . . . 12.3 i 7 1,-389 1 720 .370 72 7i 102. . 12.11 1,307 715 360 71 76 50 _ 12. 1 1 7 1,467 1 760 :390 76 81 107 . 12.8 y 1,416 7.50 380 72 81 51 12 0 ! 6 1,452 1 765 385 71 73 112 12.0 5 l,:38l 730 380 72 69 52... . 12.11 i “ 1,-351 1 710 360 69 70 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. i Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. 1 Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth ofl hand. j Forearm. ,57 . 1 117 16.5 i 1 ! 181 . 68 360 158 . . . I" . 109 167 1 182 . . 68 390 1.59 _ i,495 105 148 1 - : 183.. . . 76 400 160 _ 1 1,475 i-- 1(X) 151 184 . . 76 380 161 . 101 1.59 71 185 70 470 162 . . . I 98 144 70 186 _ _ :390 163 . r . 98 149 74 187 . - 74 380 164 . . . 106 1.59 71 188 . . . 400 165 . 99 148 68 189 .... 6f> aoo 166 _ 100 1.50 67 190 _ _ 70 370 167 . 97 158 7.3 191. . 74 ! 400 168 - . 94 145 65 192 . . . 70 395 169 . . . 107 156 71 193 . 67 :3.50 170 . 101 153 69 194 . 66 a95 171 . . 107 164 73 195 . . . 83 415 172 . 96 1.54 73 380 196 . 66 380 173 _ _ 111 181 76 420 197 . 66 365 174 _ 107 168 71 :390 198.. . . . 70 .3a5 175 . 102 155 67 378 199 .... 68 375 176 . . . . 70 365 200.... . 1 63 a85 177 . . . [ 66 3a5 201- . . 1 76 400 178 _ _ _ 68 340 202.. . 1 . 70 385 179 _ . 68 375 203 . 77 400 180 . . . . i 71 400 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. 13-year-old hoys. Worcester, Mass. Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Brea dth of head. Brea dth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 1. . 13.0 1 1,479 762 183 149 126 l.br. br. 2 13.3 4 l'452 745 187 138 115 bio. gr. bl 1 3 . . 13.3 3 1,4.54 755 185 137 117 bio. gr.bl. gi*. 2 1 4 . . 13.11 2 i;471 769 183 148 121 83 l.br. 1 1 5 13.6 1 1,413 741 191 146 125 72 br. bl. 1 6 13.7 1 1,622 829 186 145 128 92 bio. bl. 1 7... . 13.3 8 3 i;472 785 186 145 122 85 br. br. 3 8. . 13.5 4 1,459 756 193 146 117 75 d. br. d. br. 1 2 9--. . 13. 10 8 O 1,507 758 191 143 123 80 br. bl. 1 10 13.4 3 1,505 752 189 1.59 ia5 96 br. bl. 1 2 11 _ 13.6 7 3 1,435 753 184 145 126 84 br. gi’. 1 1 12 . - 13. 7 1 1,487 783 193 145 124 88 br. gr. 13 _ 13.8 1 1,.521 736 191 154 133 88 bio. bl. 14 . . 13.5 1 i;431 727 190 146 124 72 bio. bl. 1 1 15 13.6 1 1,'340 710 181 142 121 72 bio. bl. 16 . 13.3 2 1,471 760 193 149 126 88 r. bl. 1 , o 17 . 13.4 1 1,503 781 178 147 1.33 101 1 br gr. 1 18 _ 13.2 1 1,467 750 180 144 130 90 br. 1. br. 19-..- . 13.6 2 1,432 777 175 147 121 83 d. br. gr. br. r"2 20-... . 13.2 6 1 1,366 690 187 144 120 69 br. br. 1 1 21... . 13.3 6 1 1,498 792 194 144 125 79 br. gi’. 1 1 22 . . 13.3 2 1,410 720 180 1.38 114 69 br. gr. 1 23 . . 13. 5 6 1 1,578 825 187 150 131 135 br. br. 1 24 _ 13.5 6 2 1,311 712 180 146 121 65 br. br. 2 i 25 . 13.2 2 1,540 789 192 150 122 91 1. br. gr. 3 26 _ 13.9 5 1 1,568 799 186 140 120 98 d.br. bl. gr. 1 1 27.... . 13. 4 5 1 1,547 806 185 147 127 12,3 br. bl. gr. 1 2 28... . 13. 3 5 1,400 762 185 148 125 79 d. br. d.br. 2 5 29. . 13. 11 9 1 1,610 844 192 144 126 105 bio. bl. 3 2 30.... . 13.2 8 1 1,531 769 191 144 121 91 br. bl. 1 2 31.... . 13.8 8 3 1,522 812 185 153 129 91 bla. gi'. 2 2 32 . . 13.3 8 1 1,474 751 186 150 126 85 br. bl. 2 1 33... . 13. 11 8 2 1,430 744 181 144 129 89 br. bl. 1 34. . 13.8 8 2 1,.556 799 195 150 131 92 br. br. 3 ""2 35.. . 13.2 8 1 1,406 742 181 141 124 75 br. bl. 1 36.... . 13.8 6 1 1,342 685 175 138 113 62 br. bl. 3 37 _ 13. 11 6 1 1,529 784 179 147 121 75 1. br. br. 38 _ _ 1.3.0 6 2 1,375 735 178 142 117 71 1. br. bl. O 39... . 13.9 6 .. 1,492 788 182 149 121 90 d. br. l.br. (?) C'f' 40 _ 13.1 6 1,457 784 192 147 120 78 bla. gr. 2 1 4] _ 13.9 6 3 1,551 787 187 153 129 100 bio. bl. 1 1 42... . 1.3.8 4 1 1,475 752 177 14.3 122 90 bio. gr. 1 43 _ 13.2 6 2 1,460 767 186 1,50 122 79 br. gr. br. 1 .... 44... . 13. 10 5 2 1,634 847 190 156 130 106 br. gr. 1 45 . . 13.2 7 3 1,.5.53 802 186 147 126 104 bio. gr. bl. 1 1 46.... . 1.3.2 7 3 1,.501 773 186 1,55 125 83 br. bl. 3 2 47 _ 13.9 7 3 1,394 729 190 1.50 127 76 br. br. 1 4 48 _ 13.3 7 2 1,505 752 186 145 130 83 d.blo. bl. 1 49 _ 13.9 7 3 1,.377 7.39 171 146 120 69 bio. gr. bl. 1 6 50. . 13.9 7 2 1,466 772 179 149 122 79 d. bio. gr.bl. 1 51.... . 13.5 7 1 1,5.55 808 195 147 118 98 r. bl. gr. 2 .... 52 . 13.5 5 1 1 501 751 174 147 125 74 1. br. bl. 53.... . . ].3. 0 8 4 l’,.586 869 182 149 132 115 d. br. br. 3 3 54. . 13.3 8 1 1,403 782 192 149 127 92 br. br. 55 _ 13.7 8 2 1,.515 779 189 146 124 99 br. bl. 2 1 56 _ 13. 10 8 1 1,515 787 189 1.51 121 93 br. gr. 2 57 _ 13.4 7 1 1,416 751 188 136 121 77 br. bl. 58 _ 13.4 7 1 1,485 786 189 146 125 99 br. br. 1 59 _ 1.3.6 7 2 1,424 731 186 142 119 76 bio. bl. 3 3 60 _ 13.8 7 2 1,535 789 188 146 124 98 br. bl. 2 1 61 _ . 13.2 6 6 1,395 724 180 142 124 76 bio. bl. 3 2 62 _ 1.3.1 6 1 1,420 696 191 1.52 127 75 br. bl. 1 1 63 _ 13.7 6 2 1,410 733 176 147 123 79 d. br. gr. bl. 5 2 64 _ 13. 10 6 4 1,530 802 189 147 116 95 br. bl. 2 3 65 _ 13.1 5 7 1,500 767 182 148 126 88 br. bl. 1 5 66 _ 13.5 6 1 1,356 732 178 148 125 69 d. br. bl. 2 67 _ 13.6 5 5 1,514 805 185 1.59 137 144 d. br. br. 3 1 68 _ 13.3 4 1 1,388 735 181 146 123 69 d. bio. bl. 1 69 _ 13.5 4 7 1,368 726 180 118 122 67 d. br. bl. 5 5 70.. . . 1.3.9 8 2 1,443 736 177 155 124 71 br. gr. 3 1 71.... . . 13.3 8 4 1,446 759 183 155 133 78 br. bl. 4 3 72 _ 13.6 8 3 1,541 790 183 147 121 91 d.blo. bl. 2 2 73 _ 13.3 8 7 1, 437 716 188 1.56 12.3 76 r. bl. bl. 2 7 74.... . . 13.1 7 1 1,.530 782 191 140 121 78 br. 1. br. 1 75.. . . 13.5 7 1 1,493 763 197 142 122 81 br. gr. bl. 76 _ _ 1.3.1 7 10 1,405 750 191 149 125 82 bio. gr. bl. 7 3 77.. . . 13.8 7 1 1,510 795 184 147 122 93 br. bl. 1 78 _ 13.0 6 1 1,,374 728 182 145 122 62 br. bl. 1 79 _ 1.3.9 6 7 1, 422 757 180 149 129 83 br. bl. 6 2 STATISTICS OF GROWTH, 73 13-ifear-old l)Oijs. ^Yorccstcr, Alass. — Contiinied. Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. Height 1 sitting. 1 Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. 1 1 Hair. 1 ! ! Eyes. 80 . . 13.7 5 8 1, 490 778 185 149 123 87 d. br. d. br. 81 . 13.1 4 3 1,482 773 182 146 123 78 br. br. 82 . 13.0 8 6 1,373 705 182 147 127 68 br. gi’- 83 . 13.8 8 2 1,519 763 177 142 128 82 d. br. bl.gr. 84 . . 13.11 7 1 1,641 853 178 149 131 no br. gi*. 85 . 13.7 7 1 1,380 751 190 150 124 75 br. bl. 86 . 13.11 7 2 1,562 787 184 145 127 98 br. gr. bl. 87 . 13. 10 7 1 1,460 770 186 147 133 80 d. br. gi’- 88 . 13.9 7 3 1,557 790 179 144 132 95 br. bl. 89 . 13. 6 6 5 1,436 746 168 152 127 86 bla. d. br. 90... . 13.8 6 4 1,585 801 186 146 122 101 bio. bl. 91 . 13.10 6 3 1,442 771 183 151 121 84 bio. gr. bl. 92 . . 13.2 6 3 1,554 780 185 146 129 131 br. br. 93 . 13.7 9 1 1,606 818 183 141 119 114 d. br. 1. br. 94. . 13.4 9 6 1,470 770 183 137 118 78 br. bl. 95 _ 13. 11 6 2 1,526 790 192 149 126 96 br. bl. 96 . . 13.5 9 1 1,484 753 194 147 121 83 d. bio. bl. 97 . 13.10 9 2 1,443 774 183 146 124 79 bio. bl. 98. . 13. 10 9 7 1,498 772 198 140 123 85 d. br. br. 99. . 13.9 8 1 1,470 784 183 146 125 91 1. br. bl. 100 . 13.10 8 3 1,496 763 187 141 126 81 bio. bl. 101 _ 13.4 6 3 1,459 775 191 148 130 94 br. br. 102. . 13.11 8 5 1,438 720 186 142 117 76 bio. bl. 103. . 13.10 6 3 1,569 803 197 148 121 103 bio. bl. 104. . 13.5 6 5 1, 385 760 180 145 126 70 d. br d. br. 105 . . 13.8 6 5 1,412 750 182 150 127 84 br. gr. bl. 106. . . 13. 11 6 1 1,426 719 185 145 124 64 br. gr. 107 . 13.1 6 2 1,443 771 183 149 123 76 d. br. bl. 108. . 13.0 5 1 1,323 724 174 137 118 63 br. bl. gr. 109 . 13.1 5 6 1,383 753 175 145 123 88 br. br. no . . 13.6 5 3 1,366 179 133 116 d. br. d. br. Ill _ 13.5 8 1 1,485 768 184 144 127 '"scT br. gr. 112 . . 13.5 8 1 1,431 738 191 142 122 72 br. gr. bl. 113. . 13.9 8 5 1,430 742 197 139 121 77 br. gr. 114 . 13. 6 8 2 1,400 733 188 143 121 73 1. br. br. 115 _ 13.3 7 2 1,554 775 184 156 134 93 bio. bl. 116 . 13.6 3 1,528 798 195 155 136 bio. bl. gr. 117 _ 13.4 7 1 1,476 734 176 136 124 74 bio. bl. 118 . 13.5 7 5 1,528 783 181 154 126 99 bio. gr.bl. 119 . :.. 13.2 7 2 1, 4.50 751 182 151 121 82 bio. bl. 120 . . 13.3 7 1 1,494 776 192 156 123 88 br. br. 121... . 13.3 7 1 1,584 785 191 155 131 95 br. bl. 122 _ 13.2 6 3 1,433 757 181 140 116 73 br. br. 123 _ 13.0 6 1 1,405 734 180 148 125 81 d. bio. bl. 124. . . 13.3 6 3 1,483 727 185 153 127 83 r. gr. 125 . . 13.5 5 2 1,353 696 177 142 115 64 bio. bl. 126 _ 13.9 4 1 1,382 724 177 139 115 69 br. gi*- 127 _ 13.5 5 1,532 804 193 148 128 105 d. br. d.br. 128 . . 13.7 4 1,560 814 203 154 125 118 br. 1 bl. 129 _ 13 8 1 1 546 799 174 150 124 85 d bio ! sfi* 130.. . 13.11 10 1 1,’614 800 183 154 139 106 br. 1 br. 131 _ 13.11 1 1,544 808 188 152 124 98 d.br. gi‘- 132 _ 13.6 2 1,514 780 184 157 132 85 d.br. 1 gr.br. 133 _ 13.5 1 1,708 905 191 148 135 135 d.br. i gr. 134 _ 13. 11 9 3 1,713 195 150 128 d.br. , bl. 135.. . 13.3 9 6 1,509 191 149 121 1 136 _ 13.8 9 1 1,606 193 144 127 bio 1 g bl. 137 _ 13.8 9 1 1 \ 605 196 153 129 d.br. a:br. 138 _ 13. 1 8 3 1,543 184 143 117 1 br bl 139. . 13 0 8 2 l’435 181 159 126 ci.br. ! bi. 140. . . 13.7 8 1 li496 186 148 129 d. bio. ' l.br. 141 _ 13.5 8 6 1 , 406 190 142 120 r. br. 1 l.br. 142 _ 13.8 7 2 1,574 198 149 122 d.br. 1 1 bl. 143... . 13.6 7 2 1,461 184 146 123 d.blo. i bl. 144 _ 13.8 7 3 1,463 184 153 126 d.blo. ! bl. gr. 145 . . 13 1 7 2 1,477 178 150 126 d.br. gr. 146 _ 13.6 6 2 1,580 183 149 134 d. br. gr. 147. . . 13.3 5 1 1,483 176 144 125 d. br. S. br. 148. . . 13 0 4 13 1^351 187 149 128 d. br. bl. 149 . 13.6 4 3 i!632 184 145 122 bla. d. br. 150 _ 13 3 4 8 1,418 180 154 135 151.... . 13 5 7 6 1,445 196 142 128 d. br. gr. 152... . 13.3 5 2 1,417 180 150 132 bio. fel. 153 _ 13.8 7 2 1,462 191 145 122 d. br. gi’- 154 _ 13 11 7 1 1,544 188 145 126 d. br. gr. 155 _ 13. 7 3 4 1,368 182 139 122 d.blo. bl. 158 . . 13.3 Q 5 1,431 190 141 125 d.br. ! gr. 157 . . 13 11 5 4 l’458 184 144 124 l.br. gr.br. 158 . 13.4 5 8 i!403 183 146 132 d.blo. 1 gr. 1 2 5 2 5 5 5 1 1 2 ... 1 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 5 2 2 1 1 2 5 1 6 2 1 5 2 6 4 1 ’4' 5 1 1 3 3 3 2 1 1 3 1 6 1 2 3 .... 2 1 2 .... 1 1 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 .. 2 1 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 2 .... 3 3 1 .... 1 2 2 2 1 .... 1 1 1 4 2 .... 2 I 3 5 2 ... 1 ... 1 1 1 T 8 3 3 2 5 3 4 5 1 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 ... 1 4 5 Brothers. 74 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. IS-year-oId yoys. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. Child. 6 u $ 02 Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. A To '0 Hair. 0) Brothers. Sisters. | 159 _ 1.3.9 5 6 1,384 194 145 122 d.blo. bl. .3 2 160. . 13.11 5 2 1,458 173 145 118 d. hr. arr. 1 3 161 _ 13.7 4 1,460 182 140 120 1. hr. bl. 2 1 162.. . 13.2 7 2 1,374 715 180 143 121 d. br. bl. 2 1 16.3 _ 1.3.2 2 1,414 722 187 155 1:32 d.br. 1. br. 1 1 164 _ 13.0 7 3 1,415 737 170 144 126 d. br. bl. 1 1 165. . . 13.6 8 1 1,451 752 182 147 121 l.br. bl. 1 166 _ 13.6 8 2 1,470 768 181 146 123 d. br. 1. br 3 i 167 _ 13.11 8 1 1,526 744 193 1.51 1.30 l.br. bl. 1 1 168 . 13. 11 8 1 1,500 770 193 147 128 '"si" br. br. 2 1 ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. 6 5 stature. Height sitting. 1 Forearm. ! Breadth of hand. 4^ % ‘3 1 i Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. 169 . 13.6 7 1,4.57 745 397 69 77 173_C_... 13. 7 5 1,288 690 355 63 59 170 _ 1.3.1 7 1,368 735 .380 7’1 65 174 _ 13.4 8 1,472 7.^5 395 72 78 171 _ 13.5 7 1,681 887 478 ! 87 168 175 . . 1.3.6 6 1,-560 790 425 71 83 172 . 13.4 6 1,.555 810 448 ' 80 , 101 1 1 1 REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. N umber in 12-year series. Age. Grade. <£ "cl Height sitting. Forearm. cS S q-j w = Weight. Number in 12-year series. Age. j Grade. Stature. Height sitting. 1 Forearm. Breadth of hand. i S ‘S 3 9 1,613 864 470 84 198 61 . 13. 11 1 ,5 1,-552 945 1 86 4 _ 13. 10 9 1,.590 816 435 100 62 _ 13.8 j 9 1,-542 800 4.35 82 105 5 - 13. 8 8 1,.571 796 432 82 97 63 _ 13.4 1,-392 740 380 70 69 6 _ i 13. 6 8 1,.573 810 448 84 112 64-. . 13. 10 1,352 685 a55 68 ! 63 7 _ : 13.0 8 1,5.55 798 426 73 112 67 . 13. 11 7 1,427 745 .380 78 79 8 13.8 1,6.32 837 106 68 . 13. 11 7 1 . 606 840 4.50 84 : 108 Q g 1,528 791 412 76 84 71 _ 13.4 7 1,449 740 375 68 ' 72 10 8 li.514 788 422 112 72 13 8 7 1 ’ 465 745 395 74 i 81 12 _ 13.4 8 1,701 915 465 89 131 74. . 1.3.9 7 1,450 770 390 72 1 15 _ 7 1,498 778 402 72 91 75 _ 13.7 7 1,4.52 740 410 78 82 16 _ 13. 10 7 1,468 767 405 76 89 76 . 13.4 7 1,,525 810 400 73 i 79 17 1.3.11 8 1,576 790 4.35 75 92 1 T7 7 1,-564 8:30 420 75 97 19 13 5 1 377 745 360 72 66 78 13 6 6 1,416 765 400 7.5 81 20 _ 7 i,m m 376 68 82 ; 79 _ 1.3.6 6 1,476 745 395 72 1 Si 21 13 3 7 1,373 713 374 66 61 i 80 Il3. 4 5 1,515 790 420 71 1 80 22 _ 13.5 r- 1,.512 820 415 78 126 87 _ 13.4 8 1,-502 785 385 77 89 23 . . 1,3.1 7 1,452 753 401 74 81 89 . 1.3.2 8 1,445 765 .390 73 82 24 _ 13.6 : 6 1,417 7.50 384 70 76 90.. . 13.4 8 1,432 7.50 .380 71 71 2b... ... 13.7 6 1,413 745 ,390 67 75 ' 91 _ 1.3.2 8 1,508 775 410 75 88 26 _ 13.6 6 1,294 690 350 68 61 94- . 13. 10 8 1,451 740 390 66 74 27 _ 13. 10 8 1,372 710 355 69 73 , 95 . 13.4 5 1,421 765 400 72 83 28 _ 1.3.7 5 1,4.50 735 380 71 76 i 97- . 13. 11 8 1,494 785 415 81 102 29 13.8 6 1,402 730 390 64 78 ' 99 . 13.0 6 1,480 770 .380 68 76 31 _ 13.2 5 1,507 780 415 78 96 100 . 1.3.5 8 1, 407 750 380 74 82 38 _ 13. 2 7 1. 566 800 420 74 100 102 . 13. 5 1,-519 800 410 77 90 3',1 _ 13. .3 7 1,-562 806 431 78 92 104 _ 13.8 "s’ 1,496 795 405 79 85 41 _ 1.3.0 7 1,572 860 420 80 108 107 . . 13.9 6 1,519 810 420 80 101 44 _ 13.2 5 1,561 805 425 74 89 109. . 13.8 9 1,433 760 380 75 78 45 _ 13. 1 7 1,405 735 380 67 68 112 _ 13.6 6 1, 462 775 390 74 86 46 _ 13.10 i 7 1,,561 825 425 80 100 113 _ 13.3 6 1,452 770 390 73 72 47 _ 13.2 6 1,502 795 400 74 86 114 _ 13. 10 6 1,472 770 395 69 73 48 13 8 6 1 .559 840 405 76 102 115 13.7 6 1,466 760 390 73 84 49 _ 13.9 1,-547 770 425 77 86 117 . 13.2 6 1, 400 740 380 71 77 51 _ 13.5 8 1, 4.52 7.50 490 67 71 120 _ 13.10 9 1,.500 775 405 75 86 52 _ 1.3.8 8 1,494 815 410 75 102 122 _ 13. 10 9 1,685 895 485 85 140 53 13. 11 8 1,516 810 415 77 95 123 _ 1.3.11 9 1,481 770 400 75 85 54 _ 13.6 8 1,516 770 420 76 80 128 _ 13.8 9 1, 432 745 370 68 71 5(5 _ 1.3.1 5 1, 450 765 390 70 77 142 _ 13. 3 5 1,448 760 370 75 85 58. . 13.8 6 1,506 825 405 81 93 144 _ 13. 2 4 1,383 750 360 68 74 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 75 13-i/ear-old hoys. Worcester, .l/as-.v.— -Continued. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). 1 Breadth of 1 hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 12T 1,576 1,55:3 1,594 1,679 1,.559 1,505 1, 710 103 109 102 111 104 109 119 109 113 104 105 108 111 95 107 105 107 1 159 . 101 104 93 97 100 99 95 103 100 167 167 159 158 155 147 159 164 157 71 71 73 70 67 69 75 73 73 69 71 87 80 63 72 71 128 . 160 . 129 161 . 180 . - 162- _ _ 131 163 . . 132 . 164. . . 133 165 . I,4f56 1,523 148 . . 174 190 162 162 162 161 156 166- . . . 149 167 . 150 . 1 1 169- _ _ 397 380 478 448 355 395 425 151 _ 1 . 170 _ 153 . . ' 171 . . 154 . . i 172 . 155 : 173 . 156 . . i 162 1 75 1 174 _ _ 157 _ _ 164 1 74 i 160 73 175 _ - . 158 . i 1 I 'l-year-otd hoys. Worcester, 2Iass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. Child. 6 -2 tn Height sitting. Lengthof head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. j 1 Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 1- 14.2 2 1.511 780 185 154 122 1 bio. bl. 1 2... 14.0 4 1,5:33 801 182 148 126 bio. g.bl. i 1 3 . 14.3 9 1 1,460 783 188 144 124 90 : br. br. 2 3 4 _ 14.9 1 1,411 743 185 144 117 75 d.br. br. 1 2 5 _ _ 14.5 1 1.584 803 187 144 121 94 l.br. bl. 1 1 6.... 14.3 3 1,539 791 192 140 120 97 bio. bl. 3 14.6 1 1,561 795 189 144 121 85 1 bio. bl. 1 i 8 _ 14.11 1 1,470 752 182 145 122 80 br. g.br. 1 9 14.3 3 1,537 770 175 145 1:30 83 l.br. bl. 2 '"2 10 _ 14.8 5 1,515 770 188 151 1:30 95 d. br. gr. 1 3 11 _ 14.3 1 1,587 820 193 148 126 110 1. br. g.br. 1 12.... . 14.9 . . 8' 2 1,601 794 188 149 1:30 114 br. g.br. "'i- 1 13... 14.1 2 1,520 785 194 1.55 132 98 br. g.bl. ,5 3 14 . 14.8 1 1 1,506 769 185 149 133 91 bla. gr. 1 15 14.7 2 1,385 723 177 148 125 7.5 1. br. bl. 1 16 _ 14.3 8 1,570 797 191 148 131 111 d. br. br. "'8 17 _ 14.4 2 1,412 752 183 1.58 132 91 1. br. bl. 2 18.... 14.5 2 1 1,113 718 175 139 117 74 br. gr. ’3 19 _ _ 14.10 6 2 I 1,516 778 191 1.51 121 92 d.br. br. 2 20 _ _ 14.11 6 2 i 1,113 7,30 187 141 121 87 bla. br. 1 .... 21 _ 14.5 6 1 1,680 900 195 150 132 1.30 1. br. gr. 22 . 14.10 8 1 1,700 869 189 145 13:3 112 d. br. g. br. 1 23 14.8 9 2 1,622 844 195 146 129 2 24-... 14.2 9 i 1 1 1,610 8a3 187 143 1.36 1 25 14.2 9 ; 1 1 1 , 5:36 807 187 145 12,3 85 1 ”4 26 _ 14.6 9 i 1,559 820 187 145 128 88 bla. gr. 1 ' 2 27-.-. . 14.0 8 3 1,4.54 770 188 1.53 125 83 bla. gr. 1 2 28. . 14.10 8 ! 2 1,705 891 190 140 1:30 131 br. gr. 1 29 _ 14.8 8 i 2 1 1,676 882 209 162 145 1.35 bla. gr. 1 30 _ 14.11 8 1 1 1 1,593 829 183 1 148 1.30 100 bla. g.br. 3 '"2 31 . 14.9 8 1 4 1..520 799 184 145 126 81 1. br. bl. 2 3 32 . 14.7 7 1 2 i 1,.510 767 190 146 123 95 bio. bl. 4 3:3... . 14.3 7 3 i 1,4.51 746 187 ! 142 122 80 rd. gr. ”’2 34. . . 14.7 9 i 3 1 1,650 877 191 1 149 130 11.3 d.br. br. 1 2 35. . 14.1 9 i 1 i 1, 623 820 194 : 148 1:33 105 l.br. IS; 36 14.3 9 1 1 , 569 814 184 149 124 96 br. 37 _ 14.4 9 2 1 1,.576 8.3:3 192 1 147 124 98 br. br. 1 38 14.10 9 1 1 1 , 560 8.33 186 ' 1,52 1:30 104 d. br. bl. 39 _ 14.9 9 2 j 1,.597 825 190 ! 1.50 130 101 bio. gr. 1 40.. . 14.0 8 1 I 1,339 759 190 ' 146 124 75 rd. br. br. 41.... . 14.9 8 9 i 1,615 841 202 i 151 137 126 bla. d. br. 6 4 42 _ 14.1 8 3 1,522 791 186 ' 149 126 94 bla. l.br. 2 1 43 . 14.9 8 4 1 1,42:3 752 188 , 149 121 78 d. bio. bl. 1 4 2 76 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 14-year-old boys. IVorcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. 6 a Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. m 0) H 44 _ 14. 3 8 3 1,523 773 177 145 1.31 86 d.br. d. br. 14 2 8 2 1,626 851 166 147 128 119 rd. £^r. 40 _ 14.0 8 1 1,630 815 186 149 124 no br. Lbr. 47 _ 14.0 7 4 1,575 814 199 154 1:33 109 d. br. gr- 48... . . 14.7 7 2 1,581 812 183 135 119 93 d.br bl. 49 _ 14.5 7 1 1,568 824 193 143 120 104 l.br. gr. 50 _ 14.3 6 2 1,558 804 185 151 112 107 br. br. 51-.. . . 14. 10 6 1 1,620 854 188 147 115 no d.blo. bl. 52 _ 14.11 6 5 1,538 780 171 141 118 85 d.br. gr- 53 _ 14.8 6 2 1,705 890 187 150 123 1.39 br. bl. 54 _ 14.6 5 7 1,420 785 185 145 120 78 bio. bl. 55 _ 14.4 7 2 1,529 805 192 148 129 151 d. br. br. 50 _ 14.7 5 2 1,530 787 185 150 127 82 d. br. bl. 57 _ 14.5 8 2 1,616 852 189 156 128 113 1. br. bl. 58 _ 14.9 8 2 1,606 814 188 145 122 102 d. br. bl. 59 _ 14.0 8 5 1,558 823 181 146 131 99 br. br. 00... . . 14.3 7 2 1, 6.55 877 192 151 132 124 rd. bl. 61 _ 14.8 6 2 1,.545 821 175 157 125 94 br. gr. 62 _ 14.3 6 5 1,492 795 182 149 119 86 1. br. bl. 63 _ 14.3 4 2 181 144 128 d. br. d. br. 64 _ 14.9 8 2 1,685 898 189 150 129 “122' d. br. bl. 65 . . 14.5 7 i 1,450 764 179 i 142 120 82 bla. d. br. 66 _ 14.8 7 4 1,553 802 181 147 123 94 br. br. 67... . . 14.2 7 3 1,492 757 177 144 127 84 d. br. d. br. 68... . . 14.6 7 2 1,534 792 193 142 124 102 br. bl. 69 _ 14.0 9 6 1,497 796 186 144 124 91 d. bio. bl. 70. . . 14.0 9 1 1,683 881 189 153 127 117 br. bl. 71... . 14.9 9 3 1,648 833 187 151 129 112 1. br. bl. 72 _ 14. 10 9 3 1,610 792 191 143 125 93 bio. gr. 73 _ 14.3 9 2 1,568 807 189 146 122 97 d.br. bl. 74 _ 14.3 9 2 1,609 827 182 138 118 98 1. bio. bl. 75 _ 14.9 9 0 1,592 821 190 143 121 118 d. br. g. br. 76 - 14.3 9 4 1 , 555 787 188 148 124 85 bio. g.bl. 77-... . 14.1 9 1 1,374 732 176 141 124 72 bla. br. 78 _ 14. 5 9 3 1,581 815 189 148 129 114 d. br. br. 79 _ 14.11 8 4 1,403 7a5 196 141 125 75 br. br. 80 _ 14.0 8 2 1,565 810 185 148 126 84 br. g. br. 81 _ 14.0 8 1 1,485 765 191 146 129 109 l.br. bl. 82 _ 14.0 8 2 1,508 774 180 145 1.30 84 rd. br. bl. 83 _ 14.7 6 4 1,504 792 188 148 131 98 d.br. d.br. 84 _ 14.6 6 3 1,480 794 189 142 116 91 br. br. 85 - 14.5 6 1 1,481 760 184 148 124 80 br. bl. 80 _ 14.0 5 1 1,390 715 176 140 122 68 d. br. d.br. 87 _ 14.10 8 4 1,714 871 199 149 1.31 133 bio. bl. 88 _ 14.9 8 1 1,579 836 191 148 129 106 d. bio. gr. 89 _ 14.9 8 2 1,636 834 185 141 123 104 bio. bl. 90 _ 14.5 7 1 1,604 823 192 149 130 111 bio. 1. br. 91 _ 14.5 7 3 1,403 730 181 1.54 125 84 br. bl. 92... . . 14.1 7 2 1,331 682 - 189 1.38 116 66 br. br. 93 14.9 3 1,601 816 197 149 130 br. gr. 94 _ 14.3 1 1,612 814 196 1.51 1.32 12.5 d. br. bl. 95 14.11 1 1,6.53 842 184 133 123 108 d. br. d.br. 90 _ 14.0 H.S. 3 1,516 784 190 152 127 91 d. br. g.hl. 97 _ 14.9 H.S. 1 1,680 872 193 144 129 120 br. gr. 98 _ 14.4 H.S. 1 1,490 711 177 142 122 82 d br. d. br. 99 _ 14.10 H.S. 2 1,593 807 192 148 125 115 rd. d.br. 100 _ 14.3 1 1,575 824 186 151 129 116 br. bl. 101 _ 14.1 1 1,524 776 194 149 123 91 br. bl. 102... . . 14. 11 H.S. 3 1,601 826 195 142 122 114 br. bl. 103 _ 14.4 H.S. «i 1,672 852 183 142 122 122 d. br. d.br. 104 _ 14.4 H.S. 4 1,450 752 178 1.50 126 80 d. br. d. br. 105 _ 14.8 H.S. 1 1,716 907 190 152 129 133 br. g.bl. 106 _ 14.8 H.S. 6 1,543 824 186 144 125 105 br. bl. 107 _ 14.5 H.S. 5 1,541 789 200 141 124 98 d.br. d. br. 108 _ 14.6 H.S. 2 1,518 813 186 146 126 93 bio. gr. 109 _ 14.8 H.S. 7 1,494 812 201 154 130 105 br. bl. no _ 14.9 H.S. 1 1,437 772 176 142 126 83 bla. br. 111 _ 14.0 9 4 1,522 793 184 1:39 119 86 br. bl. 112 _ 14.11 H.S. 2 1,668 849 184 143 121 114 1. br. bl. 113.. . 14.0 H.S. 2 1,610 827 184 1.50 127 101 br. bl. 114 _ 14. 10 H.S. 1 1,684 842 195 150 136 117 br. gr. 115 . 14.3 H.S. 4 1,446 744 185 149 133 87 d. br. d. br. 116 . . 14.8 H.S. 1 1,337 677 178 1.53 120 64 d. br. g.bl. 117 . . 14.2 H.S. 4 1,.599 815 198 147 132 115 d. br. d. br. « Twin. ^ Half brother. Half sistei 1 1 ! 3 i 1 0;: 6 , 1 3 .... 1 : 2 Brothers. STATISTICS OF GEOWTR 77 l-'rUcar-oJd hoys. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. 1 Child. Stature, j Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth | of face. Weight. Hair. ; Eyes. Brothers. ; Sisters. | 118.. . 14.9 H.S. 1 1,466 768 188 148 124 104 d. hr. h,i. ..... 2 119 _ 14.11 H.S. 2 1,629 8:i8 188 1.50 125 103 hr. K.W. 120 14.7 3 1 441 758 183 148 125 86 d 1)1* g br 2 3 121 . 14.6 H.S. 2 1,5.50 805 187 144 127 102 br. bl. 4 122 _ 14.10 H.S. 6 1,440 770 190 146 123 86 br. gr. 6 '"3 122 _ 14.3 H.S. 4 1,,533 798 181 145 130 102 d.br. d.l)r. 3 2 124 _ 14.10 H.S. 3 1,545 807 193 151 1.32 103 d.br. g.bl. 3 1 125... . 14. 11 H.S. 1 1,608 832 199 149 127 108 d. br. 1 gr. 1 2 12(5.. . . 14.3 9 3 1,601 860 180 1.50 130 1. br. bl. 4 1 127 . . 14.2 9 5 1,630 850 188 141 131 d.br. 1 d. br. 1 4 128 _ 14.1 9 3 1,530 800 179 144 130 d.br. gr. 1 1 129 _ 14.7 9 4 1,614 870 197 151 132 d.blo. i g.bl. 4 1,30 . . 14.3 9 3 1,660 8(50 190 153 131 d.blo. gi‘. 4 "'4 131 _ 14.11 9 2 1,545 810 182 141 122 d.br. bl. 1 132 _ 14.5 9 5 1,492 820 191 146 129 d.br. 1. br. 2 4 133... . 14.9 9 1 1,622 8.50 194 144 124 I.!..” d. br. gr. 2 134. . 14.3 8 1 1,.558 830 201 149 131 d. br. l.br. 135 . 14.5 8 1 1,409 740 187 153 129 "'is' d. bio. g.bl. ' "2' "'2 136. . . 14.1 8 1 1,472 740 192 1.56 126 71 d.blo. ; l.br. 1 4 137. . 14.7 8 3 1,445 780 192 1.52 122 d.br. bl. 1 2 138 . 14.9 7 1 1,485 800 192 151 96 d. bio. g. bl. ..... 139 . . 14.1 7 2 1,7(J6 910 182 146 137 d. br. bl. 140... . 14.10 7 4 1, 462 780 179 142 122 d. br. d. br. 2 "'2 141 . 14.1 7 2 1,572 840 183 141 127 d.br. gr. 1 1 142 . 14. 5 5 1 1,.554 810 175 1,36 122 '"9(j’ d. br. gr. 1 143 14.0 . 7 1 1,562 840 180 141 128 d. 1)1*. bl. 144... . 14.9 7 3 1,575 850 194 147 135 d. br. g. bl. 4 145 _ 14.5 5 1 1,419 720 177 144 122 76 d. bio. bl. 4 2 146 ... 14.0 7 1 1,-502 820 185 143 129 d.br. gr. 147. . 14.3 1 1,.524 782 178 141 127 90 d.blo. gr. 148 . . 14.3 8 6 1 , .531 824 171 1.50 131 rd. br.l gr. 1 7 149.. . . 14.0 8 1 1,494 790 190 153 128 d.br. j d. br. ..... 3 150 _ 14.6 8 1 1,454 753 190 143 124 '"m d.br. I 1. br. 151... . 14.3 8 6 1,566 810 187 1.58 136 d.br. gr. 4 3 152. . 14.7 9 9 1,-551 8.30 190 150 125 '"96' d.br. 1 bl. 4 4 157. . 14.11 7 1 1,545 799 180 146 126 d.br. g.br. 1 2 161 . 14.8 9 2 1,-596 840 197 150 128 ’ 'iii' d. br. gr. 1 169 . . 14.2 9 6 1,478 860 181 142 122 80 l.br. bl. 1 4 ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. t J Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number. Age. © o3 3 stature, j Height sitting. Forear m . Breadth of hand. I .^0 1 'S 153. ... 14.0 5 1,,545 790 420 76 104 16.3 14.5 9 1 672 8&5 478 80 121 1.54 _ 14.6 9 1,-597 845 460 85 115 164 14.5 7 1 45(5 760 395 69 102 155 . 14.6 1,726 860 490 82 119 165. . 14.11 7 1,610 825 440 79 116 158 . . 14.11 1,625 840 4.50 84 122 1(56. . 14.4 5 1,-518 788 427 79 94 158 _ 14.0 'e' 1,401 745 380 70 78 167 . 14.7 9 1,647 853 4.52 85 124 159 . . 14.2 8 1,605 861 440 83 103 1(58 14.0 7 1,411 720 405 75 82 160 . . 14.10 9 1,.581 795 413 78 88 170 . 14. 11 9 1,577 815 450 80 94 162 _ 14.7 6 1,395 725 370 64 72 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. 14-year-old hoys. Wot^cesfer, 3Iass. — Continued. REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. Number in ITyear series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. 1 Forearm. 1 Brea dth of hand. 1 Weight. Number in 13-year series. Age. j Grade. Height sitting. Forearm. 1 Breadth 1 of hand. 4^ § ’3 > 5 14. 10 9 1,530 805 423 81 87 .58 . 14.4 1,55.5 820 415 76 108 7 14.3 9 1,-537 813 400 75 100 59. . 14.6 1,497 775 400 75 1 94 10::::.... 14.4 8 1,.581 816 450 83 113 60 _ 14.9 "8 1,619 845 445 82 1 104 n . . 14.6 8 1,.533 803 435 83 97 61. . 14.4 7 1,495 795 410 74 113 13 14.8 8 1,580 835 443 84 103 63 _ 14.3 7 1,485 740 410 76 81 13 _ 14.8 8 1,610 810 440 78 100 63 . 14.7 7 1,453 755 390 75 85 If) . ... 14.3 7 1,.563 833 446 81 105 64 _ 14.11 7 1,616 855 430 81 111 18 _ 14.3 8 1,.5.39 795 434 78 108 74 _ 14.1 8 1,644 845 440 80 96 31 _ 14.3 1,570 820 435 77 91 75. . 14.4 8 1,.575 795 4,50 81 97 23 _ 14.3 7 1,470 7'50 403 70 77 77 . . 14.9 8 1,593 840 455 83 111 27 _ 14.4 6 1,635 850 435 74 123 78 _ 14.0 7 1,411 745 365 76 66 28 14.4 6 1,485 805 400 72 93 79 14.9 7 1,,523 810 410 76 103 3(1 14.3 9 1, 642 8:10 455 83 94 83 14 8 9 1,623 830 435 85 104 31 14.9 9 1,643 885 430 81 113 84 . 14. 11 8 1,730 900 485 91 124 33 _ 14.4 9 1,.559 795 455 82 98 86.. . 14.11 8 1,612 840 460 81 110 3:3 14.11 9 1,517 8ft5 405 82 98 87 _ 14.10 8 1,-548 820 425 78 99 35 _ 14.3 9 1,437 755 410 75 81 88 _ 14. 10 7 1,670 845 4.50 86 118 36 _ 14.9 6 1,391 720 38.0 68 69 89 _ 14.5 7 1,.522 800 450 79 107 4(1 14.3 7 1,494 810 415 ' »71 83 91 . 14.9 6 1,495 805 390 74 91 41 _ 14.10 7 1, 635 8:30 475 84 116 93.. . 14.3 8 1,604 835 440 83 1.51 44 .. . ... 1 14.11 6 1, 725 910 470 87 130 99 _ 14.10 9 1,.573 860 425 81 102 45 - 14.4 8 1,643 i 870 450 87 133 101 _ 14.7 7 1,.507 795 410 79 99 46 14.3 8 1,609 845 440 80 103 102 14.11 9 1,.513 780 410 73 84 47 _ 14.9 8 1,4.58 760 395 7.5 91 107.. . 14.2 5 1,496 • 800 400 76 86 48 . . 14.4 8 1,583 805 440 78 96 108. . 14.0 1,388 74.5 370 69 71 49 _ 14. 10 8 1,432 770 385 75 77 Ill _ 14. 5 “9‘ 1,.536 810 425 75 88 51 _ 14.5 8 i,a3i 861 436 87 111 112 . 14.6 9 1,-533 810 420 75 92 .54 _ 14.4 9 1,566 825 435 82 100 113. . 14.10 9 1,.5.S5 810 425 74 93 55 . . 14.7 9 1,610 835 440 85 116 114 . 14.7 9 1,449 870 395 73 80 57 _ 14.3 .... 1,470 770 410 73 82 160 . 14. 10 9 1,581 795 413 78 88 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2;. Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. Height of face 0). Height of face Ci). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 1 _ _ 1,517 1,597 1.646 1,678 1.. 540 1,711 1,566 1.647 1,6:33 1.. 598 1:6.59 1,703 1,475 1,786 1,600 1,626 1,503 1.. 501 1,526 1.. 5.55 1,693 1,603 1,738 1,513 98 102 107 no 108 106 98 104 113 no 111 no 103 113 104 109 103 in 98 100 114 104 115 103 ' 116 . . 1,-396 1,640 1,4:35 1,630 1,494 1, 624 1,465 1,612 1,526 1,684 94 99 105 114 103 106 109 117 101 105 108 105 121 97 102 96 111 no 103 114 116 (?)119 106 105 2 _ _ : 117 . . . 94 . 118 . 1 . 1 95 . i . 119 . . j - 1 - - - ! i:::::: 96 _ _ 120. . . i 97 _ 121 _ 1 98 _ 122 . . 1 99 _ _ 123... . 1 100 . . "■■-I 124 _ 101 _ 125 . 103 _ 142 _ 166 181 178 146 151 165 163 173 158 160 171 (•?)170 177 151 103 . . . 143 . . 104 _ 144 _ “'74' 78 81 80 76 76 78 79 70 85 72 105 . 145 106 _ 146 _ _ 107 . . 147 . . 108 _ 1 1 . 148 109 _ 149 . no _ 1.50 _ _ in . . 1.51- _ _ 113 _ 1.52 _ 400 :380 440 400 113- . 1.57-- . . 1,585 114 . . 161... . 115 . 169 STATISTICS OF GKOWTH, 79 l-j-7jcar-ohl Worcc.'^tcr, ^fass. Is umber. ba < Grade. Child. a5 42 01.12 Length of head. Breadth of head. Bi-eadth of face. 1 be 'S ' ^ *5 K Eyes. 15. 0 1 1,622 834 185 153 1 131 1 hr. 1. br. 2. . . 15. 0 2 1,685 852 190 145 1.34 1 . - bio. g. bl. 15.10 1 1,673 861 183 147 128 d. br. 1 gi*. 4 _ 15.0 6 1..542 . 773 191 148 1.S2 r''83' d.br. 1. bl. 5-- . 15.6 o 1,.566 805 185 151 i.as ■ 112 bla. br. fi _ 15.3 1 1,.55.5 808 193 153 lai ; 97 bio. bl. 7 15. 11 1 1,421 713 178 135 114 ' 74 d.br. br. 8 . 15. 5 o 1.667 839 184 146 128 : 123 bio. g.bl. 9 _ _ 15. 10 3 1.648 838 193 145 128 ' 111 bio. g- br. 10--- . 15-0 7 1 1.6.S1 818 190 150 128 108 l.br. br. 11 _ 15. 10 2 l,-«5 757 182 148 130 86 d.br. d. br. 12-. . . . 15. 2 fl2 1 , -597 822 182 144 129 j 108 br. bl. 18 _ 15.9 9 2 1,7.50 904 181 1 1.55 137 ' 140 br. bl. 14 _ 15.9 5 5 1.401 752 185 1 143 126 85 l.br. gr. 15 _ 15. 7 5 1 1,538 8(K) 186 151 127 93 br. bl. 16 _ 15. 11 9 7 1, 776 914 195 ! 1.51 127 125 br. bl. 17 _ 15.1 7 9 1,485 784 183 1 150 122 : 96 d. br. bl. 18 . 15.9 8 1 1,.597 842 181 1.50 1.S8 1 109 br. bl. 19 _ _ 1.5.9 9 7 1,716 880 205 149 135 ! 147 29 9 2 1,715 890 194 157 137 1 129 21 . 15. 3 9 135 22 15. 7 9 1 ,528 817 180 144 126 96 br. gr. 23 _ 15. 10 9 2 1,609 838 180 146 126 110 bio. bl. 24-- . 15.7 9 2 1,671 848 186 140 124 112 bio. bl. 2.5-- . — 15.2 8 1 i:.531 793 190 1.50 121 90 bio. bl. 26 . 15.6 8 1 1,.566 806 181 141 122 101 l.br. Id. 27 _ 15.6 8 1 1,.522 789 182 150 130 93 br. Id. 28 _ 15. 10 8 1 1,6.13 842 194 161 128 127 bio. bl. 29 _ 15.7 8 3 1,6.34 874 194 1.50 1.S2 128 d.br. gr. 30-- . 15.0 7 1 1,507 754 176 142 123 85 d. bio. bl. 31 . 15. 0 7 2 1, 556 808 175 i 149 123 94 d.blo. g.hl. 32 _ _ 15.1 8 1 1, 7.55 895 195 1 147 126 137 d. br. bl. as _ 15.0 9 2 1 ,521 775 189 150 133 97 1)1-. gr. 34 . . 15.5 9 i 1,694 874 181 ! 1 124 126 br. bl. as . 1.5.2 9 1 1.488 7-56 ISO 143 120 78 1. br. gr. 36 . - 15.2 9 2 1 1,.599 800 186 144 126 100 br. gr. 87 _ 1.5. 0 9 3 189 148 135 bio. br. 38 _ 1.5.8 9 1 ! 1,701 903 191 151 130 '132' br. bl. 39 _ 15. 10 9 3 1,617 841 187 141 121 118 d.br. bl. 40.... . 15. 9 8 6 , 1,568 816 192 144 124 108 d.br. br. 41.. . . 15. 11 8 4 i 1,495 791 193 149 125 90 d. br. l.br. 42 _ 1.5.8 8 - 3 1 1.642 848 189 144 127 121 br. bl. 43 _ _ 15.1 7 2 1 1,.59.S 832 184 148 l.SO 118 bla. br. 44 _ _ 15.10 7 7 1 1,.568 852 167 144 122 99 d. br. bl. 45 15.6 8 1 ! 1,624 834 186 141 119 102 46 _ 1.5.8 8 ^ i 1,626 871 185 1.51 133 125 br. gr. 47 _ 1.5.0 8 6 1 1,4.52 777 las 147 121 81 br. g. br. 48 _ 15. 0 8 2 i 1,.566 800 187 1.58 1,29 96 d.br. bl. 49...-'. _ 1.5.9 8 1 i 1,653 843 182 151 i;S9 115 br. g.bl. 50 _ 15.10 8 3 1,6.50 872 190 148 122 119 d.blo. g.bl. 51 _ 15. 5 8 1 1,722 900 189 148 1.35 145 1. br. gr. 52 _ ! 15.1 8 1 ! 1,.561 356 185 147 127 101 1. br. 1. br. 53 _ i 15. 3 1 1 1,7.39 888 183 146 1.S2 118 br. bl. 54 _ 15.10 9 2 i 1,654 844 192 143 120 116 br. l.br. 55 - .15.0 9 4 1 1,654 811 185 147 127 96 d. br. bl. 56 _ _ 15. 10 9 4 i 1,.536 813 las 144 129 92 br. bl. 57 _ 1.5.6 9 3 i 1,7-35 903 191 146 128 144 rd. g.bl. 58 _ 15. 7 9 1 1 1,7:S2 923 199 145 125 144 br. i g.bl. 59 _ 1.5.6 9 1 1,646 813 m 139 122 113 d.bl-. d.br. 60 _ _ 15. 3 9 1 1,6.58 8&5 196 145 i 131 132 d.blo. ! bl. 61 _ 15. 3 9 1 1,670 8a5 186 149 : 1.29 128 br. bl. 62. . 15.0 9 3 1,-586 819 191 144 1 126 115 d.br. 1 1)r. as.... . 1 1.5.9 9 2 1,671 872 191 1 148 i 131 133 bla. ! gr. 64 _ 1.5. 8 8 5 ! 1,735 875 195 1.51 ! 1.35 124 d.br. 1 gr. 65 _ 15. 10 8 1 ' 1,611 840 185 145 ! 129 104 d.br. ’ bl. 66 _ 15.9 2clyr.?> 2 1. 615 a5.5 191 1.50 1 l.Sl bio. 1 bl. 67 . 15.8 2 ‘ i;6.53 845 190 141 1 126 . br. 1 g. bl. 68 _ 15. 10 4 1,677 a52 188 149 ' 131 . d.br. 1 bl. 69 _ 1.5. 7 n2 1,640 830 191 1 148 ! 128 1 br. 1 gr. 70 _ 15.7 a 2 1,&S8 as2 194 1 145 ! 126 br. gr. 71 _ 15. 6 1 1,724 920 191 148 132 I br. 1 gr. 72 _ 15. 10 3 1,642 873 201 1 144 127 t d.br. br. 73 . . 15.10 1 1,487 7.56 181 1 m 122 l.br. bl. 74 _ 15.8 2 1,687 884 181 1-53 las j d.blo. g.bl. 75 . . 15.8 4 1,686 8.52 202 1.50 137 br. br. 76 _ 15.1 1 1,441 706 ia5 140 131 d.br. 1 d.br. 77 _ 15.11 .Sen. 1 ; 1,738 908 195 1 154 1.S5 "m d.br. ! d.br. 2 _ 3 2 2 2 i 1 1 1 (C 1 '■"i 1 '"'2 1 1 2 2 4 2 4 2 1 i 1 2 4 2 2 1 3 1 '> 1 ! 1 o 2 ■"i 1 1 3 1 ..... 2 1 ..... i 1 ' 1 ! 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 Q 3 O 1 i i 4 3 1 3 2 3 1 .... "... '"3 1;;;; 1 5 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 .... 2 3 ] 3 "'i 1 »> .5 3 »> 2 O tC 2 , 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 ...r.i "'i _ OC twins. H. S., 1st, 2d, ?.d yr., ,Tr., Sen., designate high school pupils. ! Brotlier.s 80 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 15-ijear-oJd l)oys. Worcester, 3Iass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. Child. 6 B "cS Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. 4^ Hair. Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 78 . 15.9 4 1,622 855 194 154 136 123 hr. bl. 1 0 79. . 15.4 3 i;7(io 875 195 156 138 144 br. br . 0 80... . 15.9 1 1,704 870 190 156 140 118 br. bl. 81 . 15. 10 5 1,677 879 191 147 131 132 br bl. A 0 82. . . 15. 9 3d yr. 1 i;670 861 186 153 133 131 d. br. g. bl. 4: 1 2 83 . . 15. 3 3d yr. 2 1,626 869 192 140 123 103 br. br. 3 2 84 _ 15. 10 7 1,674 883 176 159 134 116 br. bl. 4 A 85 . 15.7 2 1,522 795 175 143 123 94 d. br. O'!* 2 0 86. . 15. 10 1 1,570 814 181 146 130 105 d. br. gi. . U1 . err. /G 1 87... . 15.7 2d yr. 3 1,460 762 187 146 127 84 1. br. g.bl. 3 1 88. . 15.7 1 1,597 824 188 158 i:i5 125 d.br. err 89. . . 15.5 2d yr. 2 1, 654 882 192 157 140 176 d. br. bl. 1 2 90 . 15.4 1 1,653 877 193 147 128 132 1 br d. br. ][ 91 . . 15.11 2 i;670 879 198 151 139 137 d. br. d. br. 1 92 _ 15. 11 jr. 5 1,658 846 193 150 126 116 br. g. bl. 2 "2 93.. . 1.5.9 6 1,706 884 190 157 136 132 d. br. g. bl. 4 6 94. . . 1.5.8 1 1,626 842 180 145 136 103 br. br. 95.. . 15.3 2d yr. 1 1,599 847 185 145 126 102 rd. gr. 1 4 96 . 15.6 3 1, 783 891 197 151 128 136 d. br. g.bl. 0*7’ 2 5 97 _ 15. 11 4 1,709 889 215 145 133 1:35 br. 4 98 _ 15. 10 3 i;678 862 188 143 129 122 d. br. err 2 i 99 _ 15. 10 2d yr. 1 i;654 869 197 154 130 130 rd. bl.' 1 3 100 _ 15.10 1, 755 916 194 150 135 135 br. 1 101 _ 15.4 2 195 150 133 d. ijr. • 1 3 102 15. 11 6 1, 752 929 190 154 132 ' 149 i d.br. &-*• • 4 3 103 _ 15.5 2d yr. i;022 840 186 144 127 116 bio. • g* bl 104 _ 15.11 2d yr. 2 1,706 892 180 145 130 125 1. br. g*bL .... 105 _ 15.11 2d yr. 1 1,727 882 195 148 134 133 d. br. d. br. ..... 2 106. . . 15.9 1st yr. 3 1,663 870 191 146 1.30 116 br. gr. 1 107... . 15. 5 1st yr. 2 1,555 837 183 152 129 96 d.blo. gi*. 2 108... . 15.7 1st yr. 2 1,527 797 184 150 133 97 d. br. d. br. 1 109... . 15. 10 1st yr. 3 1,6.50 833 185 147 123 114 d. bio. gr. 2 no _ 15.10 8 1,699 893 184 151 133 130 br. g bl 3 .3 ni . . 15.5 2 1,686 900 186 149 132 131 d. br. gr 1 4 112 _ 1.5.6 1st yr. 1 1,449 755 186 145 119 83 d.br. d. br. 2 113 . 15.7 7 1,592 782 187 149 124 91 d. br. bl. 3 3 114. . 15.1 3 1,618 840 196 160 134 112 br. g.bl. 2 115 . 15.11 1 1,717 867 196 1.59 142 140 br. br. 116. . 15.8 H. S. 1 1,580 799 186 153 131 115 br. g. bl. ..... 1 117 . 15.1 3 1,615 844 188 149 132 129 b.br. d. br. 118 . 1.5.11 1 1,622 848 196 150 131 101 d. bio. gr. f" 119... . . 15. 10 H. S. 1 1, 556 793 181 142 123 94 ; d.br. 1 g.bl. 1 r 'i 120 _ 15.3 H. S. 1 1,662 8.59 187 153 141 138 ' d. br. d.br. 1 1 121 . 15.6 1 3 1, 680 855 192 152 132 128 1. br. bl. '"2 122 . 15.6 3 1,683 838 194 146 129 112 l.br. gr 3 123. . 15.8 3 1,625 844 192 147 121 133 d. br. d.br. 2 !''’i 124... . 15.1 2 1,648 875 197 147 128 113 ' d. br. d.br. 4 125. . . 15.0 2 1,723 914 189 1,51 131 136 br. bl. ..... 4 126. . 15. 11 1 1,668 895 186 150 132 135 ! d.br. 127 . 15.3 3 1,696 894 192 1.50 134 132 ! d.br. d^br. 4 2 128 _ 15.11 3 1,611 854 182 138 120 105 rd.br. g.bl. 4 2 129 . 15.3 3 1, 710 840 205 149 131 138 ' d. br. 1. br. 3 4 130 . 15.1 3 1,446 749 181 1.51 124 89 i br. gr. 2 131 _ 15. 2 2 1,751 922 196 150 132 153 d. br. gr. ”2 132 _ 15. 3 2 1,416 743 185 142 123 79 br. br. 2 4 133 _ 15.5 2 1,675 860 192 152 135 118 br. bl. 4 134 _ 15.6 1 1,610 850 187 151 131 115 i d.br. bl. 135 _ 1.5.7 4 1,695 829 186 149 ■J28 107 ' d. br. g. bl. 4 2 136 _ 15.1 2 1,416 728 187 140 119 69 i d. br. d. br. ..... 2 137 _ 15.0 2 1,626 8.50 184 1.50 132 no d. br. bl. 3 138... . . 15.3 4 1,.508 795 190 144 117 91 rd. br. gr. br. 1 2 139 _ 15.0 3 1,.521 798 190 146 123 1(»4 d. br. d. br. 1 7 140.. . . 15.4 2 1,635 827 183 150 1.30 109 d. br. g. bl. 4 2 141... . 15.5 2 1,620 849 191 145 121 no rd. br. g. br. 4 2 142 _ 15.1 3 1,466 765 189 147 124 81 d.br. g. bl. 2 143 . 15. 11 9 3 1,643 1 182 149 129 bla. d. br. ..... 4 144 . 15.7 8 1 1,630 191 155 132 d. br. g. br. 4 145 _ 1.5.2 8 3 1, 558 188 142 121 rd. bl. 2 i 146 . . 1.5.8 8 3 1,639 184 142 127 d. br. gr. 1 1 147 _ 15. 10 5 1 1, 536 187 149 131 d. br. d. br. 148 . 15.9 3 4 ],512 179 154 135 d.br. gr. g 149.. . 15.2 4 3 1,522 821 187 149 123 1. br. gr. 3 "i 150 _ 15.6 5 4 1,482 187 151 130 d. bio. bl. 1 4 151... . 15.1 6 2 1,575 201 147 122 d. br. bl. 1 2 152 . . 15. 8 7 2 1,616 808 191 147 130 d. br. gr. 1 153 . . 15.4 7 2 1,688 892 188 145 129 d. br. gr. ’i 154 _ 15.2 i,7a3 915 187 150 139 bio. L br. 1 1 i 1 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 81 lo-ycar-old hoj/.s. Worcester, Mass. — Coiitiiuied. ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. 1 Stature. Height sitting. I i 1 Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number. j Age. j Grade. ! stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. 155 . . 15.0 1 9 1,681 883 457 1 87 127 158. . 15.1 7 1,600 815 420 70 156 15.11 ' 9 1,628 1,509 822 421 75 95 159 . 15.6 6 1,422 1,486 780 385 73 157 . 1 15.6 i 9 785 , 425 ' 75 1 1 84 160. . 15.6 8 770 400 67 R E I ‘ E A T E D M E A S U K E :\I E N T S . N umber in 14-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight, N umber in 14-yea.r series. oi bx) <1 Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. 1 Breadth of hand. Weight. 7 15.10 9 1,642 845 445 76 98 48 . 15. 0 1,646 860 440 79 102 9 . 15.8 9 1,622 816 451 80 98 53 _ 15.8 7 1,729 915 485 83 142 10 . 15.11 9 1,623 838 445 84 122 55 . . 15.6 7 1,622 850 470 88 173 11 . 15.7 9 1,655 965 450 83 113 56 . . 15.6 6 1,632 830 430 78 98 12... . 15.9 9 1,650 840 471 87 126 60 _ 15.3 1,707 920 470 89 140 14 . 15.8 9 1,576 810 449 82 105 61 _ 15.9 ”7" 1,584 865 435 75 105 15 _ 15.7 8 1,433 750 408 72 83 64 _ 15. 10 9 1,710 920 460 85 129 28 15.11 9 1,736 925 590 90 140 65 _ 15.7 8 1,550 815 440 77 95 29 . 15.8 9 1,715 920 475 88 136 68 _ 15.7 8 1,619 860 455 83 117 31. . 15.10 9 1,565 820 420 73 86 79 _ 15. 11 9 1,463 780 385 75 103 32 . 15.0 8 1,591 835 435 82 112 80 _ 15.1 9 1,635 850 430 79 98 33 . 15.4 8 1,545 810 415 77 97 81 _ 15.1 9 1,560 815 445 75 131 41 . 15.6 9 1,662 865 495 84 131 85 _ 15.7 7 1,506 775 420 74 91 43 _ 15.8 9 1,566 835 430 83 98 87 . 15. 10 9 1,733 900 490 80 143 44 15.2 9 1, 625 840 445 82 106 89 . 15.9 9 1,683 880 475 81 116 45 . . 15.3 9 1,693 880 490 85 133 90 _ 15.6 9 1,663 885 455 82 127 47 . 15.2 1,651 855 475 90 128 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. g

> K Brothers. Sisters. 1 16.3 5 1,650 889 191 144 131 127 br. bl. 4 , 1 5(3 _ .16. 5 2d yr. 1 1,775 945 199 151 i:jo 143 d. br. d.br. nl ’>l 57 _ _ 16.1 2dyr. 3 1,703 887 202 151 131 140 br. bl. 2 58 . 16. 9 2 1,(505 854 187 144 1 125 109 bio. 1)1. 1 59. . . 16.7 1 i; 705 899 198 1.55 127 1:39 d.br. d. br. 2 ■■■3 (iU . If). 3 1 871 183 150 133 124 br. 61... . 1(5.3 4 1, 729 884 202 158 1:39 149 d.br. d. br. 2 i 63 . 16.5 2dyr. 4 1,679 882 184 154 1:34 1:30 br. br. 2 3 63 16.6 2dyr. 1, (538 884 188 1:35 118 110 d. br. d.br. 1 2 64 . ■16. 11 1 1,725 922 191 153 129 128 <1. br. gr. &5.. . 16.3 2d yr. 1,735 905 190 149 131 131 d.br. d. br. 4 2 66.. . . 16.6 4 1,747 905 194 146 126 1:31 d.br. d. br. 2 2 67 _ 16.3 1st yr. 2 1,743 912 195 158 1:39 140 d.br. l.br. 2 2 68.. . . 16.4 Istyr. 2 1,725 870 189 14:3 126 122 l.br. g.bl. 2 69 16.4 1st vr. 1 1, 659 845 193 145 1.30 124 br. bl. 70 . 16.6 1st yr. 2 1,6.56 854 194 144 122 125 d.br. g.bl. ..... 1 71 . 16.4 1st yr. 5 1,719 912 186 145 ia5 146 d.br. g.bl. 7-? 16.6 6 1,571 859 197 155 126 107 br. l.br. 1 '”2 73.. . . 16.7 3 1,655 872 182 145 128 122 br. bl. 1 2 74 . . 16.2 4 1,602 848 186 144 128 107 br. gr. 3 3 75 _ 16.0 Istyr. 1 1, 765 933 184 151 141 141 br. br. 1 1 7() 16.6 4 1,596 844 196 146 131 107 br. gr. 1 2 77... . 16.6 3 1,670 872 185 158 1.31 las d. in’. g.bl. 1 2 78 . 16.1 1 1,572 804 192 148 128 95 br. bl. 1 79 . 16.5 3 1,670 894 194 147 132 140 br. bl. 2 ”’i 80 _ 16.2 3 1,735 912 192 149 1:30 163 rd. gr. 1 1 81 _ 16.5 6 1,648 839 190 154 1.34 127 d. br. d. br. 4 1 82 _ 16.0 3 1,535 783 176 144 121 88 bio. bl. 2 1 83 . 16.1 5 1,648 872 190 142 1:30 122 d.blo. bl. 1 3 84 . ...' 16.1 4 1.743 860 184 149 i;30 120 d. br. gr. 2 1 85 16.6 2 1,692 862 193 151 129 145 br. gr. 1 86.. . 16.1 1st qr. 8 1,621 856 187 148 184 3:32 d. br. d.br. 3 4 87 . . 16.3 1st qr. 2 1,589 810 191 152 1:35 104 d. br. gi‘- 1 88 . 16.6 3 1,041 858 190 142 123 125 d.br. gr. 2 i 89.. . . 16.11 4 1,685 885 184 153 133 137 d. br. g.bl. 2 1 90 .... 16.2 9 1 1,709 198 150 1:34 1. br. bl. 2 1 91.. . 16.4 9 3 1,684 197 154 142 d. br. gr. 1 1 92 . 16.6 9 ] 1,6:35 187 1.55 129 d. bio. bl. 93 _ 16. 10 9 3 1,(561 193 148 125 2 94. . . 16.7 9 2 1,585 850 181 1.51 131 109 d.br. l.br. 2 95 . 16.9 9 1,640 850 189 147 122 107 bio. gr. 6 ’3 96 . 16.4 9 1 1,571 830 186 146 121 104 1. br. bl. ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. 6 ba < Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. 1 Number. Age. (D cS 5 stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. 97 . . 16.2 9 1,612 1,597 850 450 86 113 100 .. . 16.1 9 1,604 857 4.a5 82 98 9 825 430 81 101 101 16.5 9 1,670 1 . 777 860 458 81 99 _ 16.3 9 1,556 810 455 78 93 102 . 16.8 1 9 914 476 85 REPEATED MEASUREIMENTS. N umber in 15-year series. 0 tuo Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number in l.>year series. 0 be Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm, j Breadth of hand. [ Weight. 8 16.9 9 1,720 1,682 881 472 89 131 29 . 16.8 9 1,662 1,790 905 450 84 135 9 _ 16.11 9 884 455 80 114 34 . 16. 5 9 940 485 93 149 13 _ 16. 10 1,724 925 470 86 149 42 _ 16. 8 1 1,692 890 480 91 136 14... . 16.9 e’ 1,490 1,549 1,554 1,605 1,607 1,713 800 405 82 101 43 16. 1 ! 1 1,621 1,676 1,761 8(K) 4.50 86 120 17 _ 16.3 7 830 425 80 108 45 . . 16. 5 '*8' 910 470 84 112 22 . . -. 16.8 9 840 425 78 102 51 16.6 9 930 500 92 147 25 16.3 9 845 440 81 104 52 16.1 9 1,723 895 470 84 113 27 . 16.6 9 940 440 a5 113 64 . 16.10 9 1,741 1,646 905 490 83 106 28 . 16.11 9 895 480 85 139 65 . 16.11 9 870 440 83 115 a Ealf brother. b Half sister. 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. J6-year-old hoys. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS— Continued. Number. Finger reach. i .1 Height of face ! (1). ; Height of face (g). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. rd o eg CD be .s Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. a ce H) o 1 . . 1,683 1,730 1,642 1,606 1,663 1,809 1,799 1,760 118 112 109 120 117 111 113 122 122 107 113 119 112 116 125 118 113 113 112 102 113 122 108 114 111 132 110 113 132 65 . 1,726 1,843 1,755 1,785 1,693 1,809 1,838 1,548 1,670 1,603 1,857 1,037 1,776 1,622 1,743 1,822 1,680 1,614 1,712 1,755 1,760 1,698 1,653 1,680 1,702 111 112 123 119 103 114 119 113 113 112 134 113 113 101 117 124 108 106 113 115 116 105 105 119 111 175 162 168 2.. _ _ 66 _ 3-. . . 67 _ 4 68 37 . 69 . 40 . 70.. . . 42 . 71 _ 43 _ _ 72 . . 44.. . . 73 _ 45 _ 1,564 1,633 1,712 1,632 1.798 1,827 1,694 1.799 1,751 1,860 1,667 1,820 1,826 1,660 1,806 1,727 1,776 1.800 1,683 1,709 74 . . . 46.. . 75 _ _ 47 . 76 _ 48 . . 77 _ 49 78 _ 60 . . . 79 _ 51 . 80 _ 52 . 81-. . . 53 . . . 82 _ 54.. . . 83 _ 55 . 84 _ 66 . 85 _ 57 . 86 _ 58 . 87 _ 59. 88... . 60. 89 _ 61 . 94 _ 102 98 106 80 79 78 450 455 415 62 . 95... . 63 . . 96 _ 64 ll-year-old hoys. Worcester. Mass. N umber. be Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. .a w Eyes. Brothers. I Sisters. 1 . 17.8 3 1,742 872 200 144 132 bio. g. bl. 2 1 O' 17.0 2 1,758 876 183 149 129 d.blo. g.bl. 1 3 _ _ 17.9 2 1,734 895 183 147 129 bla. br. 4 . . 17.0 9 4 1,588 830 190 154 132 122 d. br. bl. 3 2 5. . 17.6 9 a6 1,630 906 190 148 127 118 d. br. bl. 2 4 6 _ _ 17.5 9 9 1,635 861 196 152 135 137 br. br. 5 4 7 . 17.7 1 1,700 909 189 141 127 br. g.bl. 1 8. . 17.8 Jun. 1 1,790 897 200 147 130 l.br. l.br. 3 9 17.11 3 1,677 866 190 145 128 br. gr. 10 17.8 4 1,785 935 186 154 137 bla. br. 1 2 11 - - 17.1 2 1,640 838 199 152 136 l.br. g. bl. ..... 1 12 . 17.0 2 1,692 925 191 158 137 br. br. 2 13 _ 17.0 2 1,616 836 195 144 130 br. br. 1 2 14 _ 17.1 1 1,573 827 178 154 123 d.br. d.br. 1 15 17.9 3 1,767 928 200 154 134 br. gr. 2 16 17.1 5 1,716 884 193 155 134 138 br. gi’- gr. 4 1 17 . 17.3 1 1,683 912 201 147 130 128 d.br. 3 2 18 . . 17.0 Sen. 9 1,780 928 188 157 138 175 br. bl. 6 2 19 . 17. 11 Sen. 7 1,662 864 192 151 130 130 d. br. gr. 1 3 20 . . 17.6 Sen. 2 1,634 836 184 155 133 110 br. g.bl. 1 21 17. 11 Jun. 1 1,615 843 197 141 129 bio. g.bl. f>2 22 . 17.5 Jun. 2 1,696 905 207 154 135 145 d.br. d.br. 1 23 _ 17.5 Sen. 2 1,724 886 192 150 135 132 d. br. 1. br. ..... 1 24 . 17.3 7 1,654 874 199 156 138 145 br. gr. 3 25 . 17.7 7 1,685 893 190 147 131 135 br. gr. 3 3 26 _ 17.0 4 1,592 852 188 146 125 112 br. gr. 2 2 27 _ 17.7 6 1,690 892 184 149 132 136 d. bio. g.bl. 2 5 28 _ 17. 9 5 1,720 915 194 155 140 146 d.br. d.br. 3 3 29 . 17.0 4 1,627 852 186 152 134 121 d.br. g. bl. 1 3 30 _ _ 17.3 i 2 1,712 890 199 152 137 143 d. br. g.bl. 2 1 31 _ _ 17.2 4 1 1,715 930 190 152 129 142 d. br. gr. 1 2 32 . 17.1 4 2 1,739 926 195 150 1 1 125 127 d. br. bl. . 1 “Twin. STATISTICS OF GROWTH, 85 17 -year-old hoys. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face, j Weight. M Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. j 33-. . 17.0 Jun. 1 1,704 905 191 144 las 134 d.br. d.br. 2 1 34— . 17.10 Jun. 3 1,566 860 189 143 121 114 br. gr. 2 35 - - 17.0 Jun. 1 1,790 955 i 191 151 136 151 1. br. bl. 1 1 36. . 17.3 .Jun. 5 1,610 860 183 147 126 128 d.br. gr. 4 .... 37 17. 11 4 1,725 907 187 150 134 114 br. l.br. 2 38.. . 17.4 1 ’ 1,676 874 188 152 133 132 d.br. bl. 39... . 17.7 1,701 863 183 143 130 123 br. bl. 1 40 . 17.2 3 1,647 871 198 145 las 149 br. br. 2 "'i 41 . 17.4 2 1 1,655 853 193 151 124 121 d. br. d.br. ..... 1 42... . 17.1 2d yr. 3 1,610 870 188 149 124 108 d. br. gr. 1 43.... . 17. 10 2d yr. 2 1, 736 920 190 151 138 155 d.br. g.bl. 2 1 44 _ 17.3' 2d yr. 1 1,691 917 194 145 135 149 l.br. g.bl. 45 _ 17.4 2d yr. 1 1,664 887 186 155 136 132 d. br. g.bl. _ 46 . . 17.2 1 1, 757 91] 199 150 137 150 1. br. g. bl. 47 _ 17.1 1 1, 703 905 192 153 140 149 br. bl. ..... 48... . 17.0 9 1 1,713 199 139 134 d. br. d.br. 49 . 17.0 4 4 1,576 192 143 127 bla. d. br. ..... ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Fore¬ arm. Breadth of hand. Weight. 50 _ _ 17.7 9 1,739 913 471 87 125 REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. Number in 16-year series. Grade, Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. 1 Breadth of hand. Weight. N umber in 16-year series. ■ 03 OO Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth i of hand. 16 _ _ _ 17.2 17.7 9 9 o?o T-TrH 865 860 4.^0 450 81 84 120 130 23 _ 17.10 9 1,662 860 450 81 21 . ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 1 . 1,833 1,800 1,793 1,684 1,777 1,720 1,845 1,777 1,701 1,714 1,743 1,796 1,760 1,773 1,626 1,831 1,770 1,708 1,707 116 109 114 108 118 119 124 118 114 114 119 112 114 120 107 123 122 121 113 31. . . 1,770 1,768 1,783 1,611 1,808 1, 686 1,776 1,754 1, 734 1,774 1,715 1,604 1,935 1,783 1,719 1,863 1,787 118 109 120 111 118 103 115 123 119 117 116 109 110 120 114 125 114 119 2 32 3 . 33 _ _ _ 14 _ 34.. . . 16 i 35 _ 17 . 36 _ _ 18 37 . IS . 38.. . . 20 _ _ 39 . . . 21 . 40 . 22 . . 41 . . 23-. . 42 _ _ 24 . . 43... . 25-- . . 44 . . 26 . 45 . 27.- . 46 _ _ 28 . 47 . - . 29 . 49 . 190 30.. . . i 86 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. IS-year-ohl hoys. Worcester. Mass. Number. oi t>C 2* d.br. 1. br. i 4 1 3 24 _ 18.0 Sen. 9 1,799 922 188 154 136 14() d. br. gi*. i 6 3 25.... . . 18.11 Sen. 3 1,622 868 191 148 126 121 d. br. l.br. i 1 2 26 _ 18. 10 Sen. 2 1,761 899 191 151 134 131 d. br. gr. 1 1 27 18. 10 1 1,690 895 187 149 132 d. br. bl. 28.. . . 18.4 Sen. 14 1,638 886 182 158 t 133 "i22' d. br. bl. 10 4 2‘9 _ 18.5 Sen. 12 1,716 904 189 142 1 130 126 d. bio. bl. 5 6 30.. . 18.0 Sen. 4 1,769 955 205 150 ISl 150 l.br. bl. 2 1 31... . . 18.9 Jun. 1 1,640 858 195 144 130 br. bl. 18.3 Sen. 6 l,a58 891 194 154 1 137 i:i7 br. br. 3 4 S3 - . . . . 18.3 Sen. 2 1,769 912 188 150 134 149 br. br. 1 34 _ 18.4 3 2 1,696 885 197 151 136 118 d. br. bl. 'i S5 -. ... 18.1 1 1,688 875 193 154 133 176 br. br. 1 36 . . 18.1 1 1,676 883 196 160 137 127 d. br. gi’. 1 37 _ 18.8 Jun. 1 1,885 962 190 151 133 142 d. br. d.br. "'i 38 _ 18.9 Jun. 2 1,676 870 201 153 137 m d. br. d.dr. 1 :39 18.0 3 1,727 886 192 150 131 130 d. br. bl. 2 3 40 18.5 1 1,702 894 187 153 126 109 l.br. g.bl. ! 1 41 . 18.6 1 1,746 903 186 154 133 147 d. br. gr. 4 "'i 42 _ 18.16 1 1,685 880 178 153 136 140 d. br. gi’. 1 _ 1 43 _ 18.11 2d yr. 1 1,712 864 189 143 129 130 d.blo. bl. 1 1 1 44 _ 18.1 2d yr. 3 1,657 892 184 160 138 129 bla. gi’- I j'"2 45 18. 10 1 1,652 876 196 148 128 ISl br. gr. 1 46 . -. 18.1 2 1,771 903 191 148 138 i:i9 1 4 '"'2 47 _ 18.11 ! 2 1,749 859 191 151 131 142 d.br. gr. 1 2 3 48 _ 18.11 1 4 838 201 155 14:1 124 br. g.bl. 1 I 2 49 18.9 9 i 2 1,677 189 148 133 d. br. g.bl. ! 2 50 - . 18.0 9 I 1,.593 885 i;i5 1 - - - A U D ITI ( ) N A L M E A S U R E M E N T S . 0 o3 o'*-! K Breadth of hand. Forearm. — — * Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). 32 _ _ 1,727 119 33 _ _ 1,822 109 34 _ 1,740 117 .35 _ _ 1,766 115 36 . . 1,726 118 37 _ 1,9.53 112 38 _ _ 1,762 112 39 _ 1,775 112 40 _ _ 1, 741 112 41 _ 1,798 111 42 _ _ _ 1,783 111 43 _ 1,825 100 44 _ _ 1,715 121 45 _ _ 1,737 126 46 _ _ 1,846 112 47 _ 1,878 116 48 _ 1,76:3 118 Number . 1 2 3 4 5 6 19 20 23 24 25 2t) 27 28 29 30 31 1,813 1,738 1,730 1,932 1,802 1,830 1,744 1,773 1,787 1,913 1,667 1,829 1,734 1,687 1,753 1,808 1,716 125 118 139 121 112 129 115 112 113 124 115 115 113 113 120 121 123 - w readtli of hand. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 87 5-year-old yirls. Worcester, ]\lasx. Number. Age. Grade. Child. 1 Stature. Height sitting. 1 Length of head. Breadth of head. Bre a d t h of face. I Weight. : Hair. 1 , Eyes. ' Brothers. .2 1 . 5.11 3 1,025 580 174 140 11:3 40 i l.br. bl. 1 2 2 . 5. 11 3 1,060 557 172 145 114 42 1. br. g.bl. 1 1 5.11 2 1,142 631 180 150 125 51 d.br. bl. 1 2 4 . 5.9 5 1,112 593 168 145 11:3 43 1 bl. d.br. 2 2 5 . . 5.9 4 1,096 582 185 147 1 115 46 I 1. br. bl. 2 2 6.- . . 5.7 1 «1 1,132 616 185 ia5 1 no 45 1 bio. d. br. 1 1 7 . 5.7 1 «1 1,107 620 185 1:3:3 109 43 1 blo. d. br. 1 1 8 . 5.9 1 5 1,(M)8 604 173 1:35 107 37 ‘ blo. br. 2 2 9.. . . 5.8 1 2 998 547 ' 169 1:37 112 :i5 1 br. bl. 2 10 5.10 1 4 1,154 634 166 1:35 114 48 1 redbr. gr '”4 11 . 5.10 1 4 1,047 591 168 137 111 42 br. gi’- 2 2 12 . 5.8 1 3 1,050 588 166 142 no 36 d.br. gr. 1 1 13 . . 5.10 1 1 1,007 543 157 142 109 :33 br. d. br. 2 14 _ 5. 11 1 1.0:39 581 164 130 105 i ^ 1 l.br. l.bl. 15 . . 5.11 1 2 i;085 615 177 139 114 i 46 br. i bl. "'i 16 5. 3 1 1,067 591 173 136 118 34 br. i l.br. IT 5.9 i 1 1,129 617 177 143 115 i 43 br. ^ br. 18 . - 5.6 ' 1 1.080 612 ! 173 145 113 45 1. br. ’ l.br. 19 5.0 1 1 1^087 584 170 143 115 ' 42 d. br. bl. 20. . . 5.7 : 1 ‘ 4 1,130 612 176 133 114 42 d. blo. bl. 2 4 21 . . 5.9 1 5 1,140 620 174 139 114 40 br. ' gr. 1 3 22 . . 5.0 1 2 1,007 574 180 139 112 37 d. br. d. br. 1 ! 2 23. . 5.10 1 3 1,087 597 171 134 111 40 br. bl. 1 2 24 . . 5.8 1 4 998 574 168 132 108 33 d. br. d. br. 4 1 25... . 5.8 1 2 1,054 584 169 129 100 35 l.br. d. br. 1 1 26 . . 5. 6 1 1 1 1,050 589 164 130 111 40 d.br. g.bl. ..... 1 27.. . 5.4 1 2 1,03:3 578 181 138 112 41 d.br. bl. 1 28. . 5.7 1 2 1,(X)0 545 180 136 108 32 bio. bl. 1 29... . 5.3 1 4 1,045 580 162 134 no 38 d. br. bl. 2 30 . 5.10 1 1 1,083 577 177 139 107 37 br. gr. 31 _ 5.1 1 2 1,071 563 180 141 113 40 br. bl. 32 _ ..... 5.7 1 1 1,058 586 170 132 114 36 br. d.br. 1 1 3:3 . 5.7 1 3 1,025 590 170 136 112 40 br. bl. 2 34 5.9 1 5 1,050 581 176 138 112 br. bl. 4 2 35... . 5. 10 1 3 1, 123 620 180 142 112 44 br. gr. 2 1 36 . . 5.4 1 2 991 562 184 137 105 3:3 blo. bl. 1 37 . . 5. 11 1 1 1,100 597 177 139 116 42 flax. gr. 1 38 . 5.4 1 1 1,181 618 177 132 102 43 blo. g.bl. ..... 39 . 5.5 1 2 1,125 165 139 114 d. blo. bl. ’”i 40 _ _ 5.4 1 1 1,085 621 172 140 117 blo. i bl. 1 41 . 5.8 1 1,052 580 38 1 . 1 “ Twin. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. 33 . 1,002 1,027 1,107 999 88 90 96 89 37 . 1,104 1,112 1 00 'CO ^ 34... . 38 . :35 . 39 . 141 126 36. . . . 40 _ _ _ _ 1 , 090 53 88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904, 6-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. Number. bCi < Grade. CMia. 1 Stature. Height sitting. Length of | head. Breadth of head, j Breadth of face. Vf eight. Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 1. . 6.0 4 1,049 590 166 139 109 42 bio. bl. 2 1 2 . . 6.6 a 2 1,104 637 173 137 117 51 br. 1. br. 2 1 3 _ 6.11 1 1 i;214 649 172 143 119 54 d. br. br. i 4 . 6.6 4 1,089 588 174 143 115 41 bio. g. bl. 1 '2 5 . . 6.0 1 5 1,080 563 170 140 no 37 bio. bl. 2 2 6.4 7 1,136 643 169 138 112 46 br. g.bl. 3 3 _ 7- . . 6. 11 1 2 1,120 a35 182 138 no 46 bio. gi'- 1 1 8 . 6.1 1 1 1,126 635 177 144 117 45 d. bio. bl. 9 _ 6.4 1 5 1, 137 636 171 137 113 43 d. br. d. br. 2 2 10 _ 6.5 1 1 1,031 593 164 134 115 41 br. g.bl. ..... 1 11 _ 6.7 2 2 1,107 621 176 134 107 42 d. bio. gr. 4 12_ 6.3 1 1,132 623 168 140 112 48 bio. g. bl. 13 _ 6. 4 1 3 1,130 612 175 138 no 47 br. 1. br. "'i 14 _ 6.7 1 4 1,121 619 170 139 107 45 d.blo. gr. 2 2 15 _ 6.1 1 2 1,063 542 172 137 108 44 d.blo. gr. 1 16 _ 6.3 1 11 1,057 560 169 134 112 37 br. 1. br. 3 ■”8 17... . - 6.4 1 2 1,095 608 178 145 114 45 br. bl. 1 1 18 _ 6.9 1 1 1,126 611 176 144 111 43 br. gi'- 1 1 19- . . 6.2 1 2 1,184 626 178 134 111 45 br. bl. 1 20 _ 6.8 1 6 1,104 598 178 136 115 47 br. g. br. 1 "’4 21 _ 8.6 1 5 1,143 646 180 132 112 49 br. 1. br. 1 5 22 _ _ 6.10 2 2 1,170 653 173 133 111 52 d.br. d. br. 2 1 23.... . 6.5 1 o2 1,069 575 173 ia5 118 40 d. br. d. br. 1 1 24 . 6.7 1 4 1,086 620 180 142 1 111 43 d.br. br. 2 1 2 25- . . 6.1 1 3 1,070 598 165 134 109 38 br. bl. 2 2 26 . . 6.1 1 2 1,015 591 175 134 111 37 1. bio. 1. gr. 1 27 . 6.6 1 3 1,094 628 171 140 115 43 d.br. bl. 3 ’”4 28 . 6.5 1 1 1,130 630 166 138 113 42 br. br. 1 .... 29.. . . 6.10 2 3 1,175 666 166 142 113 43 red. bl. 2 30 6.9 1 1,198 653 177 146 117 52 1. br. bl. 31 . 6.6 1 1,144 629 171 146 114 43 d.br. bl. 32-. . 6.1 1 1,084 581 170 132 116 39 bio. - bl. 33 . . 6.1 1 1,106 625 175 142 117 45 d. bio. bl. 34 _ 6.9 1 1,083 600 170 139 112 39 br. g. bl. 35.. 6.9 1 1,112 597 169 135 119 42 bio. bl. 36.. 6.3 1 1, 103 613 173 139 113 46 br. bl. 37- . 6.9 1 1,089 589 165 137 112 41 d. br. d. br. 38-... . 6.3 1 1,190 667 172 141 120 54 br. br. 39 . . 6.0 1 1,097 612 165 133 112 41 red. bl. 40. . 6.1 1 1,146 629 175 143 119 52 br. br. 41 _ 6.3 1 1,133 628 177 136 115 45 br. bl. L... 42 . . 6.0 1 9 1,102 620 165 140 ! 116 41 d. br. bl. 7 ' 3 43.... . 6.9 1 3 1,160 640 182 142 i 112 42 br. bl. 1 2 44 . . 6.7 3 1 1,194 657 170 139 1 121 49 rd. br. gr. 45 _ 6.8 2 4 1,132 650 170 139 j 111 45 br. g. br. 3 43 . 6.8 2 1 1,107 592 173 138 112 41 d. br. bl. 1 47... . 6. 10 2 2 1,160 667 174 146 114 45 br. gr. ”’4 48 _ 6. 10 2 2 1,096 621 175 135 i no 41 1. br. gr. 1 1 49 _ 6.5 1 4 1,110 610 172 133 107 40 br. bl. 2 1 50 _ 6.4 1 3 1,115 638 174 138 i 108 41 d. bio. bl. 1 1 51 . . 6. 10 1 5 1,171 650 174 140 ! 116 50 1. br. bl. 2 2 52 _ 6. 5 1 1 3 1,167 1 638 183 138 113 47 1. br. l.br. 1 1 53. . . 6.8 1 1 1 1,174 ' 639 181 140 1 116 51 1. br. l.br. 1 54 _ 6.0 1 1 9 1,038 1 594 171 135 1 107 36 br. br. 6 "‘2 55.. . 6.6 1 5 1 1,141 1 580 168 133 ‘ 107 41 br. bl. 4 2 56. . . 6.0 1 3 i 1,113 ! 618 170 134 I 115 39 1. br. 1. br. 1 2 57-- . 6.7 1 7 1,106 1 618 174 135 113 39 br. br. 3 4 58 _ 6.0 1 5 1,036 582 164 137 no 34 br. bl. 2 2 59.. . 6.0 1 3 1,087 616 172 126 105 39 d. br. d. br. 1 3 60 _ 6.1 2 3 1,150 617 175 135 111 42 gold. g. br. 1 1 61.. . 6.2 1 2 1,135 613 180 135 ' 109 43 aub. g.bl. 2 62 _ 6.3 1 1 1,175 630 175 138 119 46 l.br. gr. ..... 63.. . 6. 5 1 2 1,082 588 166 141 116 42 bio. gr. _ 84 _ 6.1 1 1 1,082 608 174 139 114 39 br. g.bl. 1 65- _ 6.6 1 2 ! 1,139 607 170 139 113 41 1. br. gr. “i 66 _ 6.8 1 3 1 1,162 6a5 171 133 111 45 br. g.bl. 2 67 _ _ 6.1 1 3 1,059 590 175 131 no 42 bio. bl. 2 2 68 _ 6.3 1 6 1,044 589 175 138 107 42 l.br. l.br. 3 5 69 _ 6.4 1 1 1,058 590 ! 174 132 102 35 d.blo. gr. 1 70 . 6.5 1 1 1, 031 594 178 131 103 39 1. br. d.br. _ 71 . 6.0 1 3 1, 064 593 175 137 112 40 1. br. bl. 2 72 . 6.4 1 1 1,108 606 174 139 112 47 gd. br. gr. 1 i 73. .. 6. 11 1 3 1,146 619 174 134 119 44 bio. bl. 2 74 6.0 1 1 1,240 638 167 144 119 58 br. gr. gr. 75 . 6.8 1 5 1,152 632 171 133 no 53 br. 4 2 76 _ _ 6.6 1 2 1,101 609 179 142 116 46 1. tr. bl. 2 1 77 _ 6.4 3 1.103 602 t 167 135 105 43 1 d.br. bl. 2 : 2 Twin. STATISTICS OF GROWTH 89 O-iiear-old Worcester, — Goiitiniiod. Number. 6 bn < Grade. Child. Height sitting. O S’^ Breadth of head. ! Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. 1 Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 78 6.11 2 2 1,186 178 139 117 . i ' d.br. gr. 1 79 6.7 '1 2 1,080 176 140 112 l.br. bl. 2 1 80 6 ]1 1 2 1,1.52 177 137 112 d. bio. 1)1. 1 2 81_-. . 6.3 1 1 1,205 174 139 115 d. bio. l.br. 1 1 82 6.9 1 5 1, 102 178 139 116 1. br d. br. 2 2 8,3 . 6.0 2 1,147 647 185 143 118 d.blo. bl. ]. 84 6 0 •> - w 1.084 616 170 136 110 bio. gr. '"i A I ) I ) I T I O N A L S E K. 1 1 : S. Niimber. Age. Grade. Stature. 1 Height sitting. i Fore- ! arm . Breadth of hand. Weight. 85 _ _ 6.11 2 1,138 598 310 57 41 86 _ _ _ 1 1,135 6.5-5 30.5 61 45 1 REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. Number in 5-year series. Age. a5 5 stature. Heigh t sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number in 5-year series. bn < Grade. } i Stature. Height sitting. j Forearm. ( Breadth ! of hand. Weight. Q 6.11 2 1,134 628 308 62 50 17 6.9 2 1,190 630 310 62 47 4 6.8 1 1,180 648 330 63 50 18. . . 6.7 1 1,148 625 315 64 50 5 . . 6.8 2 1,154 620 310 66 54 21 _ 6.9 2 1,202 635 325 56 44 6 _ 6.7 1 1,173 620 297 57 49 22 _ 6.4 1 1, 055 590 270 56 42 6.7 1 1,167 622 312 55 47 23.. .... 6.11 1 1,150 615 300 58 44 11 _ 6.11 2 1,102 610 300 56 44 24... . 6.9 2 1,158 585 290 56 37 13 _ 6. 10 1, 0.55 585 280 53 38 25 _ 6.5 1 1,131 605 290 54 39 15 . . 6.11 1.142 640 305 61 51 28.. . 6.9 1 1,0.56 575 280 53 36 16 . 6. 4 “i' i;i3o 610 310 54 39 29 _ 6.5 1 1, 100 610 290 58 41 A DO I T I O N A L E A S U R E :^i E N T S . 1 Number. 1 j Finger reach. Height of face G). 1 Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. ! Number. i Finger reach. 67 . . . . . 1,042 1,044 1,084 1,054 1,034 1,127 1,122 1,284 1, 112 91 84 96 86 88 90 90 96 93 76 . 1,083 1,090 68 . 77 69 _ 78 - 70 . . . . 79 . . . 71 . . . 80. . . . 79! 81 . . . . . 73 . - . 82 . . . 74 . . 83.. . 1, 1,31 1,0.57 75 _ - 84 .. O o '3 ' -e' 51 +3 , c3 be o •rH cS K 89 91 91 142 84 140 95 147 92 1.39 64 95 142 .55 87 147 .57 85 130 53 90 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. 7-year-old yirls. Worcester, Mass. Number. aJ be << 1 Grade. | 6 •0.iu;u7S i Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. M Eyes. 1 Brothers. | Sisters. 1. . 7. 5 2 1,187 632 176 141 120 51 l.br. bl. 2 1 Z _ 7. 5 4 1,099 599 172 141 117 46 1. br. bl. 2 3 7. 1 3 1,161 644 170 140 114 42 d. br. g. bl. 3 5 4 7.9 2 1^226 655 170 142 118 .54 1. br. d. br. 1 5 _ 7.5 i 1 1,155 646 187 139 114 51 br. d.br. 2 ■3 7.9 2 1,213 659 171 144 117 .50 br. g. bl. 1 1 T _ 7.1 1 1,230 6.58 181 145 113 48 br. d. br. 1 8 _ 7.1 3 2 1,162 647 174 141 115 .52 gold. bl. 1 9 7.8 1 1,301 729 188 133 113 61 d.blo. d br 1 1 10 - . 7. 1 3 1,096 609 166 138 108 36 bio. bl. 2 11 _ 7.6 3 1 1,231 646 183 114 47 bio. g. bl. 1 '2 IZ .... .... 7. 10 1 1,188 640 172 140 119 48 In'. d. br. 1 V.i 7. 1 2 i;i56 632 172 136 112 47 br. d.br. 1 2 14 _ 7.4 1 6 1; 143 631 168 148 112 47 rd. br. bl. 4 5 15 _ 7. 8 1 2 1,185 638 176 135 105 45 bio. bl. 2 Ifi _ 7.1 1 4 1, 132 627 183 140 115 49 bio. bl. 3 "'i 17-..- . 7.8 1 1 1,182 659 176 146 120 ."5 red. bl. 18 _ 7. 11 1 6 1,172 633 171 139 112 50 br. bl. 3 2 19 _ 7.1 1 4 1, 157 641 179 138 114 49 d. br. gr- 3 2 20 _ 7.1 3 2 1,253 659 179 135 111 51 br. gr. 2 1 21 _ 7.6 3 4 1 , ,228 684 173 141 118 .56 br. 1. br. 4 1 o*> 7.8 3 1 1,211 671 168 138 111 51 bio. bl. 23 _ 7.7 3 5 i;i77 619 176 142 119 .52 d.br. l.br. 1 3 24 _ 7.9 2 2 1,217 610 174 137 117 .59 d. br. bl. 1 25 _ 7.4 2 5 1,204 614 173 145 117 47 br. br. 4 ‘i 20 _ 7.8 2 3 1,227 644 170 143 116 47 bio. gr. 2 5 27 _ 7.3 2 4 1,134 617 160 142 112 41 d.blo. br. 2 1 28 _ 7.8 2 1 1,187 636 176 142 113 51 bio. bl. 2 29 _ 7.8 2 1 1,315 681 188 149 118 76 redbr. br. 1 1 30 _ 7.3 1 5 1,104 .591 166 128 107 41 red. gr. 1 3 31 . . 7. 5 1 2 1,112 .598 164 140 113 43 d. br. bl. 1 2 32.. . . 7.4 1 1 1, 131 611 164 141 113 43 d. br. bl. 1 1 33 _ 7.8 1 2 1,211 651 186 1.33 117 56 br. d. br. 1 34 _ 7.5 2 5 1,142 617 175 141 117 47 br. br. 2 ■3 35 _ 7.5 2 1 1,198 676 173 141 116 .53 br. bl. 1 36 _ 7.7 2 1 1,201 677 178 142 118 54 In-. br. 2 '2 37 _ 7.4 1 1 1,040 583 175 129 110 38 br. g.bl. 1 38.. _ 7.10 1 1 1, 120 620 164 1.35 111 42 br. d.br. 2 ‘2 39. 7.3 1 1 1,218 657 168 136 113 .5.5 br. bl. 40 . 7.2 1 1 1,100 610 170 144 113 44 br. bl. 1 41.. . 7.8 1 1,215 657 175 138 119 60 br. g.bl. 2 42 _ 7. 7 2 3 1,211 657 178 127 113 46 1. br. gr. "'i' 1 43 . .:. 7. 7 2 2 1,192 660 178 140 114 56 br. hr. 1 44 _ 7.4 2 1 1,159 625 175 144 117 48 bio. gr. 45.... . 7.3 2 4 1, 134 616 168 137 113 :39 1. br. bl. 1 2 46. . 7.9 2 6 1,260 677 175 138 113 54 br. gr. 3 2 47 _ 7 7 1 1,082 638 179 ia5 112 45 bio. bl. 48 . 7! 8 1 1, 222 681 173 1:39 114 51 ■ br. bl. 49 _ 7.1 2 4 1,096 .576 176 1,37 110 40 br. gr. 2 1 50 _ 7.1 2 4 1,212 653 177 142 115 51 br. bl. 2 2 51 _ 7.5 2 2 1,192 663 ,168 140 120 54- br. d. br. 1 52 _ 7.9 2 5 1,177 643 178 142 no 46 br. gi’- 2 "'2 53 . . 7.0 1 2 1,127 624 182 i;39 115 45 br. bl. 1 3 54*. . . 7.4 1 5 1,122 596 167 140 118 41 br. bl. 2 5 55 . . 7.0 1 5 1,109 624 167 142 113 38 br. br. 2 4 56 . . 7.8 3 1 1,254 640 175 140 119 51 br. br. 1 .... 57 _ 7.5 2 2 1,169 657 172 135 106 42 bio. bl. 1 58.... . 7.1 2 2 1,083 601 170 140 no 42 1. br. bl. 1 59.. . 7.7 2 1 1,193 655 194 144 116 45 d. br. d. br. ..... 60 _ 7.9 2 3 1,197 656 169 141 115 53 br. bl. ‘"2 61.... . 7.0 2 5 1,229 689 180 141 117 53 br. br. 1 62 _ 7.11 2 6 1,167 647 179 143 123 49 red. bl. 2 2 63. _ 7.3 2 4 1,202 665 182 141 119 .52 br. gr. 1 64... . 7.7 1 1 1,145 620 178 137 115 45 br. bl. 1 1 65 . 7.9 3 6 1,240 655 175 145 118 49 bio. 'bl. 4 3 66 _ _ 7.3 1 6 1,188 650 179 135 111 46 br. bl. 4 2 67 . . . . 7.8 1 8 1,110 643 174 134 115 42 d. br. d. br. 6 2 68. . 7 4 1 1 1,(62 588 170 135 109 37 d. br. d. br. 1 69... . 7.0 1 1 1 , 066 580 169 135 114 41 br. d. br. 70. . . 7.2 1 1 1,088 587 170 130 105 37 d. br. g. bl. 1 71 _ 7.11 3 1 1,204 646 173 141 112 48 bio. g. bl. ..... 72 _ 7.6 3 3 1,174 638 169 143 112 45 d. bio. Bl. 73. . 7.9 3 3 1, 140 626 174 147 119 44 bio. bl. 2 74... . 7.4 2 2 1,190 593 178 1.36 111 47 br. bl. 1 75.. . . 7.6 2 2 1,203 66(1 176 137 113 51 bio. bl. 1 _ 76 . 7.7 2 1 1,198 644 179 144 116 52 bio. bl. 77 - - 7.8 2 1 1,197 630 176 1 144 117 45 br. gr. ..... 78 . 7.0 1 3 1,165 627 173 i 137 111 39 br. d. br. “'2 79 . . 7.4 1 5 1,288 : 684 176 ^ 145 116 53 br. gr. 2 2 STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 91 7-year-ol<] (/iris. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. 0) 0 U Stature. 1 Height sitting. Length of head. Bread th of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 80 _ 7.5 1 2 1, 123 622 173 1:39 117 42 d. hr. gr. 2 81 . . 7.10 1 i 1,109 000 105 1:39 112 37 hr. gr. 82 _ 7.0 1 5 1 JOl 022 173 1:39 119 43 d. hr. (1. br. 1 3 83 _ 7.5 1 1 1,111 015 173 i:36 HI 41 l.br. g. bl. ..... 1 84.- . - 1 7.4 1 1 1,181 00:3 107 140 113 48 hr. Ki‘- 1 85 _ ! 7.5 1 1 1,200 060 167 141 118 47 bio. bl. 1 80 _ ' 7. 10 1 2 1,085 028 173 1:30 108 d. br. d. br. 1 2 87 . j 7. 10 3 3 1,294 175 1:35 115 d. >)r. 1. br. 1 4 88 _ ! 7.4 3 1 1,257 188 1:39 118 d. br. d. br. 1 80 1 7. 11 2 1 1 , 205 172 137 114 ; d.blo. ’ g. bl. 2 0 90 1 7.8 2 1 1,100 178 136 112 black. d. br. 91 _ 1 7.9 2 1 7 1,213 177 139 113 bio. gr. '1 92 7.0 2 2 1,215 174 1:34 113 d. br. ffr. i 1 93 7 9 2 .5 1,215 160 1:37 111 1 . 1 r i)l. 8 1 94 7.3 1 2 1,173 188 110 113 1 br. bl. 2 3 95 7.6 1 8 1,083 178 137 113 d. br. bl. 5 3 90 7. 11 1 1,117 172 134 114 redbr. gr. 97 _ 1 7.4 1 2 1,125 185 138 115 d. br. gU- 1 93 7.0 1 4 1,1:35 179 137 112 bio. g. bl. 2 ”'i 99 2 3 1,211 188 143 125 d. br. bl. 1 2 1(K> 7. 0 1 1,180 04 ) 182 137 114 red. l.br. 1 101 _ 7.0 3 4 1,085 172 143 111 d. br. g. bl. ..... 3 ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadt li of hand. Weight. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. a u o3 9 0 Breadth of hand. 102 . 103. . 7.4 7.5 "2’ 1,152 1,152 635 010 295 301 54 59 44 47 104- . . 7.7 2 1,225 685 315 53 K E P E A T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . N umber in 0-year series. ® i be 1 <1 Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number in 6-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. 1 _ 7.0 2 1,095 625 310 54 46 32 . . 7.0 2 1,148 585 300 57 6 7.5 2 1,202 670 :-330 61 53 33 7.0 2 i 1,168 635 320 61 7 - . 7.11 2 1,169 033 335 60 49 34 ... 7.9 2 i 1,1:35 i 610 310 58 8 . 7.1 2 1,183 653 307 59 48 35 _ 7. 10 2 ! 1,173 i 620 305 63 9 . 7.3 1 1,187 645 302 58 48 37 . 7.10 1 i 1,151 i 625 295 59 11 . . 7.8 1,164 780 305 60 46 38.. . - 7.3 2 j 1,267 685 :3a5 64 13 7.5 2 1 176 655 315 60 51 39 7.0 1 1 165 650 295 56 15 _ 7.2 2 1,109 595 305 55 39 40 _ 7.0 2 i 1,197 1 645 330 62 10 . 7.3 1 1,109 595 295 55 41 41 7.4 1 1 1,2(X) 645 310 58 18 . . 7.10 2 1,187 625 320 57 50 42 _ 7.1 2 i 1,145 620 310 58 19 _ 7.3 2 1,259 660 345 61 i 54 44 _ 7.8 4 1,249 I 675 330 63 21 7.8 1 1,209 675 320 57 i 56 45 7.8 3 1 198 j 670 305 60 23 . 7.5 1,1:35 625 :305 60 1 47 46 . . 7.8 3 1,172 605 :325 60 24 _ 7.6 1, 150 630 3:20 ! 47 47 _ 7.10 3 1,223 660 315 60 25 7.1 1, 113 620 298 54' 1 40 49 . - 7.9 2 1,178 630 315 59 26 _ 7.1 1,070 605 280 53 1 40 ! 50 _ 7.6 2 1 1,108 635 320 60 28 . 7.6 1,185 655 315 56 48 7.6 2 ! 3,247 675 320 62 29 _ 7.11 3 1,227 670 310 58 45 7.0 1 ' 1,103 630 290 58 30.. . 7.9 2 1,250 670 326 60 57 ; N umber in 5-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth j of hand. Weight, j ■ Number in .5-year series. ! q3 Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Foreman. | Breadth of hand. Weight, j 1.... . 7.1 1 1,077 590 295 56 j 43 1 3 _ 1 7.0 2 1,203 671 315 on 54 ScO^O^l^'^CDO^^t-^DCO«Ih-COO^COCOCC 92 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. 7-year-o1d Worcester, Mass. — Coiitiimed. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Niimbei 1,172 L219 1,083 Height of face ^ (1). 1 Height of face (2). _ Breadth o f hand. Forearm. Number. Finger i-each. 1 Height of face (1). CD V CM CM s w Breadth of hand. Forearm. 97 1 93 _ 93 152 94 94 95 140 81 91 95 . . 84 125 58 93 137 99 97 147 81 i , 9G 147 _ 97 _ 89 128 57 92 147 98 i 91 142 5.5 _ 101 155 99 i 98 145 83 1 _ , 90 140 _ 100 _ ! 1,182 85 134 58 ! 95 : 145 ' _ _ 1 : 101 _ i 150 94 53 8-yeur-ol in 6-year S3 4^ i series. o ‘3 series. S) a c3 0 ‘S <; o 0} m ® Ci3 03 m ° 43 . 8.1 \ 2 1,216 1,160 620 320 61 46 55 8.10 1 1,196 640 i 310 60 46 48 . . 8.0 i 3 645 315 58 44 1 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. B 0 Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 84 . . 1,156 95 1 96 . i 1 1 98 141 59 85 . . 100 1.52 97 . 1,284 96 157 86 _ _ 94 142 ; 98 _ _ 1,298 100 148 87 . 102 150 99 1,242 100 138 88 . . i 93 156 1 100 1 89 150 61 89 . . . ! 94 154 ' 101 _ 1 96 1.50 61 90-. . . 94 144 102.... . 1 91 144 64 91 . i 92 154 103 89 144 66 92.. . . . 92 159 104 - . 98 162 56 93 . . . 95 141 105 . 93 154 61 345 94 . 103 143 60 106 . 89 142 60 325 95 . ' . 103 149 64 1 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 95 9-year-old (jirlti. ^Vorces^er, ?,/ass. Number, oi tUD <1 Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. 1 Weight. 1 , _ Hair. Eyes. 1. . . 9.8 1 1,286 687 166 143 117 1 62 1. br. bl. 2- . 9.9 2 1,334 704 168 134 114 58 d. br. d. br. 3... . 9.8 4 2 1,;102 674 183 144 118 54 red. bl. 4.. . 9.1 3 1,237 657 179 144 115 53 bio. gi’. 5- . 9.3 3 1,298 698 199 131 119 60 br. Sr. 6 . 9.11 3 1,380 726 183 150 125 72 red . gr. 7 . . 9.0 4 2 1,329 687 185 1:37 117 < 62 ])r. ! bl. 8 _ _ 9.11 4 6 1,242 (579 169 140 109 52 bio. gi’- 9 . 9.4 3 1,352 717 182 140 121 70 d. })r. ' l.br. 10 ... 9.8 3 1,246 675 176 143 110 : 53 br. g.bl. 11 . 9.7 4 2 1,290 (572 174 147 116 : 54 br. br. 12 . 9.1 4 1 1,296 709 171 148 125 1 69 br. i gr. 13 . 9.8 3 1 1,299 677 179 137 120 ! 59 br. ! l.br. 14... . 9.2 3 1 1,151 631 162 141 117 1 44 d.br. i d.br. 15 . . 9.6 3 4 1,351 j 736 182 139 116 71 l.br. bl. 16 9.8 2 1, 305 696 178 137 113 1 62 br. br. 17 . 9.5 3 1,243 683 181 142 115 i 62 br. g.bl. 18 . . 9.1 3 1 1,168 635 177 143 116 1 55 l.br. bl. 19 . . 9. 10 3 2 1,145 606 169 136 113 41 bio. bl. 20 _ 9.6 3 1,243 656 164 134 113 51 bio. bl. 21 . . 9.1 2 1,363 751 175 147 124 90 1. br. g.bl. 22... . 9.0 1 1,194 643 172 135 116 42 br. l.br. 23 9.3 1 i;i98 646 170 141 116 50 br. bl. 24 . 9.2 2 1,2.27 658 171 144 120 50 bio. g. bl. 25 _ 9.1 1 1,273 676 173 137 115 57 br. d. br. 26 . . 9.9 2 5 1,262 674 171 130 109 56 br. bl. 27 . 9.0 1,281 707 178 139 117 64 br. bl. 28. . 9.4 2 2 1, 156 &55 183 151 112 49 bio. i gr. 29 . 9.9 5 1,263 687 173 128 117 61 black. , d.br. 30 . 9.7 4 3 1,249 660 181 146 119 55 d. bio. 1 gr. 31 . . 9.9 4 2 1,265 645 174 147 114 52 d.blo. gr. 32 . . 9. 11 3 5 1,258 650 176 141 118 62 br. g. br. 33. . 9.5 2 4 1,266 682 178 143 117 62 d.br. bl. 34 . 9.3 2 2 1,283 662 173 142 120 58 br. bl. 35 . 9.6 4 1 1,321 685 182 144 121 63 bio. bl. 36 _ 9.9 4 3 1,292 700 184 139 116 68 br. gr. 37 _ 9.8 4 2 1,290 695 170 139 117 55 bio. bl. 38. . . 9.10 4 1 1,253 664 178 142 126? 49 bio. bl. 39 . 9.1 3 1 1,328 677 187 150 127 68 br. br. 40 . . 9.1 2 9 1,296 710 172 143 118 55 bio. bl. 41 . 9.2 2 2 1,125 631 172 135 114 40 br. d. br. 42 . 9.4 2 a3 1,276 709 176 145 126 58 br. bl. 43 . . 9.1 2 3 1,291 688 168 132 111 51 l.br. gr. 44.... . 9.7 4 9 1, 401 757 179 141 121 80 d. bio. bl. 45 _ 9.8 4 1 1,343 717 175 148 125 63 d. br. bl. 46. . . 9.9 4 4 1,364 691 182 144 125 64 red. bl. 47 . 9.4 4 1 1,232 678 177 142 117 59 br. gr. 48 . 9.4 4 3 1,282 692 184 1:39 115 78 d.br. bl. 49 . . 9.0 4 1 1,356 715 171 130 115 57 d.br. bl. 50 . . 9.5 4 3 1,402 742 182 138 119 79 d.br. br. 51 . 9.3 2 1,33:3 711 177 138 115 65 bio. bl. 52... 9.9 3 1,245 697 172 145 114 55 bio. bl. 53. . . 9.2 3 1 1,258 679 181 143 112 52 bio. bl. 54.. . 9.8 4 7 1,308 695 177 143 117 63 d.br. bl. 55 . . 9.7 4 1 1,222 652 182 139 117 56 br. bl. 56 . . 9.9 4 2 1,272 661 176 144 119 64 br. g.bl. 57... . 9.11 4 3 1,328 703 182 141 120 62 br. 1 bl. 58 . 9.8 3 1 1,227 662 171 143 118 50 br. bl. 59 _ 9.4 3 2 1,295 693 177 140 116 59 1. br. bl. 60 . . 9.7 3 1 1,195 656 179 142 118 49 br. gr. 61. . 9.0 2 3 1,225 675 178 142 117 58 1. br. gr. 62. . . 9.7 1 15 1,156 641 165 129 110 46 br. br. 63 . 9.10 5 4 1,245 674 181 145 114 54 br. bl. 64 . 9.1 4 2 1,321 673 176 145 115 57 br. br. 65 _ 9.0 4 4 1,253 658 177 134 114 53 bio. bl. 66 . 9.4 4 2 1,341 703 193 141 122 73 br. g.bl. 67 __ -- 9.6 3 2 1,293 672 177 136 112 58 bio. 68 . 9.3 3 4 1,243 665 175 136 114 52 1. br. g. bl. 69 _ 9.3 2 3 1,208 612 171 138 112 48 br. br. 70 . 9.2 2 1 1,250 674 181 146 120 51 br. br. 71. . . 9.11 4 4 1,260 660 167 137 116 49 br. br. 72.. . 9.5 4 6 1,244 693 172 137 112 55 br. br. 73 _ _ 9.7 4 2 1,170 626 162 i:36 118 45 d. br. d. br. 74. . 9.8 4 8 1,2.58 720 18i 1:39 120 65 br. br. 75 . 9.8 4 1 1,265 a50 177 143 120 52 bio. g.bl. 76 . 9.8 4 1 1,277 685 179 ; 143 122 55 br. bl. M _ 9.0 4 2 1,392 1 7:3:3 1,«() ' 145 1 130 80 d. br. d. br. 1 2 1 .... 1 7 1 ' 2 8 1 1 1 3 2 .... 3 1 ... 1 ... 1 1 1 1 .... i' 1 .... 1 .... 3 1 3 3 2 I 2 2 2 .... 1 3 2 3 1 1 1 2 6 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 4 3 3 1 2 1 3 3 2 2 4 i 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 5 1 3 2 1 1 12 2 1 'i 3 6 2 3 2 4 1 4 3 1 ... 1 1 2 “Twin sister. Brothers. 96 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. O-year-ohJ fjirJs. Worcester, Mass. — CoiitiiiiieO. Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. 1 Height sitting. Length of head. Bre a d t h of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. Brothers, i 1 Sisters. 78- . . 9.0 4 8 1,208 635 172 139 116 48 redbr gy- 3 5 79 _ 9.3 3 3 1,245 657 186 141 119 57 bio. bl. 2 1 80 _ 9.6 3 2 1,211 634 177 142 120 51 d. bio. bl. 2 2 81 _ 9.1 3 1 1,255 655 173 138 124 52 d. br. d.br. 1 2 82 _ 9.2 3 2 1,312 690 170 133 118 55 br. br. 2 83 _ 9.6 3 1 1,268 686 171 142 119 53 br. br. 84 _ 9. 10 3 6 1,314 699 178 142 118 72 d.br. bl. 3 3 85 _ 9.3 3 1 1,135 625 177 145 109 46 br. g. br. 1 1 86 _ 9.9 2 4 1,194 651 177 140 111 49 br. bl. 1 87 _ 9.7 2 4 1,229 680 157 130 no 49 d. br. d.gr. 1 "'2 88 _ 9.0 2 2 1,257 675 176 136 115 54 br. sr. 1 89 _ 9.9 1 1 1,287 734 169 139 108 60 d. br. 3 1 90 _ 9.4 1 3 1,310 685 175 145 122 65 br. gr. 3 91. 9.6 4 1 1,327 181 143 116 d. bio. bl. 2 92- 9.11 4 3 1, 265 169 132 118 d. br. bl. 1 2 93- 9.2 4 1 1,277 177 141 121 d. br. l.br. 94-.- . 9.3 4 2 1,255 169 132 118 1. br. 1. br. ----- ---- 95 _ 9.6 3 1 1,213 164 138 112 d. br. bl. 3 1 96 _ 9.7 3 1 1,221 171 130 113 red. bl. 1 97- 9.5 4 4 1,257 178 142 120 d. br. d. br. 1 3 98- ' 9.5 4 4 1,276 186 146 118 l.br. gi'- gv. 2 3 99 _ 9.5 3 1 1,285 170 149 121 d. br. 1 1 100 _ 9.11 2 1,191 187 131 no d. br. b. gr. 101 _ 9.6 1 ((4 1,186 178 137 113 ■ l.br. d. br. ----- "4 102. . . 9.9 4 3 1,280 187 141 123 d. br. d. br. 3 2 103- . . 9.2 4 4 1,247 656 173 140 109 d. br. d. br. 3 1 104 _ 9. 10 4 1 1,251 681 181 143 118 1. br. 1. br. 1 105 _ 9.11 4 1 1,284 695 178 142 120 bio. bl. 4 108 _ 9.9 4 12 1,245 688 175 141 112 d.br. gr. 8 ■■■3 107 _ 9.11 4 2 1,322 700 186 1 *146 118 1. br. bl. 1 1 108 . . 9.4 4 4 1,290 182 139 120 d.br. err. 4 109 _ 1 9.3 4 3 1,214 182 140 111 d. br. Lbr. "’2 no _ i 9.10 4 1 1,245 173 141 119 1. br. bl. 2 111 . i 9.5 4 4 1,275 176 138 117 d. bio. bl. 4 3 112 _ 9.4 4 1,291 177 135 116 d. bio. bl. 113 . 9.5 5 1 1,268 178 141 120 l.br. er. br. 1 114 _ 9.5 3 1 1,308 176 142 118 l.br. Lbr. 3 115 _ 9.11 3 1 1,378 187 138 114 d. br. bl. ’2 116 _ 9.2 3 2 1,276 166 141 116 1. br. g. bl. 1 1 117... . 9.7 3 •3 1.296 177 132 112 d. br. d. br. 3 2 “Twin. ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Bre a d t h of hand. Weight. 1 118 _ ! 9.7 3 1,296 695 3:30 61 65 119 . 9.9 r 4 1,295 675 a50 60 61 REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. Number in 8-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Heigh t sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number in 8-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. 1 Breadth 1 of hand. Weight. 1 2 9.9 1 5 1,282 672 350 63 58 16 . 9.3 2 1,290 685 345 61 56 3 . 9.10 5 1,300 712 325 61 57 18 . 9.1 3 1,160 640 315 54 51 4 _ 9.6 4 1,247 678 316 64 55 19- . 9.2 3 1,186 660 315 60 56 6 9.5 4 1,305 702 333 62 61 21 . . 9.0 2 1,299 330 58 60 7 9.6 3 1,281 685 350 64 58 23 . 9. 11 4 1,285 690 345 60 51 8 . 9.8 3 1,243 660 350 62 57 24 . 9.9 4 1,318 695 345 68 59 9 _ 9.9 3 1,262 685 320 61 59 25 . 9.6 4 1,292 695 350 69 60 10 9.5 3 1,238 648 330 60 49 28 9.4 3 1,289 695 360 69 57 12 9.9 2 1,282 680 355 63 58 29 . 9.0 3 1,286 690 345 61 60 13 _ 9.9 3 1,295 690 350 62 62 30 _ 9.4 3 1,304 710 335 63 56 14 . 9.1 3 1,354 720 375 66 63 31 . 9.7 3 1,254 641 447 64 56 15 . 9.9 2 1.246 670 335 58 52 32 . 9.6 3 1,245 760 335 58 49 STATISTICS OF GROAVTH. 97 ii-year-oUl girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continned. REPEATED MEASUREMENTS— Continued. Number ba c B .P • 4^* Niimber ! Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth ; of head. Breadth , of face. Weight. ^ s a Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. \ 95 . 10.3 3 4 1,290 698 166 140 122 60 hr. gr. 1 2 96 . 10.0 2 1,277 648 177 1:34 114 56 hr. err. 97 . 10.4 2 i i;288 (i97 177 144 118 60 hr. gr. 98 . 10.1 1 2 1,185 655 166 137 107 47 d.br. gr. 2 99 . 10.11 5 3 1,353 690 182 137 115 61 d.blo. gr- 2 100-.. . 10. 10 1 1,310 689 173 144 121 58 rd. bl. 101 . 10. 3 4 2 1,2.54 655 175 i:36 118 50 d.blo. g.bl. 1 103.- . 10.3 4 5 1,211 6.56 182 142 117 54 l.br. l.br. 2 "‘2 109- . 10.3 4 3 1,467 768 182 140 120 34 br. gr. 2 2 104 . 10.9 4 2 1,:343 668 175 139 118 65 br. br. 1 2 105 . 10.0 4 2 1,283 666 170 144 114 57 rd. gr. 1 106.. . 10. 11 4 2 1,479 7i55 185 144 123 74 d. bio. g.bl. 2 107- . - 10.4 4 4 1,317 674 176 136 113 58 br. d.br. 3 108 . 10.0 4 10 1,382 737 175 146 125 69 br. gr. 5 4 109 . 10.9 4 1,322 670 182 143 118 61 br. gr. 3 1 no . . 10.6 3 4 1,270 663 177 142 112 .56 br. l.br. 2 1 Ill . . 10.8 3 2 1,353 711 179 143 117 70 d.blo. gr. 1 112 . . 10.2 2 1,3.31 679 176 142 115 66 d. bio. g.bl. 2 118. . . 10.3 3 2 1,,35.5 724 181 143 117 69 d. br. d.br. 2 '“i 114 _ 10.4 1 7 1,303 691 173 134 112 66 rd. br. 10 1 115 10.7 6 3 1,424 177 149 127 1 . br . bl. 2 116 . 10.8 5 5 1,4.34 186 148 124 d. br. 1. br. 3 3 117 10.5 5 5 1,324 176 140 118 d. bio. gr. 3 2 118 . . 10.5 5 3 1,333 185 144 122 d.br. d. br. 3 3 119 . 10.11 5 1 1,412 173 154 128 1. br. g.bl. 1 120. 10. 11 5 4 1, 4.3.5 189 149 124 d. bio. err. 1 3 121 _ 10.7 5 1 1,410 179 142 122 d. br. d. br. 2 122 10. 11 4 3 1,.303 172 138 115 d.br. d. br. 1 3 123 . 10.6 4 4 1,387 178 143 122 1. br. bl. 2 1 124 10.5 4 1 1,242 173 ia5 113 d. br. bl. 1 125 . 10.7 4 2 1,344 184 140 121 d.blo. bl. 1 2 126 . 10.0 4 2 1,.365 170 139 121 d. bio. l.br. 1 127 10.8 3 5 1,387 186 142 118 bio. bl. 2 2 g! 10.0 4 8 1,266 176 141 117 d. br. bl. 5 3 129 . 10.3 4 1 1,3:32 180 140 112 1. br. bl. 130 _ 10.2 4 6 1,280 191 146 119 1. br. bl. 7 131- 10.5 3 6 1,264 163 144 123 1. br. bl. 2 4 1,32 . ...' 10.0 1 6 1,244 182 146 119 bio. bl. 4 3 133 10.6 4 4 1,264 172 145 113 1. br. bl. 2 1 134.-.- . i 10.3 4 6 1,.366 743 184 142 120 d.br. d.br. 2 3 135 _ : 10.11 4 5 1,421 762 186 145 115 d.br. g.bl. 2 2 136 . ' 10.1 4 6 1,.334 698 180 147 123 1. br. bl. 2 2 137 . 10.4 4 1 1, :353 173 142 117 d.blo. bl. 138 . 10.6 4 1 1,298 187 140 118 d. br. bl. 1 139 . 10.0 4 4 1,.318 174 140 119 d.br. d. br. 1 2 140 . 10.2 4 1 1,287 173 139 118 d. br. bl. 1 1 141 _ 10.7 4 4 1,342 180 154 131 d. br. gr. 2 7 142 . . 10.1 5 1 1,262 183 142 118 d. bio. err. 1 2 143 _ 10.2 5 5 1,325 182 140 117 d. br. d. br. 3 5 144 . 10. 11 5 9 1,413 180 151 125 d. br. gr. 5 2 14^5- . 10.4 5 9 1,325 184 1.54 123 d.br. bl. 4 4 146. . 10.2 5 3 1,2.50 176 147 131 1. br. d. br. 2 5 147 . 10.5 5 2 1,276 175 1:38 113 l.br. err. 1 148 . 10.11 6 2 1,.306 181 i:38 119 bio. 1. br. 2 ’2 149 .. .. 10. 10 6 3 1, 405 184 140 120 d.blo. err. 1 3 1.50. . 10. 10 6 3 i,a5i 178 1.38 115 1. br. 1. br. 1 1 1,51 . 10.3 i 4 2 1,260 182 143 123 d. br. bl. 2 2 152 10.2 4 3 1,285 184 149 127 d. br d. br. 3 3 1.53 . . 10. 9 ! 4 2 1,.38.5 180 1.36 118 d. br. 2 154. . 10.0 i 4 1 1,;325 172 141 116 d.br. 1. br. 2 155 10.4 j 5 1 1,2:34 172 140 111 d . br . d. br. 1 '”2 156 _ • jO.4 3 1 1,270 186 140 117 d.br. d. br. .... 1 1,57 . 10.8 1 3 2 1,414 185 1.34 118 bla. 1. br. 1.58. . . 10.3 1 3 2 1,:360 170 142 119 d.br. bl. 2 .... 1,59 _ 10.2 1 1,288 175 1:34 114 d. bio. gr. 2 2 ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. 0) bt) < Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Foi’earm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number. Age. Grade. Statm’e. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth | of hand. | 160 . 161 . 10.9 10.7 4 i ^ 1,276 1,300 692 665 348 aa5 66 60 56 .54 162 . 10.1 4 1,227 650 3a5 .58 100 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904, lO-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. Number in 9-year series. Age. Grade. 1 Stature. Height 1 sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number in 9- year series. 6 bJO Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. 1 ........ 2 _ 4 _ 5 _ 6 _ 7 _ 9 . . . 11 . . 12 _ 13 _ 16 _ 21 _ 22 _ 24 _ 25 _ 26 _ 27 _ 31 . . . 32 . . 33 _ 34 . . . 35 _ 36.. . 37 . . 38 _ 39 . . 10.8 10.9 IC.l 10.3 10. 11 10.0 10.4 10.6 10.1 10.9 10.8 10.1 9.11 10.1 10.2 10.7 10.0 10.3 10.9 10.4 10.4 10.6 10.9 10.5 10. 10 10.2 e 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 5 4 3 3 5 5 5 5 4 1, 335 1,401 1,301 l,a52 1,468 1,397 1,415 , 1,358 1,368 1,365 1,353 1,442 1,229 1,287 1,320 1,319 1,345 1,323 1,319 1,312 1,350 1,386 1,345 1,348 1,305 1,382 705 746 678 712 770 738 732 714 738 708 712 773 650 670 700 695 740 695 685 710 730 720 735 710 675 710 355 380 350 377 410 365 370 a55 372 365 350 412 330 350 370 360 385 350 340 350 345 370 365 350 355 385 66 71 62 70 71 65 65 66 68 66 m 73 60 j 64 66 65 72 61 63 63 63 67 67 66 i 64 ; 62 70 66 60 65 88 67 73 59 81 68 65 109 46 54 63 61 1 73 ; 59 1 69 ! 67 63 j 69 1 79 i 60 1 55 i 75 1 41 . . ' 42-.- . 1 44 _ i 49 _ 51 . 53--. . 54 _ 55 . 56 _ 57 . . 58 _ .59 _ 63 _ 72 _ 73-. - . 74 _ 75... . 76 _ 77 _ 80 _ 82 _ 83 _ 85 _ 87 . , 10.3 10.4 10.2 10.5 10.11 10.4 10.4 10.8 10.7 1 10.10 ! 10. 11 j 10.8 1 10.4 j 10.9 1 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10. 10 10.1 10.7 10.2 10.6 10.4 10.6 i 2 5 5 5 4 4 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 1.174 1,311 1,484 1.292 1,432 1,393 1,320 1,367 ! 1,287 1 1,322 1 1,386 j 1,277 ! 1,344 1,298 1 1,310 1,232 1.362 1,302 1,326 1,456 1,253 1.363 1,324 1.175 1.293 635 715 800 695 755 730 700 725 680 685 730 680 700 700 715 660 760 685 700 750 705 725 690 645 700 1 305 340 390 330 380 370 335 370 350 345 380 335 355 335 340 350 345 350 355 390 325 355 360 320 335 58 65 75 67 65 68 64 70 61 63 65 66 67 63 68 65 68 65 62 67 66 64 67 59 60 45 66 98 62 65 58 71 65 71 66 55 64 57 63 51 74 55 63 96 56 75 58 54 Number in 8 year series. tiC a5 CS O 7 717 175 143 118 66 bio. gr. br. 1 6 29 12.2 4 1,475 793 180 147 131 98 d. br. g. bl. 1 3 30 12.1 1 1,438 746 177 153 124 74 bio. bl. 1 31 12.2 7 1,374 752 175 139 117 72 bio. bl. 4 \'"i 12. 1 5 3 1,423 738 179 145 125 71 bio. 1. br. 1 1 33 _ 12.2 ; 7 4 1,507 766 177 142 119 84 br. g.bl. 2 1 :34 _ 12. 11 3 1,453 780 184 142 120 86 d. br. g.bl. 1 1 35 _ 12.4 5 2 1,398 779 180 144 126 80 br. br. 1 36 _ 12.0 3 3 1,406 742 177 151 124 94 bio. g.bl. 1 ‘”i 37 _ 12.5 2 1,337 726 175 149 122 73 bio. g.bl. 3 3 38 12.5 9 1 1,549 804 188 149 133 106 bio. bl. 39 _ 12.6 8 7 1,413 761 189 150 124 73 br. bl. 6 2 40 12.3 6 1 1,490 730 177 144 123 68 br. bl. 41... . 12.6 6 3 1,460 777 171 148 121 80 1. br. bl. 3 5 42 . - 12.8 4 2 1,481 791 184 141 125 93 br. br. 1 43 _ _ 12.10 6 4 1,372 685 178 147 124 59 bio. bl. 1 ■■'3 44. . 12.11 6 5 ^ 1,553 810 188 143 121 98 br. g.bl. 5 3 45 . . 12.5 6- 3 1,387 734 178 1 141 116 67 br. g.bl. 2 48 . 12.0 6 1 1,435 777 180 1 138 124 91 br. bl. 47 . 12.2 5 3 ! 1,532 816 ! 175 146 127 113 br. br. 2 1 48 . . .. 12.1 5 1 i 1,552 847 1 182 : 142 118 93 br. gr. 49 . 12.7 5 3 , 1,446 795 : 185 : 135 122 81 br. br. i 5 STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 105 12-ijcar-oUl girlfi. IT’orcr-s'/f’/-. — Continiiod. NiimToer. Grade. 2 3 o

73 _ 12.0 4 1 1,408 757 171 145 124 77 j d. hr. d. hr. 74 _ 12.7 8 3 1,485 770 176 152 125 73 hr. hi. 5 75 _ 12.3 7 3 1,394 7:37 184 141 1:22 71 hr. gr. 2 '"2 76 _ 12.8 7 3 1,322 681 176 137 114 57 l.hlo. hi. 3 77 .. .. .. 12.0 7 3 1,477 783 179 147 127 78 d.hlo. hi. 5 i 3 12.9 6 1 1,491 762 178 142 118 71 hr. hr. 79 _ 12.9 6 2 i;480 754 183 150 129 90 hr. g.hl. 1 1 80 _ 12.0 5 1 1,327 705 170 141 117 55 d. hr. hi. 3 1 81 _ 12.2 5 2 1,400 751 177 141 126 68 hr. hi. 1 82 . . 12.5 5 2 1,421 745 183 137 121 81 hr. hr. 1 ”‘2 a3 _ 12.5 5 2 1,365 704 178 135 116 57 d.hr. hr. 1 1 84 _ 12.11 4 5 1,442 746 185 144 122 86 hr. hi. 5 5 85 _ 12. 11 4 3 1,491 830 179 151 130 114 d.hr. hi. 4 4 86 . . 12.1 3 9 1,391 731 181 152 127 68 d.hr. hi. 5 4 87 . . 12.11 7 1 1,455 770 180 141 120 73 hr. hi. 1 1 88 _ 12.0 6 5 1,419 776 187 145 117 73 hr. hr. 2 2 89 _ 12.0 6 1 1,431 751 181 136 121 72 1. hr. hi. 2 90 _ 12.2 6 1 1,484 764 178 141 117 82 hlo. hi. 1 'i 91 _ 12. 10 9 1 ],509 763 175 135 113 73 hr. gr. 92 . . 12.8 9 4 1,525 795 179 147 128 87 hr. g.hl. 4 3 93 _ 12.9 8 2 1,425 750 182 146 125 86 hr. gr. 1 1 94 . 12.1 8 1 1,581 804 188 141 128 98 hr. hi. 95 _ 12.9 7 1 1,404 735 182 150 124 77 hr. hi. 1 96 _ 12.7 7 3 1,507 788 191 141 122 87 hr. gi'- 2 '2 97. 12.4 3 1,368 710 165 145 126 69 d.hlo. g.hl. 2 98 12.0 6 1 i,a55 681 180 140 112 64 hlo gr. 99.. . . 12.7 5 3 1,434 752 181 139 119 72 hr. gr. 2 5 100 _ 12.11 4 1 1,408 733 184 145 119 83 l.hr. hr. T 2 101 _ 12.8 6 1 1,544 796 176 140 126 98 d. hr. d. hr. 1 102 _ 12. 10 8 3 1,550 790 180 141 125 83 hr. hr. j 3 103 _ 12.11 6 3 1,442 798 173 j 142 125 78 hr. g.hl. 2 1 1 104 _ 12.8 6 4 l,:341 724 180 138 116 60 hr. hi. 2 5 105 _ 12.4 6 1 1,360 713 175 1 1:35 123 67 d. hr. d.hr. 2 1 108 _ 12.5 6 4 1,528 790 187 147 124 85 hr. gr. 3 2 107 _ 12.0 6 3 . 1,463 784 177 1 140 127 81 d. hr. gr. 1 1 108 _ 12.10 5 2 1,398 730 178 136 115 72 hr. hi. 2 j 1 109.. . 12.7 5 2 1,582 824 186 i 142 125 98 hr. hi. 3 110. . 12.0 5 2 1.469 728 193 ' 140 121 76 bla. d. hr. 4 .... 111. . . 12.0 5 2 1 1,442 762 180 141 125 77 hr. gi’- 1 112 . 12.0 5 3 1,465 747 181 139 121 83 hr. hi. 1 1 113. . 12.9 4 2 1 1,400 740 174 ia5 119 76 hr. g.hl. ..... 1 114... . 12.0 4 6 1,514 765 171 1:37 120 82 hr. d. hr. 2 115 _ 12.1 9 3 1,422 182 145 124 1. hr. hi. 2 116... 12.11 9 4 1,526 181 144 126 hla. 1. hr. 3 ”'2 117 12.7 9 6 1,640 197 152 1:30 d.hr. gr. 1 5 118. 12.8 8 4 1.476 176 148 127 d.hlo. £rr. 5 3 119 _ 12.9 8 1 1,512 177 145 126 hla. Lbr. 120 . 12.4 8 1 1,512 181 143 124 d. hr. g.hl. 2 2 121 _ ... 12.9 8 3 1 1,416 184 145 126 d. hlo. bl. 3 2 122.... . 12.5 8 5 1,527 192 150 129 d. hr. 1. hr. 2 2 123.. . 12.6 8 2 1 1, 438 177 141 116 bio. g. bl. 3 124... . 12.5 7 4 j 1,502 188 145 121 d. hlo. g.hl. 3 ’2 125 12.5 3 1, 604 184 152 129 d.hr. g.hl. 2 126. . 12.0 r- 1 1,483 182 153 120 d. hr. g.hl. ..... 5 127.. . . 12.6 6 3 1,528 180 144 125 d.hlo. g. hi. 1 1 128 . 12.11 6 4 1 1,512 176 ia5 127 d.hlo. gi’. 3 > 1 106 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. 12-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. 1 Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth | of face. Weight. a Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 129.. . 12.1 6 2 1,313 163 144 126 d.blo. gr. gr. 1 130 . 12.1 6 3 1,278 183 139 114 d. bio. 4 1 131 . 12.1 5 3 1,418 181 143 120 rd. br. d. br. 1 2 132 12.3 4 1^353 181 138 119 d.br. bl. 3 3 133 12 4 3 1 404 183 153 127 d. br. d.br. 1 3 134 12. 0 4 3 l’418 186 140 121 d. br. bi. 1 1 135. . 12.6 8 2 1,475 178 147 120 d. br. err. 2 3 13(5 . 12.6 4 2 1,367 177 146 121 d. br. err. 1 1 1.37 _ 12.4 5 1 1A69 173 145 123 d. bio. bl. 2 138 . 12.0 5 2 1^345 176 137 115 d. br. fbr. ”i 139 _ 12.10 5 2 1,368 177 137 118 l.br. 2 140 . 12. 5 5 1 1,503 186 148 125 d. bio. bl. ..... 3 141 . 12.11 5 1 1, 516 181 150 128 d. bio. srr. 142 . - 12.2 4 2 1, 455 183 149 128 l.br. bl. 2 4 143 _ 12.3 6 7 1,4.24 181 141 120 rd. br. bl. 3 3 144 12.5 6 1,491 i 182 147 129 d. br. bl. 4 3 145. 12.9 6 1 1,432 180 145 125 bio. gr. 3 2 146. 12.6 6 7 1,388 1 j . 177 147 124 d. br. bl. 5 3 147- 12.1 6 1 1,571 189 144 125 bio. ffr. 4 148 . 12.8 6 1 1,492 185 144 12:3 l.br. bl. 1 "■3 149 _ 12.9 6 1 1,4(X) 180 145 117 d. bio. bl. 3 150 _ 12. 11 7 8 1, 575 178 149 115 1. br. gr. 5 .... 151 _ 12.11 7 3 1,453 176 147 124 1. br. gr. 5 152 . 12.11 7 7 1,332 173 129 no d. bio. gr. 3 i 153 12.8 7 8 1,436 178 143 122 d br. l.br. 3 1 154 _ _ 12.2 7 1 1,413 172 135 120 1. bio. g. bl. 155 12 0 7 1 1 420 177 141 123 1 br bi ..... 156 . 12.8 7 1 1,515 758 181 144 128 d.blo. bl. 1 157- .. 12.1 7 1 1,582 784 188 150 1:33 l.br. fbr. 158 . . 12.8 7 2 1,379 709 176 146 127 d. br. 2 6 159 _ 12.8 8 4 1,459 777 190 145 119 d. br. 1. br. 3 5 160 _ 12.7 8 1 1,514 810 192 144 125 d. br. l.br. .... 161 _ 12.3 8 1 1,492 772 175 148 122 l.br. gr. 162 _ 12. 11 4 2 1,467 180 143 122 d.blo. bl. 3 3 163 . 12.5 5 4 1,312 183 141 118 d. br. bl. 3 4 164 . 12.0 4 4 1,282 175 135 116 d.br. 1. br. 6 2 165 . 12.2 7 3 1,333 691 174 142 124 |. d. bio. bl. ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. ai iiC © 'xi o3 5 Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. 166 . 12.1 4 1,392 1,458 745 370 74 87 168. . 12. 11 7 1,388 1,467 725 385 71 167 . . 12.5 6 765 390 67 66 169 _ 12.8 7 790 380 70 REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. Number in 11-year series i Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. Number in 11-year series. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. j Weight. t 6 . 12.6 7 1,461 767 390 ! 70 85 25 . . 12.6 6 1,291 688 346 64 55 7 12.7 ! 6 1,522 811 418 ' 74 91 26 . 12.5 6 1,302 700 345 64 63 8 12.1 i 7 1,378 722 382 ’ 70 63 27 _ 12.5 4 1,431 780 477 69 77 9 _ 12.11 ^ 8 1,493 800 415 91 28 . 12.5 5 1,416 735 378 66 73 10 _ 12.7 1 1,452 753 387 '70' 80 29 _ 12.5 5 1,367 712 367 68 62 11 12.10 7 1,475 769 387 71 76 31 12. 10 4 1,413 754 380 66 82 13 _ 12.7 7 1,477 788 387 70 76 32 _ 12. 5 4 1,384 750 374 68 68 14 _ 12. 7 6 1,360 711 383 70 74 85 _ 12.8 5 1,508 820 425 70 103 15 - 12.1 t 6 1,401 745 380 67 80 i 39 _ 12.2 7 1,480 800 i 400 70 102 17 . 12.9 6 1,415 750 1 365 67 79 i 41 _ 12.1 4 1,488 810 400 77 86 18 12.2 6 1,411 730 ' 380 66 66 ! 42 _ 12.9 6 1,398 785 360 64 72 19 _ 12.0 6 1,395 722 370 70 78 43 _ 12.7 6 1,371 725 380 66 69 20 . 12.1 6 1, 457 785 370 70 88 44 _ 12.5 6 1,443 780 375 70 73 21 . . 12.4 6 1,481 770 405 72 99 45 _ 12.6 6 1,382 720 375 68 22 12.3 6 1,461 800 390 70 85 46 . 12.8 6 1,499 770 415 67 88 24 . 12.3 6 1,480 770 410 72 85 47 . . 12.6 8 i 1 1,497 760 ; 410 77 74 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 107 12-year-nJ(l (jirls. Worcester, Mass. — Contiimecl. REPEATED MEASUREMENTS— Continued. Number in 11-year series. CD bD < Grade. Stature. Heigh t sitting. Forearm, j 1 Breadth i of band. ! Weight. Number in 11-year series. q3 JJC C Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth i of hand. Weight. 48 12.1 6 1 , 503 810 400 74 91 79 12. 10 5 1,501 740 a80 05 64 49 . . 12.3 6 1,372 785 3.50 67 71 80 . . 12.2 6 1,387 1 7:i5 370 08 ! 07 50 _ 12. 1 (5 1,474 780 395 67 78 81.. . 12.9 5 1,48(; 7a5 410 07 73 51 12.6 6 1,384 740 380 68 69 82.. 12.11 6 1,504 850 420 79 ' 115 53.. . 12.10 6 1,441 790 385 75 189 83 _ 12.6 4 1,442 730 375 09 71 58 ... 12.4 5 1,544 810 430 77 112 34 . - - . 12.1 5 1,409 725 380 08 70 56 . . 12. 6 1,5{!0 810 410 72 05 87 _ 12.3 4 1,385 740 370 04 03 57 . . 12.2 'j- 1,414 J'Srt 365 69 89 88 . 12.2 4 1,407 780 380 72 86 58 . 12.11 6 1,417 770 390 67 78 89.. . 12.0 3 1,383 7»)0 375 07 72 59 _ 12.5 6 1,410 760 370 73 73 96 . 12. 10 7 1,420 700 395 71 83 60 _ 12.2 6 1,383 745 3.50 64 63 98 _ 12.3 7 1,454 750 395 72 65 61 _ 12.3 6 1,363 730 360 66 (i4 101.. . 12. 9 6 1,394 7a5 375 67 72 63. . 12.2 5 1,493 790 385 71 81 103 . 12. 9 6 1,406 750 36.5 07 67 64. . 12.11 5 1,465 785 380 75 79 106 . 12.2 6 1,517 820 400 74 92 65 _ 13.5 5 1,507 780 405 74 92 108 _ 12.1 6 1,492 745 410 72 97 66 12.3 5 1 , 523 795 385 71 82 109 . 12. 10 4 1,422 750 375 71 81 67 . 12.10 5 1,544 845 415 78 101 110 _ 12.4 4 1,448 700 370 66 72 68 . . 12.0 5 1,391 725 365 65 64 111. . 12.0 5 1,362 705 370 70 63 69 . 12.6 5 1,373 720 355 67 62 112 _ 12.0 4 1,306 680 335 62 55 70 . . 12.7 8 1,411 737 398 70 74 113 _ 12.1 5 1,424 755 370 70 94 71 12.8 8 1,507 810 390 70 84 115 12.11 4 1,342 720 345 69 71 73 . 12.8 1,404 760 370 71 71 no . 12.4 4 1,505 780 420 68 96 76 . . 12.11 7 1,637 895 435 81 151 118. . 12.4 4 1,384 740 355 &5 62 77 . . 12.4 6 1,476 770 385 73 77 119 . . 12.11 4 1,389 725 370 65 67 78 . . 12.9 8 1,440 765 385 70 76 Number d) 6 be be.g a 1 N umber £) •M +3 a ® o d o3 ^ ij) rd ffl O bD 16 . 13.1 7 1,462 755 380 1 55 _ 13.0 4 1,540 835 1 420 72 102 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). B r e a dth of 1 hand. Forearm. 107 _ _ 1,552 101 1,31 . 96 148 71 i _ 108 _ _ 1,560 102 ...... 132 _ _ 1 107 170 109 . 1,560 108 I 133 ’ 103 168 69 no _ _ 1, 546 103 134 . 103 173 67 123 106 174 135 1 103 160 70 124 _ 1,668 112 173 75 1 136 i 100 155 72 125 _ _ 1,.565 103 162 137 . 1,513 104 163 66 126 _ 1,498 99 153 68 1 i 138 _ 104 147 68 127 _ 1,470 100 142 139 1 1,406 96 153 68 128 _ 109 164 73 ; ! 140 -- . 1 1,470 ! 103 156 129 _ _ _ 95 139 73 ' 1 141 _ _ i 100 ! 165 74 385 130 _ 1 _ 101 160 68 i 1 STATISTICS OF GROWTH. Ill UrVear-oUl girls. Worcester, Mass. Number. Age. Grade. Child. q5 +2 OQ 1 Height j sitting. Length of head. Breadth | ‘ of head. Breadth 1 of face. ! Weight. j Hair. i Eyes. 2 > Brothers. Sisters. i 15.3 1 1,547 844 181 146 124 107 bio. bl. 15.4 9 1 1,594 847 176 147 123 99 d. br. bl. 1 I . . 15.10 1 1,552 82:3 177 142 126 102 d. br. bl. 1 15.11 1 1,548 803 186 145 125 100 l.br. d. br. ..... 2 15.5 3 1,592 817 185 148 126 108 d. br. br. 3 15.2 a2 1,614 863 173 141 121 109 br. br. 1 1 15.7 1 1,638 859 184 148 128 107 bio. g. br. 15.1 8 2 1,608 855 172 145 126 no d. br. bl. "'i 1 15.11 2 1,574 833 185 138 129 118 d. br. d.br. 1 1 1 15. 10 2 1,591 867 190 144 126 119 br. bl. 1 2 15.2 4 1,612 822 183 150 126 127 l.br. bl. 2 1 15.0 6 1 1,410 754 182 137 118 73 br. g.bl. ..... 1 15.7 8 1 1,600 807 87 bio. bl. 3 15.11 8 1 1,625 861 123 br. br. 1 5 15.2 8 2 1,552 826 189 142 122 94 br. l.br. 1 1 15.9 8 4 ],.513 790 192 148 131 100 1. br. bl. 1 2 15. 7 1 1,604 875 187 146 132 127 br. g. hi. ..... 15.7 7 2 1,516 841 180 146 125 91 br. gr. 1 ^ 15. 11 9 1 1, 561 843 181 153 123 105 br. bl. 1 15. 10 9 1 1,583 856 182 148 124 91 redbr. br. 1 15.0 8 i 3 1,508 817 178 133 121 106 bio. l.bl. 1 1 15.0 8 1 1,548 812 180 148 126 109 d. br. d. br. 15.0 8 1 1,601 832 190 149 124 115 d.br. 1. br. 2 3 15.5 8 ; 3 1,.523 789 178 147 12;5 90 d. br. 1. br. 2 2 15.0 7 ' 3 1,597 847 181 140 128 104 1. br. bl. 3 2 15.7 8 : 2 1,637 850 187 158 134 116 br. bl. 4 1 15.3 8 4 1,568 801 181 141 124 98 br. gr. 1 2 15.8 9 1 1,539 818 191 146 128 105 br. d1 ( 15 9 9 1 1,777 888 194 151 130 126 br. br. 3 1 _ 15.2 9 a2 1,599 836 178 145 129 105 1. br. g.bl. 1 2 15.8 9 4 1,555 842 184 146 123 103 br. gr. 3 15.9 9 3 1,594 841 192 148 121 102 br. g.bl. 3 1 15.1 9 5 1,483 825 187 147 127 105 br. bl. 1 5 15.2 9 1 1,564 781 176 150 125 86 bla. br. 2 2 15.0 9 3 i:.561 826 183 144 122 90 br. g.bl. 2 — ED 1904 M - 8 Twin. 114 EDUOATIOl^ REPORT, 1904. 15-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued, Number. Age. Grade. Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. 1 Brothers. Sisters. j 36- . . 15. 1 9 8 1,597 868 187 150 127 100 br. bl. 5 4 37 _ 15.6 8 6 1,571 863 184 143 123 94 br. gr. 4 4 38 _ 15. 10 9 1 1,494 847 185 152 128 109 d.br. bl. 2 39 . . 15. 5 8 1 1,523 814 180 135 122 91 bio. ar. 40 _ 15.9 8 3 i;538 823 181 143 128 89 br. bl. 1 1 41 _ 1.5.9 8 1 1,615 851 192 148 125 109 bio. g.bl. 42 _ 15. 10 6 6 1,589 825 182 144 126 96 br. g.bl. ■"3' "3 43 . . 1.5.6 8 1 1,576 863 183 140 121 84 d.br. g.br. 2 2 44 _ 15.1 8 2 1,630 827 180 137 126 106 br. gr. 1 2 45 _ 15.5 7 1 1,-577 830 194 142 128 112 br. g. bl. .... 46 _ 15.1 8 1 1,-565 822 190 146 128 98 l.br. gr. 47 _ 15.7 9 1 1,581 821 178 140 121 92 d.blo. gr. 48... . 1.5.7 Jr. 2 1,610 843 188 148 127 123 l.br. ! I.bi. 2 1 49 . . 15.5 4 9 1,606 875 189 153 135 121 redbr. I gi‘- 1 3 50 _ 15.7 1 1,-571 837 191 147 122 87 bio. bl. 1 1 51 15.8 2 1,-584 823 187 142 123 91 d.br. bl 3 3 52 - . 15.4 H S. 3 1 , 493 832 177 151 130 96 br. 1 br. 2 53 . 15.0 2 1,-580 864 180 146 129 144 d.br. ! g.bl. 1 54 _ 15.4 H.S. 1 1,-580 837 184 151 130 101 l.br. g.bl. 55-. . 15.4 1 1,580 837 184 151 130 102 l.br. g. bl. 56 _ 15. 6 1 i;581 813 184 145 128 111 red. d.br. ..... ■"i 57 - 15.3 2dyr. 4 1,6-55 8-57 190 138 132 124 d. br. gr. 3 1 58 . . 15.0 6 1,620 876 186 147 128 131 l.br. d br. 3 2 59.. . 1.5. 11 1 1,592 850 185 140 124 121 d. br. d.br. ..... 60 _ 1.5.1 2 1,504 787 180 146 127 101 d.br. d. br. 61 _ 15.9 7 1,645 871 188 145 130 130 br. bl. 2 "'1 62 _ 15.10 2dyr. 2 i;522 827 191 148 127 117 d. br. g.bl. 5 63 _ 15.10 6 1,547 855 183 155 131 108 d. br. d. br. 3 "'1 64 _ 15.6 2dyr. 3 1,572 845 184 143 120 106 d.blo. g.bl. 1 2 15.8 1 1,588 852 188 154 132 105 br. br. 1 66 . . 15.4 Istyr. 1 1,455 752 189 140 119 77 d.br. gi‘. 1 1 67 _ 15.10 6 1,548 83-5 184 14-5 128 95 br. gr. 2 2 68 _ 15.4 Istyr. 5 1,589 836 183 141 123 113 br. bl. 5 1 69 . 15.2 2 1,578 838 187 145 127 108 d. br. d. br. 1 1 70.. . 15.5 2 1,602 812 188 152 131 107 br. g.bl. gr. ..... 1 71 _ 15.2 H.S. 1,631 872 190 149 135 135 1. br. 1 72 _ 15.5 H.S. . 6' 1,614 866 188 147 125 no d. br. bl. 3 3 73 . . 15.8 H.S. 3 1,518 848 185 150 133 107 br. gr. 1 2 74 _ 15.7 3 1 , 5-55 803 187 144 128 109 d. bio. g.bl. 2 75 _ 15. 10 2 1,596 837 178 145 131 no br. gr. ..... 2 76 15.7 2 1,-584 863 192 151 132 115 1 1 77 . 15.5 1 l,-5-54 810 191 150 126 no br. br. 78 . 15. 3 3 1,4-54 820 181 140 122 98 d.br. g. bl. 2 2 79 _ 15.4 4 1,534 821 186 145 122 102 d. br. 1. br. 1 1 80.... . 15.5 1 1,674 903 185 142 133 ia3 br. g. bl. 1 1 81 . 15.4 2 1,-592 8-50 181 144 126 116 br. br. 1 a3 82 15.7 7 1,555 823 184 151 119 105 redbr. g.bl. 3 4 83 . 15.0 1,630 876 176 141 123 117 d. br. 1. br. 1 1 84 _ 15. 7 1 1,-565 832 187 144 126 96 d. br. l.br. 1 3 85 _ 15.0 1 1, 615 862 175 148 135 143 d. br. gr. 1 1 86.- . . 15.4 2 1,549 826 193 147 133 134- d. bio. bl. 2 87 _ 15.5 4 1,-568 834 185 145 125 111 d. br. l.br. 4 2 88 . 15.7 ■ H.'S.' 3 1,-520 801 186 146 126 103 br. g.bl. 4 1 89 . . 15. 3 9 1,-576 810 196 148 121 104 d. br. gr. 5 3 90 . . 15.0 6 1,511 846 186 144 127 108 l.br. bl. 1 5 91 _ 15.10 1 1,-589 801 179 151 128 96 bl. d. br. 2 1 92 _ 15.8 2 1,640 879 176 143 130 128 d. br. o-r. 1 1 93 _ 15.4 1 1,582 871 189 150 131 97 d.blo. gr. 2 94 _ 15.3 2 1,655 884 192 142 127 118 1. br. g. bl. 1 .... 95 _ 15.3 5 1,530 766 178 147 125 82 d. br. g. br. 4 96 . 15. 11 3 1,548 845 184 147 128 112 1. br. g.bl. 2 97... . . 15.7 6 1,567 853 187 148 1.33 i 107 d. br. d. br. 4 '"3 98... . . 15.7 1 1,544 841 180 141 126 97 redbr. gr. 2 1 99 15.6 1 1,621 816 183 136 130 95 bla. br. 2 100 . ... 15.4 9 1 1,620 186 150 132 d. bio. gr. i 101 _ 15. 4 9 1 1,500 195 150 130 d. br. g.bl. 4 "I 102 _ 15.6 9 5 1,-566 183 146 121 d. br. bl. 4 2 103 _ 15.1 9 4 1,642 186 144 131 d.br. d.br. 6 2 104 _ 15.7 8 1 1,-522 177 144 122 d. br. 1. br. ..... 2 105 . . 15.0 7 3 1,-388 181 ia3 120 d. br. g.bl. 1 106 _ 15.0 7 1 1,609 180 141 127 d.br. g.bl. 107 . 15.2 4 3 1,390 744 177 141 119 l.br. g.br. ..... ’"2 108 . 15.1 8 8 1,698 894 178 143 129 d. br. g.bl. 3 109 _ 15.9 9 2 1,598 870 187 143 125 "16.5' d. br. l.br. 1 no _ 15.6 9 4 1,488 187 144 121 98 d.br. bl. 3 i 111 . . 15.3 8 3 1,615 180 139 122 103 d. br. gr. 3 1 “ Stepsister. STATISTICS OF GROWTH, 115 lo-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. ADDITIONAL SERIES. Number. Age. Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. 112 . . . 15.9 3 1,480 800 400 REPEATED MEASUREMENTS. 71 100 Niimber in 14-year series. Age. Grade. 1 Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. I Breadth of hand. Weight. Number | in 14-year series. © &D <1 Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight, j 6 . 8 : _ 9 _ 11 . . 12 _ 14 _ 16 . - 17 . 18 _ 20 . . 23 _ 24 . 27 _ 28 _ 30.. . 34 . 36 . 15. 2 15. 7 15. 10 15.9 15.5 15.9 15.5 15. 3 15.2 15.8 1 15.8 ! 15.2 1 15.2 15.6 15.8 15.6 15.0 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 8 8 1,613 1,673 1,650 1,632 1,606 1,541 1,605 1,698 1,462 1,622 1,632 1,575 1,639 1,465 1,575 1,602 1,476 856 880 892 902 817 812 810 890 765 838 870 825 900 810 855 865 770 432 441 4:38 430 420 418 450 481 390 441 447 450 4:35 410 4:30 430 380 70 76 74 78 79 76 ‘82" 70 76 77 '79' 75 77 78 68 118 117 113 116 111 97 111 123 100 122 97 101 144 100 105 117 68 37.. . 46 . 47 48 _ 50 _ 52 _ 56 . . 57.. . . 58 . . 1 63 _ : 64 _ 65 . . 70.. . 7:3.. . , 74 . . 1 76 . 15.7^ 1 15.7 15.3 15.3 15.8 15.6 15.1 15.2 15.2 15.6 15. 10 15. 11 15.6 15.5 15.6 15.2 1 8 9 9 “9' 8 8 9 8 9 8 9 7 9 1,492 1,627 1,529 1,529 1,605 1,450 1,473 l,5a5 1,564 1,614 1,6:33 1,616 1 1,580 j 1,543 ! 1,542 1 1,559 785 850 825 805 820 795 751 805 850 835 820 845 815 840 825 875 4:35 ’ 465 : 420 ! 415 4:30 380 425 420 410 445 4:35 4:30 425 410 455 415 70 77 75 72 73 69 72 1 71 1 71 1 72 i 71 73 ! 70 ! '75' 83 157 91 93 89 91 103 92 113 103 83 97 127 91 124 111 Number in 13-year series. 144 TR d. bio. bl. '”3 88 16.0 9 1 1,53:1 181 1 146 127 bio. bl. 1 2 89 16.7 9 1 1,458 181 142 1.24 d. br. g. bl. 1 1 90 _ _ 16.2 8 5 1.467 186 1 148 124 d. br. d. br. 3 3 91 . ! 16.4 9 2 1,478 jOo 180 i 140 121 "'il d. br. 1. br. 1 1 KEPEATB^D MEASUREMENTS. Number in 15-year series. Age. ! i -Grade. Stature. Height sitting. Forearm. | Breadth of hand. 1 Weight. N umber in 1.5-year series. (D tc Grade. Stature. Height ' sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. -(j -a 'S 5 15. 11 9 1,620 866 430 77 113 24 . 16.6 9 1,550 820 4:35 75 98 9 . 16. 11 9 1,608 850 425 71 116 27, . 16.3 9 1,604 810 440 76 105 11 16.3 8 i,6a3 866 452 77 127 37 . 16.5 9 1,584 880 390 81 97 14 16.11 1 1,630 895 445 80 133 38 . 16.10 9 1,501 830 390 72 111 15 _ 16.3 9 1,559 845 410 70 95 39 _ 16.6 9 1,528 825 410 69 91 21 16.8 9 1,525 830 400 72 114 41 _ 16.9 9 1,639 885 4a5 73 113 22 16.6 1,554 805 420 73 116 44 . 16.1 8 1,6-38 845 440 72 113 23 . 16.1 "9‘ 1,632 865 445 77 114 1 1 1 1 Number in l4-year series. Age. Grade. Stature . Height sitting. Forearm. Breadth of hand. Weight. 22 _ _ 16.2 9 1,626 875 434 72 133 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. be E '5 W 25 . 1,626 106 26 . . 1,620 111 27 . . 1,670 107 28... _ _ 1,684 117 29.. . 1,610 105 30 . . . 1,615 105 31 . . 1,556 105 32 . 1,644 101 33 . 1,580 114 34 . . . 1,536 104 35 . . 1,629 106 36... . . 1,679 108 37 _ 1,684 101 38 . . 1,604 115 39 _ _ _ 1,610 111 40 . 1,678 101 41. . . . . 1,600 114 42 . 1,568 109 43.. . 1,624 106 44... . . 1,615 113 45 . 1,542 103 46 . . 1,522 108 47 . 1,526 103 Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 48 . 1 1,576 1,600 1,5-36 1,620 1,592 1,644 1.579 1,472 l,6a5 1,595 1,639 1,618 1.580 1.. 582 1.. 549 1.. 530 1,535 1,674 1,5.52 1,759 1,546 1,6.39 1.566 95 109 108 114 108 114 101 110 94 107 94 100 97 100 109 106 100 105 101 111 93 113 97 49 . 50 . 51 . 52 . .53 . 54 . 55 . 58 . . . 57 . ,58. . 59 . 60... . 61 . 62 . . 63 . . 64 . . 65- . 66 . 67 . 68 . 69... . 70 . 118 EDUCATIOIS- REPORT, 1904. 16-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS-Continued. Number. o eg o s OC •S E Height of face (!)• Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. a o Number. Finger reach. Height of face j (1). Height of face (2). Breadth of hand. Forearm. 71 . 1,616 101 79 . 1,610 108 1 72 _ 1,548 96 80 _ _ 100 160 77 78 1, 640 114 81. 1,594 105 74 _ 102 167 70 82 _ 1,651 107 75 _ 1, 476 94 83 . . 1,559 76 . . 1,642 108 84 _ 1,619 109 77 . 1,558 110 85 . 1,569 104 78 1, 518 117 91 99 158 69 385 ll-year-old girls. Worcester, Mass. Number. tiC -< Grade. 1 2 2 2 Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth | of face. 4-j ‘S s M Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 1 . . 17.3 1 1,622 860 186 140 126 113 br. bl. 2 1 2 . . 17.1 9 2 1,565 851 178 144 127 114 bla. d.br. 1 3 3 . . 17.6 9 4 1,623 877 183 143 131 121 br. gr. 2 2 4 . 17.4 8 2 1,605 899 187 140 121 114 d. br. br. 1 5 . 17.5 8 a7 1,576 869 182 144 123 111 bio. bl. 3 3 6. . . 17.4 N. S. 9 1,651 920 183 145 128 br. gr. 6 2 17.8 N. S. 2 1,661 .866 176 147 128 bla. srr. 1 8 17.11 N. S. 5 1, 558 874 186 148 124 bio. 1. br. 3 ’2 9 17.4 N. S. 1 1,580 833 186 146 1:32 br. br. 2 2 10 . 17.2 N. S. 3 1,584 830 187 146 125 105 d.br. g. br. 1 2 11 . 17.9 N. S. 7 1,540 870 178 150 131 99 br. g.bl. 7 12 _ ]7.0 N. S. 9 1,637 880 184 150 134 113 br. gr¬ 2 "'5 13. . 17.5 1 1,592 862 182 141 124 115 bio. id. 14 _ 17.6 N. S. 1 2 1,642 882 201 147 134 145 ! br. bl. 2 2 15 . 17.0 N. S. ! 3 1,611 872 190 147 129 144 bio. g.bl. 1 3 16. . 17.7 N. S. 2 1,601 8:32 178 137 127 118 d. br. gr. 3 17.... . . 17.10 N. S. 1,622 866 191 147 125 bio. g.bl. 18 17.0 . 3* 1,633 881 185 149 129 129 d.br. err. ..... .... 19 . 17.7 H. S. 6 1,517 814 187 151 127 103 br. I.bl. 3 3 20 _ 17.6 H. S. ! 4 1,627 843 181 141 128 104 1. br. d.br. 3 21 _ 17.7 H. S. 1 1,734 875 188 151 119 133 d.br. d. br. 22 . . 17.6 H. S. 1 1,573 818 184 147 131 105 d.br. l.br. ..... "i 23.... . . 17.0 H. S. 1 1,651 855 192 138 125 107 br. 1. br. 24 _ 17.2 Jr. 1 1,5:33 816 184 145 127 126 d. br. g.hl. "'i 25. . 17.2 Jr. 1 1,583 840 190 152 129 118 d.br. bl. "'2' 2 26 _ 17.5 4H. S. 9 1,606 875 189 153 135 120 red br. gr. 1 3 27 . . 17.5 H. S. 2 1,553 843 183 135 116 103 br. br. 2 28 _ _ 17.7 H. S. 6 1,648 910 185 147 138 142 br. g.bl. 2 3 29 _ 17.8 H. S. 2 1,602 873 194 147 127 108 l.br. g.bl. 1 2 30. . 17.3 H. S. 2 1,551 824 199 143 128 113 redbr. g.bl. ..... 1 31. . . 17.7 H. S. 2 1,614 832 181 143 127 92 d. br l.br. 32- . 17.11 H. S. 1 1 1,564 842 184 146 126 109 br. d. br. 3 33... . 17.11 H. S. 1 1,490 809 172 142 121 94 1. br. g.bl. 1 34 _ 17.4 H. S. 3 1,580 845 188 151 132 154 d.br. bl. 3 "i 35 _ 17.0 H. S. 1 1,493 813 184 145 121 97 br. gr. 36 _ 17.6 H. S. 6 1,575 840 181 146 1:35 117 d.br. 1. br. 6 37 . 17.9 H. S. 1,616 880 181 148 131 128 d.br. d. br. ”’2 38 _ 17.5 H. S. 3 1,624 839 188 144 130 134 d.br. gr. 0 1 17.11 H. S. 3 1,638 865 192 142 124 116 br. br. 1 1 40.. . 17.9 H. S. 1 1,604 884 180 135 121 100 d. br. d.br. 1 41.. . . 17.6 H. S. 5 1,623 886 182 142 124 95 d. br. g.bl. 2 ■3 42 _ 17.6 H. S. 1 1,530 830 188 154 128 104 d.br. g.bl. 43 _ 17.1 H. S. 1 1,530 816 185 146 121 114 d. br. d.br. 44 _ 17. 8 H. S. 2 1,727 894 194 139 123 142 br. bl. ■■■3' 45 - 17.3 H. S. 1 1.648 826 195 145 132 134 d. bio. gr. 1 46 . 17.8 2d yr. 2 1,655 892 185 146 125 116 br. g.bl. "i 47 _ 17.0 H.S. 1 1,575 854 184 148 131 119 d. br. br. '"2" 1 48 . 17.1 2d yr. 3 1,528 844 178 144 127 115 d. br. bl. 3 1 49 . . 17.1 H. S. 1 1,682 876 183 150 128 115 br. yr. 1 1 50 17.0 2d yr. 1 1,670 880 179 147 1‘36 118 d. br. yr. 51.. . 17.5 H. S. 2 1,589 I 842 1 180 145 126 101 d. br. d.br. 1 52. . . 17.1 H. S. 6 1,585 816 192 152 125 105 d.br. yr. 2 ■3 53 . 17.0 H. S. 4 1.484 i 790 : 174 139 120 74 redbr. yr. 1 2 “ Twin. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 119 ll-year-old girls. Worcester. Mass. — Continued. NiTmber. Age. 6 5 Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. | Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. Brothers. £ Oi 2 a: 54 . 17.0 2d yr. 2 1 1,502 794 193 147 128 100 1. br. g.bl. 1 55 . 17.5 H.S. 2 1 1,652 886 191 1.52 130 136 br. d.br. 1 2 ,56 . 17.7 2d gr. 5 1 1,472 812 186 151 131 115 d.br. br. 3 3 .57 . 17.8 H.S. 3 I 1,522 846 176 142 128 107 d. br. g.bl. 3 1 58 . . 17.1 2d gr. 3 1 1,592 8a5 181 140 123 114 br. g.bl. 1 1 59 . 17.0 H.S. 2 1 1,540 8:39 179 147 127 111 br. bl. 1 1 60 _ _ 17.4 2d gr. 3 1,593 876 180 146 128 127 d. br. d.br. ..._ 3 61 . 17.1 1st gr. 2 1,587 856 185 1.50 i:30 133 br. g. bl. 1 62 _ _ 17.6 H.S. 1 1,578 850 189 140 123 107 1. br. Ibr. 63 _ 17.2 H.S. 1 1,575 842 193 147 126 112 d.br. d.br. ..... 64 . 17.8 H.S. 8 1,576 837 180 148 131 110 br. bl. “'3 65 . 17.11 H.S. 1 1,633 862 183 142 125 121 br. i bl. 2 1 66 _ 17.7 H.S. 3 i 1,604 842 183 140 129 123 redbr. 1. br. al 2 67 . . 17.2 H.S. 1 1 1,586 848 185 1.38 124 108 d. br. g.bl. ..... .... 68 _ _ 17.3 H.S. 4 1,488 803 178 142 129 97 d. br. bl. . 17.6 H.S. 5 1 1,610 845 183 143 117 100 d. br. bl. 1 2 “ Stepbrother. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). 7 . 1,682 97 8 . 1,.509 no 9 . 1,568 101 10 . 1,682 112 11 . 1,525 106 12 . 1,638 116 13 . 1,531 109 14 . 1,622 116 15 . 1,619 107 16... . 1,617 in 17 . . . 1,694 70 18 . 1,642 104 19 . 1,549 107 20 . 1,695 114 21 . . 1,790 108 22 _ 1,613 104 23.... . 1,713 108 24 . 1,540 105 25 . . 1,599 111 26 . 1,673 114 27 . 1,570 98 Number. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. rd o o3 O' o CD 'o ' ;h rj S) § g S K 1,649 102 1,565 113 1,615 no 1,611 10(5 1,591 119 1,499 109 1,574 108 1,486 113 1,625 112 1,622 116 1,672 114 1,680 no 1,562 104 1,544 116 1,555 102 1,540 104 1,753 114 1,642 97 1,659 no 1,624 106 1,535 108 Number. 49. 50- 51. 52. 53. 54- .55- .56- 57. 58., 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65- 66. 67. Finger reach. | 1 Height of face (1). 1,752 109 1,713 108 1,547 105 1,605 107 1,472 no 1,512 107 1,603 106 1,434 102 1,560 no 1,683 93 1,648 106 1,564 no 1,583 103 1,.527 no 1,618 111 1,610 103 1,612 98 1,608 105 1,555 104 1,490 111 1,660 104 18-ijecir-old girls. W'orcestcr. Mas.‘}. Number. be Grade. Child. Stature. 1 i Height 1 sitting. Length of head. | Breadth of head. Bread til of face. Weight. Hair. j Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. | 1 . 18.8 N.S.« 1 1,623 846 191 145 129 red. g. bl. ..... 1 2 . 18.1 N.S. 5 1,729 908 186 155 134 br. 1 g.bl. 4 3 . 18.11 N.S. 1 1,637- 884 191 J.50 132 br. 1 br. 3 4 4. 18.2 N.S. 1 1,663 863 180 147 129 br. ! g. br. 2 5. . 18.9 N. S. 1 1, 630 901 184 14-5 124 br. g. bl. 6 . . 18.6 N.S. 4 1,622 887 186 145 124 br. 1 bl. 2 2 7 . 18.0 N.S. 9 1,544 815 183 140 120 1. br. i bl. 4 5 8 . 18.1 N.S. 7 1,598 870 187 148 130 d.br. d.br. 4 2 9-..- 18.7 N.S. 8 1,628 841 191 146 TIO br. bl. 6 2 10 . 18.8 N.S. 6 1,6^ 883 179 138 125 red. , bl. 4 1 2 « Normal School. 120 EDUCATION EE PORT, 1904. 18-ycar-old girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. Number. q5 tx> < 1 Grade. 1 Child. Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. ' Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. 11 . 18.9 N.S. 2 1,665 842 179 146 131 bla. gr. 1 2 12 _ _ 18.9 N.S. 5 i;658 908 185 141 ]30 red. bl. 3 3 13 _ 18.8 N.S. 1 1,657 861 186 144 124 100 d. br. bl. 3 14 _ _ 18.3 N.S. 3 1, 503 820 181 140 118 94 red. gi*. 2 2 15 _ 18.10 N.S. 2 1,593 849 180 150 125 112 br. bl. 1 16 . 18.4 N.S. 4 1,578 873 192 142 121 108 br. gr. 3 17 _ 18.0 N.S. 1 1,572 860 178 145 129 140 br. bl. 18.. . 18.0 N.S. 3 i;502 814 171 152 133 111 red. bl. 2 1 19 . . 18.0 N.S. 3 1,622 876 187 144 132 119 4 1 20.... . 18.9 N.S. 2 i;657 903 191 150 126 115 bio. br. 2 21 . 18.5 N.S. 8 1,591 878 187 146 138 154 d. br. br. 6 ”’4 22 _ 18.6 N.S. 1 1,562 851 190 150 130 115 br. bl. 1 23 _ 18.2 N.S. 4 1,534 856 186 148 128 111 br. g.bl. 1 2 24 . 18.3 1 1,615 890 187 140 130 127 br. bl. 1 3 25 . . 18.4 2 1,550 836 184 155 131 113 bio. bl. 3 1 26 _ 18.7 N.S. 3 1,.575 848 189 144 126 119 d. br. g.bl. 3 2 27.. . 18.5 N.S. 3 1,542 814 180 140 125 113 bio. g.bl. 2 4 28 . 18.5 N.S. 3 1,602 844 184 146 130 125 br. br. 5 3 29. . 18.8 N.S. 2 1,586 816 195 150 142 148 d.br. br. 4 2 30 . 18.7 H. S. 3 1,547 803 178 138 127 117 d. br. err 1 31. . . 18.1 H. S. 2 1,645 845 190 145 126 127 br. gr. 1 1 32 _ _ 18.0 H.S. 1 1,511 806 188 148 131 100 d. br. err. 1 '"'i 33 . . 18.11 H.S. 2 1,665 ; 890 194 147 126 113 redbr. g.bl. . ..... ' 6 34 _ _ 18.3 H.S. 2 1,676 876 192 152 137 141 br. bl. 1 35. _ 18.11 H.S. 1 1,555 862 184 148 128 113 br. bl. 1 1 36 . 1 18.8 Sen. 2 1,588 872 192 160 137 128 l.br. br. 37 . ....; 18.4 H.S. 1 1,567 827 193 152 132 140 l.br. d.br. 1 4 38.. . 18.4 H.S. 1 1,607 863 185 146 125 129 bla. br. 1 39 . 18.1 H.S. 3 1,574 842 182 144 124 111 bio. gr. “2 40 . 1 18.3 H.S. 1 1,510 853 182 148 130 101 d. br. bl. 41 . 18.0 H.S. 2 1,563 853 190 152 131 110 br. br. 2 42 . 18.7 H. S. 2 1,640 930 187 151 135 135 br. br. 2 'i 43 . 18.4 H.S. 5 1,612 862 186 148 130 125 br. l.br. 2 5 44 . 18.3 H.S. 1 1,538 819 183 152 129 104 d. br. bl. 45 . 18.4 H.S. 2 1,603 873 190 148 131 128 br. gr. 5 46 _ _ 18.7 2d. yr. 3 1,540 815 184 145 130 119 1. br. gr. 1 '■'2 47 . 18.4 2d. vr. 4 1,649 880 190 155 130 130 l.br. g. bl. 2 1 48 _ _ 18.2 H.S. 2 1,582 844 184 149 129 119 d.br. bl. 2 3 49. . 18.3 8 1 1,496 802 180 144 125 . d.br. gr. 1 3 Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). 2 . 1,746 112 3.. . 4 1,613 1,707 1,640 116 10.. . . 109 11 . :.. 1,685 106 13. . . 1,699 114 14 . . 1,562 104 15.. . . 1,533 110 16. . . 1,574 113 17 . 1,600 109 18.. . . 1,536 101 19 . . 1,622 108 20 . . . 1,605 105 21 . 1,585 110 ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. od- Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). 22. . 1,610 110 23. . 1,525 112 24.. . . 1,545 100 25 . 1,-594 106 26 . 1,605 no 27 . . 1,563 118 28 . 1,635 106 29 . . 1,764 118 30 _ 1,560 104 31 . . 1,710 111 32 . . 1,535 100 33 . 1,656 108 34 _ _ 1,720 98 35 . 1,500 109 Number. 1,597 1,577 1,597 1,605 1,477 1,557 1,670 1,641 1,614 1,588 1,551 1,652 1,608 116 101 106 109 100 108 ]12 98 110 105 109 117 103 107 153 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 121 1!)-!jear-o1(l girl.'i. Worcester, Mass. Niimher. Grade. i 2 3 o (C 3 O} Height sitting. , L ength of head. ^ Breadth ' of head. 1 Breadth | of face. 1 § 'S 'S w 1 Eyes. Brothers. 1 . X © .2 1 . 19.0 N. S. 1,548 830 185 147 130 hlo. g.bl. 19.7 1,567 848 193 143 131 l)lo. g.bl. 8 . 19.6 N. S. 1,497 810 186 145 125 bio. g. bl. 4 . 19.0 1,560 815 190 145 ! 126 bio. g. bl. 5 . 19.2 N. S. 1^506 186 141 1 121 gold. g. bl. 6 . 19.7 4 1,566 850 175 141 125 1(K) d bi- gr. ..... '2 19.6 N. S. 2 1,519 828 182 142 128 bla. br. 3 1 8 . 19.1 H. S. 9 1,619 836 185 151 130 vea. br. 8 2 9 . . 19.5 N. S. 4 1,583 863 179 146 126 or. 1. br. 6 2 10 . 19.4 N. S. 3 1 , 675 871 192 156 136 d.br. g. br. 2 2 11 . 19.4 N. S. 6 1,532 831 177 151 128 br. gr. 5 3 12 . 19.11 N. S. 4 i;oi7 871 189 141 131 br. bl. 3 1 13 . 19.6 N. S. 1 i;586 845 191 147 133 l.br. gr. 2 2 14. . 19.4 H. S. 1 1,725 929 183 153 136 br. bl. 2 ]5 19.4 N. S. 6 1,629 860 167 144 125 br. bl. 1 4 16.... . 19. 10 N. S. 1 i; 638 854 182 142 132 br. g.bl. 2 4 17 _ _ 19.8 N. S. 3 1,565 848 174 143 132 1 l.br. gi*. 2 18 . 19.2 N. S. 4 1,608 843 181 150 129 br. gr. 4 19 _ _ 19.5 N. S. 1 1,529 786 183 146 130 d. br. bl. 20.... . 19.6 N. S. 1 1,561 831 190 151 134 d.br. d.br. ..... 1 21 _ 19.9 N. S. 3 1,596 856 176 136 119 br. br. 3 99 19.8 N. S. 1 1, 476 803 181 144 122 bio. bl. 3 2 ^ _ _ 19.5 N. S. 7 1,591 823 176 144 129 d. br. g.bl. 3 3 24 _ _ 19.3 N. S. 1,558 832 181 145 126 d. br. d. br. 4 9 25 _ _ 19.9 1 1, 532 830 178 140 126 bio. g.bl. 4 2 26 . . 19. 6 N. S. 1 1,596 841 177 147 128 d. br. g. bl. 3 5 27 . . 19.9 N. S. 6 1,549 850 180 141 130 bio. gr. 4 2 28 . . 19.9 N. S 1 1,602 868 182 149 129 bio. bl. 1 29. . 19.6 N. S. 2 1,517 793 179 146 125 br. gr. 1 80 . 19.5 N. S. 1 1,467 826 182 144 127 br. 1 g. bl. 1 81 _ 19.5 N. S. 4 1,617 874 182 14i 126 110 bio. bl. 1 2 32 . . 19.2 N. S. 8 1,549 86:3 185 158 134 120 bio. bl. 2 33 . 19.7 N. S. 7 1,664 923 180 152 134 121 r.br. ^ gr. 2 5 34 _ 19.3 N. S. 3 1,694 944 181 145 127 137 rd. ; g.bl. 5 85 . 19.2 4 1,583 884 189 148 131 126 1. br. i bl. ] 5 36 . 19. 11 ---1 1 1,600 871 187 144 127 114 l.br. bl. 1 2 37 . 19.1 H. S. 1 1,597 848 176 157 136 118 br. d. br. 38 . 19.0 H. S. 3 1,616 870 185 142 125 110 br. 1. br. ..... _ 89 _ 19.0 H. S. 3 1,598 865 183 137 128 117 d. br. g.bl. 40 . . 19.1 H. S. 2 1,559 841 184 145 124 132 br. g.bl. 2 41 . 19.11 H. S. 2 1,627 893 182 152 137 124 br. br. 1 ‘"i 42 . . 19.6 H. S. 1 1,648 882 192 145 128 122 br. d.br. ..... 4 43 _ 19.6 H. S. 1 1,550 827 187 145 127 100 d. br. d.br. 1 44 . 19.0 H. S. 6 1,565 824 190 144 124 107 br. br. 4 45 . 19.6 H. S. 2 1,522 840 188 141 126 103 br. d. br. 1 46 . 19.0 H. S. 6 1,559 850 173 143 123 110 br. bl. 3 "I 47 . . 19.6 H. S. . 1,566 857 188 1 141 1 125 106 br. i br. 3 2 ADDTTI ONAL ME A S E li EM ENTS, Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Number. Finger reach. 1 Height of face (1). Height of face (2). i Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). 1 1,563 65 103 28 1, 555 103 i 1 , 592 106 2 . 1,579 66 104 31 _ 1,557 105 1 . i 40.... . 1,590 no 3 1,511 110 32 . . 1,544 108 1 41 . . 1,641 107 4 1,599 114 33 . 1,692 113 42 . 1,668 no 5 . . 1,520 109 34 _ 1,597 115 43 . 1,627 106 9 _ _ 1,616 112 35 _ 1,600 108 14 . 1,624 108 12 1,634 117 36 . 1,572 120 45 . 1,512 102 18... . 1,635 109 37 . 1,644 117 46 . 1,580 106 25 1,541 110 38 1,619 106 47 _ _ 1,531 104 i Height of face 122 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 20-year-olcl girls. Worcester, Islass. 37. 4umber. ai be <1 0) c5 5 Child. Stature. Height sitting. 1 Length ! of head. Breadth of head. 1 Breadth I of face. Weight. 1 K 1 Eyes. 1 Brothers. Sisters. . 20.0 N.S. 1,698 881 184 150 132 1. hr. l.br. > 20. 11 N.S. 1 , .569 8-84 192 145 123 bio. g.bl. 20.0 N. S. 1 ; 612 856 195 142 127 hr. g bl. _ 20. .5 1,507 832 185 149 131 i 1. hr. g.bl. 20.9 N.S. 1,559 870 189 146 124 hr. d. br. 20.0 N.S. 1,513 189 1-50 1 12-5 hr. g.bl. 20.6 N.S. 1,617 871 180 146 ! 126 br. g. bl. _ 20.4 N.S. 1 , 594 846 186 142 1 118 br. g. bl. 20.11 N.S. 1,512 829 189 1-52 1 134 br. 1. br. 20. 9 N.S. 1,564 834 188 141 ! 128 br. g.bl. . . 20.8 N.S. 1 1, .546 831 181 142 1 123 d. br. br. 1 » 20.2 ; N.S. 6 ; 1,580 820 179 149 127 d. br. gr. 2 5 L... . 20.0 ' N.S. 1 ; 1,496 820 170 146 123 br. l.br. 2 20. 0 N.S. 8 I 1,5.54 8-57 181 144 131 d.br. br. ‘''5' 2 20. 1 N.S. 4 ! 1, 685 900 184 151 131 red. bl. 3 20.3 N.S. 3 1 1.503 800 170 141 127 d.br. gr. 2 2 20.2 N.S. 2 , 1,576 860 183 152 137 d. br. i-bl. 4 4 20.11 N.S. 1 1,636 854 193 152 138 br. br. 1 1 20.4 N.S. 7 1,-535 822 179 146 12-5 rd.br. bl. 3 ■3 1 20.4 N.S. 1 1,607 858 181 157 135 l.br. bl. 1 3 20.5 ! N.S. 3 1,,56.5 8-33 185 141 127 br. g.bl. 1 1 20.6 1 N.S. 1 1,479 806 173 137 126 d. br. bl. 1 20.11 N.S. 2 1,637 877 187 141 127 d. br. br. 5 '“4 20. 1 1 N.S. 1 1,616 876 203 1-58 142 br. g.bl. 2 2 1 20. 5 N.S. 3 1,661 893 198 144 128 br. 3 3 20.10 1 N.S. 4 1,5.50 8-36 180 150 129 bio. bl. 4 2 20.0 1 N.S. 6 1,625 871 183 152 133 d.br. br. 2 5 20.10 i N.S. 2 1,629 844 184 139 126 "iie' 1. br. br. 3 1 1 20.9 N.S. 8 1,550 892 176 146 128 119 rd. br. 1. br. a 5 i>2 1 20.0 N.S. 9 1,453 828 190 149 128 117 br. g.bl. 5 4 20.8 3 1,.593 826 196 144 1-31 113 br. br. 20.2 N.S. 9 1,.544 845 186 150 131 131 bio. bl. 4 3 20.0 N.S. 3 1,-596 879 190 153 129 123 br. gi*. 4 1 20.9 N.S. 2 1,-547 842 183 145 121 111 bio. bl. 1 20.1 4 1,643 873 184 142 131 127 br. g.bl. 2 ’3 20.0 H.S. 1 1,563 843 183 150 132 111 bla. gr. 3 20.1 H.S. 2 1,466 829 180 141 123 96 br. d. br. 3 " Three stepbrothers. Stepsisters. A D D r r I O N L M E A S U R E i 1 1: N T S . Number. Finger reach. Height of face il). Height of face (2). 0 c3 OJ Number. S i ^ 1 a Ph Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). 1 . 1,722 69 108 10 . 1,-537 115 31 . 1,598 100 2-... . . 1,610 114 13 _ -... 1,434 104 32- . 1,534 101 3 1 , .596 111 14 . .. 1,560 102 i m - 1,616 j 111 4 1,-522 106 15- . ---- 1,660 109 34-- . 1,568 ! 101 5 . 1 , 555 75 122 20 _ 1,631 106 35.- . 1,673 1 111 6 _ 1,478 97 26 . 1,430 113 36-. . 1,-558 ! 109 7 _ 1,616 115 28- . 1,770 113 37 . 1,463 1 94 8 1,671 109 29 . 110 9 . 1,-583 108 30 _ - 1.463 105 1 STATISTICS OF GROWTH 123 21-year-ol(l girls. Worcester. Mass. Number. ai bo << Grade. 1 i j Child. Stature. Height sitting. bJJ'l (=1,^3 (D ^ h:i ® Bread th of head. Breadth j of face. •iqStaAi Hair. C/3 Brothers. Sisters, j 1 . 31.0 N.S. 1,630 817 184 140 i 121 l.br. g-bl. 3 . 21.3 N.S. 1,650 865 I 187 1 146 i 128 1 l.br. g. bl. 3 . 21.10 N.S. 1,614 181 1 147 1 . . hr. g.bl. 4. . 21.7 N.S. 1 , 563 845 1 183 144 122 hr. i. br. 5 . 1 21.4 N.S. . 6' 1,537 1 846 182 145 125 : d.br. , ft.bl. 5 "3 6 . 31.5 N.S. i 2 1,603 1 881 1 183 145 133 i d.blo. i bl. 7 . 21.0 N.S. * ■ 1 1,572 ! 803 183 148 125 d.br. i br. 8 . 21.0 N. S. 1 1,067 i 872 191 146 i:i3 br. bl. 2 1 9 . 21.8 N.S. i 2 1,608 1 843 1 180 1.50 i 134 bio. 1 bl. 2 10 . 21.2 N.S. i ^ 1,618 1 868 1 188 146 126 l.br. ’ bl. 4 ”'3 11 . 21.11 N.S. 3 1 1,603 ! 864 1 182 142 1 133 br. g. bl. 3 12 . 21.1 N.S. 1,588 863 i 186 145 1 131 122 d. br. bl. 3 13 . 21.3 N.S. 4 ! 1,506 846 1 177 139 128 104 br. bl. 1 ‘"2 14 . 21.8 1 i 1,623 864 ! 178 1 140 139 102 br. bl. 1 2 15 . 21.9 1 1 1,505 832 ! 190 1 145 125 112 br. bl. 16 . 21.0 1 3 1,615 ! 874 i 184 1 146 1 , 105 i d.br. i gr. 1 3 .... ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Number. Finger reach. | 1 Height of face (1). Height of face (2). 1 1,620 116 10 . 1,642 102 15 . - 1,581 110 2 . 1, 667 99 67 12 . 1,593 100 16 . 1,623 101 3 _ 1,601 105 13 . 1,607 107 4 . 1,567 118 14 . 1,.588 116 22-year-oJil girls. Worcester. Mass. Number. Age. Grade. j 2 2 o Stature. Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. .b 3 M Eyes. Brothers. Sisters. | 1 _ _ 22.0 N.S. 1,664 887 193 146 128 bio. g. bl. 2 22.0 N.S. 1, 6.50 877 191 145 121 bio. g.bl. 3 . 22.0 N.S. 1,545 832 180 1 134 118 1. br. g.bl. 4 . . 22.0 N.S. 1,621 864 180 144 132 bio. g. bl. 5 . 22.6 1,.503 833 183 1 149 132 bio. g.bl. 6 . 22.2 N.S. 1,612 879 183 150 136 bla. Lbr. 7 22.3 N.S. . i ’ 1,620 897 179 147 124 l.br. br. i 8 . 22.0 N.S. 8 •1,542 828 187 , 146 las br. bl. 4 6 9. . 22.0 N.S. ! 1 1,577 857 ]90 143 123 l.br. g.bl. 5 1 10 . 22.6 N.S. ! 2 1, 668 860 181 149 134 d. br. br. 1 11. . 22.8 N.S. i 1 1,554 855 189 139 128 d. br. d.br. 1 1 12 _ _ 22.9 N.S. 3 1,.569 842 185 140 124 Ill br. bl. 5 3 13 . 22.5 ; N.S. 2 1,648 897 201 1 144 134 138 bio. br. 3 3 14 . . 22.9 N.S. 1 1,652 863 186 1 143 13:3 129 bio. g.bl. 15 . 22.0 3 1,594 858 183 i 140 125 96 d.br. br. 1”''^ "3 16 _ 23.9 3 i..5a3 831 186 1 150 1.30 102 d. br. d.br. ’ 1 1 1 124 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904 22-ycar-oUl girls. Worcester, Mass. — Continued. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS. Number. Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Number. 1 Finger reach. Height of face (1). Height of face (2). Number. 1 Finger reach. §§ oi.ce Height of face (2). 1 118 105 66 107 70 6 . 1,659 1,610 1,580 1,546 1,645 69 107 106 110 118 107 14 . 1,714 1,605 1,552 115 107 109 2 1,664 1,563 1 1,667 1 1,520 7--.. . 9 . . 15.. . 3 09 16 . 4 12 _ 5 109 13 . 1 2S-gear-oUl girls. Worcester. Mass. i Number. loi bn <1 (trade. s 3 o Stature. Height sitting. L ength of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Weight. Hair. Eyes. i Brothers. Sisters. 1 . 23.6 N.S. 1,540 841 179 138 126 br. g. bl. 2.. . 23.5 N.S. . 9* 1,612 878 188 151 130 br. br. 5 3 3 . 23.5 N.S. 3 1,584 851 191 151 135 br. gr. gr. 1 1 4 . 23.4 N.S. 8 1,602 843 184 145 132 133 br. g.bl. 3 5 5 . 23.8 N.S. 1 1,625 901 188 143 128 127 d. br. d.br. 1 6 . 23.8 1,645 880 180 154 131 126 d.br. g.bl. 7 ■3 ADI UTIONAL MEASUREMENTS. ! ! Number. Finger reach. Height of face. Number. Finger reach. Height of face. ] 1,520 103 5-- . . 1,614 112 3 . 1,636 102 6 . 1,656 108 4 . . . . 1.645 109 2.'t-year-ohl girls. Worcester. Mass. 40 .£3 . CO Number. 6 0) 2 .d bi) beC 3 ^ (A 03 ® 2 03 ns 0 cS c3 (D'M ®3 boo 43 1 w > W fP .2 1 _ _ 24.9 N.S. 3 1,539 1,522 832 189 1.38 j i 125 br. br. 2 1 0 24.0 N.S. 3 839 187 148 ... _ 102 1?26 \ 1,581 119 br. bl. 2 2 25-year-ol(l girls. Worcester, 2Luss. Number. | 6 bo 1 Grade. Child. I 1 4^ ! 3 * Height sitting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Height of forehead. Breadth of face. Finger reach. 4^ ;cl 3 Hair. Eyes. Brothers, j 1 . . i 25.7 N. S. 5 1,645 896 193 140 110 130 1,637 br . g.br. 3 2 _ 25.8 N.S. ' 2 , 1,527 830 181 140 108 125 br. d.br. 3 STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 125 26-ijeur-ohl girls. Worcester, Mass. Number Age. j 03 5 Child. 1 Stature. 1 Height sitting. Length I of head. Breadth of head. Height of 1 forehead. | 26.4 26.7 N.S. N.S. 9 1,606 1,663 894 913 193 190 150 113 108 . -i-i a) Tj o 123 134 two d >1 ni i,(;()8 1,()I7 132 br. g.bl. 27 to So pea)' old girls. N umber. 6 tw 'C o3 d Child. Height sit¬ ting. Length of head. Breadth of head. Height of forehead (1). Height of forehead (2). Breadth of face. Finger reach. rd ! Hair. Eyes. Brothers. | Sisters. 1 1 . . 27.5 10 i 1,591 811 191 147 105 129 1,611 104 d. br. bl. 6 4 29.2 2 1,493 780 188 150 66 109 130 101 br. gi'- 1 1 . \ . . V. . . 30.0 'n.'s.' 1,661 888 184 150 77 115 129 br.gr. l.br. 2 . . 30.7 N.S. 1,626 878 182 149 120 127 1,634 br. g.bl. 3 30.5 1, 566 834 180 152 114 130 1,594 128 d. br. g.br. 32.3 3 1,.584 866 188 148 112 134 1,663 149 d. br. 1. br. i i.V.'.'.V.V.'. 35.0 — 1,625 184 151 107 135 1,.590 . 1. br. g.bl. Tattle of relationship. BOYS. Age. No. Relationship. Age. No. Relationship. Son of — Brother of — 3-year - . 1 29-year woman. No. 1. 8-year . 1 11-year girl. No. 29. (8) 7-year boy. No. 31. Brother of — 17 14-year girl, No. 9. 18 14-year girl. No. 3. 4-year - 1 6-year boy, No. 83. 22 8-year boy. No. 28. 5-year - 11 13-year boy, No. 78. (28) 8-year boy. No. 22. 12 8-year boy. No. 70; 11- (48) 6-year boy, No. 31; 10- year girl. No. 82; 12- year girl, No. 43. 1 year girl. No. 85. 59 6-year girl, No. 35; 12-year 13 10-year girl. No. 79; 12- boy. No. 79. year boy. No. 109. 60 10-year boy. No. 65. 1 15 10-year girl. No. 98; 10- 63 14-year girl, No. 52. 1 year boy. No. 95. (70) 5-year boy. No. 12; 11- 18 12-year girl. No. 103. year girl. No. 82; 12- 6-year . . . . 17 7-year girl, No. 9. year girl. No. 85. 26 12-year girl. No. 29; 17- 80 5-year girl. No. 25. year girl. No. 2. (82) 6-year boy. No. 57. 31 8-year boy, No. 48; 10- 94 lO-year girl. No. 106. year girl, .No. 43. 95 14-year boy. No. 34. 44 11-year girl. No. .57. (96) 6-year boy. No. 81. 46 8-year girl, No. .57. 101 10-year boy. No. 116. 57 8-year boy. No. 82. 105 6-year girl. No. 61. 59 7-year boy. No. 94. 9-year . 1 11-year girl. No. 89. 60 11-year boy, No. 91. 3 11-year girl. No. 70: 14- 77 8-year girl. No. 8.3. year girl. No. 56. 78 9-year girl, No. 69; 13- 4 12-year girl. No. 15; 17- year boy, No. 126. year girl. No. 1. 81 8-yoar boy. No. 96. 12 9-year boy. No. 13. (83) 4-year boy. No. 1. (13) 9-year boy. No. 12. 7-year . . 14 9-year boy. No. 22. 15 14-year girl. No. 24. 30 5-year girl. No. 9. (22) 7-year boy. No. 14. 31 8-year boy. No. 8. 26 .5-year girl. No. 4; 11-year 49 16-year boy, No. 16. boy, No. 19. 51 13-year boy. No. 42. 38 7-year girl, No. 19; 11-year 58 9-year girl. No. 38. boy. No. 5. 61 11-year girl. No. 54. 41 14-year boy. No. 9; 16-year 67 10-year boy. No. 103. girl. No. 8. 70 .5-year girl, N o. 19. 47 7-year girl. No. 21; 12-year 93 6-year girl. No. .59; 8-year boy , No. 41; 13-year boy. girl. No. 70. No. 29. (94) 6-year boy, No. 59. 49 12-year boy. No. 46. 97 10-year boy. No. 110. 126 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. Table of Continued. BOYS— Continued. Age. No. Relationship. Age. No. Relationship. Brother of— Brother of — 52 10-year boy. No. 45; 13- 12-year _ (58) 10-year boy. No. 52. year girl, No. 31. (62) 9-year boy. No. 82. (iO 6-year girl, No. 23. (79) 6-year girl. No. 35; 8-year 82 12-year boy. No. 62. boy. No. 59. 88 13-yoar boy. No. 68. (82) 11-year boy, No. 59. 98 11-year boy. No. 73. 86 10-year girl. No. 50. 101 5-year girl, No. 29; 9-yeai* 95 7-year girl. No. 54; 9-year boy. No. 103; 12-year girl. No. .54. girl. No. 105. 104 9-year girl. No. 71; 14- (103) 5-year girl. No. 29; 9-year year girl. No. £0; 16- boy. No. 101; 12-year year girl. No. 17. girl. No. 105. (109) 5-year boy. No. 13; 10- 108 14-vear boy. No. 73. year girl, No. 79. 117 6-y ear girl, No. 50; 7-year (110) 10-year boy. No. 108. girl. No. 57. 112 10-year girl. No. 81. 118 11-year girl. No. 103. 115 14-year girl. No. 65. 119 6-year girl. No. 48. (118) 10-year boy, No. 97. 124 11-year girl. No. 90; 14- 123 14-year girl. No. 67. year boy. No. 91. 126 15-year boy. No. 52. 126 7-year girl. No. 74. 131 13-year girl. No. 83. 131 14-year boy. No. 24. 147 10-year girl. No. 110; 17- 10-vear . . . . 1 12-year girl. No. 8. year boy. No. 13. 2 6-year girl. No. 5; 8-year 13-year . . . 6 11-year girl. No. 8. girl. No. 2; 12-year girl. (29) 7-year girl. No. 21; 9-year No. 6. boy. No. 47; 12-year 7 12-year boy. No. 5. boy. No. 41. 27 8-year girl. No. 18. (30) 11-year boy. No. 30. 39 8-year girl. No. 19. (42) 7-year boy. No. 51. (45) 9-year boy. No. 52; 13- 45 15-year boy. No. 23. year girl. No. 31. 47 9-year girl. No. 32; 12- 52 12-year boy. No. 58. year girl. No. 52. (65) 8-year boy. No. 60. 55 12-year girl. No. 59; 15- 73 13-year girl. No. 54. year boy. No. 35. 77 14-year boy. No. 51. (68) 9-year boy. No. 88. 83 8-year girl, No. 59. (78) 5-year boy. No. 11. 86 13-year girl. No. 68; 14- (85) 9-year girl. No. 79; 11- year girl. No. 61. year boy. No. 90. (95) 5-year boy. No. 15; 10- (107) 11-year boy. No. 95. year girl. No. 98. (126) 6-year boy. No. 78; 9- 97 12-year boy. No. 118. year girl. No. 69. (103) 7-year boy. No. 67. 14-year . . (9) 9-year boy, No. 41; 16- 107 13-year girl. No. 79. year girl. No. 8. 108 12-year boy, No. 110. (20) 12-year boy. No. 33. (110) 7-year boy. No. 97. (24) 9-year boy, No. 131. (116) 8-year boy. No. 101. (34) 8-year boy. No. 95. 121 14-year girl. No. 82. 48 12-year girl. No. 65. 122 8-year girl. No. 80. (51) 10-year boy. No. 77. 11-year . . . 5 7-year girl. No. 19; 9-year (55) 8-year girl. No. 46; 11- boy. No. 38. year boy, No. 57. 19 5-year girl. No. 4; 9-year (58) 11-year boy. No. 68. boy. No. 26. 65 13-year girl. No. 100. 30 13-ycar boy. No. 30. (73) 9-year boy. No. 108. 37 9-year girl. No. 24. (91) 9-ycar boy. No. 124; 11- 41 6-year girl, No. 27; 9-year year girl. No. 90. girl. No. 42; 10-year 15-year . . 12 15-year girl. No. 6. girl, No. 45; 12-year 13 10-year girl. No. 10; 16- girl, No. 55. year boy. No. 6. 57 8-year girl, No. 46; 14- (23) 13-year boy. No. 45. year boy. No 55. (35) 12-year girl. No. 59; 13- 59 12 year boy. No. 82. year boy. No. 55. 68 14-year boy. No. 58. (52) 12-year boy. No. 126. (73) 9-year boy. No. 98. 67 17-year boy. No. 8 88 11-year girl. No. 101. 74 17-year boy, R o. 14. 90 9-year girl. No. 79; 13- 16-year . (6) 10-year girl. No. 10; 15- year boy. No. 85. year boy. No. 13. (91) 6-year boy. No. 60. 7 12-year girl. No. 27; 14- 95 18-year boy. No. 107. year girl. No. 12. 12-year _ 1 8-year girl. No. 5. 8 10-year girl. No. 6; 13- (5) lO-year boy. No. 7. year girl. No. 19. 25 11-year girl. No. 18. (16) 7-year boy. No. 49. 33 14-year boy. No. 20. 17-year - (8) 15-year boy. No. 67. (41) 7-year girl. No. 21; 9-year (13) 10-year girl. No. 110; 12- boy. No. 47; 13-year year boy, No. 147. boy. No. 29. (14) 15-year boy. No. 74. (46) 9-year boy. No. 49. 21 -year _ 1 26-ye.ar boy. No. 2. 57 10-year girl, No. 44. 26-year . (2) 21-year boy. No. 1. STATISTICS OF GROWTH. 127 Table of relationship — Contiinied. GIRLS. Age. No. Relationship. Age. ! No. Relationship. Sister of — Sister of— fj-year . 1 8-year girl, No. 15. ; 9-year . . (71) 12-year boy. No. 104; 14- (4) 9-Year boy, No. 26; 11- year girJ, No. 80; 16- year boy, No. 19. year girl. No. 17. (9) 7-year boy. No. 30. ; ' (77) 6-year girl. No. 56; 10- 15 7-year girl. No. 40. year girl. No. 92. (19) 7-year boy. No. 70. ; (79) 11-year boy. No. 90; 13- (25) 8-year boy. No. 80. year boy. No. 85. (39) 9-year boys. Nos. 101, 103; lO-year . 4 13-year girl. No. 12. 1 12-vear girl. No. 105. (6) 13-year girl. No. 19; 16- (i-year . (5) 8-year girl, No. 2; 10-year year boy. No. 8. boy. No. 2; 12-year girl. 7 15-year girl. No. 5. No. 6. 8 12-year girl. No. 11; 15- (23) 9-year boy. No. 60. year girl. No. 4. (27) 9-year girl, N o. 42: 10-year (10) 15-year boy. No. 13; 16- girl. No. 45; 11-year boy. year boy. No. 6. No. 41; 12-year girl. No. 37 12-year girl. No. 50. 55. (43) 6-year boy. No. 31; 8-year (35) 8-year boy, No. 59; 12- boy. No. 48. year boy. No. 79. (44) 12-year boy. No. 57. (48) 9-year boy. No. 119. (45) 6-year girl. No. 27; 9-year (50) 7-year girl. No. 57; 9-year girl, No. 42; 11-year boy. boy. No. 117. No. 41; 12-year girl, No. 56 9-year girl. No. 77: 10- 55. year girl. No. 92. (50) 12-year boy. No. 86. (59) 7-Year boy. No. 93; 8-year 54 14-year girl. No. 48. girl. No. 70. (70) 7-year girl. No. 65; 12- (61) 8-year boy. No. 105. year girl. No. 92. Lyear . (9) 6-year boy. No. 17. (79) 5-year boy. No. 13; 12- (19) 9-year boy, No. 38; 11- year boy. No. 109. year boy. No. 5. (81) 12-year boy. No. 112. (21) 9-year boy. No. 47; 12- (92) 6-year girl. No. 56; 9-year year boy. No. 41; 13- girl, No. 77. year boy. No. 29. 94 13-year girl. No. 72. (40) 5-year girl. No. 15. 95 15-year girls. Nos. 30,44. (54) 9-year girl. No. 54; 12-year (98) 5-year boy. No. 15; 10- boy. No. 95. year boy. No. 95. (57) 6-year girl. No. 50; 9-year 104 12-year girl. No. 100. boy. No. 117. (106) 8-year boy. No. 94. 60 11-year girl, N o. 106. (110) 12-year boy. No. 147; 17- 61 14-year girl. No. 76. year boy, No. 13. 65 10-year girl. No. 70; 12- 11-year . (3) 9-year girl. No. 64. year girl. No. 92. (6) 9-year girl. No. 7. (74) 9- year boy. No. 126. (8) 13-year boy. No. 6. 8-year . (2) 6-year girl. No. 5; 10-year 11 14-year girl, No. 23. boy. No. 2; 12-year girl. (18) 12-year boy. No. 25. No. 6. (29) 8-year boy. No. 1. (5) 12-year boy. No. 1. 48 14-year girl. No. 34. (15) 5-year girl. No. 1. (54) 7-year boy. No. 61. (18) 10-year boy. No. 27. (57) 6-year boy. No. 44. (19) 10-year boy. No. 39. (62) 9-year girl. No. 52; 13- (46) 11-year boy. No. 57; 14- year girl. No. 46. year boy. No. 55. 65 14-year girl. No. 47. (57) 6-year boy. No. 46. (70) 9-year boy. No. 3; 14- year (59) 10-year boy. No. 83. girl. No. .56. (70) 6-year girl. No. 59: 7-year 75 13-year girl. No. 64. boy, No. 93. (82) .5-year boy. No. 12; 8-year 77 13-year girl. No. 78. boy. No. 70; 12-year (80) 10-year boy. No. 122. girl. No. 85. (83) 6-year boy, No. 77. (89) 9-year boy. No. 1. 9-year . 7 11-year girl, N o. 6. (90) 9-year boy. No. 124; 14- 8 12-year girl. No. 28. year boy. No. 91. (24) 11-year boy. No. 37. (101) 11-year boy. No. 88. (32) 12-year girl. No. 52; 13- (103) 9-year boy. No. 118. year boy. No. 47. 105 14-year girl, No. 62. (38) 7-year boy. No. 58. (106) 7-year girl. No. 60. (42) 6-year girl. No. 27; 10 year 12-year . (6) 6-year girl. No. 5; 8-year girl. No. 45; 11-year boy. girl. No. 2; 10-year boy. No. 41; 12-year girl. No. No. 2. .55. (8) lO-year boy. No. 1. 52 11-year girl, No. 62; 13- (11) 10-year girl. No. 8; 1.5-year year girl. No. 46. girl. No. 4 (54) 7-year girl. No. 54; 12- (15) 9-year boy. No. 4; l/-year year boy. No. 95. girl. No. 1. 62 13-year girl. No. 71. (27) 14-year girl. No. 12; 16- 64 11-year girl. No. 3. year boy. No. 7. (69) 6-year boy. No. 78; 13- (28)' 9-year girl. No. 8. year boy, No. 126. (29) 6-year boy. No. 26; 17-year girl. No. 2. 128 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, Table of relationship — Continued. GIRLS— Continued. Age. No. Relationship. Age. No. Relationship. Sister of — Sister of— 1 Ay ear - (50) 10-year girl. No. 37. 14-year _ (24) 9-year boy. No. 15. (52) 9-year girl. No. 32; 13-year (34) 11-year girl. No. 48. boy. No. 47. (47) 11-year girl. No. 65. (55) 6-year girl. No. 27; 9-year (48) 10-year girl. No. 54. girl, N o. 42; 10-year girl. (62) 8-year boy. No. 63. No. 45; 11-year boy. No. (56) 9-year boy. No. 3; 11-year 41. girl. No. 70. (59) 13-year boy, No. 55; 15- (61) 10-year boy. No. 86; 13- year boy. No. 35. year girl. No. 68. (6^ 14-year boy, No. 48. ' (62) 11-year girl. No. 105. (85) 5-year boy. No. 12; 8-year (65) 12-year boy. No. 115. boy. No. 70; 11-year girl. (67). 12-year boy. No. 123. No. 82. (76) 7-year girl. No. 61. (.92) 7-year girl, No. 65; 10- (80) 9-year girl, No. 71; 12-year year girl. No. 70. boy, No. 104; 16-year (100) 10-year girl. No. 104. girl. No. 17. 102 15-year girl. No. 29. (82) 10-year boy. No. 121. (103) 5-year boy. No. 18. 15-year . (4) 10-year girl, No. 8; 12-year (105) 5-year girl. No. 29; 9- year girl. No. 11. boys. Nos. 101, 103. (5) 10-year girl. No. 7. i3-year.-. _ (12) 10-year girl. No. 4. (6) 15-year boy. No 12. (19) 10-year girl. No. 6; 16-year (20) 13-year girl. No. 40. boy. No. 8. (29) 12-year girl, No. 102. (31) 9-year boy , No. 52; 10-year (30) 10-year girl. No. 95; 15- boy. No. 45. year girl. No. 44. 40 15-year girl. No. 20. (44) 10-year girl. No. 95; 15- (46) 9-year girl. No. 52; 11-year year girl. No. 30. girl. No. 62. 16-year . . 6 18-year girl. No. 6. (54) 10-year boy. No. 73. (8) 9-year boy. No. 41; 14-year (64) 11-year girl. No. 75. boy. No. 9. (68) 10-year boy. No. 86; 14- (17) 9-year girl. No. 71; 12-year year girl, No. 61. boy. No. 104; 14-year (71) 9-year girl. No. 62. girl. No. 80. (72) 10-year girl. No. 94. 17-year . (!) 9-year boy. No. 4; 12-year (78) 8-year girl. No. 77. girl. No. 15. (79) 10-year boy. No. 107. (2) 6-year boy. No. 26; 12-year (83) 12-year boy. No. 131. girl. No. 29. ! (100) 14-year boy. No. 65. 18-year - . (6) 16-year girl. No. 6. 14-year ... _ ; (3) 8-year boy. No. 18. (9) 8- year boy. No. 17. Mother of— (12) 12-year girl. No. 27; 16- year boy. No. 7. 29-year . - 1 3-year boy. (23) 11-year girl. No. 11. List of Observet'i BOYS. Year. I Numbers. Boas. Year. Bolton— Con’t’d. N umbers. Year. Chamber¬ lain. Numbers. 5. 6, 8 _ 9 _ 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . . 14.. . 15 _ 16 _ 18 . . 1-3,6,19,37,38. 1-23,66,67. 1-4, 7-38, 41, 98, 105- 108. 1- 9, 15-33, 40-42, 94, 108. 2- 34,36-46,48, 49, 12:i- 125,131. 1-38,40-44,113-119. 1-30,62-65,111,112. 1-44,46,79, 87-92, 130, 141,142,146,175. U28, 36-43, 70-77, 116. 3- 26,60,61. 4- 17, 19-25,46-48,66. 6-12, 18,19,37,40. 15. Bolton. 5 . 13,14. 0 . 29, .30, 39, .56-58, 60-62. 8. 9 10. 11 12. 13 14. 15 18. 39,40,51-53, 64, 65,83, 88,92-94. .34-37,39,56-59,79-86. 50-57,79-86, 113-118. 50,73-76,105,106. 40,60,61,101,102. 97-101,119,146. 84^88,116. 65-68. 32,66. 15. Broivn. 9. 10. 11- 12. 15- 145. 150-154. 134-137. 123-126. 159, 160. 149. 5 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 5,7,8,24-28. 24-28,32-38,62,90-94. 42-50,61-63,82,117-122. 10-14,43-47,78,109,110. 62,68-70,106-112. 56,57,59, 100-104. 49,50,85-88,96-100, 66-74,77,109-111,146. 63,64,99-106,116,168. 50-53,79-82,85. 64-66,69-73,75,76. 35,36,38,39. 13. 8,15. Dorsey. 13 14. 15. 16. 29-35. 27-31. 18,26-29. 13-16. STATISTICS OF GKOWTH 129 List of Observers — Continued. BOY S— Continued. Year. Hodg- kOis. Numbers. Year. Numbers. Saville. Y^ear. T {>.$■#— Cont'd. NiTinbers. ]1 . 12 . 13 _ 15 . 140. 169. 165, 166. 152. Eeigart. 5 . . 6 . 7 . 8 _ 9 . 10 . 11- . 12. . - 13 _ 14 . 15 . 16 _ 17 . 18 . Riddle. 12... . 13.. . . 14 . 15 . 16.. . 4. 31. 54-60. 51,52. 63-67. 55. 44-48. 62-64. 53-60. 34-49,55. 33-44. 17. 4. 120-126. 111-115,117. 87-91. 49-52. 26. Ruoff. 14 _ 157. 15... . 153. 11 . 12.. . 13 . 80-83. 102-107. 89-91. Stillings. 7 . 97. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 124,122. 107-112. 10:3-110. 131-140. 118-125. 92. 15 . 53. West ayul Cham- berlain. 7. 9. 10. 13. 14. 5,6. 35. 39, 58. 75,76. 65. 54. West. 5 . . 9-12, 15-18, 20-23, 29- 05. 6 . 40-51,53-55,59,6:3,64, 68 - 89, 95-107, 110, 112. 8. 9. 10. 11- 12. 13. 14. 15 . 18 . 17 . 18 . . 66-81, 84-87, 89-91, 95, %, 109-1 16, 123, 1:34- 144,146, 149-158. 38,48-.50, 53, 60-77,87- 9:3, 111, 115-118, 120, 121,125,127,1:30,1:34- i:i7. 47,58-61,71-78,87-10.5, 119,132,13:3, 14:3-14.5, 161-182. 45-49, 51-54, 60-72, 77- 99,1.51,1.54-171. 31-:39, 41-43, 51-.59,66- 79,84,89-95,1:39,147- 172. 45. 47-61, 65, 78,80-86, 9:3-96, 108, 112-118, 158, 167, 168, 170-172, 176-202. 44-.52, 61, 62,66-69,78- 83, 92-98, 107-109, 127-1.33,154,155,161- 164, 167, 170, 173-175. 32, 3:3, 56-.59, 62-64, 69- 78,83, 84, 86, 94-125, 146-150,1.53-1.56,158, 162,164, 165,168,169. 30, :31, 4.5,.54-63,74,77- 14:3,148,1.57-1.59, 20-25,42-91,94-98. 5,6,16-47. 23-50. List of Schools. BOYS. Y^ear, Numbers. Y"ear. 1 Numbers. Year. Wood- land Street. 5 _ 1-3,37,38. 1-23. Miss Lewis¬ ton's. 5 _ :i4,35. 105. Trorce.s- ter Acad¬ emy. 9 . . 6 _ 6 . 12 _ 7 1-38. 144. 13. . 8 . 9 _ 1- 31. 2- 44. Freeland. 14... . 15 _ 10. . 1-40. Street. 16.. . 11 . . 12 _ 1-27. 1-36. 5 . 5, 6. 17 _ 18 . 13 _ 4-28. 6 _ 24-:30. 14. . 3-22. 7. . 39-53. Web.ster 15 . 4-17. 8 _ 32-47. Square. 16 . 6-11. 9.. . 4.5-57,59,62. 5 . 6 . Syca- 10... . 11 . 41-.50. 28-:i7,40. more 12... . 37-.54. 8 . . 9 . 10 _ 11. . . 12.. . . 13 . Street. 13 . 29-51. 5 . 11,12. 51. 14 . 15 .. 23-:i3. ]8-:32. 6 . 16.. . 12-16. 7 _ 8 . 76-81. 67-76. High 9 . 10 . 90-100,167. 78-92. school. H.M.A. 11 62-79. 13 . 127-133. 13 . 12 86-96. 14 . 94-110, 112-125. 77-142. 14 . . 13 . 70-81. 15 _ 15- . . 14 58-63. 16 42-75, 77-89. 16 . 15 45-48. 17 . 16-47. 17 . 16 . 18, 19. 18 . 23-48. 18 . Numbers. 1. 146-148. 116. 93. 66-76. 7- 15. 8- 22. 4,7,8. 31-38. 54- 63. 48-.52. .58,60,61,63-70. .51-.55. 38, :39, 41-46. 55- 61. 52. 1-3. 1,2. 1-3. 1-5. 1-3. 1-6. ED 1904 M - 9 180 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904, List of Schools — Continued. BOYS— Continued. Year. Numbers. Clark Univer¬ sity. 15 _ 154. Doivning Street. 5. 8. 9- 10. 11. 12. Di.v Street. 5 . 6 _ 7.. . 8_. . 9 _ 10 _ 11 _ 12 _ 13 _ 14 _ 15 _ 10 _ 17 _ 18 _ 33. 122,125,129, 131. 169,170,187. 160,163,166,169,171. 151 , 154. 176, 177, 200, .202. 29-33. 97-104. 124-143. 112-118. 134-147. 124-1.31. 115-121. 149-158. 134-1.55. 126-144. 143-148. 90-93. 48, 49. 49. Year. Numbei*.s. Year. Numbers. Winslow Street. 1 Chandler 1 Street— Cont’d. 5 _ 1.3-18. ’ 17 . 4. 6. . 52-64, 112. i 18 . 7. 7 _ 8 82-96. 77-93,120, 121. 101-119, 162, 166. 93-106, 149-153. 80-10,2,141-148. 97-119,172-174. 82-110,168. 64 86,111,152,157,161, 109. O.rford Street. 9 10 _ 5. . . 19-21 . 11 _ 1 6 _ 65-83. 12. . 7 . 97-109. 13 8 _ 94-108. 14 9 _ 120-i:30. 10 . . 107-123. 15 _ 54-65,153. 20-25, 94-96. 5,6. 11 . 103-114. 16 _ 12.. . 120-145. 17 13 . 111-115,117-126. 87-92. 14 . Chandler Sreet. 15 _ 49-53. 16 _ 26. Belmont 5.. . 9,10. Street. 6 39-50. 5 . 22-28. 7 _ 64-75. 6.. . 84-96. 8 _ 53-66. 7 . 110-123,145. 9 . 71-89,161. 56-77. 8.. . 109-111,119. 132,133,148-160. 132-148. 10 ... . 9 . 11 _ 47-61. 10 . 12 62-85. 11 122-140. 13 _ 53-69. 12.. . 159-171. 14 . . 34-57. 13 . 156-167. 15 33-44. 14 . 145-151. 16 . 17. 15.. . 149-152. List of Observers. GIRLS. Year. Number. Year. N limber. Year. Number. Boas. Chamber- lain. Reigart. 5 . 1-9. 5- . 38. 5 . . 13-15. 6 _ 1-11,60. 6 _ 44,73-77. 6 . . 22, 24-28. 34-36, 38-40. 36-37. 7 1-19,71-77. 1-21,27-30,53,76-82. 1-29, 3:3-34. 31,99-113. 5_33^ 41-42, 70. 28-:30,.56, 84-86. 31-32, 38-39, 40, 61-65, 84. 7 8 8 _ 8 _ 9 9 _ 41-4:3. 10 9 . 74-82, 89. 88-90. 12 58-60. 11 10 . . 13 41-49. 12 5- 38,40-42,47-49,74-77. 6- 25, 56-.59, 61-65. 1-26, 29-30, :37, 55-59. 1-16, 42. 1-11. 11 _ 95,97,112-115. 101-102, 106-107. 14 . 44-50. 13 . 12... . 15 _ 16 _ 21-25. 14 _ 13 _ 97-99. 15-16. 15 _ _ 14 _ 7:3-80. 17 . 4. 16 _ 15. . . 16 4:3-46. Riddle. 10 . Bolton, 10-12, 2,5-27. 12-21, 45, 49, ,55. 20-22,31-33,41,45. 17 _ 18... . 13. 70. 89. 89, 93-94. 76,8:3-87. 40-41. 5 _ 11 _ 12 . 6 _ Dorsey. 7. .. ... 12 _ 39. 13 8.. . 23-26, 33-34, 42-46, 00- 68, 72-74. 32, .51-53, 83-86, 88. 91-95. 116-118. ,50,54. 36. 14 _ 27-28. 15. - . - 9 _ 10 _ 11 _ 12 _ Gerro- dette. 12 _ 16 .... 22. 5; 17 _ 90. Riioff. 13 _ 14 72. 14 36,38-40,69. Hodg¬ kins. 12. . 165. Broken. q 13 . . 14 . 140. 115. 10,3-107. 39, 134-1.36. 1:32-134. 12 _ 13 _ 1.56-1.58. 137,139. Savdle. 10 _ Lee. 11.. . 12 . 87. 12 17 6-10. 1-12. 13 73-75. 70. 13 . 26, 127. 18 . 14 . STATISTICS OF GEOWTH, 131 List of Observers — Continued. GIRLS— Continued. Year. Numbers. Year. Numbers. Year. Numbers. Stillings. iresf.— 1 Cont’d. ire.sf.- Cont’d. 8 . . 9 63. 8.. . 22, 35, 41, 47-52, .54-60, 69-71,83, 85-114. 13 . 27-.35, .37-40, 50-55,60, 66-72, 77-83, 95-96, 10 _ 11 _ 2,71-76. 1-4,90-93,98-101. 9 . 30-31, 65-40, 44-.50, 54-82. 64-73, 87,90- If 0-101, 10;3-136, 128- 138, 141-143. 12 _ 1_4,9.)_99,108. 103, 108-119. 14 . 31-36, 41-43, 51-54, 60- 13 . — 14 _ 1-5,88-93, 102. 83-88. 10 _ 1, 33-38,40-69. 77-87, 96-99, 114-133, 137- 163. 15 . 68, 71, 81, 89-114, 116-118. 17-19,26-39,47-112. IVest. 11 _ 34-40,43-69,71 88,94, 96, 102-111,119-131, 16 . 17 . 12-14,17-21,23-91. 3,19-69. 5 _ 6 _ 16-34, 28-37,. 39-41. 23,29-43,46-48.50-54, 56- 59,61-72, 78-86. 23-27,37,42-44,46-55, 57- 70, 78-83,87-104. 12 . 165-155. 43-46, 51-53, .55-.57, 61-73,78-86, 88,91- 92, 103-105, 109-155, 159-184,167-169. 18 . 30-49. List of Schools. GIRLS. Year. Numbers. Year. N umbers. TFood- land Street. Freeland Street— Cont’d. Year. Numbers. Salem Street. 5- 6. 7 9. 10. 11. 13. 13. 14.. is. 16., 17. 1-9. 1-10. 1-19. 1-22. 1-39. 3-29. 5-33,1.13. 5- 37,169. 6- 23,96. 1-25, 118. 1-12. 1-11, 83. 1-2. Syca¬ more Street. 5. 6. 8^ 9. 10. 11. 12. 13 14. 15. 20-23. 42-43. 49-55. 58- 60, 110-111. 54-63. 59- 69. 70-88. 74-86. 56-71. .55-61. 26. Mms Lew¬ iston's. 5. 6. 7. ■ 13. 14. 40. 83-S4. 100. 134-126. 110-111. Freeland Street. 10-12. 11-21. 20-23. 1 23-34. 9. 10,. 11. 12.. 13. 14. 15. 30-.34. 30-31,33-39. 34-47. 38-54. 24-36,107. 26-40. 13-18. High School. 13 . 14 . 15 _ 16 . 17 . 18 . 109. 88-96,100. 48-97,99. 27-73,75-79,81-82, 84- 85. 19-69. 30-48. Webster Square. 5 6 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 13-15. 23-28. 34- 40, 102. 35- 39, 107. a>43. 40-46. 48-55. 37-39. 41. Donming Street. 5. . 41. 7. 8 9 10 12 13 15 104. 109. 119. 1,163. 166. 112. 103. Dix Street. 6. V. 9. 10. 11. 13. 13 14 15. 16. .39. 78-82. 87-99. 85- 96. 91-101. 115-1.33. 119-129. 115-i;i5. 111-123. 101-109. 100-106. 86- 90. Winsloiv Street. 13. 13 14 15 16 _ Chandler Street. 24-30. 44-.59, 8.5-86. .56-70,8.3, 101. 61-74,10.5-106,114. 71-88,114-117. 70, 77-97,1.51-1.59. 95-97, 100-118, 14.5- 1.50, 155. 87-92, 101-114, 162-165. 73-82, 97-106, 108, 140- 141. 6.3-81,113-115. 27-;3.8, 43-47, 98, 109- 111. 17-30,23-24,91. 5 . 16-19. 6 . 29-41. 7 . 41-48. 8 . 40-.57,11.3. 9 . 44-.53. 10 . 1 47-58,161. 6. 7. 132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904, List of Schools — Continued. GIRLS — Continued. Year. Numbers. Year. Numbers. Year. Numbers. Chandler Oxford Belmont Street — Street— Street — Cont’d. Cont’d. Cont’d. 11 56-69, 154. 62-73,167. 40-55. 10 . . 2,71-76,99-113. 1-4,89-94,98-99,151. 1-4,93-100. 1-5,83-95,143. 9 . 89-90,102-113. 114,1:34-147,149-150. i;30-144. 12 11 . . 10 . 13 12 . . 11 _ 14 _ 42-54,112. 13. . . 12 . . ]3t>-161. 15 . 19-25. 14 _ 8:L87. 13.. . 127-131,136-139. 16 12-16. 15 ... 39-42. 14 97-99. 17 . . 3-4. 16.... 21-22. 15 107-108. 17 . 5. 16 . 74,80. 49. Oxford Street. 18 _ Belmont Street. Normal 5 . . 31-32. School. 6 60-66. 33-38. 7 _ 71-82. 6 _ 67-77. 16 . . 25-26. 8 75-83. 7. . . 84-86. 17 . 6-12,14-17. 1-13,21-23,26-29. 9 63-70. 8 . 84,97-104. 18 . . CHAPTER III. REGULATIONS RELATING TO PENSIONS AND INSUR¬ ANCE IN ALL GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. COLLECTED BY PROF. JULIUS IIATSCHECK, OF HEIDELBERG, FOR DR. THEODORE MAR¬ BURG, TRUSTEE OF JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, OF BALTIMORE, MD., AND BY THE LATTER PRESENTED TO THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. CONTENTS. I. The Universities of I’russia. Page. A. — Provisions for the widows and orphans of professors _ 134 1. University of Berlin _ 134 2. University of Bonn _ 139 3. University of Breslau _ 141 4. University of Gottingen _ 143 5. University of Greifswald _ 146 6. University of Halle- Wittenberg _ 147 7. University of Kiel _ 149 8. University of Konigsherg - 151 9. University of Marburg _ 153 10. Academy of Munster and Lyceum Ilosianum of Braunsberg _ 155 B. — Provisions for the widows and orphans of officials _ 156 C. — I'ensions of professors and officials _ 157 II. University of Strassburg. A. — Provisions for the widows and orphans of professors, etc _ 162 B. — Pensions of professors and officials _ 167 III. The Bavarian Universities. A. — Provisions for widows and orphans of professors, etc., general regulations _ 173 General benefit association _ 174 Daughters’ fund _ 177 Administration of these two a.gencies _ 178 Private widows’ fund. University of Erlangen _ 180 B. — Pensions of university professors and officials - 185 IV. University of Tubingen. A. — Pi-ovisions for widows and orphans of professors, etc. B. — I’ension status of officials and professors - Lists of officials and professors - 1. Claim to retirement salary - 2. Evidence of incapacity for service - 3. Computation of the time of service- - 4. Amount of retirement salary _ 5. Cessation and reduction of retirement salaries-. 186 191 191 192 193 193 194 195 V. University of Leipzig. 1. Pensioning of the widows and orphans of professors - Auxiliary and daughters’ fund - - 2. Pensioning o€ the widow^s and orphans of officials and subofficials. A. The widows and orphans of officials - B. The widows and orphans of suhofficials - 196 198 202 202 204 133 134 EDUCATIOI^ EEPORT, 1904. VI. The TTniveesities of Baden. Pago. A. — Pensioning the widows and orphans of teachers and officials _ 209 B. — Pension conditions of professors and officials _ _ _ 216 VII. University of Giessen. A. — Provisions for the widows and orphans of teachers and officials _ 219 The Widows’ Institute for Civil Officials _ 219 The Institute Neuhauer _ 224 The university widows’ fund _ 224 B. — Pension conditions of professors and officials _ 225 VIII. University of Jena. Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute - 227 — IX. University of Rostock. Pensioning of the widows and orphans of teachers and officials _ 232 The Widows’ Institute for Civil and Military Officials _ 233 Supplementary decree concerning the same _ 239 The widows’ fund _ 241 The university orphans’ fund _ 244 Administration and use of the orphans' fund _ 246 I. THE UHIVEBSITIES OE PEIJSSIA. A— PROVISION FOR THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF PROFESSORS. 1. Royal Feedeeick-William Uniyeesity of Beelin. In the year 181G a number of professors of the University of Berlin had organized in order to establish a special institution making provision for the widows and orphans of professors. After approval of this purpose by the royal decree of March G, 181G, statutes were drawn up on September 11, 181G, and approved by the royal ministry of the interior. In the year 1847, because of a number of changes in these statutes, a revision of them was made, to which an appendix was added in the year 1848. Essential changes of the statutes resulted from the adoption of the resolutions in the general meeting of July 10, 187G, and their approval by the royal minis¬ try of religious, educational, and medical affairs under date of August 27, 1877, and a new revision became necessary, which, however — irrespective of the reckoning in marks which had been introduced in the meanwhile — was limited to the entry of these changes. , The law of May 20, 1882, concerning survivors deprived the judge and the secretary of the university of the right of membership in the institution. This necessitated further modification of the respective paragraphs and a further revision of the statutes, which resulted, on March 15, 1884, in the Revised Stat¬ utes of the Professors’ Widows’ Pensioning Institute (Revidirte Statuten der Professoren-Wittwen-Versorgungsanstalt), approved in a ministerial decree on July 8, 1884. By these revised statutes all ordinary and extraordinary professors of the university were obliged to become members of the institution. If they had joined before December 10, 1877, they had to pay annual premiums of 96, 108, and 120 marks, respectively ; and if they joined after said date they were to pay annual premiums of 120, 144, and 192 marks, respectively. The annual pension of widows was 1,200 marks. Orphans were granted annual assistance as follows : One half orphan, 800 marks ; two half orphans, 500 marks ; three half orphans, 600 marks ; one orphan deprived of both parents, 600 marks ; two such orphans 1,000 marks, and three such orphans 1,200 marks. In the year 1889 state provision for the relicts a of teachers in Prussian uni¬ versities was regulated anew. Accordingly the following statutes were adopted in the special general meeting of July 24, 1889, and approved by the minister of religious, educational, and medical affairs under date of July 26, 1889 : “ In this compilation the term “ relicts ” is understood to include widows and children, and in some cases other near dependent relatives. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 135 Statutes of the Professors' Widows and Orphans' Pension Institute of the Royal F rederick-W illiani University of Berlin. I. MEJkIBERSIIIP. §1. The rules anti regulations in force for ineinhorship in the Widows’ Pensioning Institute, established since January 1, 1810, for the professors of the University of Berlin, are as follows : 1. All professors (including the emeritus professors) that occupy a pro¬ fessor’s chair with salary from the exchequer of the university are officially members of the institution and remain such during the con¬ tinuance of said occupancy. 2. Professors who do not occupy a chair salaried from the exchequer of the university, hut who were members at the time of the adoption of these statutes, retain their rights as members during the continuance of their connection with the university. 3. No other persons except those designated under section 1 can become members of the institution. II. ALLOWANCES OF THE RELICTS OF MEMBERS. §2. The widow and the surviving legitimate children, or children legitimized after marriage, of members who may have secured membership after the adop¬ tion of these statutes shall be paid widows and orphans’ claims in accordance with the regulations of §§ 3 to 8. . ^ §3. The amounts paid to widows shall be as follows : Marks. For the widow of an ordinary professor _ 1,400 For the widow of an extraordinary professor _ 1,000 The amounts paid to orphans shall be as follows : For an orphan who has lost both parents {Ganzwaise) _ GOO For each additional such orphan _ 400 For a half orpl^an _ 400 For each additional half orphan _ 250 §4. If the widow was more thaif fifteen j'ears the junior of the deceased the widow’s claim shall be reduced 5 per cent for each year of the difference in age over fifteen until and including the twenty-fifth year. §5. The widow shall have no claim upon pension if her marriage with the deceased was concluded within three months of his death and if the minister of leligious, etc., affairs, on the ground of proved facts, shall have found that the marriage had been concluded only for the purpose of procuring for the widow the pension claim. §6. Payment of the widows and orphans’ claims shall begin on the expira¬ tion of the period of grace and shall be made monthly. §7. The right to claim the widows and orphans’ pension expires — 1. For each claimant with the end of the month in which he or she is married or dies. 2. For each orphan, besides, with the end of the month in which he or she completes the twenty-first year of life. §8. The right to claim the widows and orphans’ pension shall be suspended — 1. When the claimant loses or forfeits German citizenship, until it shall be restored. 2. When, and as long as the claimant is entitled to a widows and orphans’ pension on the basis of the imperial law of April 20, 1881 (R. G. B. 1, p. 85), or of the Prussian law of May 20, 1882 (G. S., p. 298), to the amouiit of this widows and orphans’ pension. III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. Members that shall obtain membership after the adoption of these stat¬ utes shall not pay any fees. IV. TRANSITION REGULATIONS. §10. The regulations of §§ 2, 3, and 5 to 8, subparagraph 1, shall apply also to the relicts of those who may be members at the time of the adoption of these 136 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. statutes, if these members in a written declaration, to be handed to the execu¬ tive committee of the institute on or before December 1, 1889, renounce for their prospective relicts all claims that might accrue to them in accordance with the statutes of March 15 and August 30, 1884, heretofore in force. Otherwise the regulations of the statutes heretofore in force shall apply to these relicts. §11. The payment of fees on the part of those who were members at the time when these statutes took effect is hereby discontinued. The regulation of clause 1 shall not apply to members whose possible future relicts may have claims upon widows and orphans’ pension in accordance with the imperial law of April 20, 1881 (R. G. B. 1, p. 85), or of the Prussian law of May 20, 1882 (G. S., p. 298). §12. The claims of the relicts of members deceased before the adoption of these statutes shall be adjudged according to the statutes heretofore in force. V. EIGHTS OF THE INSTITUTION. §13. The institution shall have the rights of a corporation. Particularly, it shall be competent to receive gifts from living persons and by legacy in accord¬ ance with statutory requirements. VI. PROPEETY OF THE INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession shall remain under its control. The income from its property, in so far as the donors of gifts and legacies have not made other dispositions, shall be applied exclusively in defraying the statutory expenses of the institution. Allowances assigned to the institution by the State in accordance with pro¬ visions for securing the solvency of university institutions for the pensioning of widows and orphans shall be added to the income of the institution from its property. §15. The capital of the institution shall be invested, with the consent of the minister of religious, etc., affairs, on security or mortgages, or eventually, in so far as this can not be done safely, in the purchase of interest-bearing bonds, in which the money of wards can be legally*' invested. VH. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTE. §1C. The administration of the institute is directed by an executive committee, consisting of the rector and two directors, in accordance with further detailed rules to be fixed by the minister of religious, etc., affairs and the minister of finance, and with instructions of the minister of religious, etc., affairs. In judiciary matters the executive committee shall procure the advice of the judge of the university. §17. The care of the funds and the conduct of financial affairs lies with the treasury of the university, under the direction and supervision of the executive committee. An annual report shall be submitted by the treasurer of the university within six weeks after the close of the year. §18. This annual report shall be received by two auditors, under the direction of the rector and in connection with the two directors, and then forwarded, with the report of the executive committee, to the minister of religious, etc., affairs for inspection and ultimate discharge. §19. In case of the death of a director or temporary inability to attend to his duties on the part of such director, one of the auditors shall in his place attend to the duties of the director until a new director shall have been elected or the temporary inability removed. §20. The two directors and the two auditors shall be elected for one year by absolute majority of those present at the regular annual meeting of all the mem¬ bers. The elected officers shall serve without compensation. Should anyone who has served in one of these offices for one year be elected, he may refuse accept¬ ance whenever there are other members who have not served in that respective office. PENSIONS IN GEEMAN UNIVERSITIES. 137 VIII. MEETINGS. §21. A regular meeting of all the members shall be called aimnally by the executive committee. At this meeting the executive committee shall submit the report concerning the administration of the past year. Then the meeting shall elect the two directors and the two auditors. §22. Special meetings of all members shall be called by the rector — 1. On motion of the executive committee. 2. On motion of ten members. In these motions and in the call the subject of deliberation shall be announced. Special meetings shall not be called during the Easter and fall vacations. §23. Special meetings shall be competent to pass resolutions if more than half of all the members are present. If a called meeting fails of a quorum a second meeiing shall be called, and this second meeting shall be competent to pass resolutions without reference to the number present. In these called meetings resolutions shall be adopted by the absolute major¬ ity of the members present. IX. AMENDMENTS OF STATUTES. §24. Amendments of statutes can be made only at special meetings. The passage of such amendments shall require three-fourths of the votes of those present. Adopted amendments shall require the approval of the minister of religious, etc., affairs. X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect ou the 1st of April, 1880. On this day the revised statutes of March 15 (August 30), 1884, cease to have effect, in so far as they are not kept in force by sections 10 to 12. Closely connected with the Professors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Insti¬ tute is t\\Q Fischer-Harjne for the benefit of needy daughters of deceased professors of the University of Berlin. Prof. Dr. Frederick Gottlob Hayne and his wife, Mary Elizabeth, nee Fischer, ef Berlin, ordered in their conjoint will of the 8tli of August, 1831, that their property left after their decease be applied to the establishment of an institu¬ tion from whose revenue needy daughters of deceased professors of the Berlin University, both ordinary and extraordinary, should receive during their life¬ time as long as they may remain unmarried an annual stipend of 100 thalers, the more needy to have precedence of the less needy. This institution received governmental approval in a ministerial decree of February 27, 1833. Under the date of October 10, 1878, the authorized ministry decreed for the conduct of the institution, on the basis of the will, the following : Statutes of the Fischcr-IIaijnc Institute. §1. The institution shall be known as the Fischer-Hayne Institute. §2. It shall be connected with the Professors’ Widows and Orjihans’ Pension Institute of the Berlin University, and administered by the latter under the following stipulations applying to it : §3. The institute shall be considered as a responsible, judicial person. The papers and books concerning its property and administration are to be kept separately. §4. The object of the institute is to assist needy unmarried daughters of deceased ordinary and extraordinary professors of the University of Berlin. For this purpose annual stipends of 300 marks shall be paid during the life of the stipendiary from the revenues of the property of the institute. §5. Stipends shall be granted only to legitimate daughters of professors, and to these only ; 1. If they are unmarried, and 2. If they are of irreproachable character. §6. Among several claimants entitled to annual stipends the greater need shall decide. In cases of equal need the services of the father to science and to the University of Berlin shall be specially considered. 138 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. §7. Assignments of stipends shnll be made by the academic senate on motion of the directors of the Professors’ Widows and Orpiians’ Pension Institute. Vot¬ ing shall be by ballot, and the absolute majority of votes shall decide. In case of a tie vote the rector shall decide. If a motion is not approved by the senate the matter shall be referred to the directors. §8. Payment of the annual stipends shall be made quarterly in advance and in full for the quarter in which it shall have been assigned. §9. The annual stipends shall be paid even when the stipendiaries live out¬ side of the Prussian State. §10. Should the stipendiary die her heirs shall have no claim on the remain¬ ing quarterly payments of the year of decease. §11. The annual stipend shall cease — 1. If the stipendiary is married. 2. If she should become unworthy of the stipend. Cessation of the stipend in such cases shall be ordered by the academic senate on motion of the report of the directors, and shall require approval of the authorized royal ministry. Finally, since 1890 there exists in connection with the Royal Frederick-Wil- liam University of Berlin a relief fund, with the object of furnishing assistance to the relicts of all teachers and officials of the university, as well as to the officials of the treasury of tlie university, in case of need. The statutes of this relief fund and the decree of the 10th of March, 1890, expressing approval of the same by the minister of religious, etc., affairs and the minister of the interior are as follows : I. OBJECT OF THE BELIEF FUND. §1. The “relief fund” established in connection with the Rojml Frederick- William University has for its object the furnishing of assistance to the relicts, to the instructors (jirofessors, private instructors, and teachers), and officials of the university and of the. treasurer of the university in case of need. Among the relicts are included — 1. Widows. 2. Sons and daughters. 3. Other near relatives that were included in the immediate family of the deceased and that have lost in him their provider. §2. The granting of assistance is not confined to the relicts of members of the relief fund, yet in case of equal need these shall have precedence over the relicts of nonmembers. II. MEMBEBSHIP. §3. All professors, private instructors, and teachers of the university are entitled to membership of the relief fund. §4. Membership is acquired — 1. By the pledge to pay an annual fee of at least 5 marks, to be paid quar¬ terly in advance. 2. By the payment of a single fee of at least 100 marks for the establish¬ ment of an endowment fund. §5. Membership ceases — 1. Upon written notice of voluntary withdrawal at any time. 2. FTpon separation from the university in any other way than by retire¬ ment as emeritus. 3. Upon nonpayment of the fees after a third request by the executive committee. III. PEIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. §6. The “ relief fund ” shall have the privileges of a corporation. Particularly it is competent to acquire gifts from living persons and by legacy in accordance with legal regulations. IV. THE GBANTING OF ASSISTANCE. §7. Assistance shall be granted by the executive committee (sec. 10) in accordance with the provisions of sections 1 and 2. Every member shall have the right to request grants of assistance. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 139 §8. Assistance shall be assigned — 1. From the interest of the endo^Yment provided I)y tlie founders of the fund. 2. From the interest of other endowments obtained by the fund. 3. From the annual fees of members (sec. 4). 4. From contributions made expressly for this purpose. §9. Assistance may he granted in single payments or in i)eriodic payments for one or more, at most three, years (not excluding the admissibility of repeated grants). Not more than one-half of the income indicated in section 8 shall be used annually for periodic grants. Periodic grants shall cease before lapse of the time for which they were granted as soon as the grantees cease to need them. V. ADMINISTRATION OF THE FUND. §10. The relief fund shall be administered by the executive committee of the Professors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute whether or not the mem¬ bers of this committee are members of the relief fund. §11. The provisions of the statutes of July 2G, 1889, of the institute, desig¬ nated in §10 and added as appendix to these statutes, shall apply to the admin¬ istration of any relief fund, under approval of the minister of religious, educa¬ tional, and medical affairs. VI. GENERAL MEETINGS. §12. The general assembly consists of all the members of the fund. The executive committee (§10) shall preside in the assembly. §13. For general meetings the provisions of §§ 21 to 23 of the statutes of July 26, 1889, indicated in §11, shall apply. VII. AMENDMENTS OF STATUTES. J14. The statutes can be amended only by called general meetings. The adoption of resolutions shall require a majority of three-fourths of the members present. Adopted amendments require the approval of the minister of religious, etc., affairs. The above statutes of the “ relief fund ” of the Royal Frederick William University, of Berlin, are hereby approved on the basis of the ministerial decree of September 29, 1833 (G. S., p. 121), with the proviso that — 1. At least 10 per cent of the income of the “ relief fund ” be applied to the increase of its endowment fund. 2. That amendments of the statutes shall require, in addition to the approval of the minister of religious, etc., affairs, also that of the minister of the interior. Berlin, March 10, 1890. [L. s.] Minister of religious, educational, and medical affairs, VoN Gossler. Minister of the Interior, per — Lodeman. 2. The Royal Rhenish Frederick- William University of Bonn. By the approval of the statutes, on March 28, 1822, an institution for the care of widows and orphans was inaugurated for the University of Bonn. Accoixl- ing to these statutes, and the additions made to them under the dates of April 24, 1831, and June 20, 1855, all ordinary and extraordinary professors, as well as the librarians and the prosector of the university of equal rank with the extraordinary professors, are ex officio members of said institution, while the university instructors that occupied professorships only as secondary office and the nonsalaried extraordinaries are excluded from membership. The annual membership fee was 96 marks ; the annual pension of the widow of a member was 1,080 marks, while the surviving orphans (having lost one or both parents) received annual stipends of 270 to 1,080 marks. 140 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Since April 1, 1889, tlie following statutes, approved by the minister of relig¬ ious, educational, and medical affairs, under date of December 2, 1889, have been in force. Statutes of the Professors' Widoics and Orphans' Pension Institute of the Royal Rhenish FrederieJc-WiUiani University of Bonn. I. MEMBERSHIP. §1. Membership of the Professors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute at the University of Bonn shall he subject to the following provisions : 1. All professors (including emeritus professors) that occupy a professorship with salary from the exchequer of the university are ex officio members of the institution and shall continue as such during the continuance of said occupancy. 2. Professors who do not occupy a professorship salaried from the exchequer of the university, but who were members at the time of the adoption of these statutes, retain their rights as members during the continuance of their con¬ nection with the university. 3. Persons not designated under section 1 can not become members of the institution. II. ALLOWANCES OF THE RELICTS OE MEMBERS. §§2 to 8. The same as on page 135. HI. DISCONTINUANCE OE EEES. §9. Members that have obtained membership after flie adoption of these statutes shall not pay entrance or other fees, nor, respectively, give drafts for the former. • IV. TRANSITION REGULATIONS. §10. The regulations of §§ 2, 3, and 5 to 8, clause 1, apply also to the relicts of those who may be members at the time of the adoption of these statutes if these members, in a written declaration to be handed to the executive commit¬ tee of the institution on or before January 1, 1890, renounce for their prospec¬ tive relicts all claims that might accrue to them in acordance with the statutes heretofore in force; provided, however, that the director of the library and judge of the university shall hold rank with ordinary professors and the pro- sector and the questor with extraordinary professors. Otherwise the provisions of the statutes heretofore in force shall apply to the relicts of these members. §11. The obligation to pay fees on the part of t’lose who were members at tbe time when these statutes took effect shall cease ; the entrance fees, respectively the drafts for the same, shall be returned. The regulations of clause 1 shall not apply to members whose possible future relicts may have claims upon widows and orphans’ pensions under the imperial law of April 20, 1881 (Rg.-Bl., p. 85), or of the Prussian law of May 20, 1882. (GS., p. 298.) §12. As above, page 13G. V. PRIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. §13, As above, page ISO. VI. PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession shall remain under its control, as w^ell as the statutory annual contribution of 1,500 marks by the state. The income from its property, in so far as the donors of gifts and legacies have not inade other dispositions, shall be applied exclusively in defraying the statutory expenses of the institution. Allowances assigned to the institution by the state, in accordance with pro¬ visions for securing the solvency of university institutions for the pensioning of widows and orphans, shall be added to the income of the institution from its property. PENSIONS IN GEEMAN UNIVEESITIES. 141 §15. The capital of the institution shall be invested, with the approvrd of the curator of the university, on security or inortgaj^es, or eventually, in so far as this can not be done safely, in the purchase of interest-hearing- bonds in which the money of wards can be legally invested. Vll. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §§1G and 17. As above. §18. The annual report shall be received by two auditors, under direction of the rector and the two directors, and then forwarded, with the report of the executive committee, to the curator of the university for inspection and ultimate discharge. §§I0 and 20. As above, page 130. VIII. MEETINGS. §§21 to 23. As above, page 137. IX. AMENDMENTS OF STATUTES. §24. As above, page 137. X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on the 1st of April, 1889. On this day the statutes of March 28, 1882, together with all subsequent amendatory provisions of the same, shall cease to have effect, in so far as they are not kept in force by §§10 to 12. 3. The Royal University of Breslau. By the Government decree of March 28, 1822, a separate institution for the care of widows and orphans was established for the University of Breslau. All ordinary and extraordinary professors became ex officio members of the institution. There were excluded, however, the Catholic clergy, the instructors that occupied professorships as secondary offices and nonsalaried extraordi- naries. The annual membership fee was 72 marks, for which widows received an annual pension of 1,200 marks and surviving orphans (full and half orphans) annual stipends of 300 to 1,100 marks. Since April 1, 1889, the following statutes, approved by the minister of religious, educational, and medical affairs, under date of September 19, 1889, have been in force : Statutes of the Professors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute of the Royal University of Breslau. I. MEMBERSHIP. §1. Membership of tlie Professors’ Widows and Orphans' Bension Institute established for the professors of the University of Breslau since Jaunary 1, 1822, shall be under the following provisions : * Nos. 1 to 3, as above, page 135. II. ALLOWANCES OF THE RELICTS OF MEMBERS. §§2 to 8. As above, page 13.5. III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. As above, page 135. IV. TRANSITION REGULATIONS. §10. As given above, except the date of limitation, which is changed to December 1, 1889, and the proviso of the first section, which reads : ’'Provided, however, That the qnestor and the secretary of the university shall hold rank with the extraordinary professors.” 142 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. §11. The obligation to pay fees on the part of those who were members when these statutes took effect shall cease ; the entrance fees paid in accordance with §§ 5 and 6 of the statutes of March 28, 1822, respectively, the drafts issued therefor shall be returned. The remainder of this paragraph as above. §12*. As above, page 13G. V. PRIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. §13. As above, page 13G. VI. PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession, as well as the statutory annual contribution of 3,000 marks by the State, shall remain under its control. The income from such property shall be applied exclusively for the statutory expenses of the institution, in so far as the donors of gifts and legacies have not made other dispositions. \ Allowances assigned to the institution by the State, in accordance with pro¬ visions for securing the solvency of institutions for the care of widows and orphans at universities, shall be added to the income of the institution from its property. i The “ Schmidt fund ” and the “ Yon Hackemann fund ” shall continue as here¬ tofore. The income from these funds shall be applied in accordance with the provisions of the “ funtls,” and shall be to persons entitled to its benefits, in addition to other amounts due them in accordance with these statutes. \ §15. Capital shall be placed at interest on securities or mortgages with the approval of the curatorium of the university. ^ In so far as this may not be feasible, interest-bearing bonds shall be acquired in which the money of wards can be invested in accordance with existing legal provisions. VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §16. The administration of the institution shall be conducted according to the provisions of these statutes and in accordance with further detailed pro¬ visions to be ordered by the minister of religious, etc., affairs and by the min¬ ister of finance, as well as in accordance with instructions by the minister of religious, etc., affairs. The executive committee shall consist of the rector and two directors. The current business shall be managed by the two directors, under the super¬ vision of the rector. In judiciary matters the executive committee shall procure the advice of the university judge. §17. As above, page 136. §18. This annual report shall be received by two auditors, under the direction of the rector, in connection with the two directors, and then forwarded with the report of the executive committee to the curatorium of the university for inspection and final discharge. §19. As above, page 136. §20. As above, page 136. ^ VIII. MEETINGS. §§21 to 24. As above, page 137. §24. As above, page 137. §25. As above, page 137. IX. AMENDMENTS. X. CONCLUSION. In addition to the general institution for the care of widovrs and orphans there exists at the University of Breslau in favor of professors’ v/idows also the two funds mentioned in §14 of the above statutes, viz : 1. The Schmidt fund for pensioning professors’ widows. 2. The Yon Hackemann fund for pensioning professors’ widows. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 143 The first of theso funds was provided by a famulus or bedel at tlie former University of Frankfort on tlie Oder, and was established' for the benefit of widows of ordinary professors. It amounts at present to 3,S50 marks. The Von Hackemann fund was provided by Professor of Jurisprudence Von Ilackemann, who died on July 30, 1784. The property of the fund consists of real estate in the circuit of Quedlingburg, occu])ying an area of 30 ha. 42 a. 28 gm., and made productive by renting. In accordance with the provisions of the legacy the income is to be distributed among the widows of ordinary professors and the syndicus of the university. P>oth funds having passed from the former University of Frankfort on the Oder to the University of Breslau, or respectively transferred, under §39 of the plan of union of August 3, 1811, to the combined University of Breslau, are administered by the exchequer of the University of Breslau distinct from the institution for the care of widows and orphans.^^ 4. The Royal George- August us University of Gottingen. The “ fund for professors’ vcidows ” of Gottingen, existing until April 1, 1889, was administered finally in accordance with the statutes of February 6, 1857, drawn up by the Royal University curatorium of Hanover and amended par¬ tially by a ministerial decree of September 14. In accordance with these statutes, every ordinary and extraordinary professor drawing a salary from the exchequer of the university was entitled to become a member of said fund from the time of his appointment. Membership was not compulsory. The annual membership fee was GO marks. Widows received a fixed annual pension of 800 marks and an additional amount from the surplus of the fund, amounting, in the year 1888, to 440 marks. Since April 1, 1889, the following statutes, approved by the minister of reli¬ gious, etc., affairs, under date of December 12, 1889, have been in force: Statutes of the Professors' Widows and Orphans''Pension Institute of GdttingenJ^ I. MEMEERSHIP. §1. The following regulations shall apply to the membership of the Professors’ Widows Fund of the University of Gottingen, which shall take the name of Professors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute : 2. No other persons except those designated under §1 can become members of the institution. II. ALLOWANCES TO RELICTS ; AND III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §§2 to 9. As above, page 135 (Berlin). IV. TRANSITION PROVISIONS. §10. The regulations of §§ 2, 3, and 5 to 8, clause 1, apply also to the relicts of those who may be members at the time these statutes shall take effect, if these members, in a written declaration, to be handed to the executive committee of the institution on or before January 1, 1890, renounce for their prospective relicts all claims that might accrue to these in accordance with the statutes heretofore in force. Otherwise the regulations of the statutes heretofore in force shall apply to these relicts. §11. As above, page 136 (Berlin). §12. As above, page 136, with the following additions : These relicts may, however, request, in a written petition to be handed to the executive committee on or before .January 1, 1890, that they be granted, instead of these pensions, the widows and orphans’ allowances, in accordance with §§ 3 to 8. ® At present the establishment of a relief fund for the relicts of teachers and officials of the University of Breslau is under discussion with prospect of an early conclusion. ^ Paragraphs not printed agree literally with the corresponding paragraphs of the statutes of Berlin (pp. ff.). 144 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. This petition must be made jointly for all concerned and must be presented in legal form for all in common. V. PRIVILEGES or THE INSTITUTION. §13. As above, page 13G (Berlin). VI. PROPERTY or THE INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession shall remain under its control. The income from its property, in so far as the donors of gifts and legacies have not made other dispositions, shall be applied exclusively in defraying the statutory expenses of the institution. The Bandenhoeck legacy, for the benefit of the six oldest professors’ Mudows, shall not be applied to the fulfillment of the obligations of the institution. The 170,000 marks resulting from the special gift of the Kalenberg real estate and from the legacy of the widow Bandenhoeck shall be separated from the property of the institution and shall be applied for the benefit of the relicts of teachers of the University of Cottingen in accordance with more detailed provisions to he indicated later on. In applying the revenues of this fund all possible care should be taken to furnish compensation for loss to relicts, to be treated in accordance with §§ 3 to 8, in so far as these should be more favor¬ ably situated in certain respects under the statutes heretofore in force. Allowances assigned to the institution by the State in accordance with pro¬ visions for securing the solvency of university institutions for the pensioning of widows and orphans shall be added to the income of the institution from its property. §15. As above, page 141 (University of Bonn). VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §1G. The institution shall be administered by an executive committee, con¬ sisting of the prorector and five directors, in accordance with these statutes and in accordance with further detailed provisions to be ordered by the minister of religious, etc., affairs and by the minister of finance, as well as in accord¬ ance with instructions of the minister of public, etc., affairs. In judiciary matters the executive committee shall procure the advice of the university judge. Reports and orders shall bear the signatures of the prorector and one of the directors. §17. The care of the funds and of financial affairs lies with the exchequer of the university, under the direction and supervision of the executive com¬ mittee. The financial year shall be the year beginning with April 1. The annual financial report shall be made by the exchequer of the university within six weeks after the close of the year. §18. The annual financial report shall be received by two auditors under the direction of the executive committee and then forwarded, with the report of the executive committee, to the curator of the university for inspection and final discharge. §19. As above (Berlin). §20. The directors and the auditors shall be elected at the regular annual meeting of all members by absolute majority of the votes of those present — the directors for five years, the auditors for one year. Each faculty shall be represented in the executive committee by one of its members. Each year, on Julj'- 1, one of the directors shall withdraw. Among those elected in the first year the order of withdrawal shall be decided by lot. Every member of the institution is eligible. The elected officers shall serve without compensation. Should anyone who shall have served in one of these offices for one term be reelected, he may refuse acceptance whenever there are other members who have not served in this office. VIII. MEETINGS. §21. As given above, except the last section, which reads ; “ Then the meet¬ ing shall proceed to the required elections.” PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 145 §22. As aboA^e, page 137, except that the prorector is charged with the call of meetings instead of the rector. §23. As ahoA’-e, page 137 (Berlin). IX. AMENDMENTS. §24. As above, page 137 (Beilin). X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on April 1, 1889. On this day the statutes of February 6, 1857, together Avith their amendments and additions, shall cease to have effect in so far as they may not he kept in force by §§ 10 to 12. In addition to the general provident care on the part of the State, the Uni¬ versity of Gottingen enjoys the funds mentioned in §14 of the above statutes of the institution for the care of professors’ widows and orphans, as folloAvs : 1. The BandenhoecJc legacy. This is a gift bequeathed in the year 1787 by the widow Bandenhoeck, amounting at that time to 3,000 thalers gold. The interest (at present 471 marks) is equally cUstribiited among the six oldest professors’ widows in accordance with the provisions of the legacy, after deduction of the cost of administration. 2. Auxiliary fund of the institution for the care of professors’ ividows and orphans. Distinct from the property of the institution for the care of professors’ widows and orphans of the University of Gottingen, there are furthermore the 170,000 marks resulting from the special donation of the Kalenherg estate. The reve¬ nues of this are applied, however, also for the benefit of the relicts of teachers of the University of Gottingen in accordance with the ministerial decree of March 12, 1890 (II. I. 340 II. Aug.) directed to the curator of the uni\’ersity and which is as follows ; “ In reply to the acceptable reports of February 8 of the current year. Nos. 515 and 529, I approve the proposition to separate the 11 hypothecated items, amounting in their total to 170,000 marks, together Avith the interest from April 1, 1889, from the assets of the institution for the care of professors’ widows and orphans of Goettingen, and that they be treated and administered hereafter as an auxiliary fund of the institution. “ In accordance with the motion of the executive committee of the institu¬ tion, I further declare my consent to the proposition that the revenues of this auxiliary fund until further notice be applied in accordance Avith the following directions : “ 1. To increase to 1,400 marks the allowances of the actual widows of ordinary professors who may he subject to a reduction in accordance with §4 of the statutes or who may have failed to make the declaration provided in §12. “ 2. To increase also to 1,400 marks the pensions of the Avidows of actual or deceased extraordinary professors belonging to the institution before April 1, 1889, although so great an increase is neither provided for in §14, section 3, of the statutes nor claimable as a legal right. “ 3. To grant to full orphans of a family, in so far as they may be the children of deceased professors or of professors belonging to the insti¬ tution at the time of the adoption of the new statutes, additional allow¬ ances increasing the total amount of orphan pension to 1,400 marks, and this until the youngest orphan shall have completed the tAventieth year. “ On the other hand, I hesitate to approve the proposition to apply at the present time for the increase of pensions the remainder of the auxiliary fund. “ The relicts of teachers of the University of Goettingen are, of course, not excluded from the allowance of pensions from the pension fund provided in chapter 119, section 15a, of the appropriation by the state. “ The claims upon this fund, to be distributed only in the measure of existing ED 1904 M - 10 146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. necessity, are, however, so threat and varied that, as has been repeatedly empha¬ sized, it is possible to pension primarily only widows and minor orphans, and to consider only exceptionally the needs of surviving sons and daughters over 21 years of age as well as other relicts of university teachers. “ If by the provision of §12 of the statutes and by the regulations approved above the widows and minor orphans are extraordinarily favored at Goettingen, and if, on the other hand, as has been previously emphasized by you, there are numerous other needy relicts, it seems preferable that in such cases relief should be given, not from the central fund, but from the auxiliary fund. “ There is at present no occasion for pension increase of actual widows with¬ out regard to actual necessity, inasmuch as these have just been essentially favored by an increase in the widows’ allowance from 1,240 to 1,400 marks and the addition of sufficient allow’ance for orphans. “Accordingly I desire that the revenue of the auxiliary fund, waiving the above-mentioned increases, be used primarily and without further limitation for the relief of needy relicts of university teachers of Goettingen. To the extent in which this revenue shall not be exhausted by this, I am inclined, upon motion to this effect, to grant its use for the increase of pensions. On the other hand, I am quite ready to take under consideration the granting of additional relief from chapter 119, section 15a, should the revenues of the auxiliary fund prove insufficient to grant the necessary relief without reference to the continuance of relief heretofore granted from the central (diesseitigen) fund. “ I have no criticism against the proposition that the granting of relief from the revenues of the auxiliary fund by the executive committee shall be made with your approval.’’ 5. The Royal University of Greifswald. At Greifswald a widows’ fund has existed for the professors since 1734. The first statutes of the new institution for the care of widows and orphans at Greifswald, of October 2G, 1847, bearing Government approval, were supplanted by new statutes on December 4, 1878. In accordance with these, all ordinary and extraordinary professors were officially held to become members of the institute. However, membership of the institution was also granted to the academic prefect, the judge of the university, the academic forester, the aca¬ demic purser, and the secretary of the university. Moreover, limited partici¬ pation in the institution was permitted to the clerk of the university and to the bedels. In accordance with the ministerial decree of January 15, 1885, the further admission of officials of the university was to exclude all allowances of relief from funds of the state. The annual fee of regular members was 72 marks. The widows were allowed annual pensions of 1,200 marks, and the orphans (full and half orphans) stipends of 300 to 1,200 marks.® The statutes now in force and approved by the minister of religious, educa¬ tional, and medical affairs under date of September 19, 1889, are as follows : Statutes of the Professors’’ Widoivs and Orphans' Pension Institute of the Royal University of Grief swaldfi l. MEMBERSHIP. §1. The following provisions shall apply to the membership of the Professors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute of the University of Greifswald : Nos. 1, 2, and 3. As above, page 135 (Berlin). II. ALLOWANCES OF THE RELICTS OF MEMBERS. §§2 to 8. As above, page 135 (Berlin). III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. As above, page 140 (Bonn). “ These pension amounts were not statutory, but rested upon special temporary approval of the ministry. Compare the ministerial decree of March 15, 1889, under note 12;^ p. 38. Paragraphs not printed agree literally with the corresponding paragraphs of the , statutes of the University of Berlin. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 147 IV. TRANSITION REGULATIONS. §10. The regulations of §§ 2, 3, and 5 to 8, clause 1, apply also to the relicts of those who may he members at the time of the adoption of these statutes if these members in a written declaration, to be handed to the executive commit¬ tee on or before the 1st of January, 1890, renounce for their prospective relicts all claims that might accrue to them under the statutes heretofore in folce. In this case the now pensioned academic prefect and the chief forester, taking the place of the former academic forester, shall hold the rank of ordinary professors ; the university purser, the secretary of the university, and the former secretary of the university, now occupying the position of questor, shall hold the rank of extraordinary professors, and the one-third part of the statu¬ tory benefits assigned to tlie clerk of the university and to the bedels shall he fixed on the basis of amounts due to ordinary professors. Otherwise the provisions of the statutes heretofore in force shall apply to these relicts.® § 11. As above, page 140 (Bonn). § 12. x\s above, page 140 (Berlin). V. PRIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. §13. As abpve, page 136 (Berlin). VI. PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession, as well as the statutory annual allowance of 5,181 marks from the funds of the university, shall continue under its control. The remaining divisions of this section as given above, with the following addition to the last division : In future the shares of the institution from pro¬ motion and other fees shall be transferred to the exchequer of the university. § 15. As above, page 141 (Bonn). VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §§16 and 17. As above, page 136. § 18. As above, page 136, except that the report is transmitted for inspection, etc., to the curator of the university instead of the minister of religious, etc., affairs. §§19 and 20. As above, page 136 (Berlin). VIII. MEETINGS OF MEMBERS. §§ 21 to 23. As above, page 137 (Berlin). IX. AMENDMENTS OF STATUTES. §24. As above, page 137 (Berlin). X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on April 1, 1889. On the day designated above the statutes of December 14, 1878, cease to have effect, in so far as they are not kept in force by §§ 10 to 20. 6. Royal Combined Frederick University of Halle- Wittenberg. Under the statute of March 23, 1824, approved liy the Government, a new institution for the care of widows and orphans was organized for the University '’ Compare the decree of the minister of religions, etc., affairs of the loth of March, 1889, directed to the curator of the nniyersity (II. I. No. 9478 II) ; “ In reply to the report of the 28th of Novemher of last year, I approve the resolution of the general assembly of the members of the institution for the care of widows and orphans at Greifswald granting that the increase of vrklows’ pensions to 1,200, respectively, 400 marks, which expires on the 1st of April of the current year, he extended to the 1st of April, 1890. in order to cover possible deficiencies, the 2,000 marks provided in Section II under expenses of the former professors’ widows fund for the current year are to he used first. The interest-hearing investment of this sum, which would pre¬ vent the immediate availability of the same, is therefore for the present to he postponed.” 148 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. at Halle. The old widows’ fund of Halle of the year 1777, as well as the widows’ fund of Wittenberg, was combined with the new fund. In accord¬ ance with the statutes, supplemented in the meanwhile by amendments on April 12, 1869, and on June 20, 1871, all ordinary and extraordinary professors, as well as the librarians of the university and the prosector, in so far as they h^d equal rank with the extraordinary professors, w'ere ex officio members of the institution. Only those teachers of the university that held their professor¬ ship as a secondary office and the nonsalaried extraordinaries were excluded. The annual membership fee was 72 marks, for which an annual pension of 1,080 marks was granted to widows and stipends of 270 to 1,080 marks to orphans (full and half orphans). With April 1, 1889, the following statutes, approved by the minister of reli¬ gious, educational, and medical affairs, under date of December 17, 1889, went into effect : Statutes of the professors' tvidoics and orphans' pension institute of the royal comhined Frederick University of Halle-Wittenherg. I. MEMBERSHIP. §1. The following provisions shall apply to the membership of the professors’ widows and orphans’ pension institute for the University of Halle-Wittenberg : Remainder of this paragraph as above (Berlin). II. ALLOWANCES OF THE RELICTS OF MEMBERS. §§ 2 to 8. As above, page 135 (Berlin). III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. Persons who shall obtain membership after the adoption of these statutes shall not be required to issue drafts therefor. IV. TRANSITION REGULATIONS. §§ 10 and 11. As above, page 140 (Bonn), except the proviso of the first sub¬ division of §10, which reads as follows: ''Provided, however, That the director of the library shall hold rank with the ordinary professors and the questor and secretary of the university with the extraordinary professors.” a § 12. As above, page 136 (Berlin). V. PRIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. §13. The institution is a public institution and enjoys the privileges of a corporation. Particularly, it shall be competent to acquire gifts and legacies in accordance with statutory requirements. V. PROPERTY OF TFIE INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession shall con¬ tinue under its control, as well as the statutory allowance of 3,000 marks by the State. The remaining two subdivisions of this paragraph as given above, with the following addition at the close : The shares of the institution from fees for cer¬ tificates of graduation, etc., shall hereafter be turned over to the exchequer of the university. § 15. As above, page 141 (Bonn). “The provision contained in the second subdivision of §10 has been amended as follows with regard to those members who may have failed to make the renunciatory declaration indicated in the first subdivision of §10 : “ The widows of these members shail draw an annual pension of 1,200 marks in quar¬ terly installments in advance, beginning on the day when they shall cease to enjoy the salary or the pension of their husbands. Furthermore, there shall he allowed to a half orphan 300 marks ; to two half orphans, 500 marks ; to three or more half orphans, 600 marks ; to full orphans, double these amounts, payable quarterly in advance until the completed twenty-first year of life, respectively, until the male orphan shall be provided for or the female orphan married.” PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 149 VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §§ IG to 20. As above, page 141 (Bonn). VIII. MEETINGS. §§ 21 to 23. As above, page 137 (Berlin). IX. AMENDMENTS OF STATUTES. §24. As above, page U37 (Berlin). X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on April ], 1889. On the day designated in the above subdivision, the revised statutes of March 23, 1824, together with all amendinents thereof, shall cease to have effect in so far as it is not kept in force by §§10 to 12. In addition to this public provision there exists for needy relicts of professors of the University of llalle-Wittenberg the William and Augusta fund, which amounts at present to a little over 10,000 marks, having resulted, with the excep¬ tion of the initial capital, from annual contributions by the instructors of the university. On the occasion of the celebration of the golden wedding of Their Majesties the Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia William I and the Empress and Queen Augusta, on June 1, 1879, a collection was made among the professors of the university for the establishment of a fund which, under the name of the William and Augusta fund, should permanently serve the purpose of furnish¬ ing support to needy relicts of ordinary and extraordinary professors of the university. The proceeds of this collection, amounting to 3,345 marks, were transferred hy the donors as a gift to university institution for the care of widows and orphans under the following conditions: §1. The university institution for the care of widows and orphans assumes the obligation of administering the fund of 3,.345 marks, as well as all subse¬ quent additions to the fund, together with its other assets and in accordance with the same principles but as an independent auxiliary fund, for the purposes indicated in the following provisions. §2. Allowances shall be granted only for one year each and only from the interest 'of the current year. §3. Until the assets of the fund shall have reached the amount of 10,000 marks, allowances shall be admissible only in cases of most urgent necessity. §4. Allowances shall be made by the unanimous vote of a committee, con¬ sisting of the rector, a,s chairman, and four members. The latter shall be chosen at first by all the founders. Eventual vacancies shall be filled by the committee, by relative majority of votes. In case of a tie vote the decision shall be made by lot. §5. Amendments of the statutes, with the reservation of ministerial approval, shall be subject to all the ordinary and extraordinary professors of the uni¬ versity ; two-thirds of these shall constitute a quorum, and a majority of two- thirds of these shall decide. 7. The Royal Ciiristian-Albrecht University of Kiel. A fund for professors’ widows had been established at the University of Kiel by the confirmation of the plan for its creation by Christian VII, King of Denmark, on November 11, 1785. This confirmation received an appendix on July 29, 1796. All actual salaried, ordinary, and extraordina.ry professors were under obli¬ gation to become members of this fund. These had to contribute a, yearly fee of two-thirds of one per cent of their salaries. For this the widows received an annual pension of 180 marks and annually a variable additional allowance, which in the year 1888 amounted to 352 marks, from the surplus. In addition to this each widow drew an annual pension of 288 marks from the grand ducal widows’ fund. 150 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. With the 1st of April, 1889, the following statutes, approved in a decree of the minister of religious, etc., affairs under date of November 20, 1889, went into effect. Statutes of the professors' ivldoics and orphans' pension institute of the Royal Christ ian-Alhrecht University of Kiel. I. MEMBEKSHIP. §1. The following provisions shall determine the membership of the fund for professors’ widows established at Kiel since November 11, 1785, and which hereafter shall be known as the professors’ widows and orphans’ pension institute. The remainder of this paragraph as above, page 135 (Berlin). IL ALLOWANCES OF EELICTS. §§2.to 8. As above, page 135 (Berlin). HI. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. Persons who may have become members after the adoption of these statutes shall pay no entrance or other fees. IV. TEANSITION PEOVISIONS. §10. The provisions of §§2, 3, and 5 to clause 1 of §8 shall apply also to the relicts of those who may be members at the time of the adoption of these statutes, if these members, in a written declaration, to be handed in to the executive committee of the institute on or before December 1, 1889, shall renounce for their prospective relicts all claims that might accrue to them in accordance with the statutes heretofore in effect. § 11. As above, page 136 (Berlin). §12. The claims of the relicts of members deceased before the adoption of these statutes shall be adjudged according to the statutes heretofore oper¬ ative and in accordance witli the provisions of §10, subparagraph 2. V. PEIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. § 13, As above, page 130 (Berlin). VI. PROPEETY OF THE INSTITUTION. §§14 and 15. As above, page 136 (Berlin), except that §15 prescribes the approval of the curator of the university instead of the minister of religious, etc., affairs. VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION, §§16 to 20. As above, page 136 (Berlin), except that §18 designates the curator of the university instead of the minister of religious, etc., affairs as the person to whom report is to be made. VIII. MEETINGS OF MEMBERS. §§ 21 to 23. As above, page 1.37 (Berlin). IX. AMENDMENT OF STATUTES. §24. As above, page 137 (Berlin). X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on April 1, 1889. On this day the statutes heretofore in force (confirmation of the plan for the establishment of a distinct fund for professors’ widows at the University of Kiel, dated November 11, 1785, with appendix of July 29, 1796), cease to have effect in so far as they are not sustained by §§10 to 12. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 151 8. Royal Albertus University at Konigsberg in Prussia. For the University of Konigsberg an institution for the care of professors’ widows and orphans had been established by the governmental decree of July 28, 1831, its statutes published with governmental approval under date of August!, 1835, by the minister of religious, etc., affairs, and subsequently supplemented with additions on August 17, 1878, and May IG, 1885. All ordinary and extraordinary professors, drawing at least 900 marks of salary, were with certain exceptions entitled to membership. The annual mem¬ bership fee was 36 marks for which the widows were granted annual pensions of 80 marks and the orphans (full and half orphans) annual stipends of 200 to 400 marks. Since April 1, 1890, the following statutes, approved by the minister of reli¬ gious, etc., affairs, have been in force: Statutes of the Professors' Widows and Orphans' Pension Institute of the Royal Albert us University of Konigsberg in Prussia. I. MEMBERSHIP. §1. The following provisions shall determine the membership of the Profes¬ sors’ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute of the University of Konigsberg in Prussia. Remainder of the paragraph as above, page 135 (Berlin). II. allowances of RELICTS. §§ 2 to 8. As aboi'e, page 135 (Berlin). III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. Members that may attain membership after the adoption of these statutes shall pay no fees nor issue reserve drafts on account of entrance. IV. TRANSITION PROVISIONS. §§ 11 and 12. As above, page 340 (Bonn), except the closing proviso of the first subparagraph of §10, which reads as follows : Provided, however, that the secre¬ tary of the university, the purser of the university, and the questor shall hold rank with the extraordinary professors. V. privileges of the INSTITUTION. § 13. As above, page 13G (Berlin). VI. property of the INSTITUTION. §14. The property of the institution heretofore in its possession shall remain under its control, together with the statutory annual allowance of 3,000 marks by the state. Remainder of § 14 as above, page 13G (Berlin). § 15. As above, page 141 (Bonn). VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §§ .16 to 20. As above, page 141 (Bonn). , VHI. MEETINGS OF MEAIBEES ; AND IX. AMENDMENT OF STATUTES. §§ 21 to 24. As above, page 137 (Berlin). X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on April 1, 1889. On this day the statutes of December 23, 1853, and of March 4, 1854, together with all subsequent additional provisions, shall cease to have effect, in so far as they are not sustained by §§10 to 12. 152 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. In addition to this general state provision for the relicts of professors, there is at the University of Konigsberg an auxiliary fund for relicts of teachers and officials of the Alhertiis University, the statutes of which, approved by the min¬ ister of religious, etc., affairs under date of December 3, 1891, are as follows : I. GENEEAL PKOVISIONS. §1. The object of the auxiliary fund of the university established at Konigs¬ berg is to furnish assistance in case of need to the relicts of the instructors — professors, private instructors (privatdozenten), and teachers (lektoren) — of the university judge, as well as of the officials of the secretary’s and treasurer’s department of the Albertus University. Among the relicts are included: (a) Widows, (h) sons and daughters, (e) other near relatives who may have lost in the deceased their provider. §2. As a rule assistance shall be accorded only to relicts of members of the fund; in very exceptional cases, however, it may be granted also to relicts of nonmembers of the categories named in §1, subparagraph 1, to a total amount not exceeding 10 per cent of annual income as indicated in §9 under a, &, c. II. MEMBERSHIP. §3. All teachers and officials designated in §1, subparagraph 1, are entitled to membership in the fund. §4. Membership may be acquired either by the written pledge of payment of quarterly fee of at least 5 marks, payable in advance, or by the payment of a single contribution of 2.50 marks. Relicts of a member that has failed to join the fund within the first year after these statutes have taken effect, or in case of their becoming associated with the university at a later period within the first year after such entrance, may, as a rule, be granted assistance only if the respective member has belonged to the fund for a period of at least five years. §5. The obligation to pay fees on the part of members shall begin with the first day of the quarter in which membership may have been acquired. §6. Membership ceases — (a) Upon written declaration at any time of voluntary withdrawal, addressed to the executive committee. (&) Upon separation from the university in any other way tb.an by retire¬ ment as emeritus. (c) Upon nonpayment of the fees after a third request by the executive committee. III. PRIVILEGES OF THE FUND. §7. The fund shall have the privileges of a corporation. Particularly, it shall be competent to acquire gifts and legacies in accordance with the provi¬ sions of the law. IV. ALLOWANCES FOR RELIEF. §8. Relief shall be granted on motion of one or several members by the execu¬ tive committee (§11) on the ground of its own judgment, but in accordance with §§1, 2, 4. §9. Relief sums shall be derived from — (а) The interest of the capital of the fund. (б) The annual fees of the members (§4) ; , (c) The gifts placed at the free disposal of the fund, after deduction of 10 per cent of the amounts designated under a and &, which (deductions), together with the eventual surplus of the preceding year, shall be capitalized. §10. Relief sums may be granted in single or periodic payments, the latter for at most three years (not excluding renewal of the grant). Periodic relief allowances shall cease before the end of the time fixed for them or be reduced by the executive committee whenever the committee shall no longer consider the claimants as needy. V. ADMINISTRATION OF THE FUND. §11. The fund shall be administered, without compensation, by the executive committee, which shall consist of the rector (prorector) — even if he is not a PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 153 member — as chairman, and four members, of whom at least one shall be a jurist, to be elected annnally by the regular general assembly (§!(>). Should a vacancy occur before the time fixed in the preceding sub])aragrai)h, a substitute shall be elected by the executive committee for the unexpired term. The old executive committee shall conduct affairs until its successor for the coming year shall have organized (§§ 14, IG). §12. The resolution of the executive committee shall be valid, if it has l)eeii approved by at least three votes. The votes may be taken by written ballot. §13. The executive committee shall watch over the affairs and interests of the fund in all respects ; it shall administer the assets of the fund and shall represent the latter in court and out of court. In the investment of the capital it shall be determined by the statutory provisions governing the investment of the money of wards. §14. At the close of the administrative year (April 1 to March 31) the execu¬ tive committee shall submit a report of its administration to a regular general assembly to be called by it at the time (§1G), and also submit to it the annual financial report for inspection and resolution of discharge. §15. The care of the cash and cash accounts shall be the duty of the ex¬ chequer of the university, under the direction of the executive committee. VI. GENERAL ASSEMBLY. §16. In addition to the regular general assembly, to be called at the close of each administrative year, and whose object is indicated in § § 11 and 14, general assemblies shall be called whenever the executive committee may consider this requisite in the interest of the fund, or whenever at least one-tenth of the members may request this in a written petition to the executive committee, stat¬ ing the object thereof and the reasons therefor. In the latter case the assembly shall be held within two weeks after receipt of the request. During the fall vacation no general assemblies shall be held. §17. The calls of assemblies shall state their objects. §18. General assemblies shall be competent to adopt resolutions, except with regard to the dissolution of the fund (§20), if at least two-thirds of the mem¬ bers are present. However, a second general assembly, called for the same purposes shall be competent to pass resolutions, if at least one week, and at most one month, shall have elapsed between the time fixed for the first and that fixed for the second assembly. §19. Resolutions shall be passed, except in cases provided for in §20, by sim¬ ple majority of votes. In case of a tie vote the vote of the chairman of the executive committee, who shall preside also at the general assemblies, shall decide. VII. CONCLUSION. §20. Resolutions concerning amendments of the statutes shall require a majority of two-thirds of the members present at the respective general assembly ; resolutions concerning dissolution of the fund, a majority of two- thirds of all the members of the fund. Such resolutions shall also require the approval of the minister of religious, etc., affairs. §21. In the event of dissolution of the fund, its property shall revert to the Albertus University. As to its disposition, the general council shall determine with due regard to needy relicts of members of the fund. 9. The Royal University of Marburg. At Marburg the rector, the deans, and professors of the Grand Ducal Hessian University had established, as early as 1688, a “ widows’ fund,” of which every new professor was under obligation to become a member. The original statutes of December 24, 1688, suffered various amendments, primarily by the amenda¬ tory act of December 21, 1736, and subsequently by an appendix, approved by a governmental decision of March 13, 1856. Ex officio only the ordinary profes¬ sors were members of the widows’ fund ; no others could become members. The 154 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. annual membership fee was 36 marks and shares of certain fees (paid to them in their work). The pension of a widow, which in case of her remarriage was transferred to the children, varied according to the annual balance sheet of the fund, and amounted, in 1888, to about 600 marks annually. Orphans received the amount of pension allowed to the widow’. Since April 1, 1889, the following statutes, approved by the minister of religious, etc., affairs, under date of November 18, 1889, have been in effect : Statutes of the Institution for Pensioning Professors' Widoivs and Orphans at Marhurg. I. MEMBERSHIP. §1. The following provisions shall determine the membership of the widows' fund existing at Marburg since December 24, 1688, and w^hich shall be known hereafter as the Institution for Pensioning Professors’ Widows and Orphans: §2. No other persons except those designated under 1 shall become members. II. ALLOV/ANCES OF RELICTS. §§ 3 to 8. As above, page 135 (Berlin). III. DISCONTINUANCE OF FEES. §9. Members w’ho shall join the institution after these restrictions become operative shall pay no entrance fee or other fees. IV. TRANSITION REGULATIONS. §10. The provisions of §§ 2, 3, and 5 to 8, clause 1, shall apply also to the relicts of those wdio may be members at the time these statutes shall take effect, if these members, in a wn-itten declaration, to be delivered to the executive com¬ mittee of the institution on or before December 1, 1889,® renounce for their relicts all claims that might accrue to the latter in accordance wdth the statutes of December 24, 1688, and the additions thereto of March 13, 1856. Otherwise the relicts of these members shall remain subject to the provisions of the statutes heretofore in force, with the understanding that the amount of each pension (widows’, respectively, orphans’ pension) shall be fixed at 900 marks annually. § 11. As above, page 336 (Berlin). §12. The claims of the relicts of the members deceased before these statutes became operative shall be adjudged according to the provisions of the statutes heretofore in force and in acordance with §10, subparagraph 2. V. PRIVILEGES OF THE INSTITUTION. § 13. As above, page 136 (Berlin), VI. PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTION. §14. The properties of the widow's’ fund of the university, as w'ell as the revenues heretofore in its possession, shall remain under its control. The remainder of the paragraph, as above, page 136 (Berlin), with the follow¬ ing addition to the last subparagraph ; The shares from fees for promotions, examinations, etc., assigned to the institution siiali hereafter be turned over to the exchequer of the university. The so-called “ legacy fees ” shall not be levied hereafter. The so-called “ rector’s salary,” amounting to 121 marks 88 pfennigs shall be discontinued in favor of the exchequer of the state. § 15. As above, page 136 (Berlin), requiring, how'ever, the approval qf the curator of the university instead of the minister for religious, etc., affairs. VII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTITUTION. §§ 16 to 20. As above, page 136 (Berlin), requiring, how'ever, in § 38, transmis¬ sion of the report to the curator of the university instead of the minister of reli¬ gious, etc., affaii*s. “ Changed to “ on or before January 1, 1890.” (Ministerial decree of January 15, 1890, U. I., 18300.) PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 155 VIII. MEETINGS OF MEMBERS. §§ 21 to 23. As above, page 137 (Berlin). IX. AMENDMENTS OF STATUTES. §24. As above, page 137 (Berlin). X. CONCLUSION. §25. These statutes shall take effect on April 1, bSSO. On this day the statutes of December 24, 1GS8, together with the additions thereto of March 13, 1856, shall cease to be operative, in so far as they maj'’ not be sustained by §§ 10 to 12. 10. The Royal Academy of Muenster and the Royal Lyceum ITosianum OF Braun SBERG. In connection with the academy at Muenster and the Lyceum Ilosianum at Braunsberg there do not exist and have not formerly existed widows’ and orphans’ funds. Under the principles published in the Government decree of May 20, 1889, a complete new regulation of the relations of widows and orphans at these places is made by the decree of the minister of religious, etc., affairs of July 20, 1889. This decree, addressed to the curator of the Royal Academy at Muenster, respectively, of the Lyceum Ilosianum at Braunsberg, is as follows (U. I., 17011) : Berlin, July 20, 1S89. His Majesty the Emperor and King, in the governmental decree of iMay 20 of this year, and of which a certified copy is here added, has been pleased to order me to regulate anew the relations of widows and orphans at the universities, the Academy of Muenster, and the Lyceum Ilosianum at Braunsberg, in accordance with the provisions published therein. The required means have been appropriated in the provisions of the state appropriations, chapter 119, sec¬ tion 15a. Accordingly, the following regulations shall go into effect for the Royal Academy at Muenster (respectively the Lyceum Hosianum at Braunsberg) with the 1st of April of this year. 1. The widow and the surviving legitimate children, or children legitimized by subsequent marriage, of professors deceased after March 31 of this year (including emerited professors) who at the time of their death occupied a pro¬ fessorship with salary from the exchequer of the academy (respectively of the Lyceum), shall receive widows’ pension, respectively orphans’ pension, from the exchequer of the state. 2. The amounts to be paid to widows shall bo as follows : Marks. For the widow of an ordinary professor _ : - 1,400 For the widow of an extraordinary professor _ 1,000 The amounts to be paid to orphans shall be as follows : For an orphan who has lost both parents (full orphan) _ GOO For each additional full orphan _ 400 For a half orphan _ 400 For each additional half orphan _ 250 3 to 7, as above, §§ 4 to 8 (Berlin). I request your excellency most respectfully to cause payment of the wid¬ ows’ and orphans’ pensions due according to the above jirovision, in so far as there shall be no doubt in individual cases, to those entitled thereto, in monthly installments in advance, from the respective (dortige) Government depository, and to have the amounts entered as additional expenditure in its accounts of the religious and educational administration for April 1, 1889-90, under chapter 119, section 15a. The respective Royal Government officials have received cor¬ responding order by the accompanying decree of to-day. Should there exist, however, in individual cases, doubts concerning one or another of the indicated conditions, or should their determination require expressly the decision of this office (compare No. 4), I shall most respectfully receive the respective report your excellency may be pleased to transmit. 156 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. Yoiu’ excellency is respectfully requested to report to me on or before March 10 of each year the amounts ordered for payment, giving the names of the recipients, as well as the names and official positions of their deceased husbands or fathers. B.— PROVISIONS FOR THE WIDOIVS AND ORPHANS OF OFFICIALS OF THE PRUSSIAN UNIVERSITIES. The pensioning of the widows and orphans of the officials employed at the Prussian universities, the Academy of Muenster, and the Lyceum Hosianum of Braunsberg is conducted now in accordance with the law applying to all imme¬ diate state officials concerning the pensioning of the widows and orphans of immediate state officials of May 20, 1882 (GS., p. 298), respectively the law of March 28, 1888 (GS., p. 48), concerning the discontinuance of the fees of imme¬ diate state officials for the widows and orphans’ fund, in so far as the statutes of individual institutions for pensioning professors’ widows and orphans, operative since April 1, 1889, do not expressly reserve for them their member¬ ship claims guaranteed to them in former statutes for the time of their connec¬ tion with the respective university. §§ 7 to 1.3 and 15 to 20 of the law of May 20, 1882, bearing upon this, are as follows : §7. The widow and the surviving legitimate children or children legitimized by subsequent marriage of an official liable at the time of his death to payment of fees for the widows and orphans’ fund,« shall receive widows’ and orphans’ pensions in accordance with the following provisions : §8. The widow’s pension shall be one-third of the pension which the deceased could claim, or could have claimed if he had been retired on the day of his death. The widow’s pension shall, however, carry at least 160 marks and not exceed 1,600 marks, under the limitation contained in §10. §9. The orphan’s pension shall be — 1. For children whose mother is living and entitled to a widow’s pension, one-fifth of the widow’s ])ension for each child. 2. For children whose mother is not living or not entitled to a widow’s pen¬ sion at the time of the death of the official, one-third of the widow’s pension for each child. §10. Widows’ and orphans’ pensions, singly or in the aggregate, shall not exceed the amount of the service pension to which the deceased was or would have been entitled had he been retired on the day of his death. In applying this limitation the widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be reduced proportionately. §11. Upon the withdrawal of widows’ and orphans’ claim, the widows’ and orphans’ pensions of the remaining claimants for the following month shall be increased, in so far as they may not as yet be in full enjoyment of the amounts due them under §§ 8 to 10. §12. Should the widow have been more than fifteen years the junior of the deceased, then the widow’s pension, estimated in' accordance with §§ 8 to 10, shall be reduced 5 per cent for each beginning year over fifteen, and including the twenty-fifth year. These reductions of widows’ pensions shall not apply to the amount of the widows’ pensions to be estimated under §9. §13. The widow shall have no claim upon a widow’s pension if the marriage with the deceased was concluded within three months of his death and the con¬ clusion of marriage was entered into for the purpose of securing the payment of the widows’ pension. §14. The widow of a pensioned official and the surviving children from such marriage shall have no claim upon widows’ and orphans’ pensions if the mar¬ riage shall have been concluded after the retirement of the official. « Fees for the widows and orphans’ fund have ceased to he levied since April 1, 1888. Article I of the law of March 28, 1888 (G8., p. 48), concerning the discontinuance of these fees, is as follows ; “ The fees for the widows’ and orphans’ funds that are due in accordance with the law of May 20, 1882 (GS., p. 298), concerning pensions for the widows and orphans of immediate state officials shall cease to be levied after April 1, 1888, without detriment to the claims upon widows’ and orphans’ pensions connected with this duty.” PENSIONS IN GEEMAN UNIVERSITIES. 157 §15. Payment of the widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall begin with the lapse of the quarter of grace or the month of grace, §16. Widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be paid monthly in advance. The person to whom valid payment shall be made shall be named by the chief of the department, who may, however, transfer such authority to the provincial board. Installments of widows’ and orphans’ pensions that shall not have been claimed within four years from the day they may have been due shall be super¬ annuated for the benefit of the exchequer of the state. §17. The widows’ and orphans’ pensions can not be legally resigned nor given in mortgage « or otherwise transferred. §18. The claim upon widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall become extinct: 1. For any claimant with the end of the month in which he or she is married or dies ; 2. Moreover, with any orphan with the end of the month in which he or she shall complete the eighteenth year of life. §19. The claim upon payment of a widow’s or orphan’s pension shall he sus¬ pended when the claimant loses German citizenship until its eventual recovery. §20. In accordance with the provisions of §16, the decision as to whether the widow and orphans of an official shall be entitled to pension and as to the amount of such pension belongs to the chief of the department, who may, how¬ ever, transfer such authority to the provincial board. The appeal to courts of justice shall be open to parties concerned. However, the decision of the chief of the department shall have preceded the complaint, & and such complaint, on penalty of loss of the right to complain, shall be made within six months after the decision of the chief of the department shall have have been isued. PROVISIONS CONCERNING PENSIONS OF PRUSSIAN UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS AND OFFICIALS. With reference to the periodic service increase of salaries (Dienstalterszu- lagen) the royal decree of October 21, 1897, introduces, however, an essential limitation as to the payments of honoraria. One-half of the honoraria for lec¬ tures of regularly paid professors reverts to the exchequer of the state, in so far as the amount paid in for one professor, after deduction of the contribution to the expenses of the financial administration, shall exceed in one financial year 3,000 marks ; in Berlin, 4,500 marks. This provision, however, shall apply only with their consent to the professors who may hold positions at the time it becomes operative and as long as they are not transferred to some other professor¬ ship. The professors who may have given their consent have been entered into the system of periodic service increase of salaries ; the others have retained their former salary. Inasmuch as the reduction in the honoraria has been ordered for all new transfers of regular professorships, deviation from this in individual cases and the payment to the (respective) professor of the entire college honorarium can be granted only with royal consent. That a professorship should involve the payment of a salary does not seem necessary. The ordinary professors draw salaries regularly ; the extraordinary professors in great part ; the honorary professors, as such, never. A new prin¬ ciple of administration is not again to appoint extraordinary professors without salaries. Such will, therefore, hereafter be appointed, as a rule, for vacant statutory positions, or, if they hold some other official position, with a salary. The amount of salary formerly was a fixed sum, determined by the position without claim or even reasonable prospect of an increase of salary. TTiis sys¬ tem has been continued for those professors already in office who did not submit to the deductions from honoraria ordered in the royal decree of October 21, 1897. It is destined in future to die out. “ With regard to the mortgaging of widows’ and orphans’ pensions, the provisions of §<749 of the civil code of the German Empire shall apply. . . . , , - ** In accordance with §39, No 1, of the executive law of the German judicial code of April 24, 1878 (GS., p. 230), the provincial trihunal ( Landgericht) alone is competent for such complaint, inasmuch as widows’ and orphans’ pensions constitute a part of the salaries, respectively, of the pensions of officials. 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Salaries are fixed now as follows : Ordinary professors draw — In Berlin, a foundation salary of 4,800 marks, increased in six service periods of four years each by 400 marks each. In other universities, a foundation salary of 4,000 marks, increased in five service periods of four years each by 400 marks each. Extraordinary professors draw — In Berlin, a foundation salary of 2,400 marks, increasing in six service peri¬ ods of four years each by 400 marks each. In other universities, a foundation salary of 2,000 marks, increased in five service periods of four years each by 400 marks each. In special cases, however, different salary conditions may be agreed upon. This schedule of salaries does not apply to professors — 1. Who hold or have held some other office entitling them to pension or to remuneration for loss of time while waiting for a promised position (Warte- geld) ; 2. Who hold in addition to the professorship a private position involving a regular continuous income (except a purely scientific occupation) ; 3. Who are engaged in medical practice or other practical, profitable voca¬ tion, or who are likely to be so engaged; 4. Who draw an extra salary from the Berlin Academy of Sciences or from the Gottingen Association of Sciences ; and 5. W^ho, with their consent, are relieved from the duty of lecturing, or concerning whom, after decision by the minister of education, assumptions exist under which nonjudicial officials can be retired. In the year 1899 these exceptions were found to exist, the first with 34 (11 ordinary, 23 extraordinary), the second with 1, the third with 70 ( 40 ordi¬ nary, 30 extraordinary), excluding physicians, the fourth with 5, and the fifth with 32 (22 ordinary, 10 extraordinary) professors; in all, therefore, 142. Of a total of 738 (530 ordinary, 208 extraordinary) professors, 192 already draw the maximum salary fixed by the new regulations ; 142 withdrew under the application of the above principles of exclusion. There remained, there¬ fore, 404 participants, to whom the new schedule of salaries as such would have applied. Of these, however, 43 failed to join the new system, prefer¬ ring not to submit to the deduction of lecture honoraria. By special agreement between the ministry of instruction and the ministry of finance, moreover, the following provisions have been made ; If a professor, in addition to his salary as professor, draws a continuous income of 1,800 marks from public or private vocation, this will be credited, to the increments of salary. This, however, does not include — 1. The income from literary activity of a purely scientific character ; 2. Honoraria for university lectures and examination fees, with the excep¬ tion of promotion fees ; 3. Regular salaries of the members and secretaries of the Berlin Academy of Sciences and of the Gottingen Association of Sciences and of the members of the Institute for the Survey of the German Seas at Kiel ; and 4. The salaries and remunerations of the teachers of the Emperor William Academy at Berlin and of the Marine Academy at Kiel. This involves five cases.® The regular ordinary and extraordinary professors, like all other immediate State officials, have claim, in addition to their salaries, to rental money in accordance with the law of May 12, 1873, and the amendment of June 28, 1875, (G. S., 1873, p. 122; 1875, p. 370. ) Tl|p amount of rental money is determined by the service rank involved in the office and not by the personal higher rank. Accordingly, the rentals of the fourth and fifth classes, the same for both, apply to professors. It amounts annually, in Berlin, to 900 marks ; for the first service class, CGO marks ; the sec¬ ond, 540 marks ; the third, 480 marks ; the fourth, 420 marks, and the fifth, 360 marks. Of the Prussian university cities Bonn, Breslau, Haile, Kiel, Konigs- berg, and Munster belong to the first class ; Goettingen, Greifswald, and Mar¬ burg to the second ; Braunsberg to the third. Professors are not pensioned. They have, therefore, no claim on pensions. The relicts of professors have, primarily, claim upon gratuities of compe¬ tency {Gnadenlcompetenzen) according to provisions for other State officials “The entire material concerning the new schedule of salaries has been entered in the publications of the House of Delegates, 1899, Suppl. Vol. 3, No. 71. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 159 under the law of February C, 1881 (G. S., 1881, p. 17). These allowances con¬ sist in the continuance of the official salary for the three months next following the month of death, excluding the month of death. This allowance is not combined with the heritable estate, but is assigned to the widow, the children, and grandchildren of the official — even if they are not heirs — in such a way that no creditor of the deceased can lay claim to it. Moreover, the chiefs of departments may assign the gratuities of competency also to other persons whose only provider was the deceased. The year of grace (Gnadenjahr) , for¬ merly customary in many instances for relicts of professors, is discontinued for the future. The gratuities of competency can be granted only from salary and rental money. On the other hand, the honorarium for lectures already paid shall be returned if at the death of a professor in the course of a semester the lecture course is not in its essentials completed. The relicts have further claim on widows’ and orphans’ pensions. Before the new regulation of pensions of relicts a professor, in accordance with the ministerial order of June 9, 1838, could buy for his wife membership either in the General Pension Institute for Widows or in the institution for the pen¬ sioning of professors’ widows and orphans connected with every university. With one or the other of these funds, however, the insurance was obligatory. Now the law of May 20, 1882, concerning provision for the widows and orphans of immediate State officials (G. S., 1882, pp. 298 ft.), has abrogated these prac¬ tices, inasmuch as it prohibits the officials from joining the General Pension Institute for Widows and imposes upon them, on the other hand, the obligation of paying widows’ and orphans’ fees into the exchequer of the State. With the abrogation of these widows’ and orphans’ fees by the law of March 28, 1888, the former insurance was supplanted with the direct pensioning of the relicts by the State. Inasmuch, however, as the new plan of pensioning the relicts referred only to the State officials entitled to service pensions, the professors were excluded therefrom. For them pensioning continued through the funds for the pensioning of professors’ widows and orphans. Now since all other professional State officials were assured pensions for widows and orphans by the State without payment of fees, it seemed unfair that only the professors should pay such fees. The payment of the fees of the pro¬ fessors was, therefore, also assumed by the State under maintenance of the exist¬ ing widows’ funds. On the other hand, since the professors draw no service pensions, the amounts of the widows’ and orphans’ pensions had to be fixed independently. These new provisions for the pensioning of the widows and orphans of university profesors are contained in the royal decree of May 20, 1889.® After 1897-98 considerable increase has been ordered. The relicts of professors holding positions with salaries from the exchequer of the university receive, accordingly, the following pensions : 1. Widows’ pensions : Marks. The widow of an ordinary professor _ 1,650 The widow of an extraordinary professor _ 1,300 2. Orphans’ pensions : A whole orphan _ 720 Each additional whole orphan _ 480 A half orphan _ 480 Each additional half orphan _ 300 The fees heretofore paid by the members for the funds are discontinued. The payments of the funds are defrayed from the income of their assets, and in so far as these may be insufficient from contributions by the State. For the pro¬ fessors of the academy at Milnster and the Lyceum Hosianum at Brauusberg, which heretofore had no special funds, the payments are simply assumed by the State. In so far as the State contribution, estimated at annually 100,000 marks, is not required to meet the obligations of the funds, the surplus is to be turned over to existing funds for the increase of their assets. In order to bring their organizations into agreement with tlie provisions of this decree, all the institutions for the pensioning of professors’ widows and orphans at the nine universities revised their statutes in special general assem- blies.6 The membership of the funds is now limited to the professors that occupy positions with salaries from the exchequer of the university. They are ex officio “ Central-Blatt fiir die gesamte Unterrichts-Yerwaiting i. Pr., SuppL, 1890, p. 3. ^ Reprint of statutes above, pp. 3 ff. 160 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. members of the institution. Others, however, that were members at the time the new statutes went into effect and that do not draw salaries from the exchequer of the university retain their membership during their connection Muth the university. The payments by the funds are determined by the decree of May 20, 1889. Special reservations were required with regard to those widows that were considerably younger than the deceased husband. If the widow was younger than the deceased by more than fifteen years, the widow’s pension was reduced 5 per cent for each beginning year of the difference in age over fifteen to twenty- five, inclusive. The widow has no claim to a pension if the marriage with the deceased was contracted within three months of his death and if the minister of education has reached the conviction on the ground of established facts that the marriage was contracted only in order to secure for the widow the payment of the pension. The payment of the widow’s and orphan’s pension begins after the lapse of the period of grace and is made monthly in advance. The claim becomes extinct (1) for each claimant with the end of the month in which he or she is married or dies, (2) for each orphan, moreover, with the end of the month in which he or she completes the twenty-first year of life. The claim is suspended (1) if the claimant loses German citizenship until its eventual recovery; (2) as long as the claimant is entitled to a widow’s or orphan’s pension equal in amount to this pension on the ground of the imperial law of April 20, 1881, or of the Prussian law of May 20, 1882. The levying of fees on the part of members is, in general, discontinued. An exceptional position is occupied only by those members who occupy a salaried imperial or State office v/ith title to pension, and who are nonsalaried professors. I'or the future such persons are wholly incompetent to become members ; their existing membership rights, however, remain undisturbed. Their relicts, there¬ fore, draw’ at the same time the payments from the State and from the univer¬ sity institutions. In return, hoAvever, the members are not relieved from the fees to the university funds. Special transition provisions w’ere found requisite for those members that had already acquired claims for their future relicts on the ground of the older stat¬ utes. To these the right of choice wms conceded betw’een the older claims and the newly established pension regulations. On the whole, funds (Kassen) established as individual institutions with cor¬ porate rights continue to exist. The fees heretofore levied are supplanted by State contributions. The self-administration of the institutions is conducted in accordance wdth the same statutes by members of tile university. Inasmuch as the provisions concerning service pensions do not apply to the university professors, there is an utter lack of statutory prescriptions in this direction. Consequently assignment of service pensions to professors, in so far as they have not received special promises at their appointment, could be made only wdth the approval of the King. Practically another method has been chosen. The professor draws, during his lifetime, his full salary. He is, how’ever, upon his motion, if he feels himself unable to perform service, relieved of the duty of lectures. If thii^ motion has been granted, or if the professor otherwdse seems incapable of performing his full duty, a substitute professorship, to he subse¬ quently abandoned, is established whose occupant at the death of the professor incapable for service is promoted into his position without further action. The regular professors draw% primarily, salaries. This amounts, at Charlot- tenburg, on an average, to 6,500 marks ; at Hanover and Aachen, on an average, to 5,500 marks. To this is added, as per schedule, the rental of the first service class of, annually, 660 marks. The docents draw only remunerations. Furthermore, a share in the honoraria for instruction is assured to all tefichers in office, and this to the regular professors as not pensionable income. This share is one-fourth of the instruction fees collected for their instruction, or 10 marks from each practicant, with exercises for the entire day. This share of the honorarium must, however, not exceed 3,000 marks annually for a single teacher. As to the remainder, the teacher earns the honorarium for the State. The State, therefore, is financially interested that the lectures be delivered for fees (entgelt- licJi). The holding of free (not paid for) lecture courses is therefore prohibited without higher approval. Finally, the minister has at his disposal a special supplementary fund for the employment of prominent teachers. The regular professors are pensioned, like other State officials, under the pension law of March 27, 1872 (G. S. 1872, PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 1(51 p. 268) and the amendments of March 31, 1882 (G. S. 1882, p. 133) and of April 30, 1884 (G. S. 1884, p. 126). If retirement ensues after the completed tenth year of service, but befoi'o the completed eleventh year, the service pension amounts to tifteen-sixtieths of the service income and is increased by one-sixtieth each successive year, however, not to exceed forty-five sixtieths. If the service pension is i)ai(l before completion of the tenth year of service, it amounts to fifteen-sixtieths, and, unless there is a legal pension claim, to at most fifteen-sixtieths (§8, amend¬ ment of March 13, 1882). In computing the service pension the last service income, exclusive of dividends, gratifications, etc., is taken as a basis — and in this, payments in kind in their average, the rental in an average of all tlie service classes, and of a service income in excess of 4,000 marks, only one-half (§10). The time of service, in so far as the official has not furnished previ¬ ous service, is computed from the taking of the ollicial oath (§13). Even the period of being at disposal for appointment, the mere prepa.i-atory service, and active military service are included, but time of service before the twenty- first year of life only if it was military service in time of war (§§14 to 16). For each campaign in which the official actually met the enemy or followed mobilized troops into the field one year is added (§17). The addition of the period of imprisonment in a fortress for one year or longer and of detention as prisoner of war can take pla.ce only under particular circumstances and with royal approval (§18). Mdth royal approval, too, there may be further admitted the service as attorney or notary, in church or school, in parliament or at court, in foreign diplomatic service, or in practical preparation for State service in so far as such preparation may have been customary for the attain¬ ment of appointment (§19). The service pensions are paid monthly in advance (§25) ; they can not be transferred or mortgaged (§26). The pension is suspended if the official loses German citizenship until its eventual recovery, and if and as long as he draws a service income in the service of the Empire or of the State, to the extent in which this service income, together with the pension, exceeds the amount of the service income drawn by the official before he was pensioned (§27). The docents have no claim whatever upon service pensions. On the other hand, in accordance with the above provisions, if the docent later on obtains a regular professoi-ship, his service as docent will also enter into the compu¬ tation of his service pension. Finally, provision for the relicts is made only with reference to the regulai professors. The relicts — viz, widows, children, and grandchildren — primarily and under the general provisions are entitled to the so-called “competency allowances” {Gnaden-Kompetenzen) under the law of February 6, 1881. In this respect there is no difference between the regular professors of the technical high schools and the university professors. Since, however, only the former are entitled to pensions (service pensions), the competency gratuities of their relicts include also the service pensions. Of this, howe^'er, in addition to the month of decease only a single additional gratuity month is granted. The title to service pension on the part of regular professors of technical high school indicates their equality on the whole with other State officials with reference to the pensioning of relicts. This is regulated by the laws of May 20, 1882 (G. S. 1882, p. 298), of March 28, 1888 (G. S. 1888, p. 48), and June 1, 1897 (G. S. 1897, p. 169). After the abrogation in 1888 of the obliga¬ tion of officials to pay widows and orphans fees, the pensioning of their relicts is iioav as follows : The widow’s pension consists of 40 per cent of the service pension to which the deceased was entitled or would have been entitled if he had been retired on the day of his death. The widow’s pension must, however, not exceed 2.000 marks for widows of officials of the fourth and higher rank classes to which the regular professors belong (§8, law of .June 1, 1897, Art. I). The orphans’ pen¬ sion is (a) for children whose mother is living and at the time of the official’s death entitled to a widow’s pension, one-fifth of the widow’s pension for each child; {!)) for children whose mother is not living or not entitled to a widow’s pension at the time of the official’s death, for each child one-third of the widow’s pension (§9). Widow’s and orphans’ pensions, singly or in the aggregate, must not exceed the amount of the service pension to which the deceased was or would have been entitled had he been retired on the day of his death. In applying ED 1904 M - 11 162 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. this limitation the widow’s and orphans’ pensions are proportionately reduced (§10). In the case of a widow who is younger than her deceased husband by fifteen years the amount is reduced by one-twentieth for each beginning year of the difference in age up to the twenty-fifth year, inclusive; the amount of the orphans’ pensions, however, remains the same. If the marriage lasted five years, one-twentieth of the reduced amount is added for each beginning year of its fur¬ ther continuance until the full amount shall be reached (§12, law of June 1, 1897, Art. II). The claim to a vridow’s pension is lost if the marriage with the deceased official was contracted within three months of his death or clearly for the purpose of procuring the widow’s pension. Similarly, widows and children of a marriage contracted after tlie pensioning of an official have no title (§13). The relicts of an official not entitled to service pension, but who might have been granted such pension, may be accorded widows’ and orphans’ pensions by the chief of the department in connection with the minister of finance, and the computation of the amounts with reference to the consideration of certain periods may be made by them under the same assumptions that apply to officials (§14). The widows’ and orphans’ pensions are paid monthly in advance after the lapse of the periods of grace (§§15, 16). The pensions are not transferable nor mortgagable (§17). The claim becomes extinct for each claimant with the lapse of the month in which he or she is married or dies; moreover for each orphan with the lapse of the month in which he or she completes the twenty- first year of life (§18). The claim is suspended when the claimant loses Ger¬ man citizenship until its eventual recovery (§19). II. THE EMPEHOR WILLIAM UNIVERSITY, OF STRASSBURG. A.— PROVISIONS FOR THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF PROFESSORS, ETC. At the Emperor William University, of Strassburg, the pensioning of the widows and orphans of professors wms first regulated under the law of Decem¬ ber 25, 1873, (G Bl., p. 518), as follow^s : (ff) That the wddow of any ordinary or extraordinary professor, salaried from the exchequer of the university, shall receive as pension from the public treasury one-fifth of the last official salary paid the deceased, excluding supplementary allowances ; provided, howmver, that this shall amount to at least 1,200 francs, and at most 2,000 francs. (&) That each orphan shall receive 400 francs. Widows and orphans fees are not levied. Law of Dcccmher 25, 1873, concerning ihe pc7isions of the widows and orphans of professors. §1. The w4dow^s and orphans of the ordinary and extraordinary professors of the University of Strassburg, salaried from the exchequer of the university, shall receive pension from the public treasury. The amount of such pension shall be : (ff) For the widow, one-fifth of the last official salary paid the deceased from the exchequer of the university, excluding supplementary allowances ; provided, how^ever, that this shall be at least 1,200 francs and at most 2,000 francs. (h) For each orphan, 400 francs. As orphans are to be considered the children designated in §1 of the law of December 24, 1873, concerning the pensions of the widow's and orphans of officers and teachers. §2. The payment shall begin with the lapse of the day up to which the deceased has been granted salaiT- It shall be ordered by the superior [first?] president.^ §3. The paragraphs 4, 7, 11, and 13 of the law of December 24, 1873, concern¬ ing pensions of the widows and orphans of officials and teachers shall apply also to pensions granted under this law. The provisions of the law of December 24, 1873, referred to above, are as follows : Now by the ministry, §3, law of July 4, 1S79. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 163 §1. The widow, n.s well as the legitimate children or children legitimized by subsequent marriage, of an official, etc., shall receive pension from the public funds. §4. The widow shall have no claim to a pension if the marriage has been dissolved or if, upon motion of the husband, separation from bed and board has been pronounced. §7. Widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be paid monthly in advance. §11. Payment of pension shall cease: (a) For the widow with the end of the month of her death or remarriage; (b) For each child with the end of the month of his or her death or com¬ pletion of the eighteenth year of life ; and (c) For girls that shall be married before the completion of the eighteenth year of iife, with the end of the month in which the marriage shall have been contracted. §13. The claim to a widow’s and orphan’s pension shall be suspended: (1) If the claimant shall lose German citizenship until eventual recovery of the same ; and (2) If, and -as long as, the claimant shall draw in the service or the Empire, of the State, or in the public schools a service income, in so far as this shall exceed the amount of the pension. Pensions of the widows and orphans of officials. The pensioning of the widows and orphans of the officials of the University of Strassburg is conducted under the law of December 24, 1873, concerning the pensions for widows and orphans of officials and teachers (G. Bl., p. 515.) as follows : §1. The widow, as well as the legitimate children and children legitimized by subsequent marriage of an official who, under the provisions of the law of December 23, 1873, concerning the statutory conditions of officials and teachers, shall have drawn a service pension or would have been entitled to draw such pension had he been retired on the day of his death, shall receive pensions from the public funds. The widows and orphans of an official who, under §75 of the imperial law of March 31, 1873, concerning the statutory conditions of imperial officials, have not been granted a service pension shall not be entitled to pensions. ; If an official dies who could have been granted a service pension under §37 or §39 of the imperial law of March 31, 1873, the widow and orphans may be granted pensions from the public funds. §2. The claim to pension shall be valid for widows and orphans whether the official at the time of his decease has been in active service or in temporary retirement or under service pension. §.3. The widow and orphans of a pensioner whose claim to service pension had been suspended at the time of his decease because of his loss of German citizenship (§57, No. 1, of the imperial law of March 31, 1873) shall have no claim to a pension. §4. ( See above, p. — .) [Can not be found. — Transl.] §5. The decision concerning whether and what pension shall be paid to the widow and orphans of, an official shall be made by the first president, a the grant of the pensions permissible under §1, subparagraph 3, by the imperial chancellor. & In cases in which, under §52 of the imperial law of December 31, 1873, an official retiring from service may be credited with certain periods in the com¬ putation of his time of service the imperial chancellor ® may permit such credit also in the computation of the widows’ and orphans’ pensions. §G. The payment of pensions to widows and orphans begins witli the lapse of the quarter or month of grace (§§7, 31, 69 of the imperial law of March 31, 1873 <^).- Should there be no provision for the grant of a quarter or month of “Now by the ministry (§.3. law of .Tuly 4, 1879). 6 For the imperial chancellor the goyernor has been substituted (§2, law of July 4, 1879).- “ Now the ministry (§3, law of July 4, 1879). §69, subparagraph 1, of the imperial law of March 31, 1873, has been superseded, under the law of May 25, 1887 (introduced into Alsace-Lorraine by imperial decree of November 21, 1887), by the following regulation : “ If a service pensioner leaves a widow or legitimate progeny the service pension shall continue to be paid for one month in addition to the month of his decease. To whom the payment shall be made shall be decided by the highest imperial authority, which, however, shall have the privilege of transferring such power of decision to the higher imperial authority.” 164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. grace, the payment shall begin with the lapse of the day np to which the deceased was entitled to service income or pension. §7. Widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be paid monthly in advance. §8. The pension of a widow amounts to one-third of the service pension to which the deceased was entitled or would have been entitled had he been retired from service on the day of his death. The pension, however, with the limitation under §10, shall carry at least 200 francs and shall not exceed 2,000 francs. §9. The orphan’s pension shall carry : (a) For children whose mother is living and entitled to pension, one-fifth of the widow’s pension for each child. (&) For children whose mother is not living or no longer entitled to pen¬ sion, one-third of the widow’s pension for each child. §10. The pensions payable to widow’s and orphans shall not exceed, either singly or in the aggregate, the amount of the service pension of the deceased to which he was entitled or wmuld have been entitled if he had been retired from service on the day of his death. In applying this limitation, the respective single pensions shall be proportion¬ ately reduced. §11. (See above, p. — .) [Can not be found. — Transl.] §12. On the death and remarriage of a pensioned widow, the increase of the orphans’ pensions under the provisions of §§ 9 and 10 shall become effective at the end of the term designated in § 11, letter a. On the elimination of a child entitled to pension, its pension shall be added proportionately to the remaining claimants, beginning with the term designated in § 11, letters & and c, in so far as these are not as yet in full enjoyment of the amounts due them under §8 or 9. §13. (See above, p. — .) [Can not be found. — Transl. 1 §14. (Is repealed by art. G, §3, of the law of December 23, 1873.) §15. Assurances of future grants of pensions to the relicts of individual offi¬ cials or classes of officials by the Emperor or the imperial chancellor before the promulgation of this law shall remain valid in so far as the provisions of this law are not more favorable. §16. The provisions of this law shall apply also to the wndows and orphans of officials who were pensioned during the period from the 9th of June, 1871, to the time when the law concerning the rights of officials and teachers of December 23, 1873, took effect, and w’ho at the promulgation of the present law are still living. §17. The provisions of the present law’ concerning the pensions for wndows and orphans of officials shall apply also to the orphans of those female teachers who, under the law concerning the rights of officials and teachers of December 23, 1873, are entitled to service pension as well as, respectively, to the widows and orphans of the members of the gendarmerie. Auxiliary fund. For the benefit of the relicts of the professors and lectors, as well as of the secretary of the university, the questor, and the curatorial secretary of the Emperor-William University of Strassburg, there exists, finally, since the year 1882 at this university an auxiliary fund, with the object of providing for the relicts of its members in case of need allowances, the value of wdiich is deter¬ mined chiefly by the amount of available means, the number of persons requiring assistance at the time, and the urgency of need. Membership for the persons designated above is optional. Each member has to pay an entrance fee of 30 marks and a quarterly fee of 5 marks. The obligation to pay an entrance fee and quarterly fees may be super¬ seded at any time by a single payment of 300 marks. The statutes of the auxiliary fund of the Emperor-William University of Strassburgj approved by the Government under date of August 19, 1882, are as follow’S : I. GENERAL PROVISIONS. §1. The fund shall be known as " auxiliary fund of the Emperor-William University of Strassburg ; ” it shall have its seat at Strassburg and shall serve the purpose of providing assistance for the relicts of its members in case of need. §2. The fund is a part of the organization of the university. It is, how’ever, PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 165 endowed with independent juridical personality and entered in the class of institutions for the public benetit. §3. The administrative year of the fund coincides with the statutory year of public administration. II. MEMBERSHIP. §4. The following persons shall be entitled to membership of the fund: 1. The professors and lectors of the university. 2. The secretary of the university, the (piestor, and the curatorial secretary. §5. Membership shall begin on the day of entrance. Entrance is secured by written re(inest addressed to the executive committee. §G. Membership shall cease — 1. On the day of voluntary resignation, which may be presented at any time, and is secured by written request to the executive committee. 2. At the termination of the, condition conveying title to membership; entrance upon the list of pensioned officials or emerited professors shall not terminate membership. III. ENTRANCE FEES AND QUARTERLA' FEES. §7. Each member shall pay an entrance fee and quarterly fees. §8. The entrance fee shall be 30 marks. It is payable within six months after joining. §9. The quarterly fee is fixed at 5 marks and is payable in advance. Members joining the fund during a current quarter shall nevertheless be charged with the full quarterly fee and shall pay this immediately after joining. §10. For those members who draw salary from the university fund the entrance fees and quarterly fees will be collected when salaries are paid, a receipt being issued, in case they have no objection. §11. The obligation of payment of the entrance fee and the quarterly fees may be superseded at any time by the payment of a single fee of 330 marks. (In the introduction, p. OS, " 300 m.” — Transl. IV. RELIEF ALLOWANCES. §12. The means for allowances shall as a rule be taken only from the regular income under the detailed provisions of the two following paragraphs. §13. The regular income consists of the revenues of the capital assets for each administrative year and of the membership fees, contributions, and gifts made for this purpose. §14. Of the regular income a portion, which shall amount to at least 10 per cent, shall be added to the capital, according to the judgment of the executive committee. The entire remainder shall be available for relief allowances. §15. Only the relicts of those members that shall have belonged to the fund until their death shall have claim to relief. §1G. As relicts in the sense of the above paragraphs shall be considered: (1) the widows, (2) the children, (3) other near relatives who constituted a family with the deceased and who in him have lost their provider. §17. Only necessity furnishes claim to assistance. The value of the allowances is determined chiefly by the amount of available means, the number of persons needing assistance at the time, and the urgency of need. Special attention shall be paid in this to doubly orphaned children. §18. Each member shall have the right to submit to the executive committee written requests for the relief of other members. Should the executive commit¬ tee deny the request, he may appeal to the general assembly to be called for this purpose. Otherwise the executive committee shall decide upon the granting of relief allowances according to its free judgment under the provisions of §§ 12 to 17. V. ACCOUNTANT. §19. The duties of accountant shall be performed, without compensation, by the questor, under direction of the executive committee. VI. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. §20. The executive committee shall consist of five members, to be elected annually by the general assembly. Reelection is permitted. 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Should a vacancy occur before the time designated above, the executive com¬ mittee shall elect a substitute for the unexpired term. §21. At the beginning of each administrative year the executive committee shall elect from its midst a chairman for the term of this year. Should there be temporarily no elected chairman, or should the chairman be absent, his office shall be filled by the member of the executive committee oldest in years. The chairman shall direct the business of the executive committee and shall execute in its name the necessary written documents. §22. The executive committee shall be competent to pass resolutions if at least three of the members are present at the meeting. Resolutions shall be passed by simple majority; in tie votes the vote of ‘the chairman shall decide. Simple matters may be dispatched by the chairman, if no member objects, by the circulation of a writing. §23. The executive committee shall guard and guide the affairs and interests of the fund in every respect. It shall administer the assets of the fund. It shall represent the fund in and out of court. §24. tVithin the statutory sphere of its duties the executive committee is wholly independent under the restrictions of §§18 and 33, subparagraph 2. §25. Toward the close of the administrative year the executive committee shall submit to the general assembly a report of its administration, as well as the annual financial report for inspection and eventual discharge. The business report shall be transmitted after the meeting to the academic senate for inspec¬ tion. VII. GENERAL ASSEMBLY. §26. The general assembly shall consist of all the members. §27. The call for the general assembly shall be issued by the executive com¬ mittee. §28. Annually, toward the close of the administrative year, a regular general assembly shall be convened. A special general assembly shall be called whenever the executive committee considers this necessary in the interest of the fund, or whenever at least one- tenth of the members request it in a written petition addressed to the executive committee stating the object and the reasons therefor. In the latter case the general assembly shall be convened within the next fourteen days after receipt^ of the request. General assemblies shall not be convened during the academic vacations. §29. The object of the general assembly shall be stated in the call. No reso¬ lutions can be passed concerning matters not so announced. §30. The chairman of the executive committee shall preside at the general assembly. §31. The general assembly is competent to pass resolutions whenever at least one-third of the members are present. However, the second general assembly called for the same purpose shall be competent to pass resolutions even with fewer members present, if between the date of the first and that of the second meeting at least a week or at most a month shall have passed. Resolution concerning amendments of the statutes or the dissolution of the fund shall under all circumstances require the presence of at least one-half of the members and governmental approval. • §32. Resolutions shall be passed by simple majority; in case of a tie vote the vote of the presiding officer shall decide. §33. The general assembly shall have supervision of the administration on the part of the executive committee. All resolutions of the executive committee concerning the purchase or sale of real estate, the conclusion of contracts, and the preferment of juridical com-’ plaints or the answering of the same shall be subject to its approval. It shall decide ail motions concerning the amendment of the statutes. More¬ over, it shall attend to the duties assigned to it under §§ 18, 20, and 25. CONCLUDING PROVISION. In case of the dissolution of the fund its property shall revert to the uni¬ versity. As to its disposal, the plenum shall decide with appropriate regard to needy relicts of members of the fund. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 167 B— PROVISIONS CONCERNING PENSIONS OF PROFESSORS AND OFFICIALS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF STRASSBURG. [From Hoseus, The Emperor William Universitj^ of Strasshurg, Strassburg, 1897,” pp. 17G to 188 aud 202 to 203.] F. The Rights of Professors as Officials. (aa) Payment. In so far as payment is provided for professors it consists regularly of salary and increment ; compare statutes of university, § 45. The latter is eliminated in tlie cases of emerited professors ; the salary remains and serves at the same time as basis for computing the pensions of relicts. For the amount of pay¬ ments there exist no fixed provisions. Actually at this time the following pay¬ ments apply : Theological faculty : Marks. Ordinary professors _ 5, 000- 8, 000 Extraordinary professors _ 3, 800- 4, 000 Faculty of jurisprudence and politics ; Ordinary professors _ 6,000-13, 500 Extraordinary professors _ 3, 000- 4, 800 Medical faculty : Ordinary professors _ 4, 800-13, 500 Extraordinary professors _ 2, 000- 3, 600 Philosophical faculty : Ordinary professors _ 4, 800-10, 200 Extraordinary professors _ 2, 700- 4, 000 Faculty of mathematics and science : Ordinary professors _ 6, 000-10, 800 Extraordinary professors _ 2, 000- 4, 200 In detail the following applies to payments ; (a) It shall be paid without deduction if the professor as deputy to the imperial diet or on account of sickness can not attend to his ofiicial duties ; also in case of leave of absence, in so far as this leave is not for a long period (Comp., p. 170). A professor, however, who absents himself without leave loses his income for the period of such absence (R. B. G., § 14). ( 5 ) Payments are made in advance and quarterly, under the resolution of the federal council (Bundesrath) of May 30, 1874, promulgated by the first president on June 10 of the same year, inasmuch as the professors are appointed by the Emperor or by the imperial chancellor (governor). (§5, subparagr. 1, R. B. G., and Coll, of the Judicial Adminstration 11, p. 283. ) (c) The payment for the month of decease is always due for the entire month (Comp., R. B. G., § 4). (d) With reference to the mortgaging of payments (as well as of the salaries of emerited professors of the quarter of grace and of the pensions of widows and orphans) compare P. O., § 749, subparagraph 1, Nos. 7, 8, and subparagraph 2. The respective claims can be ceded, mortgaged, or otherwise transferred only m so far as they are subject to attachment (R. B. G., § 6, subparagraph 1). (e) LTnder § 4, R. B. G., and in the absence of special stipulation, the claim to payment would begin with entrance upon office ; actually April 1 or October 1, as the first day of the semester for which the appointment was made, is always fixed as the day on which payment begins. (f) If a professor in service leaves a widow or legitimate progeny, the relicts are entitled for the quarter following tlie mouth of decease (quarter of grace) to the full payment of the deceased. The payments include also eventual other emoluments — e. g., remunerations for special services, as those of the prosector — wffiich are not to be considered as remunerations for cash expenses. To whom payment is to be made is decided by the secretary of state as the competent authority. The quarter of grace {Gnadenquartal) can not become subject to attachment.- In the absence of the relicts above designated the quarter of grace may be paid with the approval of the secretary of state, as the highest state authority for such cases, if the deceased leaves in needy circumstances parents, brothers or sisters, nieces or nephews, or adopted children whose provider he was, or if his estate is not sufficient to defray the expenses of his last sickness and burial (R. B. G., §§ 7, 8). 168 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1901. ig) If tbe deceased professor lived in service quarters, the provisions of § 9 of the R. B. G. apply in general. Under these the bereaved family is to be per¬ mitted to remain in the service quarters for three months in addition to the month of decease. In case the deceased leaves no family the persons to whom his estate reverts are accorded a term of thirty days after the day of death for vacating the service quarters, and laboratories and session rooms, as well as other localities for official use are to be vacated in every case without delay. With reference to the service quarters of professors in university buildings, which frequently in the interest of instruction must be vacated before expira¬ tion of the term generally granted to the bereaved family, § 9, subparagraph 1, of the law of June 18, 1890, contains the special provision that such quarters must be vacated by the family within one month from the day of notice, and, only when such notice has not been given, at the latest with the expiration of the general term of § 9, subparagraph 1, R. B. G. * If it has become necessary to vacate free service quarters before the expira¬ tion of the term the relicts entitled to the quarter of grace or to whom it has been granted (see above) must be accorded fair indemnity. Section 9, sub- paragraph 2 of the law of June 18, 1890, provides, therefore, that in such a case the relicts shall receive as indemnity the proportionate part of the regular statutory rent which the deceased would have had to pay for other than free service quarters. There is no provision of indemnity for vacating other than free service quar¬ ters before expiration of the term. As a matter of course, the relicts have to pay the regular rent only for the time of occupancy. At the present time three professors of the faculty of mathematics and nat¬ ural sciences occupy free service quarters in the university building ; one pro¬ fessor of the same faculty occupies service quarters at the regular statutory rent (at Strassburg 10 per cent of the entire statutory service income of the official in accordance with regulations of the imperial chancellor of May 25, 1874, con¬ cerning the use and maintenance of service quarters in Elsass-Lothringen). (Collection of Judicial Administration, Vol. II, No. 335, p. 288.) (/i) Concerning the claims of emerited professors and the relicts of pro¬ fessors, compare below, page 181, ff. (&&) Per diems, transportation, expenses of removal. Under § 18 of the R. B. G. the amounts of per diem and transportation expenses of officials in official business at a distance from their residence, as also the amounts of indemnification for removal expenses in case of transfers, are regulated by a rescript of the Emperor ; the cooperation of the Bundes- rath (federal council) is repealed by § 8 of the constitutional law (Verfassungs- gesetz) of July 4, 1879. The imperial order of October 25, 1880, modified by the order of May 26, 1890, concerning per diems, transportation expenses, and expenses of removal for officials and teachers (Gesetzbl., p. 136) does not, how¬ ever, apply to professors, inasmuch as it was promulgated on the basis of the imperial law for officials (R. B. G.) and before the extension of this law upon legal relations of professors. The order of the governor of June 30, 1890 (Gesetzbl., p. 189), issued for the execution of the above order, therefore also fails to mention the professors. These are still subject at present to the law of February 3, 1872, concerning the granting of per diem and transportation expenses for official journeys of civil officials of Elsass-I.othringen (Gesetzbl., p. 124). Under this (§1) the regular members of provincial, central, and circuit authori¬ ties (boards), and the officials to be ranked with them, receive per diem expenses at the rate of 4 thaler == 12 marics, of which one- fourth is to be deducted if the return trip takes place on the same day with the outward trip. For transporta¬ tion expenses the same officials receive under § 2 ; For official journeys that can be made by railroad or steamboat, 1^ silver groschen = 12.50 pfennigs a per kilometer and 1 thaler = 3 marks for each trip in and out. For other official journeys, 7 silver groschen = 70 pfennigs per kilometer on the nearest practicable road connection. Under § 4 the imperial chancellor provides what officials are to be ranked with the officials designated above, and according to the order of the chancellor of February 7, 1872, under § 2, No. 8, professors of the university, among others, receive the per diem allowance of 4 thaler. "Other officials receive now 13 pfennigs. PENSIONS IN GEEMAN UNIVEESITIES. 169 As to the expenses of removal, the orders of October 25, 18S0, and of ISIay 20, 1890, apply in the event of the transfer as professor to the university of an oili- cial not heretofore connected with the university. The transfer of a professor within the limits of the province is impossible. Should persons, not heretofore in the provincial service of Elsass-Eotliringen, be received in such service as professors, § IS of tlie order of October 25, 1880, will, as per custom, be applied to them, under which such persons may 1)0 granted for the journey to the new place of service an indemnity fixed by the ministry, and in case of permanent acceptance an indemnity for the expenses of removal to be similarly fixed. These indemnities may not exceed the amounts dependent on the position to which the official has been called. Accordingly ordinary pro¬ fessors will be granted the respective higher amounts of expenses for removal and per diem (500 and 12 marks); extraordinary professors the lower amounts (300 and 8 marks). (cc) The cstahlislimcnt of proprictarif claims. § 149, R. B. G., opens to professors the right of appeal with regard to such claims, particularly to those referring to service payments, as well as to those referring to allowances made to relicts. According to § 150 the decision of the highest authority, i. e., of the governor, must precede the appeal, and the latter must be made, on penalty of loss of the right of appeal, within six months after communication of the decision to the party concerned. The prov¬ ince will be represented under § 151 by “ the higher imperial authority,” the secretary of state (under the order of August 3, 1890). Three resorts are open; the third resort is the imperial court (Reichsgericht : R. B. G., §152, and G. V. G., § 135). (dd) Title, rank, and uniform. Are to be designated in R. B. G., § 17, by imperial rescript. Such has not as yet been promulgated. Special titles, in addition to the official title, are not as yet conferred on professors. There is no rank regulation whatever for Elsass- Lothringen. Only in practice the analogies of the rrusslan regulations are observed, under which the rector holds rank with councilors of the second class, an ordinary professor with councilors of the fourth class, and an extraor¬ dinary professor with councilors of the fifth class. A gala uniform is not pro¬ vided for professors, nor the official costume (the gown) customary elsewhere. The sequence (rank) of the professors among themselves is determined in accordance with tradition by the time of their appointment as ordinary, respec¬ tively extraordinary, professor in the faculty of the University of Strasshurg, together with the simultaneous appointment, after the time of appointment, to the respective position, eventually by age. Ciomi)are § 4 of the university stat¬ utes, § 2 of the law concerning the Thomas institutions of November 29, 1873, and § 4 of the statutes of the philosophical faculty. G. Termination of the Official Relations of Professors. This takes place under the general law for officials on dismissal upon motion after conviction of certain charges and on discharge by disciplinary process (R. B. G., § 75, No. 2). Retirement is not mentioned in any form in the statutes of the T^niversity, and (see II above) formally excluded by § 2 of the law of .Tune 18. 1890. Its place is taken by the emeriting procedure regulated in §§ 44 and 45 of the statutes. (a) History of the respective provisions; The provisional statutes lacked provisions concerning procedures of emeriting. There was but one provision (§ 42) under vdiic'h a docent, to whom the direction of a scientific institute or a clinical hospital had been intrusted, could be deprived of such direction by the imperial chancellor if he had become incapable for this by mental or bodily disease or weakness. If this suggested the inference that in the supposed case the absolute dismissal from the academic professorship is not admissible an express recognition of this proposition is nevertheless lacking, as also in general the regulation of the relation of the professors to the principles of the legal status of officials of the province, in so far as this (relation) could he inferred from the provisions of the French legislation — the law for imperial officials — R. B. G. — did not apply to professors. Under this (French) legislation the appointment of an official is considered fundamentally revocable, and there exists for the official under certain suppositions a claim upon pension which is 170 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1904. offset by tiie liability to clednetions from salaries for the benefit of tbe pension fund (law of June 9, 1853). In considering the definitive status the faculty (plenum), respectively tbe senate, acted upon tbe idea that § 42 of the provisional statutes by implication wholly excluded service pensions for professors, and therefore, as in Prussia, guaranteed to the latter the enjoyment of their full rights for life. It seemed, however, desirable, as was stated, that the exclusion of service pensions should be formally expressed as a guaranty that a professor could not at any time be retired unheard from activity. On the other hand, it appeared desirable, in deviation from the Prussian legal provisions, to render it iiossible for a pro¬ fessor to obtain retirement as emeritus with the mere loss of salary increments on reaching a certain age or in ease of sickness. This, it was claimed, was not only equitable, but agreed also with the interests of the university to acquire vigorous teachers in place of those that may have become insufhcient. On the other hand, it did not appear desirable to make retirement by emeritation obligatory, because thereby the university would lose those exceptionally effi¬ cient men who preserve their mental vigor and teaching ability to an advanced age. Moreover, it was not to be apprehended that an academic teacher who may have lost his efficiency would ever refuse emeritation, inasmuch as he must recognize in an eventual request the implication that he is no longer con¬ sidered sufficient for his position. Consequently the faculty (plenum) pro¬ posed the adoption of provisions conceroing emeritation essentially in the form of §§ 44 and 45 of the definitive statutes, with the exception, of course, of the introduction omitted therein: “Professors can not be (service) pensioned, but only emerited.” It is in agreement with these provisions that § 2 of the law of June 18, 1890, formally excludes the application to professors of the provisions of the law for imperial officials concerning service pensions. As the reasons emphasize, the application of the general provisions for service pensions, because of differences in the regulation of salaries (the absence of fixed salary classes and regular increase) did not appear to be feasible, and an equalization impossible without serious encroachments upon traditional academic and statutoi-y relations. A necessity in the interest of the service for immediate dismissal, as it exists with other officials, does not occur with professors, whose representation may be ac¬ complished in different fashion, more particularly as the appointment of directors of the institution is at all times revocable (§§ 82 and 94, -No. 2, of the staPates). Consequently, and inasmuch as no embarrassments have resulted heretofore, the obligatory permanent emeritation analogous with the obligatory pensioning seems dispensable, and just as little can a temporary emeritation analogous to temporary retirement enter into consideration. (b) Accordingly, subparagraph 1 of § 44 of the university statutes establishes the principle of the entire voluntariness of emeritation, which, it is true, as the preamble expresses it, “ recognizes to a large extent the freedom of science and the interests of its representatives.” On the other hand, a professor can not demand his emeritation arbitrarily, but only under certain conditions, of which § 44, subparagraph 2, names the following : The completion of the sixty-fifth year of life as the time limit at which, as a rule, one can no longer rely on the vigor requisite for teaching. (Compare the analogous privilege to service pension on the part of an official in the same age, according to Art. I of the law of April 21, 1886, R. G. B., p. SO.) Also the case in which the government would relieve a professor against his will of the direction of a university institution or clinical hospital, by which in many instanc-es the possibility of teaching on his part would be removed at the same time. The statutes do not expressly identify with the first case the case in which a professor becomes incapable of teaching before completion of the sixty-fifth year of life through sickness or loss of his bodily and menial powers ; and also does not provide for the proceedings by which eventually this inability would have to be established. As a matter of course, the government is not prevented in the supposed case from granting emeritation to the professor, although he may have no formal claim. Actually this has been done repeatedly. (c) The legal status of an emerited professor is defined in § 45, so that he is freed from the duty of giving lecture courses and from the acceptance of uni¬ versity offices, but continues in the enjoyment of his rights, with the exception PET^SIOIN^S IN GEKMAN UNIVERSITIES. 17 1 of the Claim upon cleniisliip (§4) and upon the increments in the compensation by the state. The emerited professor is accordingly freed from certain duties of a professor and loses only certain of his rights. Emeritation, in contrast with pensioning, does not therefore mean the separation of the official from his legal status, but only a modification of the latter ; fundamentally an emerited professor is in equal situation with an active professor. Now, first, with regard to his duties, an emerited professor is no longer obliged to hold lecture courses (compare statutes of the university, § 72, subpara¬ graph 4, and § 7G), from which, according to § 81, it follows further that he can absent himself from the location of the university without leave. Further¬ more, he is freed from the acceptanc-e of university offices — rector, senator, syn- dicus (as a matter of course, inasmuch as he loses his claim upon deanship, also, from acceptance of this). In so far, however, as an emerited professor does not avail himself of these reliefs, announces lecture courses and holds them or accepts the call to a university office, he assumes thereby all the responsibilities connected with" these functions. Necessarily an emerited professor who retains membership of his faculty and of the plenum is not relieved of the duties of taking part as ordinary professor in the functions of the faculty and as pro¬ fessor in the meetings of the plenum. If, however, as according to the above he is free to do, he removes his residence from Strassburg, these duties disap¬ pear with the actual disappearance of the possibiliVv of their performafice. Since, however, according to this, it depends on the choice of an emerited pro¬ fessor to relieve himself of the above duties and thereby of all the duties of a professor, and in consideration of the purpose of emeritation to grant the pro¬ fessor full leisure, he may certainly also be granted the right to relieve himself of all his remaining duties without change of residence in a formal declaration to the faculty. To this effect, therefore, the senate of March .3, 18S0, passed a resolution which, at the same time, suggests to the faculties to bring about in each case of emeritation by a special request an immediate declaration on the part of the emeritus as to how he maj^ intend to relate himself to the business of the faculty. Among the rights of a professor, an emeritus expressly loses the claim to deanship because of his age (§4) and to the increments that form part of the compensation by the state. Moreover, if, and in so far as, he avails himself of his relief from lecture courses and from the acceptance of university offices or of his complete relief from all business, he loses also the rights connected with the duties in question. Thus, e. g., a professor who may have given the last- named declaration could no longer in the plenum assist in the election of the rector. Otherwise the emeritus continues in the enjoyment of all his rights. He has, particularly, the right to assist in the election of rector, senator, and syndicus, and, if he is an ordinary professor, also the right of eligibility to these offices. An emerited ordinary professor is a fully privileged member of the faculty whose meetings he attends (compare § 3 of the statutes of the philosoph¬ ical faculty), and as senator fully privileged member of the senate, _except_that he can not become dean. - — . — “ The question whether emerited professors are entitled to share in the promo¬ tion fees and qualification fees is determined by the provisions concerning the amount and use of fees in the regulations for promotion, respectively, for quali¬ fication (compare statutes of university, ’§ 89, subparagraph 3, §§7, 2G). Now, under dates of December 18, 1888, and February 2, 11, and 22, 1889, the medical, the theological, the philosophical faculties, as well as the faculty of jurisprudence and politics, adopted resolutions concerning the exclusion of emerited professors from promotion fees, in connection with amendments of the regulations of promo¬ tions, which subsequently were approved on April 29, 1889, by the imperial gov' ernor. Accordingly, § G of the Prom. Reg. of the philosophical faculty formally ex¬ cludes emerited professors, while § 11 of the Prom. Reg. of the theological faculty, § 10 of the Prom. Reg. of the faculty of jurisprudence and politics, and § 10 of the Prom, Reg. of the medical faculty entitle the ordinary professors, who are under obligation to take part in the doctorate examinations, to receive the fees According to this latter formulation, an emerited ordinarius would be entitled to a share in the fees only if he (see above) should expressly claim participa¬ tion in the faculty labors connected with doctorate examinations. Otherwise he would receiye remuneration without corresponding .service. Furthermore, the faculty of mathematics and natural science amended, in April, 1893, with governmental approval, § 12 of its statutes, under which the 172 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. income of the faculty not applied to its purposes was to be distributed among the ordinary professors, and ordered this distribution among the ordinary professors who may be under obligation to take part in the business of the faculty (§ 10 of the Prom. Reg.). With this agrees, finally, the new formulation of § 11 of the qualification regulations of the faculty of jurisprudence and politics. (d) The analogous application of certain provisions of the imperial law for officials (§§ 57, 59, 60, 60), concerning service pensioners and their pension claims to the emerited professors and their salary claims, is ordered in § 5 of the law of June 18, 1890. Accordingly the claim to salary of an emerited professor is suspended : 1. If he loses German citizenship, until its eventual restoration ; 2. If, and as long as, he draws service income in the service of the Empire or of the state, in so far as the amount of such income, together with the salary of the emeritus, exceeds the amount of the service income of the professor before emeritation. Similarly, if an emeritus has accepted a position in the public service which in itself is entitled to service pension and in this position has earned a service pension, he will continue to draw the emeritus salary only to the extent desig¬ nated in No. 2 above. The withdrawal, reduction, or restoration of the emeritus salary on the basis of the preceding regulations begins with the beginning of the month which follows the event entailing such change. In case of temporary reengagement in the service of the Empire or state on per diem or other remuneration, the emeri¬ tus salary is paid without reduction during the first six months of such occupa¬ tion, but for and after the seventh month only to the amount admissible under the preceding provisions. Even the so-called month of grace is granted to the relicts of the emerited professor as to those of the service-pensioned official. If an emerited professor leaves a widow and legitimate progeny the emeritus salary continues to be paid for the month following the month of decease. To whom payment shall be made is determined by the highest imperial authority, the secretary of state. With the approval of the same authority, payment “ of the month of grace ” may be made also if the deceased leaves in destitution parents, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or adopted children whose provider he was, or if his estate is not sufficient to cover the expenses of his sickness and burial. The “ month of grace ” is not subject to attachment. [Pp. 202 and 203.] V. Payments to be Made to University Officials. The following salaries obtain: Marks. The secretary of the university, a salary of _ .3, 300-4, 900 At present _ 4, 000 The questor and accountant (rendant) _ 4,900 (Besides from questor fees, 2 per cent of the paid current hon¬ oraria, and for the collection of respited honoraria, 5 per cent, and if these have to be recovered after the term of respite, 10 iier cent, he has service residence under statutory rent ; of his income from fees 1,000 marks are considered in computing his service pension.) The treasury assistant, at present _ 2, 800 (He ranks with the secretary’s assistant and the treasury as¬ sistant of the inner administration ; the respective salary posts are mutually transferable.) The calculator and comptroller of the treasury draws as such no special remuneration. The assistant officials of the institution receive : The prosector of the ana¬ tomical institute, 3,000 marks ; the observator of the observatory, 3,900 marks ; the assistants, varying amounts from 600 and 900 marks to 1,800 marks ; besides, the assistants receive partially free service residence, even with furniture, or service residence at statutory rental. The subassistants, amanuenses, etc., receive very modest remunerations. The extraordinary professors, who serve also as assistants, receive no pay for these positions. Of the subordinate officials, the clerk of the rector receives at present 2,300 marks ; the bedels, including the head bedel and the superintendent of the household {Hausmei.^tcr) , 1,400-1,900 marks; the head bedel besides, a func- PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 173 tioiial increment of 300 marks; the janitor, a remuneration of 1,150 marks; the steward of women’s clinical hospital, 1,000 marks; the university gar¬ dener, 2,000 marks. The compensations of the servants and janitors of the institution consist in general of salaries of 1,275 to 1,525 marks, averaging 1,400 marks, which are mutually transferable. Most of them have service residence at statutory rentals. The servants of the Institute of Physics and Chemistry draw special salaries of 1,800 marks each, of which, ho'wever, certain amounts do not enter into computation of service pensions. III. THE ROYAL BAVARIAN UNIVERSITIES. A.— PROVISIONS FOR THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF PROFESSORS, ETC. The pensioning of the widows and orphans of the teachers and othcials at the royal Bavarian universities is primarily like that of all other regularly em¬ ployed public servants of the Kingdom of Bavaria under § 8 of the ninth appendix of the constitutional charter of May 20, 1818, regulated by the service decree of January 1, 1805.‘*' According to this every widow of a public ofTicial and also the widow of a university professor receives, after lapse of the month of decease with which the salary of the deceased husband ceases, one-fifth of the activity or retirement salary of the latter as a widow’s pension, derived proportionately from the same sources with the salary or periodical service-increments. Each “simple” orphan (orphan having lost its father) shall receive one-fifth, “double” orphan (full orphan) three tenths, of the widow’s pension as ali¬ mony. This alimony ceases as a rule with entrance into the twenty-first year of life or previous change of condition, by which the orphan is otherwise provided for {Versorgung) . Children that have reached majority at the death of the father but are not as yet provided for receive for one year the amount of alimony which is com¬ puted for minors, as a final gift. From the rule extinguishing the orphan’s alimony with the beginning of the twenty-first year of life those children are excepted Avho are legally shown to have lost temporarily or permanently the ability of caring for themselves. A threefold gradation is considered in this : (d) Limited ability to make a living in the service of others or by work at home, which renders additional support apparently indispensable ; (&) Total inability to make a living; (c) The still worse condition of chronic disease, total blindness, constant confinement to the bed, or other crippled condition v/hich, in addition to total inability to make a living, demands the help and care of others. In accordance with these gradations there is granted even after entrance upon the twenty-first year of life in the first case one-half, in the second the whole of the statutory alimony, and in the third case this whole and an incre¬ ment of its half, which increment in these extraordinary cases is extended also to widows’ pensions, however, only in cases of established real destitution and no participation in a public charitable or provident institution. As yearly contribution to the respective widows and orphans’ fund, every regularly employed public ofhcial is held to pay a certain percentage of his service or retirement salary, which (percentage), with a salary of 1,080 to 3,000 marks and with higher salaries, rises up to 3 per cent. In addition to this claim to pension, respectively alimony, there had been expressed already in Article XXIV, § 24, of the decree concerning public officials, that these officials ought to establish by their private means a special widows and orphans’ fund. “ Compare for this in general ; .T. Riib, Der pragmatische Kgl. bayerische Civil-Staats- diener, seine Stancles- und Besoldungsverbaltnisse, ferner die Berechnnng der I’ension fiir ihn nebst Wittwen u. Waisen, sowie die Beziige ans Relikten-Unterstiizengsyereinen und Tocbterkassen. 1‘iiblisbed by the author. Press of I. M. Richter, Wurzburg. 174 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. After various initial attempts since 1818 such a special fund was finally estab¬ lished in 1865 under tlie name of “ Benefit Association of the Regular Public Officials.” o The members of this benefit association are grouped into three classes, as follows : Those that draw salaries of 4,320 marks and over, first class ; Those that draw salaries of 2,160 to 4,319 marks, second class ; and Those that draw salaries of less than 2,160 marks, third class. The first class has to pay an annual premium of 61 marks 20 pfennigs, the second class 40 marks 80 pfennigs, the third class 20 murks 40 pfennigs. For this the widow of an official of the first class receives an annual pension of 540 marks, of the second class 360 marks, of the third class 180 marks. The “simple” orphan (half-orphan) receives up to the completed twentieth year of life, or until provided for at an earlier period, one-fifth, the “ full ” orphan three-tenths, of the pension due to the mother. There is no obligation for university professore to join the benefit associa¬ tion ; on the other hand, the civil officials of the university are under obligation to join the association on the day of their appointment. With this benefit asso¬ ciation a so-called “daughters’ fund” {Tochter Kasse) is connected. From this the unmarried daughters of members receive after the death of their parents annual benefits (Prahenden) eventually for life, however, not before the begin¬ ning of the twenty-first year of life, and until marriage or the taking of perpetual vows in a convent. These benefits amount annually to 240 marks. Tli« annual fee for each regular member of the daughters’ fund is fixed at 20 marks 40 pfennigs. There is no obligation to join the fund either for university professors or for the civil officials of the university. The following revised statutes, approved by the government under date of September 13, 1889, were adopted by the eleventh general assembly of June 25, 1889: Revised statutes of the general benefit association for the relicts of royal Bava¬ rian public officials and of the daughters' fund connected thereivith.^ Section I. — Generae Benefit Association. § 1. The object of the association shall be to provide benefits for the relicts of its members, without prejudice to any claims they might have to pensions or alimony from the public funds. § 2. The general benefit association draws its members from the public offi¬ cials employed in the royal civil service with statutory rights in accordance with the ninth appendix of the constitutional charter, to the exclusion of those who already belong to an association established for the benefit of the relicts of public officials under the supervision of the state and enjoying contributions from the public funds. The following may become honorary members at any time : Public officials of all grades who, under the government order of April 6, 1888, concerning the general benefit association, etc., and the daughters’ fund connected therewith, are not under obligation to become regular members, if — without raising any claims to the funds of the association for their relicts — they intend to assist in its object and prove this intention — (u) By pledging themselves to pay during their continuance in the service the contribution fee of a regular member corresponding with their salary ; or (b) By paying into the fund of the association on application for honorary membership an aggregate sum amounting to at least ten annual con¬ tribution fees of regular members of their salary class. Increase of the contribution fees under § 13, subparagraph 2, or supplementary contribution fees, shall not apply to honorary members. “ Compare Bayerisches Staatsrecht, von Max Seydel, 1887, Vol. Ill, p. 462 ff. ^Compare in this connection the chamber decree of July 10, 1865 (G. Bl., p. 110), concerning the establishment of a benefit association for the relicts of royal Bavarian civil officials ; the royal government decree of August 31, 1865, concerning the same asso¬ ciation and the daughters’ fund connected therewith ; the royal government 'decree of April 6, 1888, concerning the same object, and the announcement of the royal ministry of finance of April 24, 1888, connected therewith, all printed in the “ Revised Statutes of the general benefit association, etc., Munich, 1889 : Academic Press of Fr. Straub.” PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 175 § 3. The association shall be nncTer the supervision of the government. § 4. The association shall have the rights of a corporation. § 5. The state officials named in § 2, subparagraph 1, appointed on or after April 6, 1888, not belonging to the Catholic clergy, shall become regular mem¬ bers of the association with their appointment. The university professors appointed on or after April G, 1888, and who do not belong to a separate association established for the beneht of the relicts of state officials, enjoying contributions from the state and placed under state super¬ vision, shall become members if within six months from the day of their appointment they pledge themselves to pay four widows and orphans’ fees for the benefit of the benefit association in accordance with the provisions made in behalf of the regular state officials. This term of respite shall begin for uni¬ versity professors appointed on or after April G, 1888, up to the day those revised statutes take effect with the last-named day. The examination of membership claims, their recognition by the issue of the certificate of membership, and, eveiituallj^, their rejection on the ground of these statutes, shall belong to the council of administration. The determination of the statutory contributions shall be made in accordance with government provisions existing at the time. § G. For the state officials designated in § 2, subparagraph 1, who may have been appointed before April 6, 1888, the following provisions shall apply ; They shall be entitled to regular membership in the association if on the day of application for membership they are still in active service and have not passed the fiftieth year of life. They shall pay supplementally the respective contributions from October 1, 18G5, respectively, from the day of their later appointment to the day of their appli¬ cation for membership, and suffer an additional charge of 10 per cent annually of this supplemental payment for the entire period to which the supplemental period applies. The application for membership shall be made against immediate certificate of receipt, as follows ; By members of the royal council of state to the royal state ministry of the interior ; By an official belonging directly to one of the royal civil state ministries, the same ; By directors of the central and centralized offices aiid of the circuit offices, to the respective royal state ministry ; By other officials to their boards of directors, respectively, to the boards of directors of their superior offices. The respective offices and boards of directors shall transmit the applications for membership to the council of administration of the association and shall make report to the offices in control of the respective funds, stating the amounts of contributions due, for the purpose of their collection at the proper time. The examination of membership claims, etc., see § 5, subparagraph 3, p. 13.5. The rights and duties of membership shall obtain with the date of application for membership, subject, however, to the recognition of the right of membership by the council of administration. If a member dies before complete discharge of these obligations, his relicts shall not actually draw their statutory claims until by their retention, or in other ways, the arrears shall have been fully covered. The provision of the preceding subparagraph shall apply without regard to the time of the acquisition of membership. § 7. Every regular member is under obligation to belong to the association as long as he is in the enjoyment of a salary or seiwice pension from the Bavarian state treasury. § 8. The obligation of a regular member shall consist In the payment of a fixed annual contribution, which, beginning with the time of the acquisition of mem¬ bership, shall be collected, as a rule, through deduction from the salary or service pension. Members whose contributions can not be raised through such deductions shall be excluded from membership if they should be in arrear with their contribu¬ tions for more than six months and if the request for payment by the adminis¬ trative council should have remained ineffective. § 9. No restitution of paid contributions shall be made. § 10. Subject to the provisions of subparagraph 2, a member of the association shall continue as such, even after voluntary or involuntary separation from the 176 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. service of the state, if the member obligates liimself to continue payment of the annual contribution of the class to which he belonged heretofore, and, should he later on fail to pay contributions due to the benefit association, to pay in addition an annual increase of contribution equal in amount to the contributions last paid. A member who, in consequence of criminal or disciplinary judgment, shall lose temporarily or permanently his office or rights of citizenship or the right to occupy public office, shall cease to be a member of the association with the day the respective judgment shall take effect. The right of membership may, however, be retained under assumption of the obligations of subparagraph 1, when, in the disciplinary dismissal of a judiciary official under article 5, § 5, of the disciplinary law for judiciary officials of March 26, 1881, the relicts of the same shall have been left wholly or in part in the enjoyment of their pension claims. The relicts of a former member that has lost membership under subparagraph 2 shall have no legal claim to benefits. The right, however, is reserved to the administrative council to grant, in case of destitution, moderate benefits in pro¬ portion to the paid-up contributions. § 11. The fund of the association shall be derived — (а) From the contributions due from regular members and from the an¬ nual contributions of honorary members ; (б) From the supplementary contributions of regular members ; (c) From the endowment fund assigned to the association under the gov¬ ernmental chamber decree of July 10, 1865, § 10, letter a. No. 1, and which eventually is to revert to the state ; (d) From annual contributions by the State; (e) From the aggregate payments of honorary members and from other gifts, inheritances, legacies, etc. For reenforcement of the fundamental assets and its permanent security the incomes designated under letter (h) and under letter (e), in so far as the donors or testators have not expressly made different provision, shall be added to these (assets). Similarly, there shall be added to these (assets) all amounts and all surplus of the income designated under (d), as w^ell as of interest on the assets, which under the provisions of § 17 appear to be excluded from application to current benefits. § 12. The regular members of the association are grouped in three classes. Beginning with .January 1, 1876, the state officials that draw an annual salary — ( a ) Of 4,620 marks and over shall belong to the first class ; (&) Of 2,160 to 4,819 jnarks shall belong exclusively to the second class ; (c) Of less than 2,160 marks shall belong to the third class. Portions of salary that are designated in amounts of grain, and that are, how¬ ever, statutory, shall be computed with the fixed salary under the valuation given in the decree or in the nominative law. Retirement shall not affect the preceding provisions. § 18. Beginning with January 1, 1876, the contributions due by regular members shall, as a rule, be as follows : First class, annually, 61 marks 20 pfennigs ; Second class, annually, 40 marks 80 pfennigs; Third class, annually, 20 marks 40 pfennigs. The amount of these contributions shall be increased by 25 per cent in all the three classes for a regular member who — (a) On the day of the acquisition of membership shall have passed the fif¬ tieth year of life, and who at the same time is married or widower, with one or several children that have not as yet completed the twen¬ tieth year of life ; or (b) Who, after completing the fiftieth year, marries or remarries a woman more than 10 years younger, in so far as he is not already under obligation to pay the increased contribution according to regulations under (a). § 14. From the resources of the association benefits shall accrue without re¬ gard to other property or income on their part — 1. To the widows during their widowdiood ; 2. To the legitimate children or children legitimized by subsequent mar¬ riage, in case of their orphanage, up to the completed twentieth year of life or until they may be provided for at an earlier period. PENSIONS IN GEKMAN UNIVERSITIES. 177 The wife of a member of the association adjudged as the guilty party in divorce shall, in case of the decease of the member, have no claim upon benefit or compensation. The claim to benefits becomes extinct for widows entitled to benefits on their remarriage. They shall, however, in such cases, on notice, receive a compensa¬ tion to be determined by the administrative council, which, however, shall be estimated at not less than the fivefold nor more than the tenfold amount of the annual benefit. If the deceased member of the association leaves, in addition to the wife mar¬ ried to him later on, also a divorced wife, the claim from the benefit association is due to the widow to whom the claim upon the pension from the state fund shall have been adjudged. If under subparagraph 3 neither of the widows draws a pension from the Bavarian state fund, the benefit, respectively, the compensation shall be due to the divorced wife, provided she was not divorced as the guilty party and her former husband during his marriage with her was already a member of the association. § IG. The distribution of the benefits for widows and orphans shall be made in per capita shares. The determination of the per capita share of a widow — the unit in the normal amount of benefits — shall be made in accordance with the following; (a) For a widow of a member of the first class, 3 shares; for one of the second class, 2 shares ; for one of the third class, 1 share. (&) For five half-orphans of the first class, 3 shares; for five half-orphans of the second class, 2 shares ; for five half-orphans of the third class, 1 share. (c) For 10 full orphans of the first class, 0 shares; for 30 full orphans of the second class, 6 shares ; for 10 full oiphans of the third class, 3 shares. By the sum of the shares thus obtained the amount of the resources at dis¬ posal for distribution shall be divided. § 17. Beginning with Januai-y 1, the amount of such a share shall be fixed pro¬ visionally at 180 marks annually. An increase of this amount can be made only in the manner prescribed in § 35 of the statutes for all amendments of the statutes. For application to current benefits the income from the annual contributions of the members shall be drawn upon first, then the interest from invested funds, and in the third place the contributions by the state mentioned in § 11, letter d. § 18. The widows of members of the association shall receive as annual bene¬ fit : For the first class, 3 shares ; for the second class, 2 shares ; for the third class, 1 share. § 19. Of the surviving children, a half-orphan shall receive one-fifth, a full orphan three-tenths, of the amount of benefit of the mother, until completion of the twentieth year'of life, or until he or she shall be provided for earlier. § 20. The alimony of the children shall remain, even if the widow marries again and the former thereby obtain a new home. § 21. Adopted children or children acquired on marriage can not obtain bene¬ fits unless they are entitled thereto on the account of their own father. , 5 32. The children of a deceased member of the association that have a step¬ mother shall be treated as half-orphans. § 23. Benefits shall be due with the lapse of the month for which the salary of ‘ the deceased husband or father was still paid, and for those entitled to claims whose husband or father did not enjoy a salary, with the first day of the cal¬ endar month following the day on which the husband or father died. They become extinct with the lapse of the month in which the claim ceases. Section II. — Daughters’ Fund. In addition to and in connection with the General Benefit Association for the relicts, etc., there exists a distinct daughters’ fund. From this the unmarried daughters of the members receive annual benefits after the death of both their own parents, not, however, before the beginning of the twenty-first year of life, until their marriage or the taking of perpetual vows in a convent eventually for life. § 25. The provisions of § 2, subparagraphs 2 and 3, and §§ 3 to 9, above, apply also to the distinct association for the daughters’ fund. ED 1904 M - 12 178 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. § 26. The n.embers of the General Benefit Association appointed to office up to April 6, 1888, are entitled to become regular members of the daughters’ fund for the first three years from the day of their appointment. With regard to their admission and rights the provisions of § G, subparagraphs 4, etc., shall apply. ’ They shall pay the respective contributions in arrear from the day of their appointment to the day of their entrance request and, besides, a supplementary arrearage according to the standard in the third subparagraph of § 6. § 27. Subject to the provisions of subparagraph 2, any member of the associa¬ tion retains membership, even on voluntary or involuntary separation from the public service, in so far as he assumes the obligation to continue payment of the statutory annual contributions and retains at the same time his membership in the General Benefit Association. Subparagraphs 2 and 3 of this section, as above, page 176, subparagraphs 2 and 8 of § 10. The relicts, designated in § 24, subparagraph 2, of a former member, etc. (remainder as above, page 139, subparagraph 4 of § 10). § 28. The resources of the daughters’ fund shall be derived : (a) From the contributions due from regular members and from the con¬ tributions of honorary members ; (b) From the payment of supplementary contributions of the regular mem¬ bers ; (c) From the annual contributions by the state; and (d) From aggregate payments of honorary members and from other gifts, inheritances, legacies, etc. For the sake of reenforcing the fundamental capital, the permanent securing of which is to be held in view, the revenues designated under letters (h) and (d) are to be primarily added to the capital, with reference to those under (d), in so far as the donor or testator has not otherwise provided. Similarly there shall be added to the fundamental capital all amounts and surplus sums from the revenues designated under (a) and (c), as well as from interest on the capital, which, under the provisions of § 30, are excluded from application to current prebends. § 29. The annual contribution of a regular member shall be 20 marks 40 pfennigs from January 1, 1876. § 30. The annual prebends shall be computed hereafter on the basis of the portion of the annual income designated for distribution in equal per capita shares. Provisionally an annual prebend has been fixed at 240 marks, begin¬ ning with January 1, 1881. An increase in this amount can be secured only in the way prescribed for all amendments of the statutes in § 35. Prebendaries who may marry or who take perpetual vows in a convent shall receive on notice a compensation to be determined by the administrative council, which shall be not less than the fivefold nor more than the tenfold amount of the annual prebend. To the current prebends there are to be applied, first, the revenues from the annual contributions of members, then the interest from the capital, and, in the third place, also, eventually, the contributions from the state, mentioned under § 28, letter (c). Section III. — Administration. § 31. At the head of the two associations stands an administrative council, which shall have its seat at Munich. It shall consist — 1. Of a president ; 2. Of a vice-president, both of whom are selected by His Majesty the King from the higher state officials residing at Munich and who need not be members of the associations ; and 3. Of 12 regular members residing at Munich who shall be elected by abso¬ lute majority of votes by the general assembly, and of whom at least six must also be regular members of the daughters’ fund. § 32. By similar process 12 alternates shall be elected who shall officiate in the order of their election, but with regard to the requirement that at all times six members of the daughters’ fund shall sit in the administrative council. § 33. The administrative council shall attend to the conduct and transactions of the affairs of the associations without pay. PEisrsioi^s m german universities. 179 It shall pass its resolutions in consultations, at Avliich, in addition to the president or vice-president, there shall assist at least eight members ot the ad¬ ministrative coniicil, of whom at least four shall also he members of the dangli- ters’ fund. With resolutions that concern exchisivefj" the daughters’ fund, the decision shall belong only to the presiding oilicer and to those members of the administrative council who are also members of the daughters’ fund. If, through detention of members of the administrative council, the number requisite for the passage of resolutions is not available, the requisite number of alternates shall be invited to attend the consultations in the order of their election and with regard to the requirement that at least four members of the daughters’ fund shall sit in the administrative council. In case of a tie vote the presiding officer shall decide. The vice-iwesident, even when he has not been called to preside, is nevertheless authorized, but not obliged, to take part in tlie consultations and votes. The administrative council sliall administer the property of both associations and shall care for its maintenance and increase. It shall be its duty to invest at interest all available means at all times without delay. It is therefore authorized to invest capital funds and to recall invested capital funds, to issue receipts therefor, to execute and to transfer securities and per¬ petual loans, to institute foreclosure proceedings against securities and mort¬ gages, to represent the association in all juridical matters subject to § 43, and to empower permanent or special representatives for the transaction of affairs of the association. It is authorized to defray the expenses of its administration from the funds of the associations and to order their payment and entry by the royal central state depository. The administrative council shall publish annually the results of the regularly balanced account and shall’ submit the same at the time for inspection and action to the general assembly. The administrative council is authorized eventually to order the exclusion of members of the associations from the associations in accordance with the statu¬ tory provisions. § 34. The general assemblies shall be held bienniallj^ at Munich. Every member of the associations is entitled to take part in them. * The call shall be made by the administrative council, which is authorized also to convene special general assemblies. The president of the administrative council shall preside. Resolutions shall be passed by absolute majority of the votes of those present, provided, however, that in matters concerning exclusively the daughters’ fund only the members of this branch of the associations shall be entitled to vote. § 35. The following matters are subject to the general assembly ; . 1. The election of the administrative council, with the exception of the two presidents ; 2. The inspection of the financial reports and action concerning them; 3. Deliberation and action concerning amendments of the statutes, subject to the approval of His Majesty the King ; 4. Deliberation and action concerning other matters which the administra¬ tive council may submit to the general assembly; and 5. Deliberation and action concerning’ the dissolution of the associations and disposal of the property, subject to the approval of Ills Majesty the King. § 3G. The contributions of the members of the associations shall I)e collected by the depositories and bureaus that are held to pay the salaries and service pensions of the members of the associations, upon report of the offices which control the funds, in monthly rates, by deductions from salaries or service pen¬ sions, and shall be remitted at the close of each quarter to the depository of the respective circuit, district, or center, together with a list of eventual arrears. These depositories shall remit, also quarterly, to the royal central depository of state {Jc. Central Rtaats Kasse) the amounts delivered to them, together with eventual other receipts, and shall report at the same time eventual arrears, which arrears the royal central depository of state shall at once report to the administrative council. In case of transfer or change of i-esi deuce on the part of members of the associations the depositories and bureaus which hitherto had charge of the collection of the contributions of the associations shall report the change to the 180 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. respective depositories and bureaus which will hereafter have to pay the sala¬ ries and service pensions. § 37. The offices, which are authorized to regulate and assign statutory pen¬ sions and alimonies, shall also issue the orders for the payment by respective depositories and bureaus of the alimonies determined by the statutes or by the administrative council. The bureaus that make payments shall transmit quarterly to the respective circuit, district, or central depository a list of the collected contributions and of eventual other income, and of the alimonies (and pensions) paid out with the respective receipts, properly separating the two associations. § 38. The district and central depositories shall keep separate books of the receipts and expenditures of the two associations and shall make, separately for the two associations, financial reports which— the latter under the provisions of the royal decree of January 11, 182G, “ concerning financial accounts ” — shall be submitted to the royal central depository of state {k. Central Staats Kasse) for revision and super-revision and their closing. § 39. The royal central depository of state (k. Central Staats Kasse) shall collect the respective contributions of the associations from the salaries and service pensions directly payable by it, shall pay the pensions and alimonies assigned to it, and shall make report thereon, including eventual surplus deliv¬ eries made to it and other receipts, which (report) shall also be subject to revision and super-revision. §40. At the close of each fiscal year the depositories designated in §§38 and 39 shall prepare a list of the then members of the two associations and of the contributions due from them, also of the widows and orphans and of the benefits accorded to them, and shall submit this to the royal ministry of finance, which shall communicate the same to the other royal ministries, as well as to the administrative council. §41. The royal supreme court of accounts {Jc. oTierste Reclinungsliot) shall, under § 58 of the royal decree of January 11, 1820, prepare a general account, and submit the same, together with a statement of assets — separately for both associations — to the royal ministry of finance, which shall transmit these to the ^administrative council of the associations. § 42. The entire property of the associations in cash and bonds shall be depos¬ ited with the central state depository. § 43. Differences between members of the associations or their relicts, on the one hand, and the two associations, on the other, concerning claims resulting from connection with the associations, shall be adjudged by a court of arbitra¬ tion under the tenth book of the Reichs Civil Proccssordnung (Regulation of Civil Suits of the Realm). This (court of arbitration) shall consist of two trustees to be selected by the administrative council, two to be selected by the interested member of the asso¬ ciation or his relicts, and one foreman, to be selected by these four. In case the four trustees fail to agree on the election of a foreman within a peremptory time to be determined by the administrative council, the first presi¬ dent of the administrative council shall also be foreman of the court of arbi¬ tration. In complaints in the sense of § 871 of the Reichs Civil Processordnung (see above) the royal Landgericht (provincial court) of Munich I or the royal Amts- gericht (magisti’ate’s court) of Munich I shall have jurisdiction. Private Widows’ Fund, University of Erlangen. For the ordinary professors of the University of Erlangen there exists, finally, also a so-called private university widows’ fund, in addition to and wholly inde¬ pendent of the public institution of pensions granted from the resources of the state. Obligation of membership does not exist. Each member has to pay a special entrance fee (Aceessgelder) , consisting of 5 per cent of the total cash salary. The same has to be paid with each increase of salary. An ordinary professor with the initial salary of 4,500 marks, therefore, has to pay 228 marks of entrance fee {Accessgelder) . In addition to this each member has to pay an annual fee of 18 marks. PENSIONS IN GEEMAN UNIVERSITIES. 181 The widow draws Iier pension until her death or roinarriase. In both cases the pension is transferred without reduction to the legitimate children of the deceased husband, and i)ayinent is continned without reduction until the young¬ est child is siifticiently provided for or has pa'ssed the twenty-lifth year of life. The amount of the yearly pension is determined l)y the number of existing widows and orphans and by the amount of interest in such a way that the yearly amount of interest from investments of the fund are ecpially and mutually divided among the surviving families after a few slight reductions. The yearlj^ pension of a family is not to be less than 450 marks nor more than 900 marks ; at present it is on an average 700 marks. Extraordinary professors, the syndicus. the (piestor, and the secretary of the university may be admitted on ballot as extraordinary members. These have the same duties with ordinary members, but their families receive eventually only one-half of the above pension. So far, however, none of the above officials of the university have succeeded in securing membership in the private univer¬ sity widows’ fund. The statutes of October 30, 18G0, approved under date of January 5, 1801, are as follows : Revised statutes of the private widows' fund of the Royal F redcriek-Alcxander University of Erlangen. I. GENERAL EROVISIONS. § 1. The private widows’ fund of the university is an institution for the bene¬ fit of the ordinary professors of the Frederick-Alexander. University and exists with the character of a private institution, in addition to and wholly inde¬ pendent of the public institution of pensions paid from the resources of the state, respectively, from the qiiestoi-ate fund, under the provisions of the regu¬ lations of the Bavarian public service. Upon motion of the royal and academic senate and of the administration of the private widows’ fund, the ministerial decree of August 17, 18G0, No. G977, approves the proposition that the annual appropriations of the lu-ivate widows’ fund be submitted for approval to the royal ministry of the interior for church and school affairs and the annual account to the royal chamber of acounts for revision, without prejudice, however, to the character of the fund as a private institution. § 2. The private widows’ fund shall enjoy the riglits and privileges of benevo¬ lent institutions (pioruni corporum). § 3. Formerly the private widows’ fund consisted of two separate funds, viz : (a) The so-called professors’ widows’ fund, which was established from contributions of the professors since the year 1747 ; and {h) The so-called widows’ fund instituted by I’russia, established with a donation of Ilis Majesty the King of Prussia on December 31, 1804. Separate accounts were kept for the two. By a ministerial decree of April IG, 1850, however, these two funds were combined as the “ private widows’ fund of the Royal University of Erlangen,” and, as a consequence, the separate accounting was discontinued with the year 1859-60. § 4. The income of the private widows’ fund shall consist — 1. Of the interest from invested capital ; 2. Of the 300 florins « payable to the private widows’ fund annually from the exchequer of the university, under a ministerial decree of Jan¬ uary 13, 1855 ; 3. Of the cash surplus of the prorectorate fund, which, under a ministerial decree of March 10, 185G, shall be transferred annually (in the month of January) to the private widows’ fund and added to its funda¬ mental assets; 4. Of the annual contribution of G florins (10 marks SO pfennigs) which every member and every active ordinary professor, as w^ell as every retired ordinary professor connected with the university and draw¬ ing his retirement salary from the university fund or any other fund, irrespective of membership in the widows’ fund, is obliged to Withdrawn by a ministerial decree of December 19, 1867. 182 EI>UCATION KEPORT, 1904. pay into the widows’ fund, and which the questor is authorized to deduct or cause to be deducted from his pay ; a 5. Of the entrance fees (Accessgelder) of the newly entered members and, respectively, of the arrearage interest thereon ; 6. In some secondary revenues, viz : (a) From each inscription or immatriculation a voluntary amount, v\^hich is asked acl pias causasfi (&) From each, although otherwise gratuitous, promotion, 1 fiorin 30 kroner (2 marks 70 pfennigs). (c) From every entombment in the university vault the conventional fees, viz : A. For ordinary professors and their family members, (1) for adults, 5 florins; (2) for children under 12 years, 3 florins. B. For others according to varying conditions, 20 to 50 florins. The repairs of the university vault, under the resolution of the administra¬ tive council of August 20, 1859, is to be charged not to the private widows’ fund, but to the exchequer of the university. II. DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF MEMBERS. § 5. Every ordinary professor is immediately entitled to admission to the widows’ fund ; as actual member he will be considered, however, only with the day when he has paid his entrance fee. Should he die before payment of this fee his relicts shall have no claims upon the private widows’ fund, and the pay¬ ment of entrance fees after death by relicts is under no circumstances admissible. § 6. These entrance fees shall be computed at 5 per cent of the fixed salary, so that, however, GO florins (180 marks) shall be the minimum of the fee. To the fixed salary there shall be added in the computation also the statutory func¬ tional receipts, in so far as they are not granted for the purpose of defraying official expenditures. The salary paid in grain {Getrekle-'besoldung) , in ^ofSiV this shall be defrayed from the university fund, shall enter into the computation. Supplementary receipts, however, from other funds shall not be considered. The phrase “ other funds ” shall include only those funds that are adminis¬ tered by other than university authorities. Therefore 5 per cent shall be paid supplementally on every later increase in salary, if thereby a salary of 1,200 florins (2,160 marks) is not exceeded, as well as on functional receipts designated in detail above. § 7. The president of the administrative council of the widows’ fund shall, as soon as feasible, submit to each newly appointed ordinary professor c the stat¬ utes for his inspection, stating the amount of the capital of the association and the pension rates of the last fiscal years. The professor wdio may desire to avail himself of his right of admission shall state this in a written communication to the administration, which (latter) thereupon shall immediately remit to the cashier the requisite order for the col¬ lection of the entrance tQQA (Resolution of the royal academic senate of July 20, 1872. The member that pays his entrance fee later than eight days after transmittal of this communication shall pay interest at 5 per cent on the entrance fee from the lapse of these eight days to the actual payment of the fee, for the benefit of the fundamental capital. ^ “All ordinary professors appointed after June 13, 1869, both active and not active members of the private widows’ fund, shall pay an annual contribution of 10 florins (18 marks). (Ministerial decree of June 13, 1869, No. 4926.) Repealed on the basis of ministerial decision of' October 4, 1893, No. 14173. “ By a resolution of the administration of April 23, 1869, it was decreed that the stat¬ utes should be immediately sent for inspection also to those ordinary professors appointed only provisionally by ministerial decree. ^ If, on receipt of a communication declaring the desire to enter, a decree for entrance lias been issued to the questorate, and if eight days after receipt of the decree the entrance fee has not been paid, the questorate shall report this to the administration. The decree shall then be withdrawn, and only upon request by the respective professor a new decree shall be issued to the questorate. (Resolution of the administration of .June 23, 1870.) ® In case of arrearage interest proceedings are as follows : First, the questorate re¬ ceives a decree for the collection of the entrance fee and, at the same time, a request to compute at the proper time the arrearage interest up to the date of actual payment, and to submit this computation to the administration. When this has been done a new decree for collection of the entrance fee is issued to the questorate, with inclosure of the com¬ putation of the questor. (Resolution of the administration of July 1, 1870.) PENSIONS IN C4ERMAN UNIV' ERSITIES. 183 - § 8. Separation from the wi(lo^Ys’ fund shall take place only when a member’ separates his connection with tlie Frederick-AIexander University either by emi¬ gration or transfer or dismissal from service. In all these cases, separation from the v/idows’ fund is necessary. Retirement as such, whether the retirement salary be paid from the qiiestorate fund or from another fund, is not ground for separation as long as there is no return to active service or emploj'ment of the retired professor in a function not connected with the University of Erlangen. § 9. In case of separation from the fund the entrance fees (Acccssgcldcr) shall be returned to the member separated, but without interest. Compensation for the paid annual fees can not be made. § 10. Outside of the ordinary professors no other member of the university is entitled to admission. However, the members of the private widows’ fund shall have the right to admit also extraordinary professors that draw salaries from the exchequer of the university, the syndicus, questor, and secretary of the university, as a special favor and under free agreement. However in such a case it is provided : («) The admission of new extraordinary members shall be decided bj'' all the ordinary members, with the exception of the senators that have not joined tlie widows’ fund, under the presidency and direction of the president of the administration, by secret ballot with black and white balls ; but new extraordinary members shall not be admitted, nor even their admission proposed, until the yearly income of the widow of an ordinary member shall have reached a minimum of 300 florins (540 marks), for which reason the administrators shall sub¬ mit a report concerning the status of the wddows’ fund whenever a vote is to be taken ; {!)) Two-thirds of the votes shall be requisite for admission; (c) The admitted member shall be considered only as an extraordinary member of the association and shall have no vote concerning the interests of the widows’ fund ; and id) He shall, however, contribute in the same measure with the ordinary members, but his widow or other relicts can claim only one-half the annual pension due the widows (and other relicts) of ordinary mem¬ bers. III. SIGHTS AND DUTIES OF EELICTS. § 11. The relicts of the ordinary and extraordinary members shall enter upon the enjoyment of their pensions at the end of the month of decease and the after month (ISfach-monat) . The widow shall draw her pension until her death or remarriage. In both cases her pension shall be transferred without reduction to the legitimate chil¬ dren of the deceased husband, if there are such, and shall continue to be paid until the youngest child shall have been sufficiently provided for or shall have passed the twenty-flfth year of life ; provided, however, that the portion of the child or children who may have been provided for or who may have passed the twenty-flfth year shall accrue to tho.se children who are not as yet provided for and have not completed the twenty-fifth year of life. § 12. If there is no widow the children shall at once enter upon the enjojunent of the pension. Should a child be already provided for at the death of the father or of the widow he or she shall be wholly excluded from participation in the pension. § 13. The pension may be expended without reduction in the home country or in foreign countries. § 14. In addition to the pension, upon the death of a member, inclusive of extraordinary members, a sum of 30 florins (54 marks) shall be paid at once as contributions to the cost of burial. -§ 15. If the deceased was not married, or a widower leaving no children entitled to pension, his heirs shall receive, once for all, 60 florins (108 marks), which shall include the 30 florins (54 marks) for the above (§14) burial ex¬ penses. The payments under §§14 and 15 shall be made not from the interest of the invested assets but from the fundamental assets. Upon the death of a member the administration shall transmit to the relicts written notice of the amounts due them. § 16. The amount of the annual pension shall be determined by the number of existing widows and, respectively, orphans and by the revenue from interest. 184 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. From this revenue there shall be deducted, in addition to the necessary expenses, 30 florins (54 marks) to be added to the capital mass; the remainder shall be divided among the relicts of the members in equal shares : Provided, however, That the relicts of extraordinary members under § 10 shall enjoy only half shares. The receipts for the payments under §§ 10, 15, and 16 are free from stamp duty under the ministerial decree of August 17, 1860. § 17. In the computation of the revenue not only the amount of actually paid interest, but also the interest due shall be considered. § 18. The relicts residing in foreign parts in collecting their pensions shall have to establish their legitimacy by authoritatively certified proof of existence, and at the same time, on the one hand, the widows as to their continued widowhood, and on the other hand the adult children as to their not being provided for. § 19. A widow shall never be competent to receive more than 500 florins (900 marks) of pension from the private widows’ fund of the university.. Any eventual surplus of the revenue shall then be added to the capital. IV. ADMINISTRATION. § 20. All affairs of the widows' fund not reserved for the general assembly of the ordinary members under § 10, letter a, or intrusted to the administrators alone, shall be subject to the decision exclusively of the royal academic senate under the presidency of the prorector, with the proviso of government approval whenever this may be required. The senate shall elect three members of the widows’ fund from its own midst as administrators for a period of four years. § 21. These administrators shall execute the status and shall in no way deviate therefrom. If a decision is to be made in accordance with a certain observance, this can be done only after a decision by the senate as to the exist¬ ence of such observance. As a general rule the administrators shall report in all diflicult cases to the senate. However, in matters concerning the widows’ fund no definitive decision can be reached by the senate without first hearing the report and opinion of the administrators § 22. These elect from their midst a president and divide the business duties among themselves by agreement. The drafts of papers shall be signed by all the members of the administration, the papers themselves as issued only by the president. § 23. The judicial affairs of the private widows’ fund shall be attended to by the syndicus of the university, the accounts and financial affairs by the questor after previous understanding with the administrators and after previously obtained approval of the royal academic senate and the royal state ministry of the interior for church and school affairs. § 24. The administrators shall effect the safe loaning out of money capital and notice for its return. In this they are subject to the statutory directions given to the administrative council concerning the loaning of money capital under personal liability in case of nonobservance. § 25. The administrator shall have the right to bring suit against tardy debtors and to issue authorization thereto under their names and seals or under the seal of the university for this purpose. § 26. At the close of each year they shall submit to the senate a statement as to the general condition of the widows’ fund. § 27. The administrators shall perform their duties gratuitously. However, their expenses for writing material, etc., shall be defrayed from the private widows’ fund. § 28. So long as the Frederick-Alexander University shall exist the private widows’ fund can never be dissolved. Should the Frederick-Alexander Univer¬ sity ever be dissolved the institution of the private widows’ fund shall continue as long as there shall be left an ordinary or extraordinary member or a person entitled to draw pension. If, however, after dissolution of the university no person entitled to draw pension should exist, the assets of the private widows’ fund shall be applied to some other benevolent object. In such case of dissolu¬ tion of the university the existing regular (ordinary) members of the private widows’ fund shall provide for suitable administration of the same and at the sam } time determine to what benevolent object the assets of the fund shall be applied after final dissolution of the institution. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 185 B.— PENSION CONDITIONS OP THE STATE OFFICIALS AND UNIVER¬ SITY PROFESSORS OF BAVARIA. The salary of the statutory state olheials, with the exception of the .indices, is divided in accordance with the charter of the constitution into two ])arts, the salary of othce and the salary for service. The salary of odice after definite appointment can not be v.dthdrawn, the salary for service can he withdrawn with the service, but only with this. (Supplement to the constitution, IX, §§18 and 19.) The determination of the two jiarts of the salary is made in the first place in accordance with eventual provisions of the decrees of appointment ; in the absence of these, in accordance with eventually existing general provisions, when these two are lacking, as is usually the case, in accordance with the provi¬ sions of the ninth sniiplement to the constitution (§§ G-8). These provisions are as follows : • • If the total salary consists only of a principal money payment, then, in the first ten years of service, seven-tenths of this amount ; in the second decade of service, eight-tenths, and with the beginning of the third decade, nine-tenths are salary of office; the remainder is salary of service. If the total salary consists of a principal and a supplementary amount, then, in the first decade, eight-tenths of the principal amount, and with the begin¬ ning of the second decade, nine-tenths thereof are salary of office ; the remainder is salary for service. The difference between salary of office and salaiy for service disappears when the state official has readied the seventieth year of life. In snch event the total amount of salary becomes nonwithdrawable. AVith judges there is no division into salary of office and salary for service. Their entire salary is nonwithdrawable. The absolute permanence of the salary of office and of the judicial total salary, and the permanence of the salary for service on the part of the state official in service, produces in detail the follow¬ ing effects. The transfer of the state official can not effect any reduction with reference to the total salary stdndigen Gehalt”). (Supplement IX of the constitu¬ tion, §20.) Nor can such a reduction take place with regard to the official position itself. The ninth supplement of the constitution provides further, in §§26 and 27, that in case of reemployment of a state official his accpiired rights shall not be prejudiced. In case of the death of a statutory state official, his claim upon salary con¬ tinues for the month of death and the month following in favor of his heirs.a The salary conditions of the nonstatutory state officials are not regulated by general statutory provisions. A method of compensation for state officials is practiced also in the granting of fees from those wlio may require the services of the state official. Fees may be allowed either in addition to a salary or constitute the exclusive service income. In addition to salaries jiroper there are yet special money payments by the superior (Die^istherr) ' that are granted to the inferior officials (Bediensteten) without legal claim. Such voluntary allowances are the remunerations, gratifi¬ cations, and patronage supports. For the support of the statutory and nonstatutory state officials and their relicts the state has special funds.^ The dismissal of a state official from service has certain effects upon his legal pecuniary claims. During his provisional dismissal from service the snJary of the official is par¬ tially continued. The portion of salary to be withheld with statutory officials is the salary for service, respectively, a part of the total salary corresponding with the statutory salary for service (DienstgehaJt) , with other officials one-third of the salary. c If the prosecution of the accused is vacated or if he is acquitted or if a judge in the official disciplinary process is sentenced merely to reprimand or to a fine, the part of the salary withheld is to be restored. In other cases it is lost.<^ “ Pragmatik von 1805, Art. XXIV, § 6. ^ Compare .1. Hock, Handb. d. gesamt. Finanzverwalt. i. Kihiigr. Bavern, Bam¬ berg, 1882-85. I, p. 56; III, p. 239 ff. See Ges. z. R. St.-P.-O., Art. HI, Abs. III-IV, Ricbterdisciplinargesetz, Art. 22, Abs. I. ^ See Ges. z. R.-P.-O. Art III, Abs. V, R.-D.-G. Art. 63. 186 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. On being placed at disposal or retired, the statutory state official receives the unwithdraAvable portions of his salaiy as retirement salary. On the other hand, he has no claim on retirement salary, if he or his superior (Dienstherr) has availed himself of the right to the one-sided dissolution of the official relation. The former may be done at any time, the latter only during the provisional period.® The nonstatutory {nicht pragmatisch) state officials are divided into several classes with regard to their treatment on cessation of service. No claims to service pensions are accorded to officials employed on call and recall or as commissioners, or to the unsalaried state servants employed only on fees. The functionaries, too, have no legal claim to pensions, although this does not exclude the allowance of pensions as a gratuity {gnade). Since the second half of this century an administrative practice was intro- • duced, under which treatment “ in accordance with the ninth supplement of the constitution ” is granted to certain classes of nonstatutory (nicht pragmatisch) salaried state officials or individual servants personally, in the event of inability to serve or to make a living under satisfactory performance of service. This, however, too is not done on the ground of any legal claim. Only a gracious favor is held in prospect. A legal claim to pension is granted only in the cases in which certain classes of nonstatutory state officials after a certain time of service are accorded “ sta¬ bility,” i. e., the right of pension under the provisions of the ninth supplement of the constitution. In this, however, it must be emphasized that both this accordance of legal claim and that gracious favor do not extend to § 22 of the ninth supplement of the constitution. The retirement salaries .so granted are designated as “ substentations.” IV. THE ROYAL WURTTEMBERG UNIVERSITY OF TUBINGEN. A.— PROVISIONS FOR THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF PRO¬ FESSORS, ETC. For the pensioning of the widows and orphans of teachers and officials of the University of Tubingen the provisions of the Wurttembergian law of June 28, 187G, concerning the legal status of state officials and of the officials employed at Latin and real schools obtain. (Government Journal for the Kingdom of Wurtteinberg, No. 22, p. 211 ff.) In the computation of the pensions of the university professors, inasmuch as the amount of the widow’s and orphan’s pen¬ sion of relicts of state officials entitled to service pension is determined by the service pensions of the latter, there enters also the law of IMarch 30, 1828, con¬ cerning the status of officials of the university (Government Journal No. 19, p. 157 ff.), which [law] contains special provisions concerning the computation of the pension of university professors and which are in effect now. In accordance with this, as a rule — 1. The widovcs of deceased university professors and officials receive one- third of the retirement salary of the deceased husband ; and 2. The legitimate children under IS years of a deceased university pro¬ fessor or official («) if the mother is still living, one-fifth of her pen¬ sion; (h) if this is not the case, one-fourth of the pension of the widow. As annual fee, the professors and officials of the university have to pay into the widows’ fund for civil employees of the state 2 per cent of their service salary, of the salary paid while at disposal (Wartcgeld) , or of the retirement salary {RuliegeliaU) . (Coinjiare articles 7 and 10 of the law of March 30, 1828.) The respective provisions of the law for officials of June 28, 187G, and of the law of March 30, 1828, are as follows : Verfass. Beilage IX, §§ 2 and 22 A. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 187 (a) Law concerning the legal status of state officials, as well as of the officials employed at Latin and real schools, of June 28, 1876. ALLOWANCES OF RELICTS. I. Salary after death {Stei-hcnachgchali) . Article <1//. — If an official under employment entitled to pension (art. 2, sub- arts. 1 and 2) a or a retired ollicial or a pensioner leaves a widow or legitimate children who shared the family residence with the deceased or who have not yet passed the eighteenth year of life, such relicts are entitled, as salary after death iSterbenachgehalt) for the forty-five days succeeding the month of death (Sterbemonat) , to the service salary, to the salary paid while at disposal (Wartcgcld) , or to the retirement salary of the deceased. In the absence of such relicts the payment of the Stcrbcnachgchalt may be granted also, if the deceased leaves in destitution adult children, grandchildren, parents, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or foster children whose pro¬ vider he was, or if his estate is not sufficient for payment of the expenses of his last sickness and his burial. The salary after death (Sicrbcnoehgehalt) , payment of which is to be made by the widows’ fund with which the official was connected (§ 57), can not become subject to attachment. The prepaid monthly salary shall not be subject to restoration from the estate of officials who may leave no relatives entitled to (Sterbenachgehalt) (salary after death) or whose inheritance does not pass to such relatives, as well as from the estate of officials who were employed without title to pension. 77. Pensions of icidoics and orphans. Article 55. — If, waiving the persons named in article 56, an active or retired official who at the time of his death had claim to pension or a pensioner leaves a widow or legitimate children under IS years, these shall receive from the widows’ fund for civil state officials, beginning with the lapse of the fiterbe- nachgehalt, the following amounts of yearly pension: 1. For the widow, one-third of the retirement salary of the deceased & whether the latter has been at pension or not ; 2. For each legitimate child under 18 years, (a) if the mother is still living, one-fifth of this pension ; (f>) in other cases one-fourth of the pension of the widow. A claim to a widow’s pension shall be lost if the competent court has decreed "Art 2, subarts. 1 and 2, of the law of June 28, is as follows : “ With regard to the appointment and dismissal of the ministers or chiefs of depart¬ ments and other members of the privy council the provision of the constitutional charter, § 57, subpar. 1, shall continue in force. “ The officials who are appointed for life are enumerated in Appendix I of this law.” (The following officials are designated as employed for life in this appendix : The chancellor (Kanklcr) , the bailiff {Amtrnann) , and the cashier (Kassier) ; the ordinary and the extraordinary professors; the librarians who occupy this position as their chief office.) ‘'Concerning the computation of the time of service which shall he considered in deter¬ mining the retirement salary, as well as concerning the amount of retirement salary, article 39 ff. provide as follows: Article 39. — The time of service to bo considered in determining the retirement salary shall be computed beginning with the day of appointment for life. To this there shall be added — if an appointment to a position held on quarterly notice (Append. II of this law) or the unofficial employment in domestic, state, or school .service of a candidate of offi¬ cially recognized competence, or the academic activity as private docent {Privatdozent) preceded — the time of service passed in such employment or activity after completion of the twenty-fifth year of life. At the University of Tubingen, under Appendix II of the law of June 28, 1880, the following are employed on quarterly notice : The language teachers, the music teachers, drawing teachers, riding teachers ; then the dancing master, fencing master, the teacher of gymnastics; furthermore, the registrar of the university, the copyist of the univer¬ sity," the assistants at the library, the prosector, the preparator at the zoological cabinet, the medical assistants and stewards in the several clinical hospitals, the gardener, the mechanician of the technological and physical institute, and, finally, the headles and the servants at the university institutes. Article t/O.- — To the civil service there shall be added the time of active military .serv¬ ice in the imperial army or in the imperial navy, as well as the time of former active military service in one of the States of the German Federation. If, however, participation in active military service occurs during employment in the civil service, double computation of the same period of time shall be inadmissil)le. Time of service before the eighteenth year of life shall not enter into computation. Only the military service given in time of war or with a mobilized or reserve army corps shall be computed v,'ithbut regard to the time of life. As time of war there shall be counted in this respect the time from the day of an ordered mobilization which is followed by a war. Article ifl. — For each campaign in which an official has served in the imperial army, 188 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, divorce or the annulment of the marriage or, before January 1, 1876, the per¬ manent separation from bed and board. Each child from such separated marriage, however, shall receive until comple¬ tion of the eighteenth year of life one-fourth of the pension to which the mother would have had claim. In computing the annual amounts of pension, the resulting pfennige are esti¬ mated as a full mark. To the King is reserved the right to consider distinguished merit of an official in determining the pension for his widow and orphans in accordance with the special circumstances. Article 56. — [Concerns the pensioning of the widows and orphans of directors or teachers who may have been appointed for life at an educational institution in acordance with article 16 of the law of July 6, 1842.] in the imperial navy, or in the army of one of the States of the German Federation in such a way that he actually faced the enemy or followed mobilized troops into the field or was on hoard of a vessel or ship of the imperial navy destined to be used against the enemy, one year shall he added to the actual period of his service. The provisions of the imperial law of March 31, 1873, concerning the status of the imperial officials, § 49, subpars. 2 and 3, and § 50, shall apply equally here. Article Jf2. — The time of service shall also include the time during which an official — 1. Has been in temporary quiescence with payment of Wartegeld (salary while waiting for appointment) ; or 2. Held a life appointment as imperial oflicial ; or 3. Was in the service of the royal court or the chamber of the royal court domain, with title to pension ; or 4. Held an appointment in the domestic church or public school service or was employed unofficially {unstdndig) in such service under the provisions for such service with title to its consideration in the computation of time of service ; or, finally, 5. Has been in unofficial (nvstdndig) employment or as obligated personal assistant of an official in the domestic state service or at an educational institution named in Appendix I of this law, after completion of the thirtieth year of life and after passing a service examination, and in so far as the provision of article 39 does not apply to him. Article ifS. — With the approval of the King, there may also be added for special rea¬ sons to the time of service entitled to pension the time during which an official — 1. Has been in the service of another State of the German Federation, or even of a State not belonging to the German Empire, in corporate service or in private service ; or 2. Has acted as attorney or notary. Article lA- — On the other hand, in computing the time of service, there shall not be considered the time which passed before loss of service on the part of an official who at an earlier period lost his office by criminal or disciplinary process and was x*eappointed later on. With the exclusion of this case, a preceding interruption of state or school service shall not exclude the consideration of earlier years of service from computation of the service time entitling to pension on the part of an official. IV. Amount of the retirement salary and its payment. Article Ji5. — The basis for the computation of the amount of the retirement salary is the salary (art. 11, No. 1) which the official drew during the last year before the day of his retirement. With an official in temporary quiescence with 'Wartegeld, in the event of his retirement, the retirement salary is computed on the salary which he drew within the last year before the day of his temporary quiescence. ' Article i6. — If an official who occupies several offices at the same time is relieved at the time of his retirement of only one or several of them, the provisions of article 16 shall be respectively applied. Article U. — The retirement salary, with entrance upon the tenth year of service, as well as in the case of article 30, amounts to 40 per cent of the service salary. With each further year of service, including the fortieth, it is increased — 1. By li per cent of the amount of the salary up to and including 2,400 marks ; and 2. By 11 per cent of the amount of the salary exceeding 2,400 marks. The King reserves the right in determining the retirement salary of an official to con¬ sider distinguished merit appropriately. The highest amount of a retirement salary is fixed at G.OOO marks. In computing the annual amounts of retirement salaries the resulting pfennige are estimated at a full mark. For articles 7 and 10 of the law of March 30, 1828, making further provision for the computation of the pensions of the widows and orphans of university professors, see below, page 191. Article 25, referred to under article 46, provides : “ If an official occupies several offices at the same time and is relieved by qxxiescence of only one or more of them, it shall be determined whether heretofore he has drawn for each of these offices a separate salary or a total salary for all.” In the first case he retains the salary of the office or offices of which he is not relieved without reduction and draws the Wartegeld only for the position or positions which cease. In the second case the share of the discontinued office in the total salary shall be determined with regard to the relative importance of each of the united offices and with regard to other conditions, and then the partial Wartegeld computed in accordance with the above provisions. TENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 189 Article 57. — The widows’ and orphans’ pensions, designated in articles 55 and 5G shall be defrayed first from the resources of the fund for widows’ pen¬ sions established under the law of June 28, 1821, §§41 to 4J, and under law A of July G, 1842, article 28, additional need from allowances from the exchecpier of the state. The direct income of these pension funds shall consist, in addition to the interest from the capital — 1. Of the entrance fees, one-fourth of the salary (art. 11) of the official on first appointment with title to pension, and one-fourth of increments of salary. 2. Of the annual fees, annuallj’ 2 per cent of salary (Warlcf/cld) and retire¬ ment salarj^ The entrance fees and annual fees of the directors and teachers of educa¬ tional institutions, as per article IG of law A of July G, 1842, shall belong to the widows and orphans’ fund of the teachers ; the entrance fees and annual fees of other officials, to the widows and orphans’ fund of civil state officials. 3. In addition thereto both funds shall retain, respectively, the deductions from the pensions paid by them, which (deductions) are made on account of inequality of age on the part of husband and wife, if the wife is by more than 18 years younger than her deceased husband. These deductions shall be made under the following schedule : If the widow’ is more than 18 and up to 22 years younger, one-sixth ; more than 22 and up to 2G years younger, two-sixths ; more than 2G and up to 30 years younger, three- sixths ; more than 30 and up to 34 years younger, four-sixths ; more than 34 and up to 38 years younger, five-sixths, of the widow’s’ pensions designated under articles 55 and 5G. If the widow’ is more than thirty-eight years younger than her deceased hus¬ band, she shall receive no pension w’hatever. The difference in age shall he computed from the birthdays. The deductions from the widow’s’ pension shall have no influence upon the amount of pensions due to orphans. 4. Finally, an income is derived by the w’idow’s’ fund of the teachers from the examination fees w’hich, under the law concerning fees of June 23, 1828, in connection w’ith the law’ of June 28, 1875 (Government Journal, p. 827), shall be imposed on candidates for service as teach¬ ers in the above-mentioned educational institutions. Article 58. — The obligation to pay entrance fees begins w’ith the entrance upon enjoyment of a salary w’ith claim to pension, respectively, of an increase in the same. They shall be paid in the course of a year in equal rates corre¬ sponding W’ith the terms of payment of salary. Article 59. — The annual contributions shall be due on December 31 of each year and shall he computed and collected on this day on the basis of the money due the officials in salary entitled to pension (Wartegeld) or retirement salary. For the time of service w’hich an official before his appointment w’ith title to pension may have passed in a position on quarterly notice or in nonstatutory (unstandig) employment, he shall have to make subsequent payment of the law’ful annual contributions from the same in suitable terms of payment, in so far as that time of service shall have entered into the computation of his time of service entitled to pension under articles 39 and 42, Nos. 4 and G. These terms of payment shall be computed for the calendar years in w’hich the official employed in a position on quarterly notice shall have draw’ii annual salary on December 31 on the basis of this salary ; for the computable time outside of these years, they shall be computed on the salary actually draw’n. Article 60. — If, under articles 40 and 41, the computation of the retirement salary of an official demands consideration of the time of military service w’hich has preceded his appointment in state or school service (art. 39), the official shall make subsequent payment of the annual contributions for that previous time on the basis of the salary paid him at the time of this appointment. For the additional service year w’ith w’hich he is credited on account of a cam¬ paign in addition to his actual military service there shall he no payment of an additional contribution. Article 61. — Upon transfer from the service of the royal court, or of the cham¬ ber of the royal court domain, into the State or school service (art. 42, No. 3), so long as this is under mutual consent, there shall he no subsequent payment of annual contributions and the entrance fee shall be collected only on the increase in salary. Upon transfer from the imperial service (art. 42, No. 2), or from the voca- 190 EDUCATION EE POET, 1904. tions named under article 43, into the state or school service, the entrance fees and the annual contributions which require subsequent payment for the com¬ putable previous time of service or vocation shall be computed on the basis of the salary entitled to pension fixed upon entrance into the state or school service, unless by special agreement made with the approval of the King a dif¬ ferent basis has been fixed upon. Article 62. — If, with oflicers that require participation in one of the widows’ funds for civil officials, for clericals, for teachers in Latin and real schools, or for public school-teachers, there shall occur transfers to an office of different category, there shall be no subsequent payment of annual fees for the time of previous participation in any of these funds, and the entrance fee shall be paid only on the increase in salary entitled to pension. The widows’ funds shall not be required to balance accounts with each other concerning previously paid entrance fees and annual contributions. Upon transfer to positions which entail participation in the widows’ fund for clericals it shall be the prerogative of the King, however, under certain circum¬ stances to relieve the official of entrance with this fund and to grant him con¬ tinued connection with the widows’ fund of the state officials. Article 63. — If a Wartcgelcl or retirement salary has been wholly or partially suspended under articles 28 and 52, the annual contributions to the respective widows’ fund shall nevertheless continue in full. In case of the voluntary retirement from office, or loss of office, on the part of an active official, and also if the loss of Wartegeld or retirement salary took place under the provisions of article 27, Nos. 2 and 4 to 6, and article 51, Nos. 2 and 3,0 the official, the quiescent official, or pensioner shall lose at the time for his relicts every claim upon the respective widows’ fund. The statutory entrance fees and annual contributions shall not be paid back. If an official by his reappointment acquires claim to the computation of his previous time of service under article 44, subparagraph 2,& the entrance fee pre¬ viously paid by him shall not be paid again. Article 6'^. — The officials belonging to the Catholic clergy are relieved from the payment of entrance fees and annual fees, but shall pay into the exchequer of the state, on the other hand, on first appointment and on increase of salary the lawful perquisites ; and this shall be done, in so far as they may be employed in educational institutions under article 16 of law A of July 6, 1842, in accord¬ ance with i)erquisite requirement for parsons, deacons, etc., and by others in accordance with the requirement for the higher clergy. Article 65. — The pensions of widows and orphans shall be paid monthly in advance. The provisions of article 13 shall apply to these respectively.^ The claim upon pension shall cease — (a) For the widow with the end of the month in which she dies or again contracts marriage. (&) For each child with the end of the month when he or she shall complete the eighteenth j^ear of life, marries, attains majority by dispensation, or dies. Article 66. — ^The claim to a widow’s or orphan’s pension shall be suspended if the person entitled thereto loses German citizenship, until its eventual restora- “ Article 27, Nos. 2 and 4 to 6, is as follows : The right to draw Wartegeld shall cease — ■ 2. If the o/7?cial declines reappointment in the domestic {inlundiscli) service (art. 26) : 4. If he is dismissed from service or loses it under the law ; 5. If he lose German citizenship ; 6. If he makes his residence heyond tlie confines of the German Empire without the approval of the King. Article 51, Nos. 2 and 3, is as follows : “ The right to draw retirement salary shall cease : “ 2. If the pensioner declines appointment in the domestic service (art. 50, suh- par. 2) ; “ 3. In case of article 80, subparagraph 2.” Article 80, subparagraph 2, is as follows : “ Loss of life and of retirement pay may be adjudged against a permanently retired official, moreover, by disciplinary process on account of deeds committed at tbe time of active service which, had they been previously known, would have resulted in dismissal. The process shall be waived if the official, assuming the costs, volimtarily resigns his claim upon title and retirement pay.” ^ See above, Note, p. 188. ^Article 13 is as follows : “ Officials can cede, pawn, or otherwise transfer their claims to the payment of service income {Wartegeld) , retirement salary, and benefits that take the place of retirement salary (arts. 31," 32) wdth legal effect only in so- far as these amounts are legally sub.ject to attachment. Notice shall be given to the fund that makes payment in a public document to be delivered to the fund. PENSIOlSrS GEEMAN UNIVERSITIES. 191 tion. Otherwise tlie full enjoyment of pensions does not require residence in the native country. Article 67. — The orphaned cliildren of an oihcial tliat may remain incapable of making a living and destitute may be allowed suitable benefits from the exchequer of the state with ai)proval of the King. Ai'ticle 6S. — Suitable benefits from flie exchequer of the state may be assigned with approval of the King to the relicts of an official appointed for life who, for want of statutory provisions (art. 55), have no claim to pensions, and also to the relicts of an otiicial not appointed for life. (Z>) Laio of March 30, 1S2S, concerning the status of officials of the university. Article 7. — For the ordinary professors one-third of the normal salary will be taken into computation bj^ the fund in which they participate as compensation for college honoraria, with reference to transfers, quiescenco, and pensions. Article 10. — With extraordinary professors their full personal salaries, but not their allowances from college honoraria, shall be considered with reference to transfers, quiescence, and pensions. B.— THE PENSION STATUS OF THE STATE OFFICIALS AND UNI¬ VERSITY PROFESSORS. [From Government Annual (Rcgierunoshlatt) for the Kingdom of Wurttemberg, Stutt¬ gart, 1887, pp. 155 and 160.] List of the officials ivho arc appointed for life.- D. Department of church and school : (a) Institutions for instruction and education — At the university — The chancellor, the bailiff, and the cashier, the ordinary and the extraordinary professors, the librarians who hold their position as their chief office. At the higher theological seminaries — The economist {Oelconomie Vervoalter) at the Evangelical Theo¬ logical Seminary and at V/illiam’s Institute (Wiihelms stift) at Tubingen. At the institution for agricultural instruction — The director, the cashier, and the secretary; also the ordinary pro¬ fessors of the agricultural institution at Hohenheim, the director and the principal teacher of the veterinary school, the director of the vitieiiltural school. At the schools* for technical instruction — The administrator and the ordinary professors of the PoljTechni- cum, the director and principal teachers of the mining school. List of the officials appointed under quarterly notice. y. In the department of church and school : (a) Institutions for instruction and education — At the univei'sity — The teachers of languages, the music teachers, the drawing teach¬ ers, the riding teachers ; also the dancing master, the fencing master, the teacher of gymnastics ; further, * * * the actuary of the university, the copyist of the university, the library assistants, the prosectors, the preparator at the zoological cab¬ inet, the medical assistants and stewards at the several clinical hospitals, the gardener, the mechanician at the technological paid physical institute ; finally, the bedels and servants at the univer¬ sity institutions. At the higher theological seminaries — The steward and janitor {Thorwarte) at the Evangelical Theolog¬ ical Seminary and at William’s Institute at Tubingen. 192 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. V. In the department of church and school — Continued. (a) Institutions for instruction and education — Continued. At the agricultural institutions — The special teachers and assistant teachers, the station chemist, bookkeeper, warden {Auf seller), gardener, steward, servant (Diener) employed at the agricultural institute at Hohenheim ; the special teachers (including the forge instructor — Lehr- sehmiecl), the assistant teachers, servants at the veterinary school ; the special teachers and assistant teachers at the agri¬ cultural schools and at the school for viticulture, including the master of the vineyard and gardener; those directors and teach¬ ers of agriculture at the agricultural winter schools who, at the same time, are employed as agricultural experts and traveling teachers. At the technical institutions — • The special teachers and assistant teachers employed at the Poly- technicum ; also the assistant administrator, the assistant libra¬ rian, the mechanician, the pattern maker, the gardener, the assistant workman at the institution for testing material (mechanician), and the servants; the special teachers and assistant teachers employed at the building trades school {Baufjeioerkscliule) ; also the janitor, the principal teachers at the technical schools for supplementary training {ForthiUlungs- schulen). [From Government Annual (Regierungshlatt) for the Kingdom of Wurttemberg, Stutt¬ gart, 1876, p. 221-228.] Third section: Permanent retirement {Yersetzung in den Ruhestand) . I. THE CLAIM TO RETIREMENT SALARY. Article 29. — No claim to permanent retirement is accorded to officers ap¬ pointed for life. On the other hand, the Government is authorized, on request of such an offi¬ cial (art. 34) or without his consent (art. 35 ff.), to order his retirement if the official either — (1) Has completed the sixty-fifth year of life and by his age is hindered in his activity, or (2) Has been incapacitated for service by some bodily infirmity or by debility of his bodily or mental powers, or (3) Has been prevented by sickness for more than one year from attending to his office. In the event of permanent retirement an official shall have claim to a retire¬ ment salary for life (pension) from the exchequer of the State after completing nine years of service : Provided, hoivever. That this retirement is not occasioned by an infirmity caused by his own fault. Article 30. — If the incapacity for service is due to sickness, bodily or other injury, brought upon the official in the exercise of his service or caused thereby without his own fault, he shall have claim to retirement pay for life even with¬ out preceding nine years of service. Article 31. — If, however, an official appointed for life is retired before the expiration of nine years of service, the Koyal Government shall have authority to grant him from the exchequer of the State, instead of retirement pay, a benefit up to 40 per cent of his salary. Article 32. — The officials employed under quarterly notice or discharge at any time shall have no claim to retirement pay. If, however, one of these officials is incapacitated for service without his fault, he may be granted suitable benefit from the exchequer of the State accord¬ ing to the degree of his necessity. Article 33. — If the retired official has his official residence beyond the limits of the Kingdom the expense of his removal to the residence chosen by him within the Kingdom shall be paid to him. TENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 193 II. EVIDENCE OF INCAPACITY FOR SERVICE. Article SJ/. — As evidence of incapucity for service (art. 20, Nos. 1-3) of an official seeking retirement there shall be required the declaration of the official authority immediately superior to him that it considers the request well founded. To what extent other evidence shall be required or shall be deemed sufficient as opposed to the declaration of the immediately superior authoi-ity shall depend on the judgment of the authority which has decision as to the retire¬ ment. Article 35. — If an official to whom the reasons for retirement apply fails to ask for it, the superior authority shall inform him that his retirement is under consideration, stating the reasons therefor and the retirement salary to be allowed to him. If the official does not raise objections to this information within a term of six weeks the case shall be disposed of as if he had himself requested retire¬ ment. Article 36. — If objections are raised to the retirement, or if the information prescribed in article 35, subparagraph 1, can not be delivered to the official, the authorized ministry shall first decide whether proceedings are to be continued. In this event the official commissioned thereto by the ministry shall consider the facts in dispute, examine the necessary witnesses and experts under oath, and permit the official who is to be pensioned to attend the hearings. In conclusion, the official to be pensioned shall be heard concerning the result of the investigation with his declaration and motion. A sworn recorder shall attend the proceedings. The closed judicial acts shall be submitted to the ministry. The cash expenses of the eventually unsuccessful investigation, caused through the fault of the official under consideration, shall be charged to him. Article 37. — The involuntary retirement of judges can take place only if the highest court of justice {Landesgericht) shall have decided that the legal causes therefor exist. Article 38. — The decision as to whether and for what time the retirement of an official shall take effect, and what retirement salary shall be paid him, is made by royal order on motion of the authorized ministry, which, with reference to the latter point, shall secure the approval of the ministry of finance. III. COMPUTATION OF THE TIME OF SERVICE. Article 39. — The time of service to be considered in fixing the retirement sal¬ ary shall be computed beginning with the day of appointment for life. To this shall be added, if there existed a previous appointment to a position on quar¬ terly notice (Suppl. II of this law) or the nonstatutory (imstandig) employment in the domestic state or school service of a candidate with certificate of fitness for higher state or school service or academic activity as private docent, the time of service passed in such position, respectively, in such employment or activity after completion of the twenty-fifth year of life. Article J/O. — To the time of civil service there shall be added the time of active military service in the imperial army or navy, as well as the time of previous military service in one of the States belonging to the German Federation. If, however, participation in active military service takes place during the time of civil service, the double computation of the same period shall not be ad¬ missible. Time of service before the eighteenth year of life shall not be considered in the computation. Only the time of military service in a mobilized or in a reserve army corps in time of war shall be considered in the computation without regard to age. The time from the day of the order of mobilization followed by a war to the day of demobilization shall be considered as time of war in this respect. Article 41. — One year shall be added to the actual period of service of an official for each campaign in which he has served in the imperial army or navy or in the army of one of the States belonging to the German Federation in such a way that he actually came before the enemy or followed mobilized troops into the field or was on board of a ship or vessel of the imperial navy destined to be used against the enemy. ED 1904 M - 13 194 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. The provisions of the imperial law of March 31, 1873, concerning the legal status of imperial officials (§ 49, subpar. 2, and § 50a) shall apply here in equal measure. Article — The time of service shall also include the time during which an official — (1) Has been in temporary quiescence with payment of Wartegeld; or (2) Has held a life appointment as imperial official; or (3) Has been in the service of the royal court or the chamber of the royal court domain with title to pension ; or (4) Has held appointment in the domestic church or public school service or employed unofficially (nnstdndig) in such service under the provisions for such service with title to its consideration in the computation of time of serv¬ ice ; or, finally, (5) Has been in unofficial (unstdndig) employment or as obligated personal assistant of an official in the domestic (inldndisch) state service or at an edu¬ cational institution named in Appendix I of this law, after the completion of the thirtieth year of life and after passing a service examination, and in so far as the provision of article 39 does not apply to him. Article — With the approval of the King, there may also be added for spe¬ cial reasons to the time of service entitled to pension the time during which the official — (1) Has been in the service of another State of the German Federation or even of a State not belonging to the German Empire, in corporate or in private service ; or (2) Has acted as attorney or as notary. Article JiJf. — On the other hand, in computing the time of service there shall not be considered the time which passed before loss of service on the part of an official who, at an earlier period, lost his office by criminal or disciplinary process and was reappointed later on. With the exclusion of this case, a preceding interruption of the state or school service shall not exclude the consideration of earlier years of service from com¬ putation of the service time entitling to pension on the part of the official. IV. AMOUNT OF RETIREMENT SALARY AND ITS PAYMENT. Article Jf5. — The basis for the computation of the amount of retirement salary is the salary drawn by the official during the last year before the day of his retirement. For an official in temporary quiescence with Wartegeld, in the event of his retirement, the retirement salary is computed on the salary drawn by him dur¬ ing the last year before the day of his temporary quiescence. Article 46. — If an official occupying several offices at the same time is relieved at the time of his retirement of only one or several of these, the provisions of article 16 shall be respectively applied. Article 47. — The retirement salary, with entrance upon the tenth year of serv¬ ice, as well as in the case of article 30, amounts to 40 per cent of the service salary. For each subsequent year of service, including the fortieth year, it shall be increased as follows : (1) By If per cent of the amount of the salary up to and including 2,400 marks. (2) By 14 per cent of the amount of the salary over 2,400 marks. In determining the retirement salary the King may appropriately consider distinguished merit. The highest amount of a retirement salary is fixed at 6,000 marks. In computing the annual amounts of retirement salaries the resulting pfennige shall be counted as a full mark. Article 48. — The retirement salary of a minister of state shall be 7,000 marks. “These are as follows : § 49, subpar. 2. Whether a military enterprise in this respect shall be considered as a campaign and in how far with wars of longer duration several years shall enter into computation, shall be determined in each case by the Emperor. For the past the provi¬ sions made in the several States of the Federation concerning this matter shall continue in force. § 50. In how far the time of imprisonment in a fortress or as a prisoner of war may enter shall be determined under the statutory provisions for the pensioning of military persons of the imperial army or navy. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 195 For the remaining members of the privy council the retirement salary shall be computed under the provisions of article 47. However, these shall have claim to retirement salary even if they have not entered upon the tenth year of service. Their retirement salary shall not exceed G,000 marks, hut also not fall below one-half of their service salaries, provided this half does not exceed G,000 marks. Under special agreement the retirement salary of a minister of state may be fixed up to 9,000 marks, that of other members of the privy council up to two- thirds of their service salaries within the limits of the maximum of 0,000 narks. This new provision shall apply also to agreements already entered into 11 such a way that a florin (gulden) shall be counted as 2 marks. Article Jj9. — Payments of retirement salaries shall he made monthly in cdvauce. Unless at the request or with the expressed consent of the official an earlier time has been fixed upon, jiaymentof the service salary or Wartegeld shall cease and payment of the retirement salary begin with the end of the month after the month in which the decision as to permanent quiescence and the amount of the retirement salary shall have been communicated to the official. During this period the official shall continue in the performance of his official duties, unless he has been previously relieved thereof ; eventual expenses for substitutes for teachers under articles 1 and 16 of the Law A of July G, 18-12, as well as tht‘ expenses of substitution in cases of sickness (art. IS, concluding paragraph) are to be paid. The payment of the full amount of retirement salary is not conditioned on residence in the native country (inland) on the part of the pensioner. V. CESSATION AND REDUCTION OF RETIREMENT SALARIES. Article 50. — A pensioner shall not be deprived of the right to make applica¬ tion for reappointment. Special attention shall be given to those officials who were retired for one of the reasons given under article 29, paragraph 2, Nos. 1 and 2, and who subse¬ quently demonstrated their ability to serve. Such an official may he reinstated in the service also under the provisions of article 26. Article 5J. — The claim to payment of retirement shall cease — (1) If the pensioner is reinstated in the imperial service, in the state service, in the church or public school service, in a position entitled to pension, with a salary a.t least equal to his former salary ; (2) If he declines reappointment in the home service (inldndisehen Dienst), article 50, paragraph 2 ; and (3) In the case of article 80, paragraph 2. Article 52. — The claim to retirement salary shall be suspended — (1) If, and as long as, a pensioner shall draw a service salary in the public service (compare art. 51, No, 1), in so far as the amount of this salary, in addi¬ tion to the retirement salary, shall exceed the amount of the service salary drawn before retirement ; (2) If a pensioner shall lose the German citizenship (Indigenat) until the eventual restoration of the same. The provision of No. 1 shall respectively apply if the pensioner draws a retire¬ ment salary on an appointment in another state or in the imperial service. Article 53. — Cessation of the retirement salary in the cases of article 51, Nos. 1 and 2, also reduction or restoration of the same in the cases of article 52, shall take effect with the beginning of the month following the event which has occasioned such change. In the cases of article 51. No. 3, the claim to the retirement salary shall cease when the sentence shall take effect. In the event of merely temporary reemployment in the public service on per diem pay or other remuneration the official shall retain his retirement salary without reduction for the first six full months of such enqiloyment, and the pro¬ vision of article 52, No. 1, shall take effect only with the beginning of the seventh month. 196 EDUCATIOK EEPORT, 1904. V. THE ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF SAXONY, AT LEIPZIG. 1. THE PENSIONING OF THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF THE UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS. At the Royal University of Saxony, at Leipzig, there exists a “ general widows and orphans’ fund,” with the object of granting widows’ and orphans’ pensions to the widows and orphans of deceased ordinary, honorary, and extraordinary pro¬ fessors of the university. Under the revised statutes of this fund, approved by the royal ministry of CUltus and public instruction, under date of April 29, 1892, the widow of an ordi¬ nary professor deceased as member of the fund receives a widow’s pension of 1,800 marks ; the widow of an ordinary honorary professor or of an extraordi¬ nary professor, a pension of 1,000 marks, or, if this is more, one-fifth of the salary drawn by the deceased as professor, including the value of free service residence, which for this purpose is computed at 600 marks annually. Each legitimate or legitimized child of the professor deceased as member receives as long as its own mother is living one-fifth, and after her death three- tenths of the widow’s pension. Grandchildren, illegitimate, adopted, and stepchildren of the deceased receive no pensions. In cases of exceptional necessity of the relicts of members the ministry of cultus and public instruction may, upon motion of the academic senate, grant them a pension exceeding the amount of the statutory pension by not more than one-fourth. Contributions to the widows and orphans’ fund are not collected. The detailed provisions of the fund are as follows : Revised statutes of the general widows and orphans' fund of the University of Leipzig. § 1. There exists at the University of Leipzig a general widows and orphans’ fund. The assets of this fund constitute an independent pia causa. Its adminis¬ tration is carried on by the department of accounts ( rentant) gratuitously under the provisions agreed upon between the highest state authority and the univer¬ sity for the administration of the university funds, in so far as other provisions have not been expressly fixed. § 2. In order to meet the money requirements of this fund, the following capi¬ tals and revenues have been permanently assigned to it : 1. All the capitals and revenues of the treasury of the professors’ widows’ fund ; 2. A capital of 10,300 marks, together with its interest, from the treasury of the widows’ fund of the medical faculty ; 8. The capital and revenues of the widows’ fund of the college of small princes ; 4. The Wenck legacy for the college of small princes ; 5. The Wendler legacy for the widows’ fund of the university ; 6. The Boyberg legacy for the university ; 7. From the Knaups Institution an annual fixed revenue of 3,000 marks ; 8. From the alms fund a yearly fixed revenue of 800 marks ; 9. The interest from the widows’ fund of the faculty of jurisprudence ; 10. The interest of the widows’ fund of the philosophical faculty. § 3. In so far as the proper revenues of the general widows and orphans’ fund are not sufficient to meet its requirements, the deficiency shall be contributed by the exchequer (Haupt Kasse) of the university. § 4. The interest of the capitals assigned to this fund, as well as all the reve¬ nues assigned to it, shall be applied exclusively to the pensions for the widows and orphans of the professors of the University of Leipzig in accordance with these statutes. The accounts division of the university shall annually submit the accounts to the academic senate and eventual admonition before delivery to the ministry. § 5. The general university widows’ fund may accept advantageous gifts of all kinds. Such increase of its stock capital shall in no way affect capitals or revenues assigned to it from any other source. Nevv^ institutions for pension purposes for the benefit of all the widows and PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 197 orphans of the members of the general widows and orphans’ fund may be added to this fund in case the opposite is not expressly ordered. Allowances of all or any widows and orphans from institutions shall not be computed in any form in their statutory widows and orphans’ pension. § G. All ordinary, all honorary and all extraordinary i)rofessors of the univer¬ sity who draw salaries as university professors shall become members of the fund on the day their salary from the university fund shall begin. § 7. Participation in the widows’ fund shall end with voluntary resignation of the professorship, without regard to the retention of the titles and rights of honor of his former position on the part of the resigning professor. It shall not cease on account of the pensioning of the member because of age or sickness, his suspension from oflice, his dismissal by disciplinary process. § 8. The pension of the widow of an ordinary professor deceased as member shall be 1,800 marks, for the widow of an ordinary honorary professor or of an extraordinary professor 1,000 marks, or, if this is more, one-fifth of the salary drawn by the deceased as professor, including the value of free service residence, which for this purpose shall be computed at GOO marks annually. § 9. Each legitimate or legitimized child of the deceased member shall receive, as long as its own mother is living one-fifth, after her death three-tenths, of the widow’s pension. Grandchildren, illegitimate, adopted, and stepchildren of the deceased shall receive no pension. § 10. In cases of exceptional necessity of the relicts of a member the ministry of cultus and public instruction may, on motion of the academic senate, grant them a pension not exceeding the statutory pension by more than one-fourth. § 11. The claim to pension shall begin on the day on which the claim to the salary of the deceased or to the benefit by grace {Gnadengenuss) ends or the latter shall have fallen below the amount of the pension. It shall be inde¬ pendent of the residence of the claimant. The widow shall prove to the university accountant her right to the claim by submission of her marriage certificate ; the right to the claim on the part of the orphans shall be proved to him by submission of the certificate of birth by the mother or guardian. § 12. The pension shall be paid for the current quarter upon receipt by the accounts division on March 1, June 1, September 1, and December 1. Only in cases of extinction of the pension (§13) the accounts division may make pay¬ ment at an earlier date. The orphans’ pension shall be paid to the mother as long as she remains unmarried ; after her death or remarriage, to the guardian of the orphans. If persons entitled to pension are absent, they shall legally authorize an attorney at Leipzig to receive the pension or transmit to the accounts division of the university a receipt drawn up in their own handwriting. Moreover, widows living abroad and the guardians of orphans living abroad shall produce a life certificate drawn in legal form at each collection of payment. § 13. The claims to pensions become extinct : 1. To widows’ pensions — (ff) With the last day of the month in which the widow dies ; (b) With the day of her remarriage. 2. To orphans’ pensions, with the last day of the month — (a) In which the orphan completes the eighteenth year of life; (b) In which he or she is previously married: (c) Is previously appointed in public or private service with a yearly sal¬ ary equal to the amount of pension.o § 14. To unmarried daughters and infirm sons of a member who are over 18 years old, without fortune and unable to make a living without their fault, the ministry of cultus and public instruction may, in case of need and on motion of the academic senate, grant suitable assistance. The continuance of such assistance shall be determined by the ministry. § 15. The provisions of §§ 8 to 14 shall apply also to the widows and orphans of the members of the fund who may have died before April 1, 1892, as well as to those who on this day may still have been members of the fund. However, such widows and orphans shall be entitled to choose whether the pension shall “ It should he observed that under § 57 of the revised statutes of the University of Leip¬ zig the wife and the minor children of a professor discharged from oflBice by disciplinary process do not lose their claims to their respective pensions. 198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. be granted under the above provisions or under statutes and provisions previously . in force. The choice shall be decided, if a widow and children entitled to pension are concerned, by the widow ; if only children are concerned, by the guardian. Those entitled to this right shall decide within a term to be fixed by the academic senate, on penalty of the loss of their right of choice. § 16. The accounts division shall keep a record concerning the age of all the members and their wives, as well as concerning the number and age of their children, which shall be carefully revised and supplemented at least every five years. The members shall, therefore, immediately upon their entrance, submit their certificates of birth, and, if they are married, also those of their wives and chil¬ dren ; otherwise their further salary payments shall be withheld. Members who are married subsequently shall, under the same penalty, submit immediately after marriage the certificate of birth of the wife. The academic senate shall keep a record which shall show, in tabular form, for each year, in accordance with the annual reports of the university accounts division, the number of members, widows, and orphans, the capital and cash assets of the fund, the sums of both items, and, finally, the increase in the prop¬ erty of the fund for the year. Every five years the university widows’ fund shall be subjected to a revision. CONCLUDING PROVISION. The revised statutes for the general widows and orphans’ fund of the Univer¬ sity of Leipzig shall take effect on April 1, 1892. Auxiliary and Daughters’ Fund. On April 1, 1892, there was further established at the University of Leipzig, under the name of auxiliary and daughters’ pension, an institution with the object of increasing the pensions due to the widows and orphans of its members from the general widows and orphans’ fund ; to support permanently unmarried legitimate or legitimized daughters and sons, unable to make a living, over 18 years of age, and children of deceased members, in so far as they may not be entitled to an orphan’s pension, until completion of the twenty-first year of life; and, finally, to support in single benefits relatives of deceased members or of members in serious illness in case of urgent necessity caused by such death or illness. The following statutes were approved on April 29, 1892 ; Statutes of the auxiliary and daughters' fund of the University of Leipzig of April 29, 1891. I. GENERAL PROVISIONS. § 1. With April 1, 1892, there shall be established at the University of Leipzig an institution under the name of the auxiliary and daughters’ fund of the LTiii- versity of Leipzig. § 2. It shall serve three purposes : 1. The permanent increase of the pensions of the widows and orphans of its members, due them from the general widows and orphans’ fund of the University of Leipzig. (See §§ 20 to 26.) 2. The permanent support of the unmarried legitimate and legitimized daughters and sons, unable to make a living, of deceased members, and over 18 years of age, in so far as they may not be entitled up to the completion of the twenty-first year to the orphans’ pension under the provision of § 15 of the revised statutes of the general widows and orphans’ fund nor to that under § 9 of these statutes. ( See § 27. ) 3. Support in single benefits of relatives of deceased or seriously ill mem¬ bers in urgent need, due to that death or illness. (See §§ 29 to 31.) § 3. The payments of the auxiliary fund shall in their amount be independent of all payments from other funds to the same persons for the same purposes as those of the auxiliary fund. The payments which may be due now or hereafter to the members of the auxiliary fund for the same above-named purposes shall not be stopped or reduced because of the payments from the auxiliary fund. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 199 § 4. The property of the auxiliary fund shall consist of — 1. The capital to be collected and its interest; 2. An annual contribution of 4.000 marks from the Knaups Institute as long as the revenues of the institute shall admit of a contribution to this amount ; 3. An annual contribution of 500 marks from the alms fund ; 4. The annual contributions of the members (§ 11). § 5. The auxiliary fund may receive advantageous gifts of every descrii)tion. If it receives gifts for stated objects (§ 2), the revenues from such capital shall be applied only to this object and the surplus shall be added to the cai)ital for its increase. The manner of using it shall be determined by the will of the donor, stated in writing with the transfer of the gift. If such declaration is not made, then under § 23 the normal allowance shall be computed, which can be made on the basis of the gift, to those of the respec¬ tive class entitled to allowance. The pensions to be granted to the respective classes under these provisions shall be reducible only by the amount by which, on account of this increase, the pensions of the respective orphans under IS years of age (above, § 2, No. 1) shall exceed the full widow’s pension of the auxiliary fund and the full pension of the respective children over 18 years (above, § 2, No. 2) by the triple amount of the widows’ pensions. § 6. The ministry of cultus and public instruction may add to the auxiliary fund new institutions that shall be established at the University of Leipzig for the benefit of any one of the purposes of the auxiliary fund named in § 2, and at the same time for the benefit of all of its members. Only the resources of these institutions shall continue to be applied to the purpose to which they are dedicated and in the manner prescribed therein. § 7. The property of the auxiliary fund shall be administered gratuitously by the accounts division of the university, under the provisions with reference to the administration of the property of the university agreed upon between the highest state authority and the university. § 8. The accounts division shall forthwith invest, with interest, all gifts made to the auxiliary fund, unless the opposite has been expressly ordered. At the beginning of each new account year it shall add to the capital — 1. Ten per cent of the income of the past year from interest and from con¬ tributions of members. 2. All revenues from institutions not used during the past year for the pur¬ poses of the fund, in so far as they may not be needed for the pay¬ ment of current expenses. II. MEMBEKS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS. § 9. All professors who are members of the general widows and orphans’ fund of the University of Leipzig shall in future, ex officio, be members of the auxiliary fund from the day of their entrance into the former. The professors who may already hold membership in the general widows and orphans’ fund on March 31, 1892, shall also become members of the auxil¬ iary fund with April 1, 1892, in case they have declared to the rector, in writ¬ ing, on ol’ before April 30, 1892, their desire to join the auxiliary fund. The first librarian of the university shall, under these statutes, be treated as an ordinary professor. §10. The university secretary and the chief accountant {Rentmeister) . the latter as statutory administrator of the property of the institution, may join the auxiliary fund. They shall notify the rector in writing of their entrance on or before April 30, 1892, and later on within three months after appointment. § 11. The ordinary professor shall pay 100 marks entrance fee and 100 marks annual contribution. ’file extraordinary professors shall pay GO marks entrance fee and 60 marlvs annual contribution. For the payment of the annual contributions the accounts division shall deduct from the quarterly payments of salary for the ordinary profes.sors 25 marks and for the extraordinary professors 15 marks and transfer this sum to the auxiliary fund. Those professors and officials who on or before March 31, 1892, are already members of the general widows and orphans’ fund, also the chief accountant (Rentmeister) in office at the time, shall pay no entrance fee. 200 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. No paid fees or contributions shall be returned. § 12. In rights and duties the ordinary honorary professors and the above- mentioned extraordinary professors (§10) shall occupy under these statutes the same position. III. THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. § 13. The executive committee shall consist of— 1. The rector as president ; 2. The prorector ; 3. A professor selected by the senate as permanent member, who declares his willingness to make the probability computations necessary for the administration of the auxiliary fund, especially with reference to revision of funds. 4. Four ordinary professors elected by the ordinary professors of each fac¬ ulty from their midst ; and 5. Two extraordinary professors of the several faculties elected from their midst for five years interchangeably in turn by the extraordinary professors of the theological, the .luridical, the medical, and the philo¬ sophical faculties, who shall be members of the fund. Every two years and six months the term of office of half of the elected mem¬ bers shall end. It shall be decided by lot whose term shall end on July 1, 1894. The ordinary professors whose terms ended may be reelected. § 14. If a member of the executive committee vacates membership before expiration of the five years, the faculty to which he belongs shall elect a substi¬ tute for the remainder of the five years. ' § 15. The executive committee shall make its decisions by simple majority. In cases of a tie vote, the vote of the president shall decide. Four members shall constitute a quorum. It shall be competent to pass resolutions concerning the use of the resources of the institution for the purposes of the institution. The president shall represent the fund both in and out of court. § 16. Any member of the fund who considers himself injured in his rights by any provision of the executive committee may appeal to the senate. The execution of the contested provision shall then be held in abeyance until final decision. Further appeal against the decisions of the senate may be made to the ministry of cultus and public instruction. § 17. The accounts division shall pay pensions and benefits only upon the order of the executive committee. It shall at all times furnish information to the executive committee as to the status of the fund. In February of each new business year it shall submit to the committee an account of receipts and expenditures of the fund during the past year and of the status of the fund for its inspection and eventual approval, and shall remit a copy of this account for the archives of the auxiliary fund. § 18. In March of each new business year the executive committee shall make report to the senate as to its activity during the past year and shall inclose with its report a copy of the account of the accounts division. The senate forthwith shall submit this report to the ministry of cultus and public instruction. § 19. In July of each fifth business year the rector shall order a revision of the auxiliary fund and shall request the mathematical member of the executive committee to make the computations as to the normal amount of pension (see below, § 23). As to the nature and result of this revision the executive commit¬ tee shall report to the senate not later than November of each fifth businei^ year. IV. CLAIMS AGAINST THE FUND, THEIR AMOUNT, AND NOTIFICATION THEREON. § 20. The same widows and orphans of persons deceased as members of the auxiliary fund to whom the general widows and orphans’ fund of the university owes pension shall also have claim to pension against the auxiliary fund. The claims shall begin on the same day and shall continue, respectively, as long as the corresponding claims of the same persons against the general wid¬ ows and orphans’ fund (see statutes of the same, §§11 and 13). The first installment of the widows and orphans’ pensions shall not be due until June 1, 1893. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 201 § 21. All the widows of ordinary professors shall have claim to equal pensions. The same shall apply, respectively, to the widows of extraordinary professors. The pension for the widow of an ordinary professor shall in its amount hear to that of the widow of an extraordinary professor the ratio of 3 :2. § 22. The numerical amount of these pensions shall be determined by the execu¬ tive committee every live years on the basis of the revision of the auxiliary fund and renewed computation of the normal amount of pension for the fund. The decision, if it increases or reduces the former amount of the claims, shall he made known to those entitled to jiayment. § 23. The amount of the pension is normal if it is not above nor below the per¬ manent solvency of the fund; if, therefore, in view of the subsequently increas¬ ing number of claimants, it can not be increased, and in spite of this increase in the number of claimants will not have to be reduced later on. § 24. All persons entitled to j)ension will be compelled to accept a reduction if the next revision shows that the normal amount had heretofore been taken too high. § 25. Provisionally, and until the first revision of the fund, the pension of the widow of an ordinary professor shall be fixed at .300 marks, that of the widow of an extraordinary professor at 200 marks. § 26. Each legitimate or legitimized child, under 18 years, of a deceased mem¬ ber shall receive two-fifths of the statutory widow’s pension (see above, §§21, 22, 25). The academic senate may, on motion of the mother or of the guardian, extend, in case of need, the orphan’s pension of the son of a deceased member until the completion of the twenty-first year of life. Grandchildren and illegitimate, adopted, and stepchildren shall receive no pensions. § 27. Each legitimate or legitimized daughter, over 18 years old, of a deceased member shall receive, as long as she is unmarried and her mother is still living, three-fifths of the statutory widow’s pension ; after her mother’s death, five- fifths. Just as much shall be paid to a legitimate or legitimized sou, over 18 years old, of a deceased member who (the son) is permanently unable to earn a living. These payments shall begin in all cases only after extinction of the claim of the respective child to the orphan’s pension (see above, § 2, No. 2). The payment of these pensions for children over 18 years old shall, however, begin only when the fund shall have accumulated a capital of 30,000 marks, un¬ less gifts shall have been made previously for this purpose. § 28. Claims to widows and orphans’ pensions may be withdrawn in favor of the fund, but not in favor of other persons entitled to pension. § 29. For single benefits to relatives of deceased sick members, which rela¬ tives may be in condition of acute need caused by such death or sickness, not more than 1,500 marks shall be used annually. Only those relatives shall have claim to such benefits to whom the deceased or sick member shall have been provider and who at the same time belonged to his family. § 30. The single benefit granted to the family of a member in such necessity shall not exceed 500 marks. Before granting the benefit, the executive committee shall carefully investi¬ gate whether actual sudden necessity exists. This benefit shall not become a simple contribution to the expenses of burial and sickness. § 31. A repetition of such benefit in the following business year shall be admis¬ sible only in cases of extreme necessity ; a second repetition, however, is abso¬ lutely prohibited. § 32. The executive committee shall be notified in writing of all claims on the auxiliary fund within three months after their origin. Without such notice the fund shall pay neither pension nor benefit, and in the event of belated notice the pension shall begin only with the day of notice. V. AMENDMENTS OF THE STATUTES. § 33. These statutes can be amended only by resolution of the academic sen¬ ate and with the approval of the ministry of cultus and public instruction. The executive committee of the auxiliary fund shall be competent to move amendments with the senate. It shall be heard before decision on the part of the senate, in case the motion for amendment of the statutes was made by a member of the senate itself. 202 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. VI. DAY WHEN THESE STATUTES SHALL TAKE EFFECT. § 34. These statutes for the auxiliary and daughters’ fund of the University of Leipzig shall take effect on April 1, 1892. 2. THE PENSIONING OF THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF THE OFFICIALS AND SUBOFFICIALS.® A. The Widows and Orphans of Officials. The pensioning of the widows and orphans of officials of the university is reg¬ ulated by §§63 and 64 of the revised statutes for the University of Leipzig, approved under date of April 29, 1892, by the royal ministry of religion and public instruction. These paragraphs are as follows : § 63. The pension of the widow of an official of the university shall be one- fifth of the service income on which his own service pension is to be based. Each legitimate or legitimized orphan of such official shall receive, until the completion of the eighteenth year of life and as long as the mother is living, one-fifth of the widow’s pension ; after her death, three-tenths. If the deceased was at the same time professor, his widow and his orphans shall receive only the pension under the revised statutes for the university widows and orphans’ fund, unless the pensions claimable on the basis of the salary of the officijil should be more favorable for them. In the latter event the pensions that would be due from the university widows and orphans’ fund shall be paid from this fund, and only the excess from the fund designated under § 64. These claims to pensions shall begin on the same day as for professors’ widows and orphans. (Revised statutes for the general widows and orphans’ fund of the University of Leipzig, § 11.) For the remainder there shall be applied to them §§ 39, 40, 42, 43 (subpars. 4 and 6), 44, 46, and 51 of the law of March 7, 1835, concerning the status of civil state officials ; § 1 of the law of April 9, 1872, concerning the amendment of certain legal provisions for the pensions of state officials and their relicts ; §§ 36, 48, and 49 of the law of June 13, 1876, concerning certain amendments of the legal provisions for the status of civil state officials. § 64. The pensions of §§ 62 and 63 shall be paid by the exchequer of the uni¬ versity (compare, however, §63, siibpar. 3). The statutory provisions referred to in the above § 63, subparagraph 5, are as follows : (a) Laiv concerning the status of civil state officials, March 7, 1885. § 39. Support of these relicts from state funds shall not be granted for widows and orphans — (a) If the state official without service pension has resigned voluntarily or has been discharged or dismissed. (&) If at the time of his decease he was under investigation for a breach of duty {Vergehen), or if, after his death and before decision has been reached concerning a pension for the relicts, incriminating facts against him are found and he would have been subject in both cases to the loss of his salary or tvartegeld or service pension. (c) Because of unworthiness of the relicts, if they themselves have suffered detention in a penitentiary or institution of correction, or have re¬ peatedly suffered punishment by the police for immoral conduct. Investigation and decision in cases (b) and (c) belongs to the appointing authority. “ Under § 59 of the revised statutes of the University of Leipzig the following are officials (Beamte) of the university : The first librarian and the librarians and custo¬ dians of the university library ; further, the secretary of the university and the questor ; finally, the organist of the university church. Under § 66 of the same statutes the following are suhofficials of the university : The messengers of the secretary’s office, the bedels and the constable, the inspector of the refectory, the forester of the university, and the cantor of the university church. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 203 If the relicts feel that tliey can not submit to the decision, they may l)rini? suit for pension — (d) If the marriage from which the widow or the children derive their claim was concluded only during the last sickness of the state ollicial. For widows: If at the time of the decease of the ollicial, divorce, annulment, or permanent separation from bed and board had been decreed. For children : If they were not born legitimately of the first degree. More distant descendants are, therefore, excluded — e. g., grandchildren, etc. ; children of a first marriage; adopted; illegitimate children. Children legitimized by a subsequent marriage shall be treated the same as the legitimately born, if the legitimation or marriage had not been deferred to the last sickness. The possession of private property or support to be derived by the relicts from other pension institutions or from other state funds shall have no influ¬ ence. §40. As a gratuity, the widow and children of an official who died while in active service or entitled to warterield shall draw, under the limitations of § ‘>0, his salary or ^vartegeld, as a rule, for a month in addition to the month of death. The government, however, may grant such gratuity for three months if the conditions of the service are such that a transfer to the position can not be ac¬ complished for that time without difficulties and expense for the administration. With officials drawing service pension no gratuity shall be granted. In so far as the service income consists wholly or in part of incidental and undefined payments, it rests wholly with the judgment of the appointing author¬ ity whether it — 1. Will leave these to the relicts and, if necessary, arrange at their expense for temporary substitutes or allow the heirs in appropriate cases to continue the service ; or 2. Will grant them the entire amount of those emoluments settled upon as salary or appointment, with complete abrogation of the relation. The allowance of an interim salary for the successor in the position of service during the period of gratuity is left to the judgment of the state authority. § 42. Not entitled to pension are the following : (a) The relicts derived from the marriage contracted by an emerited state official while drawing service pension. {!)) A widow who is by twenty-five years younger than her deceased hus¬ band, if he married her after his completed sixty-fifth year of life. This provision, however, shall have no application to such marriages concluded before the publication of this law. (c) Children who have already completed the eighteenth year of life. (d) The relicts of those pensioned state officials who refuse to submit to the reductions ordered in § 47. If, however, unmarried daughters or invalid sous of a deceased state official, even after the completed eighteenth year, should be unable to earn a living and without means and also without relatives to afford them support, the state authority may, although wholly on its judgment and without establishing a claim thereto, allow them, even beyond the eighteenth year, suitable support. § 43, If the state official leaves children .of successive marriages, the children of the first marriage shall at once receive the three-tenths for each child, even if their stepmother draws a pension. In cases of very special need of the relicts of a state official, the state govern¬ ment shall have the right to gi’ant a pension greater than the statutory one, which, however, shall not exceed the latter by more than its fourth part. § 44. The right to pension shall begin — (a) If the relicts are entitled to the gra.tuity payment with the first month after expirn tion of the gratuity month. (&) If the deceased himself drew service pension with the month following his death. § 46. (A) The widows’ and orphans’ pension shall cease — (1) With the death of each participant. The right to an increase on the part of the remaining participants does not exist, excepting the in¬ crease of pension for children when their mother dies (§43). (2) In consequence of repeated punishment by the police for immoral con¬ duct or in consequence of detention in the penitentiarv or in a house of correction. (B) The pension of a widow shall cease especially also with her remarriage and shall not be restored if this marriage should be annulled or wholly dis- 204 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. solved. If, however, her second husband is also a state official and also dies before her, she shall have new claim to pension as widow of her second husband. If the widow assumes a function with salary in the public service or in the service of the royal court, the amount of this salary shall be deducted from her pension as long as she continues in that function. (C) The pension of the children shall cease; (1) With completion of the eighteenth year of life. (Compare, however, §42.) (2) On their being provided for at an earlier time, and marriage on the part of daughters. To what extent the pension shall continue if the relicts are settled in a state institution for education or support shall be determined in each individual case. On leaving such institution these shall again be paid their pensions. With reference to failure to collect for two years, the provisions of § 36 shall apply. § 51. Lawsuit can not be brought against the flscus .or the state authority on account of the decisions and orders of the a.uthorities which are left to their judgment in this law, in so far as such legal proceeding is not expressly reserved (§ 30 and 39). {b) Law of April 9, 1812, concerning the amendment of certain provisions refer¬ ring to the pensions of state officials and their relicts. § 1. The pension of the widow of a state official shall be the fifth part of the service income which the deceased last drew in actual service, even if at the time of his decease he was under wartegeld or service pension. The lowest amount of a widow’s pension shall be 20 thalers ; that of a child’s pension 10 thalers, and the lowest amount of a fatherless and motherless orphan 15 thalers. The above provisions shall apply from the day on which this law shall take effect; also to those statutory pensions of relicts (widows and orphans) of previously deceased state officials, which (pensions) had become due before the time named. On the other hand, its application to the increments of pensions designated in the last subparagraph of § 43 shall depend ,on a special decision by the state government. (c) Laiv of June 3, 1876, referring to certain amendments of the staiuUn'y pro¬ visions concerning the status of civil state officials. § 36. After the death of a state official dismissed from his office, his relicts shall have claim to pension only if the deceased had been dismissed with allow- fince of a pension of the kind mentioned above. § 48. In the absence of relicts, as designated in § 40 of the law of March 7, 1835, the gratuity (Gnadengenuss) may be granted, even if the deceased has left in destitution legitimate progeny of the second or further removed degrees, parents, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or foster children to whom he liad been provider, or if his estate is not sufficient to cover the expenses' of the last sickness or of burial. § 49. To whom payment of the gratuity shall be made shall be decided in each case by the respective superior service authority. The gratuity shall not be subject to attachment. B. The Widows and Orphans of tfie Subofficials. For the relicts of the male and female subofficials and servants who are not State officials, employed on fixed annual salary at the university, its faculties and institutions, provision is made by the following fund established at the uni¬ versity ; Pension fund for the subofficials and servants of the University of Leipzig, its faculties and institutions. The statutes of this pension fund, approved by the royal ministry of cultus and public instruction under date of April 29, 1892, are as follows : § 1. The pension fund established at the University of Leipzig for its suboffi¬ cials and servants is an institution with juridical personality, as defined by the law concerning juridical persons of July 15, 1868, § 6a. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 205 §2. The fund shall be managed gratuitously by the accounts division {rcnt- amt) of the university, under supervision of the academic senate, to which annual report of the management shall he made. § 8. The fund shall be rei)resented by the rector (or his representative) who eventually shall also take the necessary oaths in its behalf. § 4. The fund maj^ receive advantageous gifts of every description. These shall forthwith after receipt he invested on interest, and the interest shall forth¬ with be used according to § 5, unless the gift shall make different j)rovision. § 5. The fund has at its disposal for the i)urposes of the institution — ]. The interest of the capital. 2. An annual contribution of 2,000 marks from the Knaups institution. 8. An annual contribution of 500 marks from the alms fund of the univer¬ sity. § 0. If the resources designated in §§ 4 and 5 shall not be sufficient to meet the obligations of the fund the deficit shall be covered by the exchecpier of the uni- Aersity. § 7. All male and female subofiicials and servants who are not state officials, employed with fixed annual salary at the university, its faculty and institutions are entitled to claim a pension from this fund. § 8. The pension shall be for life. It shall begin with the end of the month in which the pension has been allowed. It shall cease with the end of the month in which the pensioner has died. It shall be paid monthly in advance. The installment which shall remain uncollected a year after the day it may be due shall be forfeited to the fund. § 9. An official or servant, whether he or she requests discharge voluntai’ily oi* receives it against his or her will from the appointing authority, can claim the pension if he or she — . (a) has served for twenty-tive years and at the same time is G5 years of age ; (&) has served at least ten years and is at the same time 70 years of age ; (c) has served at least ten years and has become permanently incapacitated for service, without his or her fault, by age, sickness, or bodily injury ; (d) has served less than ten years and has been permanently incapacitated for service, Avithout his or her fault, in the performance of his or her service. § 10. An official or servant who hjis served less than ten years and Avho has been permanently incapacitated for service Avithout his or her fault, shall be allowed, even if he or she has not been incapacitated in the performance of his or her service, or his or her discharge, in case of destitution, by the academic senate, Avith the approval of the ministry, a gratuity tor life, Avhich, however, shall not exceed the loAvest pension rate. ( See beloAV § 12. ) § 11. The amount of the pension shall be determined by the service income which the claimant actually drew for one year before being pensioned. As service income shall be considered the fixed salary, eventual service resi¬ dence, free board or the money equivalent allowed therefor, and all other remune¬ rations Avhose value or amount shall have been fixed on appointment, or in so far as this may not have been done Avith already appointed officials or servants, by the academic senate, the final determination shall be subject to the approval of the ministry. § 12. The pension shall carry — I’ei- cent. Before the completed fifteenth year of service _ 80 After the completed fifteenth but before the completed sixteenth year of service _ 31 After the completed sixteenth but before the c-ompleted seventeenth year of service _ 82 After the completed seventeenth but before the comi)leted eighteenth year of service _ 34 After the completed eighteenth but before the comi)leted nineteenth year of service _ 30 After the completed nineteenth but before the completed twentieth year of service _ 88 After the completed twentieth but before the completed tAveuty-first year of service _ 40 After the completed tAv^enty-first but before the completed tAventy-second year of service _ 42 After the completed tAventy-second but before the completed tAA^enty-third year of service _ 44 206 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Per cent. After the completed twenty-third but before the completed twenty-fourth year of service _ 46 After the completed twenty-fourth but before the completed twenty-fifth year of service _ 48 After the completed twenty-fifth but before the completed twenty-sixth year of service _ 51 After the completed twenty-sixth but before the completed twenty-seventh year of service _ 54 After the completed twenty-seventh but before the completed twenty-eighth year of service _ 57 After the completed twenty-eighth but before the completed twenty-ninth year of service _ 60 After the completed twenty-ninth but before the completed thirtieth year of service _ 63 After the completed thirtieth but before the completed thirty-first year of service _ 66 After the completed thirty-first but before the completed thirty-second year of service _ 69 After the completed thirty-second but before the completed thirty-third year of service _ 71 After the completed thirty-third but before the completed thirty-fourth year of service _ 73 After the completed thirty-fourth but before the completed thirty-fifth year of service _ 76 After the completed thirty-fifth but before the completed thirty-sixth year of service _ 75 After the completed thirty-sixth but before the completed thirty-seventh • year of service _ 77 After the completed thirty-seventh but before the completed thirty-eighth year of service _ 78 After the completed thirty-eighth but before the completed thirty-ninth year of service _ 79 After the completed thirty-ninth but before the completed fortieth year of service and over _ 80 In the event of proved gross fault in the performance of service the dis¬ charged person, unless he or she shall have completed the fortieth year of serv¬ ice or the sixty-fifth year of life, shall be allowed only one-half the pension otherwise due. With regard to the computation of time of service and the enjoyment of the pension in foreign parts, §§ 43, 44, and 45 of the law of June 3, 1876, shall, respectively, apply. • § 13. The claim to pension becomes extinct for the official or servant still in service if he or she — 1. Is discharged or resigns voluntarily before having acquired title to pension ; 2. Has been sentenced by legally valid judgment to at least three months of imprisonment or has been declared to be subject to police super¬ vision. § 14. A pensioner loses claim to pension — 1. By expressed or tacit renunciation (as such shall be regarded also perma¬ nent failure to collect the pension for three years) ; 2. By acceptance of some other appointment with fixed salary (in this event, however, only to the extent of the sum derived from such appointment) ; 3. By refusal to accept a new appointment, corresponding with his former occupation, in the university, one of its faculties, or one of its institu¬ tions, provided the pensioner has again become able for service before completion of the sixty-fifth year of life, and provided the new posi¬ tion affords the same salary as the former one ; 4. By legally valid sentence, as indicated in § 13, No. 2. §*15. The widow and the surviving children of officials and servants desig¬ nated in § 7 shall have claim to pension even if the deceased at the time of his death was not yet pensioned or entitled to pension. § 16. The annual pension of a widow shall carry one-fifth of the service PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 207 income drawn by her linsbaiul at the time of his death or at the time of his being pensioned. Each child shall receive, if and as long as the mother draws pension, one- fifth, and if she is not entitled to pension (§ IS, under 1 a and 2) or has ceased to draw pension (§ 19, 1 a, h, c, and 2), three-tenths of the widow’s pension. If there are children of the officer or servant from more than one marriage, the children from the earlier marriage shall receive three-tenths, even if the step¬ mother, too, drav'S pension. To these pensions, too, the provision of § 45 of the law of June 3, 1870, shall ipply. § 17. Enjoyment of the pensions of widows and or})hans shall begin with the nd of the month in which the death of the official or servant took place. With reference to the payment of pensions and to the forfeiture of uncol¬ lected installments, § 8 shall apply. § 18. The relicts shall i-eceive no pension suj)port : 1. With widows and children- — (a) Because of unworthiness of the relicts, if they themselves have been legally sentenced to one of the penalties designated in § 13, under No. 2, or to imprisonment, under § 3(jl, No. 0, of the Imperial Code of I’enal Laws.® (&) If the marriage from which the relicts derive their claim has been con¬ cluded by the official or servant after completion of the sixtieth year of life with a woman more than thirty years his junior, or if it was concluded only during the last sickness of the official or servant or after his being pensioned. 2. With widows, if at the time of the death of the official or servant the decree of divorce or the annulment of the marriage had been issued. 3. With children : (a) If they wore begotten out of marriage, unless they were legitimized by subsequent marriage, but not by marriage concluded during the last sickness of the official or servant. (J)) If they are derived from a marriage concluded by the official or servant after his being pensioned. (c) If, at the time of the death of the official or servant, they have already completed the eighteenth year of life, or (d) Are already married at this time. § 19. The claim to pGUsion of relicts shall cease : 1. With widows and children — (a) On account of unworthiness of the person entitled to pension; if he (or she) has been legally sentenced to one of the penalties indicated in § 13 under No. 2, or to imprisonment under § 361, No. 6, of the Imperial Code of Penal Laws. (o) In consequence of expressed or tacit renunciation, with regard to which the provision of § 14, under No. 1, shall apply. (c) With the end of the month in which the person entitled to pension shall die. 2. With widows, if they marry again, in which case the divorce or annulment of the other marriage shall furnish no claim to return into the enjoyment of pension. 3. With children. (fl) With the completed eighteenth year of life. (h) With marriage on part of daughters. § 20. All admissible amendments of these statutes, whether they require legal approval or not, shall be obligatory at once for all participants of the pension fund from the day on which they shall acquire legal effect. § 21. The revised statutes ; 1. Shall not apply to the subofficials and servants who were already pen¬ sioned before April 1, 1892. 2. Shall apply to the widows and orphans whose pension claims had already been acquired before April 1, 1892. " I’aragraqh .301, No. 6, of the Imperial Code of Penal Laws, is as follows : “With imprisonment shall be punished: (6) A female who on account of professional prostitution has been placed under police supervision, if she acts in violation of the police regulations decreed in behalf of health, public order, and public decency, or who carries on professional prostitution without being placed under such police supervision.” 208 EDUCATIOlSr EEPOET, 1904. § 21. The revised siatiites — Continued. 3. Shall apply to the subofficials and servants who shall be members of the fund on April 1, 1892, and to their future widows and orphans, if those members of the fund shall have resigned for themselves and their relatives the rights acquired under the previous statutes on or before April 15, 1892. If such resignation is not made or not deliv¬ ered at the proper time the previous statutes shall apply to their pensions and to the pensions of their relatives. CONCLUDING PROVISION. The revised statutes shall take effect on April 1, 1892. [P’rom Gesetz- und Verordnungsblatt (Law and Regulation Annual) for the Kingdom of Saxony, Dresden, 1876, pp. 247-2.)0.] § 38. The annual pension to which a state official may lay claim shall be com¬ puted in accordance with the service income which he actually drew during a year before the time of his pensioning, to be determined under § 10 of the law of March 7, 1835 (p. 169 ff of the Law and Regulation Annual of 1835). The annual pension shall carry : After completed tenth, but before completed fifteenth, year of service, 30 per cent ; after completed fifteenth, but before com¬ pleted sixteenth, year of service, 31 per cent (for remainder see pp. 205--6 of this translation) of the service income determined under the above provision. If the service income of a state official to be considered in the computation of the pension exceeds 12,000 marks, only one-half of the excess shall be con¬ sidered in the computation. § 39. On account of unfortunate accidents suffered in the service, or if the amount of pension does not exceed 2,000 marks, in existing urgent necessity an increase of the statutory pension may take place. This increase, however, shall not exceed eight one-hundredths of the service income on which the pension was computed. § 40. The completed first day of the last service-pension month furnishes to the heirs and creditors of the pensioned state official claim to the entire monthly amount. § 41. The service pension shall be extinguished or suspended in so far as the pensioner, through some other appointment in the public service or by accepting a position in the executive board, the board of managers, or directors of an association for profit, shall acquire an income or a new pension which, together with his first pension, shall exceed his previous service income. § 42. Pensioned former state officials shall be subject to the statutory contri¬ butions to the state pension fund only as long as they may have pensionable wives or children. § 43. If the beginning of the time of service is not stated in the decree of ap¬ pointment, it shall as a rule be counted from the day on which the state official was first obligated in a position expressly connected with state service, unless special circumstances, e. g., delay of the act of obligation without his fault, shall justify an exception. The first two years of service, during which the appointment was only revo¬ cable, shall be added to the time of service. § 44. In fixing the time of service, the time may be brought into the computa¬ tion during which the respective state official was engaged in some practical oc¬ cupation which by custom or express regulation served as preparation for an office in the state service, or during which he held a public office not to be treated under § 1 of the law of March 7, 1835, including that of an attorney and of a notary. Such additions assume, however, in so far as the combined ministry (Gesamt Ministerinm) has not expressly granted an exception, the subsequent payment of the annual contributions to the pension fund of the state prescribed in § 47 of the law of March 7, 1835. The deductions in question shall be computed in accordance with the amount of the fixed income of the respective state official during the time to be credited, but in default of this in accordance with the first regular service income. In appointments in the state service, the appointing authority may make pro¬ vision in advance as to the computation of the time of service of the appointee. § 45. Whosoever in future makes his principal residence in foreign parts shall suffer, if the pension accorded to him exceeds 600 marks, a deduction of 10 per cent, unless he has been permitted as a favor the full enjoyment of the pen¬ sion in foreign parts or there exists a special treaty with the respective foreign PENSIONS IN GEKMAN UNIVERSITIES. 209 government concerning the right of emigration with regard to the consumption of a pension in foreign parts. By foreign parts there are to be understood here, as in §§19 and 3G of the law of March 7, 1835, all states not belonging to the German Empire. § 46. State officials appointed before October 15, 1848, shall retain the eventu¬ ally more favorable pension claims due them under the law of March 7, 1835, with reference to part of their service income already drawn up to this time. The pensions of officials who, at the time of the promulgation of the present law, are already i)ensioned shall suffer no change therel)y. § 47. If a i)ensioned former state official has been sentenced to imprisonment on account of a crime committed before or after his being pensioned, or on ac¬ count of a previous or subsequent misdemeanor for which he can be sentenced to loss of the right to hold public office or under the provisions of § 32, subpar. 1, of the Imperial Code of Penal Law, to loss of civil rights of honor, he can be deprived of his pension. The sentence of loss of pension shall proceed from the disciplinary court (Dis- ziplinargericht) and shall result for the sentenced individual in the loss of the title and rank which may have been left to him when he was pensioned. The proceeding is prescribed in §§20 to 30. In case of conviction the provisions of § 35, subpar. 2, shall respectively apply. The withdrawal of title and rank may be decreed against a pensioner by the ministry under which he was last employed, before being pensioned in every case, if the pensioner in his conduct shows himself unworthy of public esteem. Before such decree the pensioner shall be given opportunity to present what¬ ever may serve his justification or excuse. Against the decree of the respective ministry appeal may be made to the joint ministry ( Gesam t M inisterhim ) . § 48. In the absence of the relicts designated in § 40 of the law of March 7, 1835, the gratuity {Gnadengemiss) may be granted also if the deceased leaves in destitution legitimate progeny of the second or more remote degrees, parents, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or foster children whose provider he was, or if his estate is not sufficient to pay the expenses of the last sickness or of the burial. § 49. To whom payment of the gratuity shall be made shall be determined in each individual case by the respective superior official authority. The gratuity can not become subject to attachment. Given at Dresden on June 3, 1876. VI. THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN. A.— PENSIONING THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF TEACHERS AND OFFICIALS. The pensioning of the widows and orphans of teachers and officials at the two universities, Heidelberg and Freiburg in Baden, is regulated by the law for officials of July 24, 1888, which applies to all officials of the Grand Duchy of Baden (Jl. of Laws and Regulations (Oesetz- u. Verordnungs'blatt) , 1888, No. XXXIV). Under this each widow of a regularly appointed official and also the widow of each regular teacher or official of the universities of Heidelberg and Frei¬ burg in Baden, w’ho has earned a claim to service pension or has died in conse¬ quence of some disease, wound, or other injury contracted in the exercise of or occasioned by his service without any fault of his, receives a pension of 30 per cent of the determining estimate of income of her deceased husband. The statutory orphan’s pension carries : (a) For children whose mother is living and entitled to the payment of widow's pension at the time of the death of the teacher or official of the university, two-tenths of the widow’s pension for each child; (b) For children whose mother is no longer living or who was not entitled to the payment of a widow’s pension at the time of the death of the official ; If there is only one such child, four-tenths ; if there are two such children, seven-tenths ; if there are three or more such children, for each of them three-tenths of the widow^’s pension. ED 1904 M - 14 210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Under certain conditions the statutory pension amounts are paid also to the relicts of a teacher or official deceased in a nonstatutory position or retired therefrom with service pension. In return for these pension claims of their relicts the teachers and officials of the universities, as well as all other State officials, have to pay, as a rule, into the widows’ fund of the officials 3 per cent of the determining estimate of their income, respectively, of their service pension (Ruhegehalt) . The detailed provisions concerning the pensions of relicts are contained in the fifth and sixth sections of the above-mentioned law of July 24, 1888, of which §§ 55 to 88, referring to this, are as follows: Fifth section: Pensions of relicts. 1. Pension at Death (Sterbegehalt) . § 55. Claim to pension at death in general. — The relicts of a regular official shall receive as Sterhegehalt for the three months succeeding the day of death the full amount of salary and rent money drawn by the official and of the sup¬ plementary salary eventually allowed for the chief service. From variable incomes and incomes in kind, a ^terhegehalt shall be granted only if the function has occupied the whole time and energy of the official and only in so far as such allowances are included in the estimate of income (§ 18). « If the official enjoyed free residence, the Sterbegehalt shall be paid from the item of rent money of the respective local fund. The relicts of an official who at the time of his death drew service pension shall receive as Sterbegehalt the amount of the service pension for three months. § 56. Relicts entitled and competent to draw pensions. — As relicts in the sense of the preceding paragraph shall be considered the widow and the legitimate children of the official. In the absence of relicts entitled to claims, the Sterbegehalt may be granted wholly or in part, nevertheless, if the deceased has left in destitution parents, grandparents, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, adopted children, stepchil¬ dren, or foster children whose provider he was, or if the estate is not sufficient to meet the expenses of the last sickness and burial. § 57. Optional Sterbegehalt. — The relatives of a nonstatutory official, as desig¬ nated in § 56, subparagraph 1, whose function shall have required his entire time and energy, may be granted a Sterbegehalt of one monthly installment of the service income, service pension, or gratuity pension of the official at their request, if the conditions under subparagraph 2 of § 56 exist. § 58. Decisio7i as to the granting of Sterbegehalt. — As to the question to whom the payment of the Sterbegehalt can be legally paid and how it shall be divided among several persons entitled to payment or respective participants under § 56, subparagraph 2, and § 57, the order of the respectively competent ministry shall decide with exclusion of recourse to law. II. Relicts’ Pensions. § 59. The claims of the relicts to pension. — The relicts of a statutory official shall receive in the event of the death of the official after this law shall take effect, pensions — widows’ pensions, orphans’ pensions (Wittivengeld, Waisen- gcld) — in accordance with the following provisions: § 60. Persons entitled to claims. — As relicts in the sense of the preceding para¬ graph shall be considered the widow, as long as she is not married, and the legitimate unmarried children of the official until the completed eighteenth year of life. The widow and the surviving children of an official from a marriage con- a § 18 of the law of July 24 is as follows : For the determination of service pensions, gratuity pensions, and widows’ pensions, as well as of the contributions to the widows’ fund by statutory officials, the estimate of income shall serve as basis. The estimate of income shall be composed, as to the kind of payments due the officials, us follows : 1. The amount of salary allowed the official (§ 17, No. 1). 2. The estimated amount of rent money (Wohnungsgeld) § 17, No. 1, and § 24. 3. The regulated estimate of value for variable payments (§ 17, No. 4.) 4. The regulated estimate of value of payments in kind (§ 17, No. 5). PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES, 211 eluded after his retirement shall have no claim to pension, except in case of temporary retirement (§§32 and 33). « The widow shall have no claim to widow’s pension, if her marriage with the deceased was concluded at a time when his life was in serious danger from sick¬ ness, in so far as death ensued within three months after the conclusion of marriage. § Gl. The statiftory icklow's pension. — Claim to the statutory widow’s pension shall be held by the widow, if the statutory official died after earning a claim to retirement pension or in consequence of one of the causes indicated under § 34, subparagraph 2, No. 2. The statutory widow's pension shall carry 30 per cent of the determining estimate of income (§ 18). Ill the cases of §§ G3, G7, and 7G, subparagraph 2, the estimate of the income shall decide which had been assumed until the death as a basis for the payment of the contribution to the widows’ fund ; in all other cases the regular estimate of all service payments which the official drew immediately before his death, respectively, before his retirement. The amount of the estimate exceeding 10,000 marks shall in all cases be omitted from computation. § G2. The statutory orphan's pension. — Children shall have claim to the statu¬ tory orphan’s pension under the provisions of § Gl, subparagraph 1. The statutory orphan’s pension shall carry : (a) For children whose mother is still living and entitled to a widow’s pension at the time of the official’s death — two-tenths of the widow’s pension for each child. (b) For children whose mother is no longer living or not entitled to the payment of a widow’s pension at the time of the official’s death — if only one such child existed, four-tenths; if two such children existed, seven-tenths; if three or more such children existed, for each of them three- tenths of the widow’s pension. § 63. Exceptional claim of the relicts of a nonstatutory official to the statutory pension. — The relicts of an official who died in nonstatutory {nicht etatsmdssig) position or had been retired from such position with retirement pension, shall have claim to the lawful pension, if the official under the provisions of § 43,& giving title to retirement pension has been transferred from a statutory position formerly occupied by him to the nonstatutory position, and has continued pay¬ ment of the contribution to the widow’s fund under § 73 until his death. The claim shall not be valid for relicts derived from a marriage concluded after the transfer to the nonstatutory position. § 64. Reduction of tiic pension. — The total amount of the widow’s and orphans’ pension shall not exceed the retirement pension to the payment of which the official was entitled on the day of his death, respectively, would have been entitled under § 34, subparagraph 2, No. 2,c in case of retirement. “ §§ 32 and 33 of the law of July 24, 1888. are as follows : “ S 32. The members of the highest state authority shall be competent at any time to be placed into temporary retirement and to request temporary retirement, even in the absence of the provisions of § 28, and without recourse to the proceedings indicated in §§29 to 31. “ § 33. Statutory officials for whose employment in the public service there shall be no further occasion in consequence of some change in the organization of the authorities or their departments, furthermore for other solid reasons the diplomatic representatives, the directors and members of the ministries, the directors of the central-middle ofiices (central mittelstellen) , the first state attorney (oberstaatsanicalt) , and the officers of grand ducal privy council may be placed under temporary retirement, even in the absence of the provisions of § 28, and without recourse to the proceedings indicated in §§29 to 31." " § 43 of the law of July 24, 1888, is as follows : " If an official, who has earned in a statutory position a legal claim to retirement pension in case of his retirement, is transferred to a nonstatutory (nicht ctatsmassig) posi¬ tion, and later on is relieved, for one of the reasons given under § 28, Nos. 1 to 3, he shall have claim to a retirement pension computed on the basis of the last estimate of income of the statutory position and the time of service up to the time of such transfer.” For weighty reasons, however, he may be credited in the computation with the later time of service, wholly or in part. There shall be no claim, if the transfer to the nonstatutory position has been made under one of the provisions of § 42, subparagraph 2. ‘^ § 34 of the law of July 24, 1888, is as follows : “ A statutory official, who may be retired after a time of service of at least ten years (comp. § 37 ff.), shall have claim to retirement pension for life under the following pro¬ visions, in so far as this retirement [was not caused?] by an affliction due to his own gross fault. “ Even with a time of service of less than ten years, there shall be claim to retirement pension, if the retirement was made : “ 1. Under §§ 32 and 33, or “ 2. On account of some disease, wound, or other injury, clearly brought upon the official in the exercise of his service or in consequence thereof without fault of his own.” 212 EDUCATIOI^ REPORT, 1904. Id applying this limitation both the widow’s and the orphans’ pensions shall be proportionally reduced. If later on claims are withdrawn, the widows’ and orphans’ pension of the remaining claimants shall be proportionally increased within lawful limits with the beginning of the succeeding month. § 65. Reduction of the widoio’s pension. — If the widow is younger than the deceased official by thirty years or more, the widow’s pension computed under the preceding paragraphs shall be reduced as follows ; With a difference in age of fully thirty to thirty-five years, by one-tenth ; With a difference of more than thirty-five but not over forty years, by two- tenths ; With a difference of more than forty years, by three-tenths. Such reduction shall have no influence upon the amount of the orphans’ pen¬ sion ( §§ 62, 64). § 66. Limited widoivs' and orphans’ pensions. — The relicts shall have claim to limited pensions if — 1. An official died in a statutory position but before he had earned claim to retirement salary and in the absence of the conditions of § 34, sub- paragraph 2, No. 2, or if 2. A statutory official, who has been retired without claim to retirement sal¬ ary, shall have continued payment of the contributions to the widows’ fund, under § 74, until his death in retirement. The limited pension shall carry 80, respectively 60, per cent of the amount to be computed under the preceding provisions, according to whether the official has the right to be credited with a time of service of at least five years or less than five years. In this the amount of retirement salary admissible under § 45 « shall take the place of that designated in § 64, subparagraph 1. § 67. Limited pension in case of relief from the state service. — Claim to lim¬ ited pension shall be due, furthermore, to the relicts of an official relieved from public service by whom the contributions to the widows’ fund shall have been paid up to his death, if the official, after remaining at least ten years in the public service, voluntarily resigned from it for the purpose of assuming the office of first burgomaster {Aherhur germeister) or burgomaster in the com¬ munal service of the home country or as registrar of real estate and mortgages in one of the cities under the city regulations and retained his claim to widows’ and orphans’ pensions in accordance with § 75. § 68. Rounding (aufrundung) of contributions. — Fractional parts, resulting from the computation of the yearly payments of a person entitled to pension, shall be counted as a full mark without prejudice to the provision of § 64. § 69. Beginning and end of payment. — Payment of pension shall begin after the end of the month following the month of death. It shall end with the end of the month in which the claim to payment shall be extinguished. III. CONTRIBI TION TO THE WiDOWS’ FUND. § 70. Obligation to the payment of contributions to the voidows’ fund. — Every statutory official is under obligation to pay contributions to the widows’ fund. The contribution to the widows’ fund shall be collected regularly in those periods of time in which the service income or the retirement salary is payable by retention of a corresponding part of these payments. In order to cover the eventual nonpay.raent of contribution to the widows’ fund at the death of an official, the Sterbegehalt and the next payable install¬ ments of the pensions shall be available. § 71. Beginning of the obligation. — The obligation of payment of the contribu¬ tion to the widows’ fund shall begin — 1. For those officials who, when this law shall take effect, shall be under statutory appointment, with just this time ; 2. For officials who shall receive appointment later on, with the beginning of the month in which this appointment shall take effect. § 72. Extinction of the obligation. — The obligation of payment of the contribu¬ tion to the widows’ fund shall cease — 1. With the death of the official ; “ § 45 of the law of July 24, 1888, is as follows : “ If a statutory official who has uo legal claim to retirement salary shall he retired under § 28, he may be allowed, in correspondence with the necessities existing in the personal conditions, a revocable retirement salary not exceeding 30 per cent of the esti¬ mate of income last fixed for computation.” PENSIONS IN OEKMAN PNIYERSITIES. 213 . § 72. Extinction of flic obligation — Continued. 2. With voluntary or involuntary relief from statutory appointment, with reservation of the ])rovisions in 73, 75; 3. With the retirement of an ollicial without claim to retirement salary, with reservation of the provision of § 74; 4. With the retirement of an official, in so far as he is neither married nor has unmarried legitimate children under IS years of age GO) ; and 5. For retired officials on entrance into the condition indicated under No. 4— a marriage concluded after retirement or the presence of children from such marriage shall not i)revent the extinction of the obligation. The temporary retirement of an official (§§ 32 and 33) shall not entail the extinction of the obligation of payment of contribution to the widows’ fund. § 73. Payment of contributions to the widoios' f und by nonstatiitory officials. — If a statutory official, who either is married or has unmarried legitimate chil¬ dren under 18 years of age (§ GO), is transferred to a nonstatutory position under the conditions of § 43 conferring title to retirement salary, he can retain the claim to widows’ pension by obligating himself to the continuance of pay¬ ment of his previous contributions to the widows’ fund. The declaration that the official will avail himself of this privilege shall be made within a term of three months from his entrance upon the nonstatutory position, on penalty of loss of this privilege. The official may at anj^ time give up the claim to pension thus retained, and shall thereby be relieved of the obligation of payment of contribution to the widows’ fund. If in spite of repeated requests the contributions remain unpaid for a period of at least six months, this fact may be considered as renunciation of the claim. Besides, the payment of contributions shall cease in every case if the official no longer has relatives entitled to pension from a marriage concluded before relief from the statutory position. § 74. Payment of the contribution to the widoivs' fund by officials who may have been retired without claim to retirement. — If a statutory official who either is married or has unmarried legitimate children under 18 years (§ 60) is retired without claim to retirement salary, he can retain the claim to widows’ pension by obligating himself to continuance of payment of 80 per cent, respectively 60 per cent, of his previous contribution to the widows’ fund, according to the inoi- dence of one of the conditions indicated in § G6, subparagraph 2. The provisions of § 73, subparagraphs 2 and 3,‘ apply to this case, respectively. Payment of contribution shall cease if the official no longer has relatives entitled to pension from a marriage concluded before his retirement. § 75. Payment of contributions to the widoivs’ fund by officials voluntarily relieved. — If a statutory official who either is married or has unmarried children under 18 years (§ 60) withdraws voluntarily from the service, he may retain his title to widows’ pension by obligating himself to the continuance of payment of the contribution to the widows’ fund, determined on the basis of the estimate of income at the time of his withdrawal. The claim shall be valid only for the relicts from a marriage concluded before withdrawal. The retention of the claim is not admissible, if the withdrawing official, by virtue of the service into which he may pass from the state service, shall acquire for his relicts a claim to widows’ pension. The provisions of § 73, subparagraphs 2 and 4, apply to this case, respectively. § 76. Amount of the contribution to the widoivs’ fund from officials in office. — As long as the official draws his service income, the amount of his contribution to the widows’ fund shall be 3 per cent of the determining estimate of income (§ 18). If an official, under the conditions of § 42 leading to the computation of a higher estimate of income,^ has been transferred to a position wihi lower esti- “ § 42 of the law of July 24, 1888, is as follows : “ If an official who has held for at least one year an office with higher estimate of income shall later on be transferred to an office with lower estimate of income, then in case of his retirement his retirement salary shall be computed on the basis of his former higher estimate of income : Provided, however, That the retirement salary shall not exceed the amount of the computing estimate of income holding immediately before retirement.” There shall be no claim to the assumption of the higher estimate of income as comput¬ ing basis if — 1. The office to which the official was transferred with reduction of the estimate of income does not require the full time and energy of the official, or if 2. The transfer to the office with lower estimate of income has resulted in consequence of some violation of the official duties or exclusively at the request of the official made in his own interest. 214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. mate of income, he shall be entitled to retain his claim to widows’ pension in accordance with the former higher estimate of income by obligating himself to the continued payment of the contribution to the widows’ fund computed for the higher estimate of income. With reference to the term allowed for the declara¬ tion of renunciation of the increase of widows’ pension effected thereby and of the cessation of the obligation to continue payment of the higher contribution to the widows’ fund, the provisions of § 73, subparagraphs 2 and 3, shall respectively apply. § 77. Amount of the contribution to the widows' fund of retired officials. — The contribution to the widows’ fund of a retired official — in permanent or temporary retirement (§§ 32 and 33) — shall amount to 3 per cent of the statutory retire¬ ment salary beginning with the time when his service income shall cease, with reservation of the provision of § 74. Even if the retirement salary is wholly or partially suspended, the full amount of the widows’ fund contribution shall be paid. If the retired official is employed on pay in the service of the state under con¬ ditions which are attended with whole or partial suspension of the retirement salary, the contribution to the widows’ fund shall be computed for the time on the basis of the regular estimate of the service income last drawn. § 78. Maximum of the contribution to the widows' fund. — No contribution to the widows’ fund shall be paid on the estimate of income exceeding 10,000 marks. § 79. Changes in the contribution and rounding (Abrundung) thereof. — Changes in the amount of the contribution to the widows’ fund to be paid by an official shall take effect regularly with the beginning of the month in which the event affecting the increase or reduction of the contribution shall have taken place. If this shall occur with the close of the month, the change in the contribution shall not begin until the beginning of the following month. The same provision shall apply to the cessation of payment of the contri¬ bution. The installments to be collected shall be rounded off throughout to tenths of a mark in such a way that amounts up to 5 pfennigs shall not be considered, and amounts exceeding 5 pfennigs shall be counted as 10 pfennigs. IV. Special Provisions for Certain Classes of Officials. § 80. Former officers and military officials. — The provisions of this section concerning the claim to widows* and orphans’ pension and concerning the obli¬ gation to pay contributions to the widows’ fund shall apply to former officers and military officials who may receive statutory appointments after this law shall go into effect, only with the proviso that the current contributions pay¬ able to the military widows’ fund of Baden or under the imperial law {Reichs- gesetz) of June 17, 1887 (Reichsgesetzblatt, p. 237), to the imperial fund, shall be considered in the computation of the yearly contribution to the widows’ fund payable under § 70, and also the total amount of the payments due to the relicts from these funds in the computation of the widows’ and orphans’ pensions (§ 59 ff.). The consideration in these computations of the contributions to the widows and orphans’ fund on the basis of the said imperial law shall take place with¬ out regard to its repeal by the imperial law of March 5, 1888 {Reichsgesetz¬ blatt, p. 65). §81. Former imperial officials {Reichsbeamte) . — The provisions of §80 shall apply, respectively, to former imperial officials. § 82. Roman Catholic clericals. — The provisions of this section concerning the claims to widows’ and orphans’ pensions and the obligation to pay contribu¬ tions to the widows’ fund shall not apply to Roman Catholic clericals who may be appointed as officials. V. The Widows’ Fund of Officials. § 83. Administration of the loidows' fund. — The receipts and expenditures of the exchequer of the state made in connection with the legal provisions con¬ cerning widows’ and orphans’ pensions and contributions to the widows’ fund (§§ 59 to 81) and with the respective transitional provisions (§§ 139 ff.) are to be kept separate from the affairs of the general administration of the state. The business matters belonging thereto shall be administered under the supervision and direction of the ministry of finance by a “ board of adminis¬ tration of the widows’ fund of officials ” to be appointed by sovereign decree. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 215 To whom paymeut of the pensions (respectively of benefits, etc.) shall be legally paid, and how such payments are to be divided among several persons entitled thereto shall be determined by the administrative board with exclu¬ sion of recourse to lawsuit. § 84. Payment of deficit hy the state. — If in any year the revenues from the capital, the contributions to the widows’ fund, and other receipts are not sufficient to defray in addition to the administrative expenses, also benefits, state pensions, widows’ and orphans’ pensions, the resulting deficit shall be paid from the resources of the general state administration. This supplementary amount {zuschuss) shall be fixed each time by the budget of the state, and shall contain in the first six budget periods annually at least the following amounts : 1. Twenty per cent of the estimated income of the officials acquiring for the fir.st time statutory appointment and of the officials separated from active service, respectively, from statutory positions (by death, discharge, retirement, etc.) ; 2. A fixed supplementary amount of 650,000 marks. SIXTH SECTIOX. — General provisions concerning the proprietary service claims of officials and of their relicts, and concerning the prosecution of legal claims against officials. § 85. Alloivance of a retirement salary and toidows' and orphans’ pensions in case of accident in the service. — If an ofiicial employed in a trade or branch of service not subject to the imperial accident insurance has been separated from the service, retired, or has died in consequence of an accident which he has evi¬ dently undergone in the service or occasioned thereby without any fault of his, he, respectively in case of his death his widow and his children, may be granted a retirement salary, respectively widows’ or orphans’ pensions to the amount of the payments which the official, respectively his widow and children, could claim, if the accident had occurred in a trade subject to the imperial accident assurance, provided that a legitimate claim does not already exist under the fourth and fifth sections of this law. § 86. Payment of claims.- — Payment of the statutory amounts due to officials and their relicts (salary, supplementary salary, rent money, retirement salary, benefits, widows’ and orphans’ pensions) shall be made regularly monthly at the end of the time due. It is subject to decree to designate the cases in which payment shall be made annually. § 87. Transfers of claims of officials and their relicts. — The claim to the pay¬ ment of the service salary, retirement salary, benefit pension, and widows’ or orphans’ pension, as well as other statutory claims of an official can be ceded, mortgaged, or otherwise transferred by the official or his relicts only in so far as these claims are subject to attachment (§ 749 of the regulations of civil suits). Notice shall be given to the fund liable for the claim in a public writing to he delivered to the fund. § 88. Judicial contentions concerning claims of officials and their relicts arising from conditions of service. — Law proceedings may be instituted concerning proprietary claims of officials arising from conditions of service, as well as con¬ cerning the proprietary claims legally accorded to the relicts of officials. However, the complaint must be preceded by a decision of the respectively authorized ministry concerning the legal claim ; suit must be entered within six months after the parties concerned have been notified of the decision of the com¬ petent ministry, on penalty of loss of right of suit. The decision of the administrative and disciplinary authorities as to whether and at what time an official shall be relieved or separated from the public service or retired by administrative or disciplinary procedure, whether and from what time an official retired under § 49 is under obligation to resume his office, and concerning the institution of compulsory measures and penalties shall be decisive for the alleged proprietary claims introduced in court.a “It remains yet to be mentioned that at the University of Freiburg there exists an institutional sick fund, established under § 60 of the law for the insurance of the sick of April 10, 1892 (R. G. Bl., p. 379), to which all persons occupied in the conduct of the university on salary or wages belong as members obligated to insurance by virtue of the law, in so far as their work by the very nature of its object or in advance by contract is limited to a period of less than one week. , Under § 14 of the statutes of this institutional sick fund, the latter makes in case of the death of a member a mortuary payment of one-twentieth of the actual pay for work. If a person who fell ill as a member of the ftind shall die after expiration of the sick 216 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. B.— PENSION CONDITIONS OF PROFESSORS AND OFFICIALS, UNIVER¬ SITIES OF BADEN. Retirement. REQUIREMENTS FOR RETIREMENT IN GENERAL. § 28. A statutory official (etatmdessig) may be retired if he either — ]. Has completed the twenty-fifth year of life and is hindered in the per¬ formance of his duties by age ; or 2. Has become incapable to perform his duties by a bodily ailment or by bodily or mental weakness ; or 3. Has been kept from the performance of his duties by sickness for more than one year. RETIREMENT ON REQUEST. § 29. An official may be retired on his request if it shall be established by a formal declaration of the immediately superior service authority that one of the requirements designated in § 28, Nos. 1 to 3, exists. To what extent other additional evidence shall be required or considered suffi¬ cient in opposition to the declaration of the immediately superior authority shall depend on the judgment of the authority which has the decision concerning the retirement. RETIREMENT WITHOUT REQUEST. § 30. The retirement of an official who has completed the twenty-fifth year of life may be ordered also without his request, under the provisions of § 29, after the official has been granted opportunity to make his plea. § 31. If the retirement of an official who has not as yet completed the twenty- fifth year of life seems indicated for one of the reasons stated under § 28, Nos. 2 and 3, the official shall be notified, if he fails to make request, by the superior service authority with statement of the reasons that his retirement is being con¬ sidered. If the official makes no objection within six weeks after such notification mat¬ ters shall proceed as if he had requested retirement. If objections are raised against retirement or if the official can not be notified the respectively competent ministry shall decide whether the proceedings shall continue, and shall eventually order an official to investigate the facts under con¬ tention as far as possible with examination under oath of witnesses and experts. The official concerning whom the proceedings have been instituted may be present at these examinations and shall be heard after their close as to the out¬ come of the investigation. The closed [final?] papers shall be submitted for decision to the competent authority which eventually may order a supplementary investigation. CLAIM TO RETIREMENT PAY. § 34. A statutory official who is retired after a service period (compare § 37 ff) of at least ten years shall, in so far as this measure was not due to an afflic¬ tion caused by his own gross fault, have claim to retirement pay for life under the following provisions : Even in cases of a service period of less than ten years a claim to retirement pay shall hold if the retirement was ordered either — 1. Under §§32 and 33 ; or 2. In consequence of some sickness, wound, or other injury which the official evidently contracted in the performance of his duty or on occasion thereof without fault of his own. benefits, the mortuary payment is still to be made if the inability to earn a living had continued until death and death had taken place in consequence of the same sickness within a year after the expiration of the sick benefits. The portion of the mortuary payment required for defraying the expenses of burial is paid to the person in charge of the burial. An eventual excess is payable to the surviv¬ ing husband or wife, in the absence of such to the nearest heirs. Should there be no such persons, the excess reverts to the fund. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 217 AMOUNT OF KETIHEMENT FAY IN GENERAL. § 35. The retirement pay shall carry, if the retirement takes place after the completed tenth and before the completed eleventh year of service, 30 per cent of the amount which immediatly before his retirement represented the estimate of income (§ 18) of the official, and shall be increased after that with each ad¬ ditional year of service by i)er cent of that sum. In the case designated in § 34, subparagraph 2, No. 2, the retirement i)ay shall carry 30 per cent of the determining estimate of income. The retirement pay shall not exceed 75 per cent of the estimate of income and 7,500 marks. If the retired official has claim to retirement pay {WarteueUl) , and the like against the Empire, some other State, some commune or church, due to some previous condition of service, the amount of this latter retirement pay {Warte- geld), and the like, shall be subtracted from the retirement pay determined under the above provisions, [and] the official shall have claim only to the remaining amount. CREDIT FOR A PREVIOUSLY DRAWN HIGHER SERVICE INCOME. § 42. If an official vAffio held for at least one year an office with higher estimate of income has been transferred later on to another office with a smaller estimate of income, his retirement pay in case of retirement shall be determined on the basis of that higher estimate of income, with the restriction, however, that the retirement pay shall not exceed the amount of the determining estimate of income of the official immediately before his retirement. The claim to the use of the higher estimate of income as basis does not exist if — 1. The office to which the official was appointed with reduction of the esti¬ mate of income does not require his entire time and energy ; or if 2. The appointment to the office connected with a smaller estimate of income was made in consequence of a violation of the duties incumbent on the official or wholly at the request of the official made in his own interest. CONSIDERATION OF THE FORMER OCCUPANCY OF A STATUTORY OFFICE. § 43. If an official who has earned in a statutory position a legal claim to retirement pay in the event of retirement is transferred to a nonstatutory position and later on is separated from the service for one of the reasons given in § 28, Nos. 1 to 3, he shall have claim to retirement pay computed on the basis of the last estimate of income of the statutory position and the time of service elapsed up to his transfer. In the presence of weighty reasons the later time of service may, however, also be credited to him wholly or in part. No claim exists if the transfer to the nonstatutory position has been made under one of the provisions indicated in § 42, subparagraph 2. EXCEPTIONAL INCREASE OF THE RETIREMENT PAY. § 44. By sovereign decree an exceptional increase of the statutory retirement pay may be granted up to the amount of the last determining estimate of income, if the official has deserved exceptionally well of the sovereign of the Father- land by prominent services. OPTIONAL ALLOWANCE OF RETIREMENT PAY. § 45. If a statutory official who has no claim to retirement pay is retired under § 28, he may be granted revocable retirement pay to the amount of 30 per cent of the last determining estimate of income, in accordance with existing necessities in his personal circumstances. ALLOWANCE OF BENEFIT PAY ( UNTERSTUETZUNGSGEH ALT ) . § 46. If a nonstatutory official, whose office has claimed his whole time and energy, is separated from the service of the state because of incapacitation for service for no fault of his, he may be granted, in the measure of existing neces- 218 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. sities iu his personal circumstances, revocable benefit payments up to the amount determined through appropriate application of the statutory provisions concern¬ ing the amount of retirement pay. benefit payments shall not exceed, however, 40 per cent of the amount which results from appropriate application of the respective provisions as the last determining estimate of income. BEGINNING OF THE PAYMENTS OF RETIREMENT PAY. § 47. Payments of retirement pay shall be made to the official beginning with the time when his previous service income shall cease. Even if the retired official is relieved of his official duties at an earlier time, he shall continue to draw his service income for an additional month after the lapse of the month in which he has been notified of the decision as to his retirement. Variable pay¬ ments and payments in kind are excepted from this in so far as their receipt is conditional on actual service. An earlier time for the cessation of the payment of the previous service income can be established only with the consent of the official ; a later time, however, in the order concerning the retirement. ROUNDING OFF (ABRUNDUNG). § 48. If in the computation of the retirement or benefit pay there result frac¬ tional parts of a mark, these are to be counted as a full mark. REAPPOINTMENT OF RETIRED OFFICIALS. § 49. An official in temporary retirement under § 32 or § 33 is under obligation again to accept office on recpiest of the competent authority, in so far as there exist the conditions under which the official in accordance with § 5 can be trans¬ ferred without his consent from the office held immediately before his retire¬ ment to the office offered him. This applies also to the officials retired under § 28, Nos. 2 and 3, in so far as they may again have become fit for service. The official is under obligation to enter upon the appointment offered to him within three months from the day on which he was notified of his reappoint¬ ment. EXTINCTION OF THE RETIREMENT PAY. § 50. The claim to retirement pay ceases when the claimant — 1. Is separated from the service of the state in consequence of a criminal or disciplinary judgment ; or 2. Enters again upon a statutory appointment in the home service ; or 3. Declines acceptance of an appointment offered him under § 49. SUSPENSION OF RETIREMENT PAY. § 51. The claim to retirement pay shall be suspended: 1. If the claimant takes up his residence without the approval of the gov¬ ernment beyond the limits of the imperial realm until his return, respectively, until subsequent approval ; or 2. If he loses imperial citizenship, until its eventual recovery ; or 3. As long as he — except in the case under § 50, No. 2 — draws a salary or retirement pay (Wartegeld) from employment in the home state service or in other public service (viz, in the service of another state, of the empire, of a church, a commune, or other communal organization), or in the service of the court or court administration, in so far as the amount of such income added to the formerly earned retirement pay shall exceed by more than 10 per cent the amount of the estimate of income used as a basis in computing the amount of this retirement pay ; or 4. If he exercises the functions of an attorneyship, and this, after the expi¬ ration of two years from his registration as attorney, to the extinc¬ tion of this registration. The effect designated in No. 3 applies only to the employment in such activity as is usually assigned to other officials. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 219 TIME FOR THE BEGINNING OF THE EXTINCTION OF THE SUSPENSION AND OF THE RESTORATION 01< RETIREMENT PAY. § 52. The extinction, the suspension, and the restoration of the retirement pay- in the cases under §§50 and 51 shall begin with the month which succeeds the event that brought up such change. In the case of § 50, No. 1, the claim to retirement pay is extinguished as soon as the criminal or disciplinary .iudgnient shall have taken effect. The suspension shall not take place in the cases of § 51, No. 3, if this measure is not to be ordered in accordance with the first subparagraph for a period of at least three successive months. AUTHORITY FOR TRANSFER TO RETIREMENT. § 53. The tranfer to retirement with reference to officials appointed by order of the sovereign shall be made by the sovereign ; in other cases by the respective ministry. AUTHORITY FOR GRANTING RETIREMENT AND BENEFIT PAY. § 54. In so far as the respective order is not by law or decree reserved for the sovereign, the order as to whether and in what amount retirement or benefit pay shall be granted to an official, and whether the conditions for their extinction, suspension, or restoration exist, shall issue from the respective ministry in con¬ nection with the ministry of finance. VII. THE GRAND DTJCAL HESSIAN LTJDEWIG UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN. A.— PROVISIONS FOR THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF TEACHERS AND OFFICIALS. The widows and orphans of the teachers and officials employed at the Grand Ducal Ludewig University of Giessen take part in the first place in the General Widows Institute for Civil Officials of the Gnind Duchy of Hesse. Under the law of June 30, 1886, applying thereto (Government Annual {Regierungshlatt) of 1886, No. 15, pp. 95 ff.), all teachers and officials employed at the university are obligatory members of said institute. The annual contributions amount to 3 per cent of the service income entitling to pension or of the service pension ; the amount exceeding the annual sum of 5,400 marks of a service pension pays no contribution. For widows the yearly pension amounts to 30 per cent of the service pension earned at his death by her husband — at least, however, 160 marks, and at most 1,600 marks. With salaries of more than 2,500 marks, the widow’s pension is fixed at a minimum of 500 marks. Half-orphans receive one-fifth of the widow’s pension each. A full orphan receives two-thirds, two full orphans one-half each, three or more one-third each, of the widow’s pension. Widows’ and orphans’ pensions in the aggregate may not, however, ever exceed 2,400 marks. After the completed eighteenth '/ear the claim to orphans’ pension is extinguished. Laiv of June 30, 1886, concerning the Widoios’ Institute for Civil Officials. Article 1. — Entitled and obligated to membership in the Widows’ Institute for Civil Officials, under the provisions of this law, are all irrevocably and all revocably appointed state officials, respectively employees ; the officials of the state forestry, however, only if their accession to the Widows’ Institute for State Officials shall have been made by declaration of the Widows’ Institute of I’orestry Officials representing them, on or before August 1, 1886. This declara¬ tion may be delivered by each of the two divisions of Widows’ Institute for Forestry Officials separately, and shall entail the accession of all the members of the respective divisions, as well as the transfer of the entire ]u-opertios belonging to the division to the Widows’ Institute for Civil Officials. In so far as the present law contains provisions that refer to the previous menu 220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. bersliip and to the previous relation of the civil officials, respectively, employees to the widows’ fund for civil officials, these shall apply equally to the previous membership and the previous relations of the officials of the state forestry to the Widows’ Institute of the Officials of the State Forestry of the first and sec¬ ond divisions, in case of the accession of the state forestry officials to said insti¬ tute, in so far as different relations have not been expressly stipulated. Article 2. — The members of the Widows’ Institute of Civil State Officials are under obligation to pay widows’ and orphans’ contributions into the fund of the institute. Article 3. — Widows’ and orphans’ contributions shall also be paid for the mortuary quarter payment due to the relicts of a member of the Widows’ Insti¬ tute for Civil Officials, under the law of November 27, 1874, concerning the mortuary quarter payments of civil officials, the law of November 27, 1874, concerning the revision of the provisions relating to the retirement of civil officials, and the law of May 10, 1875, concerning the pensioning of officials appointed on revocation. Article 4- — The widows’ and orphans’ contributions shall amount annually to 3 per cent of the service income subject to pension or of the service pension, provided that the amount of this pension in excess of the yearly sum of 5,400 marks shall not pay contribution. Similarly the pension increments allowed in special cases, under article 21 of the law of April 12, 1820, concerning the official service relations of civil state officials, and article 3 of the law of May 10, 1875, concerning the pension¬ ing of officials appointed on revocation, shall not be considered in the computa¬ tion of widows’ and orphans’ contributions. For officials whose income consists of fees, the income fixed as basis in the computation of their service pensions shall serve as basis in computing their widows’ and orphans’ contributions. With notaries this basis shall be an income corresponding with the average salary of the judges of districts and provinces (Amts- u. Landricliter) . The annual contributions thus computed shall be rounded off, so that they may be divisible by 12 without a remainder in pfennigs. Article ,5.— The previous (seitherigen) members of the Widows’ Institute for Civil State Officials, who, under the provisions of this law, shall enter into the new relation, shall be credited with the paid entrance fee in such a way that with members — (1) Of the first class drawing up to 8,500 marks of pensionable salary, (2) Of the second class drawing up to 6,400 marks of pensionable salary, (3) Of the third class drawing up to 4,200 marks of pensionable salary, (4) Of the fourth class drawing up to 3,400 marks of pensionable salary, (5) Of the fifth class drawing up to 2,500 marks of pensionable salary, (6) Of the sixth class drawing up to 2,100 marks of pensionable salary, (7) Of the seventh class drawing up to 1,700 marks of pensionable salary, (8) Of the eighth class drawing up to 1,200 marks of pensionable salary, (9) Of the ninth class drawing up to 800 marks of pensionable salary, the widow's’ and orphans’ contributions shall be computed at 2 per cent, and only the portion of pensionable salary in excess of these amounts at 3 per cent. The provisions of this article shall apply to the state forestry officials in case of their accession to the Widow's’ Institute of Civil State Officials, with the pro¬ viso that for the previous members of the first class of the first division of the Widows’ Institute of Forestry Officials drawing up to 4,600 marks of pensionable salary, for the previous members of the second class of the first division draw¬ ing up to 3,400 marks of pensionable salary, and for the previous members of the second division of the Widow's’ Institute for Forestry Officials drawing up to 800 marks of pensionable salary, the widows’ and orphans’ contributions shall be computed at 2 per cent, and only for the portion of pensionable salary exceeding these amounts at 3 per cent. Paid entrance fees shall not be returned on separation from the Widow's and Orphans’ Institute for Civil State Officials of members that have passed into the new relation. Article 6. — The widows’ and orphans'’ contributions shall be collected in advance in those installments in which service income or pensions are payable, by reten¬ tion of the corresponding installments of these amounts and their payment into the fund of the institute ; from notaries and officials appointed on fees, however, in quarterly payments. PENSIOI^S IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIESc 221 Article 7. — The obligation to pay widows’ and orphans’ contributions shall cease : ;l. With the death of the official or pensioner, with reservation of the provision of article 3 ; 2. If the official is relieved of service or is separated from the service with retention of a paid of his pension. Article 8. — The widow and the surviving legitimate children or children legit¬ imatized by subsequent marriage of an official obligated at the time of his death to the payment of widows’ and orphans’ contributions shall receive from the fund of the institute widows’ and orphans’ pensions under the following pro¬ visions : Article 9. — The widow’s pension shall carry 30 per cent of the pension to which the deceased was entitled, or would have been entitled, if he had been retired on the day of his death. With notaries the widow’s pension shall consist of 30 per cent of the amount which would have resulted as pension of the notary on the basis of the aver¬ age salary of judges of districts and provinces under the provisions of the law of November 27, 1874, concerning the revision of the provisions for the retire¬ ment of civil officials if he could have been retired on the day of his death. With irrevocably appointed officials during the first five years of their appoint¬ ment, and with officials appointed on revocation, the widow’s pension shall carry 30 per cent of the pension which may have been allowed or could have been allowed the deceased if he had been retired on the day of his death under the provisions of the law of November 27, 1874, concerning the revision of the pro¬ visions for the retirement of civil officials, respectively of the law of May 10, 1875, concerning the pensioning of officials appointed on revocation. The widow’s pension shall, however, with reservation of the restrictions pro¬ vided in articles 11 and 13, not carry less than IGO^marks nor more than 1,600 marks, and shall with salaries up to 2,500 marks, inclusive, amount to at least one-fifth of the salary, and with higher salaries at least 500 marks. The pension increments allowed in special cases, under article 21 of the law of April 12, 1820, concerning the public service relations of civil state officials, and under article 3 of the law of May 10, 1875, concerning the pensioning of officials appointed on revocation, shall not be considered in the computation of widows’ pensions. Article 10. — The orphans’ pensions shall carry: 1. For children whose mother is living and entitled to pension at the time of the death of the official, one-fifth of the widow’s pension for each child ; 2. For children whose mother is no longer living or at the time of the death of the official not entitled to a widow’s pension : (a) In the presence of one child entitled to payment, two-thirds of the widow’s pension ; (5) In the presence of two children entitled to payment, one-half of the same ; (c) In the presence of three or more such children, one-third of the same for each child. The amount of the annual widows’ and orphans’ pension shall be rounded off for each claimant as above, so that each amount may be divisible by 12 without remainder of pfennigs. Article 11. — Widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall, neither singly nor in the aggregate, exceed the amount of the service pension to which the deceased was entitled or would have been entitled had he been retired on the day of his death. In applying this limitation the widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be reduced proportionately. The aggregate of widoAvs’ and orphans’ pensions shall never exceed 2,000 marks. Article 12. — On the elimination of a claimant of widoAvs’ or orphans’ pension, the pensions of the remaining claimants shall be increased beginning Avith the month next following, in so far as they are not as yet in full enjoyment of amounts due them under articles 9 and 10. Article 13. — If the AA'idoAv was more than tAventy years younger than the de¬ ceased, and if the latter at the time of his marriage had already passed the fiftieth year of life, the widoAv’s pension computed under article 9 shall be reduced by one-tAventieth for each beginning year of the difference of age over twenty and up to thirty, inclusive. The reductions shall have no infiuence upon the amounts of orphans’ pensions computed under article 9. 222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Article 14. — The vv^idow shall have no claim if her marriage with the deceased was concluded within three months of his death and was concluded for the pur¬ pose of securing for the widow the payment of a widow’s pension. Article 15. — The payment of widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall begin with the end of the mortuary quarter {Sterhe quartal), and for children born after this time with the day of their birth. Article 16. — The widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be paid monthly in ad- vaiice. To whom legal payment shall be made shall be determined by our min¬ istry of the interior and of justice, which may transfer the authority for such determination to the commission established for the administration of the Widows’ Institute for Citil State Officials, respectively, to the authority { lielwrde) to which this was intrusted (article 30). If several persons alleging title raise contradictory claims to the widows’ and orphans’ pensions, our ministry of the interior and of justice, or upon its request the established commission, or, respectivel3^ the authority intrusted with the administration of Widows’ Institute for Civil State Officials, shall be authorized to refer the contestants to judicial process ; but shall be empowered, until the case shall be legally decided, to decide temporarily as to the payment of the widows’ and orphans’ pensions to one or several of the contestants with the legal effect that by the payments made in accordance therewith the fund shall be re¬ lieved of all further responsibility. To the victorious parties there remains therefore, in contingent cases only, reclamation from those who, under the judg¬ ment of the court, may have received too much from the fund. Uncollected installments of the widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall become su])erannuated after four years from the day they were due for the benefit < f the chief exche(iuer of state. Article 17. — Widows’ and orphans’ pensions can not be legally ceded, mort¬ gaged, or otherwise transferred. Article 18. — The claim to the payment of widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall become extinct : 1. For each claimant with the end of the month in which he or she dies or is married ; 2. For each orphan, moreover, with the end of the month in which he or she shall complete the eighteenth year of her life. Article 19. — The title to the payment of widows’ and orphans’ pensions shall be suspended if the claimant shall lose German citizenship, until its eventual restoration. Article 20. — The mortuary quarter payments (Sterhe quartal) assigned to the Widows’ Institute for Civil Officials under the decree of June 25, 1812, shall continue to be paid to this institute at 25 per cent of the pensionable yearly income or the yearly service pension and from the fund from which the deceased official had to draw his salary or pension. If the official drew his pensionable salary or pension from different funds, each of these shall pay a proportionate amount. With notaries the mortuary quarter payment shall be paid from the state fund {Staats Kasse) ; also with officials whose pensionable income consists wholly or in part of fees, unless under subarticle 2 another fund shall be obli¬ gated to such payment wholly or in part. Article 21. — The provisions of this law shall take effect on October 1, 188(5. Article 22. — The present law shall not apply to the widows and orphans of state officials who may have died before October 1, 1886. However, the widows and orphans of such state officials who were members of the Widows’ Institute for Civil State Officials, and who died in the period from April 1 to September 30, 1886, either in active service or after retire¬ ment within this period, shall be entitled to demand that their widows’ and orphans’ pensions be computed under the provisions of the present law, provided that they shall present such claim to the commission of the Widows’ Institute for Civil State Officials before October 15, 1886. Article 23. — Those active state officials, as well as those state officials retired in the period from April 1 to September 30. 1886, vrho became members of the Widows’ Institute for Civil Officials before October 1. 1886, either by virtue of the law or by provisional admission, shall be at liberty to continue in their former relation to the institute with retention of their respective pension claims of their widows and orphans and the corresponding yearly con¬ tributions and entrance fees. They shall, however, be held to notify the com¬ mission of the widows’ fund for civil officials of their decision before October PENSIONS IN OERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 223 1, 1886, else it shall be assumed that they submit to the provisious of the pres¬ ent law. Article 21^. — All those active state officials, as well as those state officials retired iii the period from April 1 to September 30, 1886, who became members of the Widows’ Institute for Civi"! Officials either by virtue of the law or by pro¬ visional admission, and who have not availed themselves of the right granted them under article 23, shall sutler deduction of the widows’ and orphans’ con¬ tributions established under articles 4 and 5 beginning with October 1, Subse¬ quent reclamations thereon shall not be considered. However, the relicts of such officials shall be entitled to draw as much com¬ bined widows’ and orphans’ pension as they w'ould have drawni if the official had remained in his former relation to the institute, if said officials in a declara¬ tion to be delivered to the commission of the Widows’ Institute for Civil State Officials before October -1, 1886, obligate themselves to continue payment of the higher contributions due under the former relation to the Widow^s’ Institute of Civil Officials until the widow^s’ and orphans’ contributions, under articles 4 and 5 of the present hnv, shall be computed at the same or higher amounts. Article 25. — Those state officials wffio became members of the Widow^s’ Institute for Civil Officials before April 1, 1886, and wdio were retired before this time, shall continue in their former relation to the institute, wdth retention of the pension claims of the wndow-s and orphans and the corresponding contribu¬ tions connected therewith. The same shall apply to such members of the Widows’ Institute of Civil Offi¬ cials, respectively, to their relicts, to whom there was granted before October 1, 1886 — although they may be separated from the state service — continuance in said institute exceptionally or under article 2 of the law of May 27, 1870, concerning the Widow’s’ Institute of Civil Officials. Article 26. — Those court officials w’ho became members of the Widows’ Insti¬ tute for Civil Officials before October 1, 1886, whether still in active service or already retired, shall continue in their former relation to the institute with retention of the pension claims of widow’s and orphans and the corresponding yearly contributions and entrance fees connected therewith. The court officials obtaining their first appointment on or after October 1, 1886, shall be excluded from admission to the institute. On the death of a court official remaining in the Widow’s’ Institute for Civil Officials our cabinet fund shall pay the mortuary quarter payment into the fund of the Widow^s’ Institute for Civil Officials in accordance with the provisions heretofore in force. The pensions of w’idow^s and orphans of court officials deceased before October 1, 1886, shall continue to be paid also hereafter by the fund of the Widow^s’ Institute for Civil Officials. Article 27. — As contribution to the expenses of pensioning the widows and orphans of court officials receiving their first appointment on or after October 1, 1886, the fund of the Widow’-s’ Institute for Civil Officials shall pay a fixed, irrecoverable, annual revenue of 8,000 marks in quarterly installments to the bureau or fund to be designated by us. Article 28. — To the property of the Widow’s’ Institute for Civil Officials shall be assigned that of the sustentation fund of the customs department. The lia¬ bilities resting upon this fund shall pass to the Widows’ Institute for Civil Officials w’ith its transfer. Article 29. — The existence of the institute shall be guaranteed by the state under article 49 of the constitutional charter in such a w’ay that the exchequer of the state shall contribute whatsoever the institute can not defray in the ful¬ fillment of its liabilities w’ithout trespassing upon its capital, without regard to the gradual use of the entrance fees of the former members of the Widow’s’ Institute for Civil Officials who passed into the new relation under the provi¬ sions of this law’. Article 30. — Concerning the administration of the institute the necessary pro¬ visions shall be made under decree. Article 31. — All still existing law^s, decrees, and orders concerning the Widow^s’ Institute for Civil Officials which are not modified by the present law shall con¬ tinue in force. The provisions of § 30 of the decree of October 2, 1808, concerning the estab¬ lishment, endow^ment, and administration of a general civil w’idow’s’ pensioning institute, shall apply also to the institute to be established for the pensioning of the widows and orphans of future court officials in the form of article 17 of the present law. 224 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. Article 32. — Tlie execution of this law is committed to our ministry of the interior and of justice. In addition to this general care on the part of the State, there exists for the widows of members of the university the following provident establishments : (a) The institute Neiihauer. This was founded by the testament of the government advocate Neubauer of February 6, 1797. The respective passages of this testament are as follows ; “My house and adjoining house with the two gardens and also the garden on the Rigel path, I hereby dedicate and will for an endowment and residence for two widows of professors and two widows of advocates. “Only such widow of a professor (ordinary or extraordinary professor) or such widow of an advocate shall be competent to enjoy this endowment, as shall not possess sufficient property of her own for support conformable to her posi¬ tion, but shall not have lost it by her own loose management, and as shall lead a virtuous and unblemished life ; for if subsequently she should be guilty of bad and low conduct she would lose her free residence and the enjoyment of this endowment. “Whether a professor’s widow be qualified for this endowment, or also eventu¬ ally should again lose it, that shall be decided by the grand ducal (fuerstlich) university, as well as with advocates’ widows the grand ducal government.” The said buildings were sold in the j^ear 1860 in order to avoid necessary expenses for repairs, and with the proceeds, by order of the grand ducal ministry, two independent institutes were created, one of which is administered by the university, the other by the then superior court (now provincial court) at Giessen. The capital thus fallen to the university amounts to 7,417.14 marks ; the pro¬ ceeds derived therefrom, amounting to 297.06 marks, are distributed to two professors’ widows in accordance with the provisions of the Neubauer testament. (&) The university icidows' fund. Until the year 1818 the university had its own widows’ fund. Not until this year was it united with the general widows’ fund for civil officials. The former widov/s’ fund ^of the university was transferred to the state fund. Only the so-called Holzheim estate was retained by the university, and its revenues con¬ tinued to be applied to the exclusive benefit of the widows of university officials. The respective passages of the decree of the grand ducal ministry of the 16th of December, 1818, are as follows : “ The income from the estate Holzheim, however, shall be retained by the uni¬ versity and shall be divided as heretofore, after deduction of the taxes thereon and other duties, among the widows, etc. “ Finally, it is approved that, after the decease of the present participants in the university widows’ fund, in future only the widows and orphans of the actual professors deceased during their appointment at the university shall be admitted to the enjoyment of the pensions in kind to be derived from the Holz¬ heim estate, and that if the number of such widows shall be fewer than five one-fifth of the total income in rent shall remain and the rest shall be applied to a capital which in the future might be used for the support of especially needy widows and orphans of professors and other university officials.” In the thirties the Holzheim estate was sold. The proceeds since that time constitute the university widows’ fund. The provisions therefor of the ministerial decree of August 10, 1840, are as follows : 1. From the proceeds of the sale of the widows’ fund estate Holzheim and from the eventual arrearages of the rent of this estate up to its sale, a special fund for the support of widows of professors and other university officials shall be established beginning with the year 18.38, inclusive, which fund shall be ac¬ counted for separately and administered without compensation by the university accountant under the supervision of the grand ducal academic commission of administration. “ 2. Beginning with the year 1838, inclusive, a separate account shall be drawm up of receipts and expenditures for each year, and at its close, and submitted, with the original papers on or before July 1 of the following year, to the grand ducal chamber of accounts for revision. PENSIONS IN GEKMAN IJNIVEKSITIES. 225 “ 3. As to the use of the fund for i)eiisious and benefits, our decree of June 7, 1839, No. D, 20258 and No, A. C. 940, shall remain in force for the year 1838, according to which each of the present twelve professors’ widows shall receive for this year a pension of 30 florins (gulden). “ 4. We approve that for the year 1839 and thereafter the annual widows’ pen¬ sion shall be fixed provisionally at 40 florins ; however, with the express proviso that the interest of the capital and proceeds of sale, as well as the general con¬ dition of the fund, shall be sufficient to pay this sum to each of the widows present without drawing on the substance of the fund, which must be preserved at all times, and on its property. ' “ 5. Should the proviso just named under 4 not prevail, then the widows’ pension provisionally flxed at 40 florins shall suffer a reduction, and only that amount shall be distributed in equal shares for the respective year among the widows present which is available for that year as net surplus and income of the fund. “ 6. The widows’ pension fixed under No. 4 at 40 florins annually shall hold for the present ; also in the event that a reduction in the number of widows or some other increase of the income of the fund should render possible the pay¬ ment of a higher pension, and in such event the resulting surplus shall either be added to the substance of the property of the fund or applied to the extraordi¬ nary support of widows and orphans of university officials, in accordance with our decision thereon to be made on your report to be submitted to us concerning this. “ 7. Since it is a matter of interest to us to remain constantly informed con¬ cerning the condition of the fund, and the pensions and benefits paid therefrom, and to determine the amount of the latter, you will submit to us after each year and before drafting and closing the account an abstract concerning the condition of the fund for the respective year, together with a report of your propositions based thereon concerning the determination of the amount of the pensions and the use of the surplus generallj^ and to await our decisions thereon, after the receipt of which, and not sooner, the actual assignment and payment of the pen¬ sions and benefits for the respective year can be made.” At present this university widows’ fund amounts to 28,099.99 marks ; the inter¬ est income is 1,195.58 marks. From this the professors’ widows entitled to pay¬ ments receive at present 100 marks ; besides, three widows of university officials receive together 160 marks. The rest is added to the capital. B.— PENSION CONDITIONS OF THE PROFESSORS AND OFFICIALS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN. [From the grand ducal Hessian Regierungsblatt, Darmstadt, 1874, pp. 672 £f. ] Laiv concerning the revision of the provisions on the retirement of civil officials. Article 2. If an official shall be retired after completing the fifth year of serv¬ ice, he shall receive as retirement salary (pension) 40 per cent of his salary. For each additional completed year of service from the sixth to the tenth year of service there shall be added 2 per cent ; from the eleventh to the thirtieth, li per cent, and from the thirty-first to the fortieth year of service 1 per cent. Whoever shall be retired after completing the fiftieth year of service shall receive the full amount of his salary as pension, without prejudice to the pro¬ visions contained in article 9. Article 3. The time of service shall be computed in determining the pension from the day of the decree of first appointment. Besides, in computing the time of service the time shall also be counted dur¬ ing which an official — 1. After fully passing the state examination shall have been employed with some office on remuneration or per diem pay, in so far as such employ¬ ment had been ordered or approved by one of our ministries or other competent authority. 2. Was previously appointed in the service of the Empire or of some other state. With reappointed officials the time of their previous pensioning shall be counted. ED 1904 M - 15 226 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The finally valid computation of the time of service in the case of sub- article 2, No. 1, shall be ordered in a decision of the respective ministry handed to the official with the decree of appointment. Article 7. — An oflicial may, after a time of service of forty years, or after com¬ pleting the seventieth year of life, resign his position, and shall then receive the retirement salary due him in the proportion of his time of service. Article 8. — If in the decree granting the salary or increment of salary the salary and representation salary are not expressly separated, it shall be assumed in all increments of salary that the part of the salary which is in excess of 6,800 marks is granted as representation salary, and shall, therefore, not be considered with reference to pension claim. The pensionable salary can never exceed 10,000 marks. Article 9. — If a pensioner leaves a widow or legitimate children who lived with him in domestic community, they shall be paid the retirement salary for three months after the day of death. However, the relicts shall have no claim to widows and orphans’ pensions for the time they continue to draw the retire¬ ment salary. If the deceased left in destitution parents, brothers or sisters, or nephews or nieces whose provider he was, or legitimate progeny that did not live in domes¬ tic community with him, or if his estate is not sufficient to defray the expenses of the last sickness and burial, the respective ministry may grant the retire¬ ment salary for three months longer after the day of death. To whom the retirement salary shall be paid in either event shall be deter¬ mined by the ministry. The retirement salary granted beyond the month of death can not become subject to attachment. Article 10. — Members of a college of justice can be retired against their will only on account of eventual permanent incapacitation in consequence of bodily or mental weakness, and even then only on the basis of a plenary resolution of the highest court of the Grand Duchy confirming such incapacitation with a majority of at least two-thirds. This provision shall take effect only with the regulation of the process by a law. With reference to the directors of a college of justice, existing provisions shall continue in force. Article 11. — The officials entitled to pension on the day of promulgation of this law are guaranteed their claims as to amount of pension in accordance with the legal provisions prevailing heretofore, so that the pension to be allowed them shall not fall below the amount which would have been due them, taking into account statutory compensation in kind, if they had been pensioned on the day of the promulgation of this law. If on the day of their actual retirement the present law grants a pension higher than the pension guaranteed to them above, this more favorable provision shall apply to them. Article 12. — Already appointed officials to whom article 3, subparagraph 2, No. 1, applies shall present to the respective ministry and establish their even¬ tual claims within an exclusive term of six months after this law shall have taken effect. After the close of this term the finally valid computation of the time of service shall be announced in a decree of the respective ministry to be transmitted to the official. With our approval the finally valid computation of the time of service may be made within three months after this law shall take effect, in the event of article 6, with officials who already before the promulgation of this law shall have been transferred to the state service. The process is duty free. [From the Grandducal Hessian Regierungsblatt, Darmstadt, 1875, pp. 2 and 3.] Law concerning the completion of the provisions of articles 7 and 15 of the edict of April 12, 1820, with regard to the public-service relations of the civil state officials. Article 1. — No actual state official shall hereafter accept an additional office or employment with which a continuous remuneration is connected without first having received the approval thereto from the respective superior ministry. The same approval is required for entrance on the part of an actual state PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 2L>7 official into the directory, administrative board, or sui)ervisory board of an asso¬ ciation seeking profit or into a committee for the establishment of such an asso¬ ciation. The approval shall not be granted if the participation of the respective official is directly or indirectly connected with the regular or irregular i-eceipt of money or money’s worth. Article 2. — Officials who have been retired shall hereafter, on penalty of loss of their retirement salary, enter only with the approval of their superior min¬ istry into the directory, administrative board, or supervisory board of an asso¬ ciation established for profit if their participation is directly or indirectly con¬ nected with the regular or irregular receipt of money or money’s worth. Article 3. — An approval in the case of article 1 may be revoked at any time, as long as the official is engaged in the active state service, but in the case of article 2 it can not be revoked as long as the official remains in retirement. It can, however, be recalled also in the latter case, if the pensioner under article ]5 of the edict of April 12, 1820, enters again ui)on active service. Article J/. — If an actual state official had entered already before promulga¬ tion of this law into the directory, administrative board, or supervisory board of an association for profit or into a committee formed for the establishment of such an association, the continuance of such relationship may be prohibited if the further participation of the official is contrary to the interests of the service in the judgment of the superior ministry. VIII. THE GRAND DUCAL UNIVERSITY OF SAXONY, AT JENA. WIDOWS AND ORPHANS’ PENSION INSTITUTE. For the University of .Jena there exists since July 1, 1863, a new Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute, in which is incorporated the Widows’ Institute — existing since the year 1817 — for the actual faculty members of the Academy of Jena, with all its funds, including the capital of the mutual sheriff’s court {Schoppenstuhl) . Membership in this Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute is obligatory for the employees appointed with a salary derived from academic funds, as well as for all married employees, from the date of the appointment decree, respectively, from the day of marriage. The annual contribution to be paid by the members depends on the amount of assured pension and carries, respectively, 90 marks, 67.50 marks, and 45 marks. The yearly pension carries, according to the wish of the assured, respectively, 600 marks, 450 marks, and 300 marks. If a member dies — (a) Leaving a widow without children, the widow receives the full pension as long as she remains in a state of widowhood ; (&) If he leaves children without a widow, the children receive together the full pension as long as a child entitled to i^ension remains; and (c) If he leaves a widow and children the widow receives one-half of the pension as long as she remains in the state of widowhood and the chil¬ dren the other half as long as a child entitled to pension remains. If no such child remains or if the widow dies or marries again the remaining party receives the entire pension and the provisions under a and 1) apply. The pension claim of the children holds as long as they have not completed the twenty-first year of life. Statutes of the netv Wkloivs and Orphans' Pension Institute of the University of Jena. § 1. Beginning with July 1, 1863. there shall exist for the University of Jena a new Widows and Orphnns’ Pension Institute with which the Widows’ Insti¬ tute existing since the year 1817 for the actual faculty members of the Academy of .Jena, with all its funds, shall be incorporated in such a way that especially also the capital property of the mutual sheriff’s court, joined therewith under § 27 of the statutes of 1817, shall pass into the aggregate fund of the new insti¬ tute. 228 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. § 2. The new Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute exists under the pro¬ visions made therefor in the following paragraphs : (a) For the ordinary and extraordinary professors; (b) Under the assumption that they are definitively appointed with a salary derived from academic funds, for the academic teachers, officers, and servants named below — 1. The university equerry. 2. The lector of modern languages. 3. The university music director and concert master. 4. The university fencing master. 5. The assistants of the librarian. 6. The custodian of the library. 7. The university bailiff. 8. The secretary of the univerity. 9. The keeper of the archives of the university. 10. The actuary of the university. 11. The warden of revenues of the university. 12. The questor of the university. 13. The cashier of the refectory. 14. The forester of Remda. 15. The depositor and chief bedel. 16. The assistant bedels. 17. The keeper of the career and college doorkeeper. 18. The steward of the new college house. § 3. By the incorporation of the older Widows’ Institute into the new institu¬ tion nothing is changed in the pension rights already established under the stat¬ utes of 1817, which rights are hereby expressly reserved. For the former mem¬ bers of the older Widows’ Institute and their heirs entitled to i)ension this institute shall continue to exist unchanged, with all the rights and duties pre¬ scribed in the statutes of 1817, until with the successive death or withdrawal, respectively, of these members it shall become wholly extinct. § 4. All those who at the establishment of the new institute are already appointed in one of the positions named under § 2, and who are not already mem¬ bers of the former institute, are entitled to admission into the former, in so far as they are not obligated thereto under the provision made under § 5, letter b. Of course, a person not obligated, but merely entitled to membership of the new institute, shall lose this claim, without prejudice to the obligation eventu¬ ally arising under § 5, b, if he does not declare his entrance on or before January 1, 1864, and consequently his relict can not expect support even as a gratuity. § 5. The following shall be members of the new institute without further steps : (a) Those who after its establishment shall be definitively appointed, with a salary derived from an academic fund, in one of the positions named under § 2, a and b, whether they are married or not, and also those who shall be newly appointed without salary in such a position, if they are married or as soon as they shall be married. (&) Those who, already before establishment of the new institute, were appointed in one of the positions under § 2, a and b, as soon as they shall receive from academic funds a new salary or an increase of salary, whether they are married or not, and also of those already appointed who are unmarried as soon as they shall be married, whether they are salaried or not. Obligatory membership shall begin with those named above, under a, with the date of the first respective appointment decree, respectively with the day of mar¬ riage, and with those named under b with the date of the order issued on account of the salary, respectively, of the day of marriage. § 6. Should later on a new office be established at the university and endowed with a fixed salary from academic funds, special provision concerning the reception of its incumbent into the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute is hereby reserved. § 7. Each member newly entered into the institute shall immediatly on his admission pay as entrance fee a sum equal to his annual contribution in addi¬ tion to his contribution itself into the reserve fund to be formed under § 10. § 8. In so far as other provisions are not made under § 9 each member of the new institute is at liberty to insure for his relicts a yearly pension of either 200 PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 229 thalers, 150 thalers, or 100 thalers. Accordingly, he shall pay a yearly contri¬ bution of either 30 thalers, 221 thalers, or 15 thalers. No claim can be acquired to a yearly iiension higher than 200 thalers in any case, not even by combining several positions in one pension. If, however, a member has insured in the beginning a smaller pension, he shall be permitted to increase it later on, if he pays for the period from his first entrance the corresponding arrearage both of entrance fees and annual contri¬ butions, both with interest of 5 per cent annually from the times they were respectively due. A reduction of the once-fixed contribution shall not be admissible in any case. The contributions, even if the member from whom they are due has become a widower, shall continue to be paid in the amount hitherto paid. § 9. For the relicts of the university depositor the annual pension shall amount to 70 thalers; for the university employees named in § 2, under 16, 17, and 18, 50 thalers. In return the former shall pay an annual contribution of IO5 thalers and the latter such contribution of 71 thalers. § 10. The payments of the annual contributions into the fund of the institute shall be made in quarterly installments. With salaried members these con¬ tributions and the entrance fees shall be deducted by the revenue office {Rent- amt) from the salary payments for the respective quarters; with nonsalaried members they shall be collected by a beadle in the last week of each quarter. a 11. Whoever, except in the case of retirement, shall resign his position at the university or lose it by legal judgment, shall at the same time cease to be a member of the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute, but shall have no claim to the already-paid entrance fees and contributions. § 12. If a member of the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute dies his widow and children shall receive, in so far as they shall be entitled to pension under §§14 and 15, the yearly pension secured to them for such event in quar¬ terly installments in advance, beginning with the quarter following the mor¬ tuary quarter, and, in otlier respects as provided under § 16. In addition, immediately after his death, there shall be paid to the relicts entitled to pension a single benefit pro nunc to the amount of entrance fee for¬ merly paid by the deceased, in case the reserve fund shall contain the means therefor. § 18. The pension shall not be reduced by any deduction, shall never be trans¬ ferred to a third party in advance, and can never be attached. § 14. As children entitled to pension, are considered the own, legitimate children until the completed twenty-first year of life, without regard to whether they are already married or have acquired otherwise a yearly income of their own. Children legitimized by subsequent marriage shall also be considered as legitimate children after the marriage shall have lasted for live years. Further provisions concerning children shall apply only to children entitled to pension. § 15. The full title to pension on the part of the widow shall begin only after the marriage shall have lasted for one year and shall continue until her death, unless she is married again, in which event she shall have no further claim of any kind. If the widow has not been married for a full year she shall, however, have a partial title to pension, so that after a marriage of not fully six months the widow shall receive one-fourth, from six to nine months one-half, from nine to twelve months three-fourths, of the amount of pension her husband may have insured for her. For a posthumous child from such marriage, however, the claim to the orphan’s pension shall in every case remain unreduced. Child and mother shall then receive the entire pension as long as the former shall remain entitled to pension. The payment of the pro nunc mentioned under § 12 shall not be affected by the time of marriage. § 16, If a member of the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute shall die — (a) Without leaving a widow and children all liability on the part of the institute with reference to him shall cease ; (&) Leaving a widow without children, the widow shall receive the full pension as long as she shall remain in the state of widowhood ; (c) Leaving children without a widow, the children shall receive the full pension as long as a child entitled to pension shall remain ; 230 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. § 16 — Continued. {d) Leaving a widow and children, the widow shall receive one-half of the pension as long as she remains in the state of widowhood, and the children together the other half as long as a child entitled to pension shall remain. If there shall be no longer a child entitled to pension, or if the widow shall previously die or be again married, the remaining party shall receive the entire pension and the pro¬ visions under h and c shall then apply. If children of different marriages should compete with the widow, and if no amicable arrangement should be made as to the distribution of the pension, the highest courts reserve decision thereon. § 17. The collection of the pensions shall be made at Jena against regular receipt, which receipt, with reference to the widow, shall require no further formality, but which, if she shall reside abroad, shall contain a .judicial, police, or parochial certificate of life and widow^hood, and which, with reference to the children, shall be signed by the guardian, and, at the first payment, also provided with the necessary certificate as to their occupation, the number of children, their names, and days of birth. The recipients shall be permitted for their convenience to collect the pensions semiannually or annually against receipt, in such a way, however, that the advance payment shall never exceed a quarter of a year. Also such semiannual or annual payments shall not extend from one account year into another. § 18. The receipts of the new^ Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute shall consist : (a) Of the annual contributions and entrance fees of its members ; {h) Of the interest from the stock capital which, under § 1, shall be trans¬ ferred in its entirety from the older Widows’ Institute to the new Widow^s and Orphans’ Pension Institute, and w^hich shall also incor¬ porate the until now' separately accumulated beadle’s widows’ fund against continued payment of the pensions at present allowed there¬ from, and which shall be increased by every eventual surplus ; (c) Of the interest on the invested part of the reserve fund; (d) Of the allowances from the academic fiscus which the latter pays in case of need for the interested parties of the new Widows and Or¬ phans’ Pension Institute to the extent indicated in further detail in § 20, without mentioning the guaranty given to the members of the older Widows’ Institute in § 17 of the statutes of 1817. § 19. The entrance fees and the annual contributions of all new members shall be added to a reserve fund, as long as there shall be no widows of such mem¬ bers, in their entire amount, and, if there shall be such wfidow's, to the amount in which they shall not be required for their pensions in the course of the fiscal year. The interest from this reserve fund shall also be incorporated in the same fund until it shall have reached 25,000 thalers. The annual contributions of the older members, on the other hand, shall be applied as heretofore to the pensions of the widows of these members. § 20. If in the course of a fiscal year less than 2,500 thalers had to be added for the interested parties of the older Widows’ Institute from the academic fiscus, then each time at the close of the year the less amount not required shall, instead of reverting to the academic fiscus, be paid to the new pension institute, and, in so far as it shall not be required there immediately for pension pay¬ ments, be added to the reserve fund. These additional payments shall be con¬ tinued, in any event, until the reserve fund shall have reached its normal amount of 25,0(X) thalers. § 21. While the institute embraces the former and the new members as a com¬ pact whole, the accounts of the institute shall be kept in three separate divisions w'ith reference to the differences in the rights and duties of the former and the future members. I. The division for the former members (the “older institute”) shall derive the means for defraying the entire costs of administration, as well as for the pensions it may have to pay — (a) From the statutory contributions of its members; and (&) The interest of the capital fund of the combined institute (§ 1) ; (c) The remainder of the pensions not covered by these shall be paid from contributions of the academic fiscus. II. The division for the new' members (the “new institute”) shall defray the pensions for which it is liable and — as soon as the “ older institute ” shall PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 231 have become extinct and therefore no longer defrays the entire costs of admin¬ istration — its costs of administration — (a) From the annual contributions of the members; (&) In so far as it may be necessary and proper, from the contributions of the academic tiscns not required wholly or in part by the older insti¬ tute to the extent provided in § 20 ; (c) From the reserve fund; and (d) From the interest of the stock capital of the combined institute, in so far as this may not be required by the older institute. Ill, The reserve fund of the new institute shall consist — (a) Of the entrance fees of the members of the new institute; (b) Of the interest from its own capital ; (cj Of the contributions of the academic tiscns vacated by the older insti¬ tution and not reverting to the academic tiscus, and also not reciuired for immediate pension payments by the new institute ; (d) Of the interest of the stock capital of the combined institute, required neither by the older nor by the new institute ; (e) Of the surplus of the annual contributions of the members remaining in the course of a tiscal year. And shall be applied — (a) For the payment of the pro nunc within the limits prescribed in § 12; (b) For the payment of pensions without such limitation. § 22. Should it happen unexpectedly at some future time that — in addition to the payment of the continuing pensions incurred under the statutes of the older institute (§§ 3 and ISd) — the resources named in the previous paragraph should not be wholly sufticient to pay the widows and orphans’ pensions due by the new institute, the stock capital shall not on this account be drawn upon ; but, unless the highest patrons on the ground of respective university reports shall grant an extraordinary contribution from ready means of the academic tiscus, the respective additional sum required shall be assessed among the members of the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute — with the exception of those who were already members of the older institute — in the proportion of their regular annual contributions and added to these contributions ; and this assessment shall be paid by each member as long as it may be needed. § 23. The direction of the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute shall be administered by the immediate commissioner {immediat-lcommissar) , appointed by the most serene patrons for the academic tinance administration, and two curators to be elected by the academic senate, of whom always at least one shall be a member of the faculty of jurisprudence. The directorship is a post of honor, which draws no pay. § 24. The directory shall appoint and obligate a cashier and accountant resid¬ ing in Jena, who shall be domiciled there or furnish adequate bond. It shall be authorized to discharge him in its judgment, without further steps in case of unanimous decision, but under difference of opinion upon previous approval of the most serene patrons. It shall, moreover, nominate a reviser, to be confirmed by the highest authority, who, however, shall not be subordinate to the directory, but coordinate, with only advisory vote. § 25. The accounts shall be closed annually on the 30th of September ; sub¬ mitted at the latest within four weeks to the two directors elected by the aca¬ demic senate for revision and addition of a certificate as to proper deposition of the documents named in the account and as to the cash balance (§ 20) in excess of current needs ; then transferred, through mediation of the academic commis¬ sioner of finance, to the reviser, who shall complete the revision and submission of the result also within four weeks. § 26. The accountant shall add to the account an abstract as to the condition of the institute, which after approval shall be furnished to all the members in copy and also transmitted to the interested high government authorities. § 27. The salary to be paid the accountant and all incidental expenses in revision fees, writing material, fees for copying, postage, etc., shall not in the aggregate exceed 100 thalers annually as a rule. Expenses for lawsuits, eventual loss of capital or interest, or actual loss of agio (casu shall not be included in these incidental expenses. Losses trace¬ able to provable fault of the accountant shall be made good by him. § 28. With reference to care for investment and security of cash capital, for 232 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. punctual payment of interest, etc., every precaution and procedure shall be used which every good administration of accounts requires, and both the reviser and the directory shall pay very great attention to this. Arrearage of interest for more than one year shall not be permitted, or shall be placed at the risk of the accountant. No money shall be loaned out nor notice of recall given by the accountant without approval of the directory, and on notice of repayment on the part of debtors the accountant shall at once give notice thereof, with eventual proposals as to further investment. § 29. The documents of the Widows and Orphans’ Pension Institute and cash amounts that can not be at once suitably put out on interest, but exceed by far the need for cash on hand, shall be kept in a special iron safe in the depository of the university, under triple lock of the accountant and the two curators elected by the academic senate. § 80. For the proper keeping of the deposits, as well as for the always correct list of the same, the three depositors named in the preceding paragraph are jointly and separately responsible to the academic fiscus, and can free themselves, therefrom only by proof, to be furnished by them, that eventual loss occurred without their fault. IX. THE GRAND DUCAL UNIVERSITY OF MECKLENBURG, AT ROSTOCK. PENSIONING OF THE WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF TEACHERS AND OFFICIALS. The pensioning of the widows and orphans of teachers and officials of the Grand Ducal University of Mecklenburg, at Rostock, is accomplished in the first place like that of all other civil officials of Mecklenburg, in accordance with the statutes, approved and promulgated under date of March 17, 1863, of the Widows’ Institute for Civil and Military Officials, founded in the year 1797, in accordance with the decree of March 10, 1886, issued for the completion and modification of these statutes with regard to the pensioning of orphans. Under these provisions the teachers and officials of the University of Ros¬ tock, in so far as they may be permanently appointed with a fixed service income of at least 100 thalers annually, like all other governmental civil officials, are obligated to take part in the said Widows’ Institute, etc., and have to pay, in addition to a certificate fee and an entrance fee, a yearly contribution to the widows’ fund, the amount of which is fixed in a special classification table, as a rule, at 16 per cent of the insured widow’s pension, and amounts to 32 per cent of the insured widow’s pension only for those members of the institute who, after retirement, have been married to a woman fifteen or more years younger. The amount of the widow’s pension is fixed in said classification table (see below, p. 240). The surviving legitimate children or children legitimized by subsequent mar¬ riage of a teacher or official of the university, belonging at the time of his death to the Widows’ Institute, receive, if there is no widow entitled to the widow’s pension insured by the member, orphans’ pensions which amount for each child to one-third of the pension which was insured to the father for his eventual widow at the time of his death. The orphans’ pensions, in the presence of several orphans entitled to payment, can not exceed the widow’s pension secured to the father in the event of his death ; in applying this limitation the orphans’ pensions are proportionately reduced. Independent from this general provision on the part of the state for the widows and orphans of teachers and officials at the university, there exists at the University of Rostock, in the first place founded in the year 1793, the wid¬ ows’ fund of the Rostock professors, which pursues the object of providing for the widows of the ordinary and extraordinary professors of the university a widow’s pension amounting now to 500 marks annually. Accession to this widows’ fund is voluntary. As entrance fee, each professor who wishes to join this fund has to pay 52.50 marks, and in current contributions each member has to pay annually 21 marks. In addition to this there was founded, furthermore, in the year 1872 a univer¬ sity orphans’ fund, which is intended for the support of surviving orphans of PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 283 ordinary and extraordinary professors, docents, and officials at the University of Rostock. Accession to this fund, too, is voluntary. Each member pays from the time of his accession a yearly contribution of 16 marks. Entitled to support from the orphans’ fund are in the first place the fatherless and motherless orphans of members of the university who until their death had been members of the orphans’ fund. Only fatherless orphans shall be (further?) entitled if after adequate consideration of the fatherless and motherless orphans the fund shall permit it. The amount of the pensions is determined by the existing resources whicn, after deduction of the expenses of administration, must be applied exclusively to the object of the institution. The maximum of the pension to be paid to a single claimant is, however, fixed at 300 marks. For the support of fatherless and motherless and also merely fatherless orphans in need of assistance, of ordinary and extraordinary professors actually appointed with salary at the university and deceased in full official activity, and for the support of such orphans left by the academic music teacher, there exists finally at the University of Rostock the Carl Friedrich von Both orphans’ pension fund, which was founded by testamentary provision of vice-chancellor privy councilor Carl Friedrich von Both, and from the interest of which the said pensions are to be allowed according to the judgment of a committee of the plenary council intrusted with the administration of the fund. The Widows’ Institute foe Civil and Military Officials. The statutes of the Widows’ Institute for Civil and Military Officials, of the widows’ fund of Rostock professors, and of the university orphans’ fund, as well as the regulations of the Carl Friedrich von Both orphans’ pension fund, are as follows : 1. Statutes of the Widows’ Institute for Civil and Miliiary Officials of March 17, 1863. FIRST SECTION : THE NATURE AND OBJECT OF THE WIDOWS’ INSTITUTE, AND THE PROPERTY AND RECEIPTS THEREOF. § 1. The widows’ institute, etc., established in 1797 and existing at present, is an individual institution, endowed with a juridical personality and the privileges of charitable institutions, with property of its own and its own administration. Its object is to provide for the widows of government officials adequate support for their livelihood. § 2. The capital property accumulated and eventually to be accumulated in future for attaining and insuring the object of the institute is and shall he placed in a government fund on interest at 4 per cent, but shall never be drawn upon or reduced, especially not for the defraying of the expenses of the widows’ institute. § 3. For the payment of the expenses of the institute there are available, in addition to extraordinary assessments, the interest of the property in capital, the payments to be made by the members of the institute and the contributions from the government. § 4. From the government exchequer there shall be paid to the widows’ insti¬ tute the contribution granted in 1846 annually of 11,666 thalers 32 florins, and besides, if in future and as long as the means assigned for the payment of the expenses of the institute should not be sufficient, an extraordinary supple¬ mentary amount, adequate to the requirement, and to lie fixed in each and for that year separately. § 5. The institute, as a juridical person, is competent to receive gifts by testa¬ mentary provisions, by donations, or by other legal title. SECOND SECTION : ABOUT MEMBERS OF THE WIDOWS’ INSTITUTE AND THEIR RECEPTION OF A DEFINITE WIDOWS’ PENSION. § 6. All civil and military government officials who have been appointed perma¬ nently and with a fixed service income of at least 100 thalers annually, either by His Royal Highness the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin or by subordinate government officers by virtue of the authority granted them, shall be entitled 234 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. and obligated to take part in the widows’ institute, etc., in so far as they may not have been assigned or shall not hereafter be assigned to the Widows’ Insti¬ tute for Preachers and School-teachers. Excluded from this widows’ institute, therefore, are : 1. All those who are appointed without service income or who are only by way of commission or transitorily intrusted with the administration of an office ; 2. The so-called workmen (Jwf ouvriers) ; 3. The artists accepted by a-e grand ducal court administration with fixed salary, but who have not received an actual appointment signed by the sovereign ; and 4. All noncommissioned officers. § 7. The permanently appointed servants, with a fixed service income, of the members of the grand ducal family shall occupy the same position with govern¬ ment officials with reference to participation in the widows’ institute. How¬ ever — 1. The attendants of the princesses of Mecklenburg-Schwerin who are mar¬ ried abroad are excluded from the widows’ institute ; and 2. Of the attendants of the princes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin who reside chiefly abroad, only those are entitled and obligated to entrance into the widows’ institute who are subjects of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. § 8. Furthermore, those members and subalterns of offices not belonging wholly to the home government of Mecklenburg-Schwerin who received their appointment not from His Royal Highness the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg- Schwerin or from one of his subordinate offices are entitled and obligated to participation in the widows’ institute in so far as their admission has been or shall be ordered by special governmentaPdecree. § 9. The admission into the widows’ institute shall be made on a definite widows’ pension, which shall be insured to the widows of the admitted members. The amounts of the widows’ pensions are fixed by the classification table in Appendix A.a The admission under this classification table shall depend only on the service income personally allowed to each individual official without regard to other receipts eventually connected with the position. Consequently, whenever a member is promoted to a higher service income, connected according to the classification table with a widow’s pension higher than the one on which he had heretofore been admitted, a renewed, correspond¬ ingly higher admission shall take place. Similarly, if an official after his admission is reduced to a salary with which the classification table connects a lower widow’s pension a renewed reception on this lower widow’s pension shall be made, unless the member of the institute shall declare expressly, before the administration (directory) shall have ordered the change of reception, that he wishes to keep the widow’s pension heretofore insured. § 10. Receptions on widows’ pensions other than those fixed in the classifica¬ tion table according to service income shall be wholly excluded, with the single exception that those officials who, according to the classification table, are entitled to a widow’s pension of only 30 thalers, may be admitted on a widow’s pension of 50 thalers if they request this of the administration (directory) of the wddows’ institute before their reception shall have been ordered. § 11. In the service income for the purpose of reception in the widows’ insti¬ tute shall be included all receipts which are allow^ him as salary with the office to which he has been appointed by the government or under §§ 7 and 8. If an official shall be appointed to several such offices, the aggregate income from them shall be computed. Moreover, it shall make no difference whether the income shall consist of cash salary, emoluments in kind, or fees. Emoluments in kind and fees shall be computed in the amount in which they shall have been computed in the sal¬ ary of the official, and in cases in which this is not feasible, according to the average yield of the last five years or in accordance with a fair estimate. On the other hand, in determining the service income for admission to the widows’ institute, there shall not be counted compensation for the administra¬ tion of an office conferred only provisionally or for a fixed time representation pay, compensation for official expenses, remunerations and rewards for special services, gratifications and increments of salary for a previously limited time. ° 'riie scale in Appendix A of the decree of March 10, 1886 (see below, p. 240), has taken the place of this Appendix A. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 235 § 12. For the computation and determination of the service income the oflice shall be competent by which the appointment of the respective official is made or which shall be ordered thereto by special decree. In cases of reception under § 8, however, the grand ducal ministry placed over the bureau to which the respective member belongs shall determine the service income. § 13. The administration (directory) of the widows’ institute, if it should have doubts as to the reported determination of the service income, may reciuest further investigation by the respective bureau as well as eventually by tbe office placed over this. The officials, too, who may consider themselves injured by the reported deter¬ mination of their service income for reception in the widows’ institute shall within the first four weeks after receiving the certificate of admission, be entitled to appeal, eventually to complaint, before the eventual higher authority. § 14. Reception into the widows’ institute, as well as later renewed receptions due to increase or decrease of salary, shall be ordered immediately after appointment or increase or decrease of salary, respectively, and for the begin¬ ning of the Easter, summer, fall, or Christmas quarters. § 15. The authorities charged with the computation and determination of the service income (§12) shall report without delay to the administration (direc¬ tory) of the widows’ institute each permanent new appointment under its control stating the established service income, as well as every change of income, for the purpose of statutory reception. Similarly, every change of service and residence of the members of the institute, as well as every eventual retirement and every dismissal and discharge, shall be reported. The officials, too, who are obligated to entrance in the widows’ institute or who, because of increase of salary, are to be received again, shall be obliged — if they have not received notice of their, respectively renewed, reception within the first three months after their appointment or increase of salary — to give notice within the next three months. § 16. Concerning the accomplished reception into the widows’ institute, as well as concerning each subsequent renewed reception, the members of the institute shall receive a certificate of reception of the form in Appendix B. A printed copy of these statutes shall be inclosed with the certificate of recep¬ tion to be issued on reception into the widows’ institute. § 17. Members of the widows’ institute shall not be allowed to withdraw of their free will from the widows’ institute as long as they shall be in the service of the state or in a service which fits them for reception under §§ 7 and 8 of these statutes. § 18. Officials who shall be retired with pension — 1. Shall continue as members of the widows’ institute if and as long as they shall be married, according to their free choice, to be made within six weeks after their retirement, on the widows’ pension insured to them up to their retirement or on a Avidow’s pension corresponding with the amount of their service pension according to the classification table. 2. Members of the institute wffio at the time of their retirement shall be unmarried may at their choice withdraw from the widows’ institute or continue therein, but only on a widow’s pension corresponding with their service pension. 3. Similarly, members of the institute who w^ere married at the time of their retirement, but wiio subsequently shall have lost the wife by death or divorce, shall be at liberty to withdraw^ from the widow^s’ institute. They may continue as members, but only on a widow^’s pension corre¬ sponding with their service pension. 4. Moreover, pensioned members of the institute wiio shall be married after their retirement shall notify the administration (directory) of the widows’ institute within six wrecks of their marriage, with submission of the certificate of birth of the wife. § 19. The members of the Avidows’ institute AAiio withdraAV from the service voluntarily and Avithout pension may preserve their connection Avith the widoAvs’ institute in the interest of their wives and during the life of the latter, respec- tiA'ely, until eventual diAmrce ; but they shall notify the administration (direc¬ tory) of the widoAvs’ institute of their intention in this respect AAithin six Aveeks. § 20. Members of the widow^s’ institute Avho are deprived of their office or dismissed on account of crimes committed by them, on account of misdemeanor of service, or for any other reason, shall thereby also be separated from the insti¬ tute. Only if they shall have been in the service for at least ten years and shall 236 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. be married, and if their wives shall have had no part in the crime or misde¬ meanor that caused the dismissal or discharge, they shall be at liberty to con¬ tinue in the widows’ institute for the benefit of their wives and for the lifetime of the latter, respectively, until eventual divorce. However, they shall be obliged to give notice of their continuance to the administration (directory) of the widows’ institute within six weeks after their dismissal or discharge. § 21. Members of the institute who shall enter foreign service shall thereby be immediately separated from the widows’ institute, even though they may con¬ tinue to draw a service pension from their service in Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The same shall apply to the attendants of a prince of Mecklenburg who may have his chief residence abroad, and who (the attendants) may become subjects of a foreign government. § 22. The administration (directory) of the widows’ institute shall have the authority to exclude from the institute : 1. Members of the institute who shall have remained in arrear with the payments due from them to the widows’ institute for a year, and from whom the arrearages can not be collected in the ways to be subsequently provided in these statutes ; and 2. Members of the institute who shall have removed from their residence and after removal shall have failed to notify the administration (directory) of the widows’ institute of their residence as soon as the competent service bureau shall have withdrawn their salary. § 23. Former members of the institute who shall have withdrawn from the widows’ institute under §§ 18 to 21, or shall have been excluded therefrom under § 22, shall be received again as soon as they shall enter again some oflicial rela¬ tion which entitles or obligates to participation in the widows’ institute, and (shall be received) on a widow’s pension corresponding with their service income. Members of the institute who were excluded on account of absence ( § 22, No. 2) shall be received again at their request, even when not returning into an official relation, if they were absent against their will. THIRD SECTION : PAYHENTS OF MEMBERS TO THE INSTITUTE. § 24. The members of the institute shall pay to the widows’ institute — 1. A certificate fee for reception into the institute; 2. An entrance fee ; and 3. A yearly contribution to the widows’ fund. § 25. The certificate fee shall be assessed on issue of the certificate of recep¬ tion at one thaler for each one hundred of the insured widow’s pension, wffth subsequent renewed receptions, however, only on the amount of increase in the widow’s pension. § 26. As entrance fee the contribution to the widows’ fund for half a year shall be paid also on receipt (issue) of the certificate of reception. For renewed receptions entrance fee shall be paid only on the amount of increase in the widow’s pension. § 27. Members of the institute who had been separated from the widows’ institute shall, on readmission, and in so far as they may be obligated to pay arrearage of contributions to the widows’ fund, pay the certificate fee and the entrance fee only on the eventual increase in the amount of the widow’s pen¬ sion, but otherwise the full certificate fee and the full entrance fee. § 28. Institute members who shall be transferred from the Widows’ Institute for Preachers and School Teachers to the Widows’ Institute for Civil and Mili¬ tary Officials shall on reception into the latter be credited with the amount of entrance money paid to the former. § 29. The amount of the yearly contribution to the widows’ fund has been ffxed in the classification table appended to § 9, above, at 16 per cent of the insured widow’s pension. § 30. Institute members who after their retirement with pension shall marry a woman younger by fifteen or more years shall pay, beginning with the quarter in which they were married, a contribution to the widows’ fund of 32 per cent of the widow’s pension insured by them. § 31. (Treats of the contributions to the widows’ fund and the entrance fees of unmarried officers and military officials down to the rank of a first lieutenant.) § 32. Institute members who shall have withdrawn with pension from the service and also from the widows’ institute shall, on their reentrance of the service, pay the contribution to the widows’ fund corresponding with their pen- PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 287 sion for the time from tlieir withdrawal from the widows’ institute to the quar¬ ter year when they reentered, with compound interest at 4 ])er cent. § 33. The contrihntions to the widows’ fund shall he paid in (inartorly install¬ ments, in advance, from the day on which the reception of the individual inemher is fixed in the certificate of rece})tion to the end of the (piarter year in which the institute member shall have withdrawn, or, if not i)reviously withdrawn, has died ; in these cases, however, in which the widow and children or the heirs of the deceased institute member are entitled to or allowed a gratuity period until the end of such period, i § 34. The statutory certificate fees, entrance fees, and contributions to the widows’ fund shall, without exception, belong to the widows’ institute after pay¬ ment and shall never he returned, nor shall they he i-einitted under any circum¬ stances to those who owe them wholly or in part, even by Government decree. The same applies to the arrearage i)ayments under §§31 and 32. FOURTH SECTION ; WIDOWS’ PENSIONS AND THEIR COLLECTION. § 35. The widows’ pensions insured for the institute members shall be paid only and exclusively to the widows to whom these members were married until their death. The widow entitled to pension shall receive the widow’s pension insured to her husband at his death. But also in the event that an official entitled to participation in the widows’ institute had not been received, or not received a higher rate, his widow shall be awarded the widow’s pension which would have had to be insured for her deceased husband on payment of the fees which he would have had to pay on his reception in the widows’ institute, or on his reception at a higher rate, until his death, provided that between the beginning of his title to reception and his death not more than six months shall have elapsed. § 36. The widow of an institute member who died within a year after conclu¬ sion of marriage shall have claim to the payment of the widow’s pension only if she can show by the certificate of a phj'Sician that her husband at the time of his marriage did not suffer from a disease, ailment, or other bodily weakness in general which presaged his early death. § 37. The widow entitled to payment shall, within the quarter in which her husband died, prove to the administration (directory) of the widows’ insti¬ tute the death of said husband, on returning the last certificate of reception issued to him, by a certificate of death, and shall produce on request an official certificate (showing) that she was married to the deceased until his death. Furthermore, if the deceased institute member had taken up his residence in a foreign country, or if he stood in the service of a prince of Mecklenburg- Schwerin, residing essentially abroad, it shall be proved on request by a certifi¬ cate of the government of his last residence that he had not entered foreign service, respectively that he had not become a foreign subject. § 38. Widows who did not already live abroad at the death of the husband whom his official position compelled to reside abroad, and who only after the beginning of their widowhood take up their residence abroad, or who — if the hus¬ band of his own free will resided abroad — retain such residence, shall lose their claim to the widow’s pension otherwise due them for the time of their resi¬ dence abroad. Nevertheless, in the presence of cogent reasons, the payment of the widow's pension into foreign parts may be awarded exceptionally under government dis¬ pensation, according to decision against a deduction therefrom up to 25 ])er cent. § 39. The payment of the widow’s pension shall begin with the end of the quarter — respectively, in case of monthly jiayment of salary, of the month — in which the death of the institute member occurred, and shall be paid in quai*- terly installments at the beginning of the Easter, summer, fall, and Christmas quarters in advance. In the event, however, that the widow of the deceased, whether alone or together with the children and other heirs of her deceased husband, is entitled to or has awarded to her a gratuity period, [payment shall begin] with the end of that period. However, eventual arrears of contributions to the Avidows’ fund shall first be deducted under decision of the administration (directory) of the widows’ institute. § 40. The widow’s pension shall be jiaid only to the widow entitled to pay¬ ment, or to her curator or special attorney, or. in the event that a pension already due at her death should not have been collected, to her heirs, to be regu¬ larly legitimized, or to their special attorney. 288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Assignments, cessions, attacbmeiit, and seizures of widows’ pensions are v; holly inadmissible and not to be considered. § 41. For the purpose of collecting the installment of her widow’s pension, the widow entitled thereto shall submit at the beginning of each quarter for the fund of the widows’ institute a rec#ipt drawn by her own hands, after the form in Appendix C. The receipt shall not be signed before the first day of the quarter for which it is drawn and shall contain under the signature of the widow who has drawn it the certificate of the local magistracy or the local preacher that she lives at the respective place in widowhood. § 42. The claim to widow's pension shall cease — 1. With the death of the widow ; 2. Unconditionally and forever with her marriage to another husband; so that the last payment shall be made for the quarter in which she shall have died or shall have remarried. § 43. The widow’s pension shall be forever withdrawn — 1. If the widow shall have been legally convicted by court of the crime of intentionally hilling her husband or of complicity in such crime ; 2. Under decision and judgment of the administration (directory) of the widows’ institute if, in the certificates and receipts to be statutorily submitted for collection of the widow’s pension, false statements shall have been made by the widow herself, or with her knowledge, for the purpose of surreptitiously obtaining the payment of the wid¬ ow’s pension. FIFTH SECTION : THE DIRECTORY AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE WIDOWS’ INSTITUTE. § 44. The widows’ institute shall have its own directory of at least three and at most five members, of whom the oldest member shall always occupy the chair. The members of the directory shall be appointed by the sovereign from the higher administrative boards in Schwerin, and shall be placed under oath at their installment therein. In so far as the legal affairs of the widows’ institute are concerned, these (members) are released from the obligations by which they are otherwise bound to the sovereign. They shall perform their duties without pay. § 45. The directory shall have the independent administration of the widows’ institute in its entire compass and under the provisions of these statutes, yet under the supervision of the sovereign. Especially there belongs to the duties of the directory the care for the regular administration and computation of the widows’ institute fund, established for the collection of all revenues and for the payment of all expenses of the widows’ institute. § 46. The computer for the administration of the widows’ institute fund and the required employees for the duties of secretaryship, registry, and subordinate matters shall be appointed under the directory and upon its nomination by the sovereign through the grand ducal ministry placed over the directory. The computer and the remaining subalterns shall receive, a suitable salary from the widows’ institute fund, to be fixed by the sovereign. The computer who, like the other appointed subalterns, shall be put under oath, shall furnish cash security, the amount of which shall be fixed by the authorized grand ducal ministry. § 47. The computer shall administer and compute the institute fund under the provisions of the law concerning the administration of public funds and in accordance with instructions to be given him by the directory ; therefore he shall collect all revenues and pay all expenses of the institute, also submit annually to the directory a formal account and at the same time a complete sur¬ vey of the condition of the property and fund of the widows’ institute. This survey of the property and fund shall be submitted by the directory to the authorized grand ducal ministry and upon order of the latter published in print. § 48. Investments of capital and loans for the widows’ institute shall be made by the computer only under order and approval of the directory. The securities concerning invested capitals shall be submitted by him to the directory and by this to the authorized grand ducal ministry, which shall issue a certificate as to their receipt. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 239 § 49. Tlie computer shall see to it that the certihcate fees, the entrance fec's, and the contributions to the widows’ fund, which he shall receive directly from those who owe them, or from the authorities commissioned to collect them, in fixed districts, shall be paid at the proper time. Eventual arrearages he shall, without delay, cause to be collected after three days’ warning by executory process, by virtue of the executory power with which the widows’ institute is invested generally and without regard to the jurisdiction {Gerichtsstajid ) of the several members of the institute. § 50. In the event not only that the executory process instituted under § 49 fails to lead to the payment of the widows’ institute, but in general if the direct¬ ory deems it desirable in its interest, the authorized grand ducal ministry shall, upon report of the directoiy, bring it about that the arrearages and future dues to the widows’ institute shall be retained by the respective authorities from the salary or pension of the debtors or from the mortuary gratuities and gratuity quarters {Gnaden-quartale) and remitted to the widows’ fund. With reference to the moneys thus retained the widows’ fund precedes un¬ conditionally all other claims, so that these moneys can under no circumstances be withheld or taken away from it. § 51. The directory uses in the execution of its papers the seal conferred upon it. The widows’ institute fund has also been furnished a seal for its papers. § 52. The directory and the widows’ institute fund have been invested with the franking privilege within the limits of Mecklenburg-Schwerin for all dis¬ patches and money remittances closed with their seals and furnished with the superscription “Widows’ institute matter.” Also money remittances and re¬ ceipts addressed to the widows’ institute fund, with the superscription “ Widows’ institute contributions” and “Widows’ institute receipts,” respectively, and shall be carried free of postage within the limits of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. All mail matter, however, addressed to the widows’ institute, the directory, and the fund thereof, for which freedom from postage has not been allowed, must be stamped on penalty of its return. § 53. Eventual complaints concerning the management of the computer shall be submitted to the directory. Complaints as to the management, orders, directions, and decisions of the directory, however, are to be made to the authorized grand ducal ministry, whose decision shall be final. Juridical process is not granted in any case. 2. Decree of March 10, 1S86, supplementing and modifying the statutes, respec¬ tively, for the Widoivs’ Institute for Civil and Military Officials of March 11, 1863, and for the Widows' Institute for Preachers, Organists, etc., of January 21, 1861 Article I. — The surviving legitimate children or children legitimized by sub¬ sequent marriage of a member belonging at the time of his death to the Wid¬ ows’ Institute for Civil and Military Officials or to the Widows’ Institute for Preachers, Organists, etc., shall receive, in the event if there is present no widow entitled to the payment of the widow’s pension insured for the member, from the fund of the widows’ institute to which their father belonged, orphans’ pen¬ sion under the following provisions ; § 1. The orphan’s pension shall carry for each child one-third of the pension which was insured to the father at the time of his death for his eventual widow. § 2. The orphan’s pension in the presence of several children entitled to pay¬ ment shall not exceed the widow’s pension insured to the member at the time of his death. In applying this provision the orphans’ pensions shall be proportionately reduce 3 299 marks 800 128 64 8 0 3^300 to 3,399 marks.. . . . . . . 825 132 66 8 25 3,400 to 3,499 marks . . . . . . . 850 136 68 8 50 3,500 to 3,599 marks . . . . . . . . 875 140 70 8 75 3,600 to 3,699 marks . . . 900 144 72 9 0 3,700 to 3,799 marks _ _ _ _ _ 925 148 74 9 25 3,800 to 3,899 marks . 950 152 76 9 50 3,900 to 3,999 marks. ... . . . . . 975 156 78 10 75 4,000 to 4,099 marks . . . . . . . 1,000 160 80 10 0 4,100 to 4,199 marks _ _ _ 1,025 164 82 10 25 4,200 to 4,299 marks . . . . . . 1,059 168 84 10 50 4,300 to 4,399 marks.. . . . . 1,075 172 86 11 75 4,400 to 4,499 marks. . . . . 1,100 176 88 11 0 4,500 to 4,599 marks. . . . 1,125 180 90 11 25 4,600 to 4,699 marks . . 1,150 184 92 11 50 4,700 to 4,799 marks . . . . . 1,175 188 94 12 75 4,800 to 4,899 marks . . . . . . 1,200 192 96 12 0 4,900 to 4,999 marks. . . . 1,225 196 98 12 25 5,000 to 5,099 marks . . . . . 1,250 200 100 12 50 6,100 to 5, 199 marks . . . . . . . . 1,275 204 102 13 75 5,200 to 5,299 marks. . . . . . . . 1,300 208 104 13 25 5,300 to 5,399 marks . . 1,325 212 106 13 50 PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 241 Appendix A. — Classification table of the Widows' Institute for Civil and Military Offieials — Contimied. Salaries. Insured widows’ pensiors. 1 Annual contri- ' butions. En¬ trance fees. Certifi¬ cate fees. From — 5,400 to 5,499 marks . . Marks. 1,350 Marks. 216 Ma^'ks. 108 M. pfu. 13 50 5,500 to 5,599 marks. . . 1,375 1,400 1,425 220 110 13 75 5,600 to 5;699 marks . . . 224 112 14 0 5,700 to 5,799 marks . 228 114 14 25 5,800 to 5,899 marks . . . . 1,450 1,475 1,500 1,600 1,700 232 116 14 .50 5,900 to 6,999 marks . . . 240 118 14 75 7,000 to 7,499 marks.. - . . . . 248 120 15 0 7,.500 to 7,999 marks 256 272 132 16 .50 8,000 to 8,499 marks . . . . 136 17 0 8..500 to 8,999 marks. . 1,750 1,800 1,850 280 140 17 50 9,000 to 9,499 marks. . . . 288 144 18 0 9,500 to 9,999 marks. . . . 296 148 18 50 10,000 to 10.499 marks. . . . . . . 1,900 1,950 2,000 2,050 2,100 304 152 19 0 10,500 to 10,999 marks . . 312 1.56 19 50 11,000 to 11,499 marks. . . . . . 320 160 20 0 11,.500 to 11,999 marks . . . 328 164 1 20 .50 12,000 to 12,499 marks . . 336 168 21 0 12,500 to 12,999 marks. . . . . 2,150 2,200 2,250 2,300 2, ‘350 2,400 344 172 21 50 13,000 to 13,499 marks . . 352 176 22 0 13,500 to 13,999 marks . ... _ _ 360 180 22 .50 14,000 to 14,499 marks. . . . 368 184 23 0 14,500 to 14,999 marks . 376 188 23 50 15,000 marks and over.. . 384 192 24 0 3. Regulations for the ividows’ fund of Rostock professors of December 30, 1793 a When the deceased wife of Doctor and Syndicus Spalding in a legacy donated for the foundation of a widows’ fund for the professors of the Academy of Rostock 300 rix-dollar new two-thirds ( reichsthaler n. zwej'dr. ), and this money reached us during the past term of Antonins ( Antonii-Termin) , although because of complication of legacy moneys in the Bernard debit suit, at the time with a deduction of 30 rix-dollars ; this furnished the occasion to the rector and council of the Rostock Academy for the establishment of such a special widows’ fund for Rostock professors, and we were pleased to issue the follow¬ ing regulations for this institute : 1. This widows’ fund, on the basis of that testamentary provision, is estab¬ lished only for actual professors of the Rostock Academy, both ordinary and extraordinary. Whosoever, therefore, wishes to take part in it must at the time of his accession be a Rostock professor; whosoever is not (a Rostock pro¬ fessor) can not be admitted even with the consent of all the members. 2. It shall depend, however, on the free will of each professor whether or not he will take part in this widows’ fund. From the present professors the deci¬ sion thereon and the payment of the entrance fee is expected before January 31 of next year. And the professors to be appointed hereafter shall announce their decision thereon within three months from the day of their reception into the council {concUium) or into the college {collegium) of all the professors. This term provision shall extend also to unmarried professors and shall not be changed by delay of their marriage. 3. Those professors, however, who did not join the association at the time fixed above shall be admitted also subsequently if, at the time, they shall not have passed the fiftieth year of life, and if they pay in cash, with 5 i)er cent inter¬ est, all they would have had to pay up to that time in entrance fee and yearly contributions if they had joined at the usual time. Also these professors who may join later' on shall certify through a certificate made by their regular physician under oath that they are not afflicted with a disease or ailment which justifies the apprehension of an early death, but, rather, are in such condition that they can attend to their duties. 4. On admission, if this shall take place at the establishment of the associa¬ tion or, in future, within three months after reception (at the university — Tr.) “ These regulations were confirmed by sovereign decree of .January 8, 1874. ED 1904 M - 16 242 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. 15 reichstlialer neue zweydi*. shall be paid in cash ; « and, subsequently, each member shall, as long as he lives, pay an additional contribution annually of 6 reichsthaler neue zweydr.6 in quarterly installments, which shall be paid on the 1st of January, April, July, and October. Beyond this no payments shall be required except that, for partial equalization of those who shall receive the position of a Rostock professor at a later age, whether they be married or not at the time of admission, these shall pay as much admission fee as the entrance fees and annual contributions, with interest, from the end of the fortieth year of their age would have carried. They may, however, be admitted on this pay¬ ment, even if they shall have passed the fiftieth year of life, in so far as they shall give notice within three months after their reception (into the university). 5. The money received from admission fees and contributions, with interest thereon, paid by the members obligated thereto under §§ 3 and 4 shall, as soon as a sufficient sum shall have been accumulated, be invested on interest in order to distribute, subsequently, among the existing widows, and after deduc¬ tion of the necessary expenses, the interest of these capitals and of the legacy of 300 reichsthaler. No other use can be made of this interest, excepting the case noted under § 16, even on unanimous consent of all the members. 6. The annual contributions shall be promptly paid at the stated times. Who¬ ever shall fail to pay at the stated time shall pay in addition to the arrearage in the first half year, after due time, one-half the arrearage and in the second half year an amount equal to the arrearage. As soon, however, as a contribution shall have remained unpaid for more than one year, the dilatory member shall be thereby ipso facto excluded from the association and then not entitled to demand recovery of any portion of the payments made heretofore. 7. Each member may leave the association at his pleasure ; only he shall give written notice of his desire to the administration. He can, however, then also not demand any restoration of the payments heretofore made by him. On the other hand, the member who shall have resigned at his own free desire shall, subsequently, if he shall request it, be again admitted, if he is not yet over 50 years old and if he shall submit the above-mentioned certificate of his physician. He shall then, however, be treated as a wholly new member, and can not in any way receive credit for his former admission fee and contributions. 8. If a member ceases to be a Rostock professor, his share in this widows’ fund shall become extinct, and he shall not be entitled to demand restoration of the payments heretofore made by him. 9. On account of the small number of members and of inequality of acces¬ sion, it has [not (?) — Tr.] been possible now to declare a fixed dividend for the widows. For the present, therefore, the entire income in interest from invested capitals, after deduction of the necessary expenses, shall be distributed among the widows in such a way that all the existing widows shall receive equal shares. If, however, in future a widow should be entitled to receive more than too reichsthaler new two-thirds c annually, then for the sake of greater uni¬ formity another distribution of widows’ pensions shall be arranged. Yet even then the interest from the invested capital shall not be applied to any purpose other than the distribution among the widows and the increase of capital ; and the first arrangement shall again be restored if experience should show that the changed arrangement can not continue. 10. No widow can claim payment unless her husband shall have been member of this association for a full year after his admission. Should he die sooner, only the admission fee and the paid contributions, but without interest, shall be returned to her. 11. In the distribution of interest among the widows the following principles shall be observed : (a) Each widow who is living after June 30 attains thereby for herself and her heirs a claim to that interest which shall have become due in the past year, which for this institute shall always be counted from July 1 to June 30. m However, this shall suffer an exception for the year in which the hus¬ band died, inasmuch as the widow shall not share at all in the inter¬ est due for that year. (c) On the other hand, the heirs of the widow shall share in all the interest due until the last of June for the year in which she shall have died. « Now 52.50 marks. Now 21 marks. Now 300 marks. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 243 11 — Continued. {d) Interest wliieli is not paid at tlie time due, but is subsequently paid, shall belong to those widows and their heirs who were entitled to them at the time they were actually due, after deduction of the expenses of their collection, if these expenses are not paid by the debtor. However, the widows and their heirs — (e) Shall unconditionally abide by whatever steps may be decided upon concerning the collection of such debts, especially in bankruptcy cases, and even in case of an agreement for the purpose of expediting the matter and saving costs, in which (agreement) interest may l)e remitted. (O Moreover, no widow can demand that 'a capital, of the return of which the debtor shall have given notice or which shall have been called in by the administrator shall be invested again so that the interest may become due in the same term in which they had become due hereto¬ fore. 12. The quota, computed on these principles by the administration, shall be distributed among the widows at the end of June, and their receipt shall be acknowledged by the widows present at Rostock in a special receipt book and by those not present in accordance with a printed form. 13. A widow living outside of Rostock shall appoint an attorney at Rostock, who shall receive the receipt sent him by the administrator, attend to its legal¬ ization, and afterwards exchange it for the money. Moreover, such an absent widow shall draw her receipt before a notary and two witnesses and certify in the document her continued widowhood. 14. If a widow is married again her share in this institute is wholly extin¬ guished, and she shall receive her quota for the year in which her marriage shall take place at the end of June for the last time. However, she shall retain her claim to the interest become due in the previous terms but not payable. She shall not be admitted again after the death of her second husband, unless even¬ tually he, too, was a professor and member of the association. 15. If the husband voluntarily resigned or was excluded from the associa¬ tion for nonpayment of dues, the widow can not demand that she be reinstated in integrum, whatsoever special facts she may adduce for this purpose. 16. Should at any time no widows be present the interest for such a year, after deduction of expenses, shall be added to the capital, and a widow becoming entitled in the following year shall have no claim on the revenue of past years. IT. The administration of this widows’ fund shall be in the hands of the professors who participate in it. The first administrator shall be elected out of regular sequence and for an indefinite time, inasmuch as the first organization presupposes some knowledge of similar associations and might require a longer period. Afterwards an administration shall alwaj'-s last for two years and the administrator shall be chosen from the members of the association in the order of their reception into the council (concilium). If the administrator should die during the period of his administration, his predecessor shall again conduct the administration until the close of the year and secure the delivery of the cash on hand and other documents and matters belonging to the widows’ fund as soon as possible. Also, in the event 'of sickness and other detention, the predecessor assumes, temporarily, all business affairs. 18. The administration shall change on Michaelmas Day, and shall be con¬ ducted by the parties concerned free of charge. The administrator shall collect the admission fees and shall issue the certificate of admission. He shall cause the collection of the quarterly contributions and shall collect the interest. The former he shall lay by safely until they can be made into a capital, and the lat¬ ter he distributes at the close of the year. Should any event require it, he shall notify the association in notices and meetings, and shall carry out, whenever necessary, their resolutions, in which plurality shall decide, but which can not change the regulations. 19. Concerning the investment of capital amounts, resolutions shall be passed in the same manner, but the association shall be subject in this to the consent of the entire council (concilium), which shall be conducted after the same princi¬ ples that apply to the investment of academic funds. The members of the asso¬ ciation who have a vote in the council shall retain herein their usual vote. 20. Within the first two weeks after Michaelmas Day the administrator shall circulate among the members of the association his account, which, under the above principles, shall be divided into a capital account and an interest account, 244 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. for their inspection ond eventual amendment, and each member shall attend to this inspection and amendment as soon as possible, within not more than eight days. If these terms are not observed, the administrator shall be held to a fine in the amount of an annual contribution, and other parties concerned in the amount of a semiannual contribution to the fund. Then the account shall be received and acquitted by the rector and the council of the academy like other academic accounts. 21. For the assistance of the administrator a monitor shall be appointed, who shall collect the contributions and the interest, deliver the quotas of the widows to these or to their attorneys, and attend to all matters of business generally. He shall be elected by the association, but can be dismissed again at any time if the association is not satisfied with him. In the election the academic bedels shall be considered in preference. As his salary, 4 reichsthaler, new two-thirds, are at present appropriated for him. With the increase of the fund, however, this sum may be somewhat increased. 22. In order to comply punctually with the intention of the wife of Syndicus Spalding, and in order to ease the mind of each member and his widow, it is fur¬ ther ordered herewith that the purpose of this fund, even with unanimous approval of all its members, shall not be changed and that this shall forever remain an independent institute. Even if the improbable event should occur that at some time no members should be present, the institute shall nevertheless continue, and the rector and council shall then assume its administration interim- istically under these regulations until again there shall be three members, to whom the administration shall then revert. Jf. Statutes of the university oplians' fund of July 16, § 1. The orphans’ fund is established for the benefit of surviving orphans of ordinary and extraordinary professors, docents, and officials of the University of Rostock. Only a person belonging at the time to the University of Rostock shall be entitled to membership. § 2. Accession to the orphans’ fund shall be voluntary. From the persons at present belonging to the University of Rostock declaration on this point will be expected on or before August 1.5 of this year. In future those entitled to mem¬ bership shall submit their declaration within three months after their accession to their position in the University of Rostock. § 3. Persons, however, belonging to the university, who may not have joined the orphans’ fund at the time stipulated above, shall still be admitted subse¬ quently if they shall pay, with .5 per cent annual interest in cash, all they would have had to pay up to the time in admission fee and yearly contributions if they had joined at the stipulated time. § 4. Each member shall pay annually from the time of his accession a contri¬ bution of 16 marks, in quarterly installments, on the 1st of .Tanuary, April, July, and October. From the time when the property of the orphans’ fund shall have reached 3,000 marks new members shall pay in addition an entrance fee of 10 marks. § 5. Each member can resign at pleasure, but for the purpose of release from further obligations a written notice to the administrator shall be required. In such event there shall exist no claim to return of payments made here¬ tofore. The person who has resigned voluntarily shall, however, subsequently, if he requests it, be r- 'Admitted, but shall then be held to make subsequent pay¬ ment of the contributions that may have become due for the time during which he was not a member, with 5 per cent annual interest. § 6. If a member ceases to be professor, docent, or official of the University of Rostock, his share in the orphans’ fund shall also cease, and he shall have no claim to demand return of his payments. Retirement with whole or partial retention of salary shall not be considered as cessation of the required qualifi¬ cation of membership. Besides, a person who for one year shall have failed to pay his contributions shall cease ipso facto to be member of the institute from the day on which he shall receive notice thereof from the administrator of the fund. As a matter of course the separated member shall remain respon¬ sible for the payment of the four quarterly contributions left unpaid. These statutes were approved by the sovereign under date of August 22, 1872. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 245 § 7. The contributions, admission fees, and all other henetits accruing: to tlie orphans’ fund, as well as the interest of the capital fund, shall be added to the capital until this shall have reached 3,000 marks. Only from and after this time the revenues of the fund shall be available as benefits for orphans under the provisions below. § 8. Entitled to benefit from the orphans’ fund are, in the first place, fatherless and motherless orphans of persons belonging to the university who were mem¬ bers of the orphans’ fund until their death. Only if after suflicieut considera¬ tion of these the fund shall permit, merely fatherless orphans of former members shall acquire claim. The pension is intended to be used for the educa¬ tion of the orphans and shall cease, as a rule, when this shall have been com¬ pleted. Only in the event of special reasons, and if the condition of the fund shall permit this without infringement on the claims of other orphans, older orphans shall have a claim to pension. The investigation of the circumstances shall belong to the administration of the fund. However, against its decision appeal to the rector and concilium shall be permitted. This appeal shall be submitted to the rector within four weeks after receipt of the decision of the administration, to be given in writing, on penalty of definitive refusal. The decision of the concilium shall be made with the generally established rules for conciliary decisions under the academic statutes. However, the provision of § 19 of the academic statutes shall not apply in this case. § 9. The amount of the pensions shall be determined by the available means, which, after deduction of the expenses of administration, are to be applied exclusively to the purpose of the institute. (Compare above § 7.) Should, how¬ ever, such application yield for one claimant 300 marks or more, then the sum of 300 marks shall stand as a maximum of the pension due and the excess shall be applied to the increase of the capital. § 10. The administration of the orphans’ fund shall be conducted by the mem¬ bers themselves, and in such a way that for every four years one member shall be constituted as administrator. TIkT election shall be made at a meeting to which all the members shall be called in writing by the administrator in oflice, and by absolute majority. If such majority shall not be obtained on the first ballot, further proceedings shall be under the provisions for the elec¬ tion of rector in the general academic statutes. Each member shall be obliged to accept election, but not reelection. Should the administration become vacant in the course of the statutory time by death or resignation of the administrator, there shall be held immediately, on motion to be made by the predecessor of the administrator, a new election for the remaining time of the statutory term. In temporary detentions of the admin¬ istrator his predecessor, eventually the predecessor of the latter, etc., shall officiate for the time of detention. § 11. The administrator shall determine in case of notice of accession whether the statutory requisites exist, then notify the association of the accession, draw up the certificate of admission, and eventually (see § 4) collect the admission fee. The administrator shall, furthermore, collect the quarterly contributions from 'all the members and the interest from invested capitals, finally receive, even¬ tually, other donations to the fund, and give receipt therefor. § 12. The investment, recall, and cession of capitals, for which, as for all other money transactions for the fund, he shall be considered legitimized by his election, shall be within the authority of the administrator; however, he shall be subject therein to the approval of two members of the orphans’ fund, elected by the council. In such decision the same principles shall be observed ith ref¬ erence to the required security which regulate the investment of academic moneys. The defeated minority in such decisions shall have appeal to the rector and concilium, whose decision shall be final in every case. § 13. Within two weeks after July 1 the administrator shall submit in a circular his account to the members for revision and correction, revS])ectively. This revision and correction shall be completed by each individual member within at most eight days. If these terms shall be neglected, the adminis¬ trator shall be held to the payment of a fine into the fund equal to an an¬ nual contribution, and each member to such fine equal to a semiannual contri¬ bution. After accomplished approval of the account by the association, it shall be submitted to the rector and concilium and here, like every other acadejuic account, received and acknowledged. § 14. As assistant for the administrator a monitor may be elected by the asso¬ ciation, on momentary notice and with a yearly pay of at most 10 marks, who shall attend to the collection, contributions, payments, etc. 246 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. § 15. In the event that at some time there should be no members, the rector and concilium shall assume the administration under these statutes until there shall be again three members, to whom then the administration shall be transferred. These statutes, which shall be handed, in print, to each member on his ad¬ mission into the association, have been drawn up in documentary form over the signature of the rector at the time and with the seal of the university affixed, and highest sovereign confirmation thereof shall be requested. 5. Regulations concerning the adyninistration and use of the orphans' pension fund of the University of Rostock.f^ § 1. The pension fund has been established for fatherless and motherless, as well as merely fatherless, orphans needing assistance, of ordinary and extraordi¬ nary professors, actually appointed under salary and deceased in full official activity, and also for the above-designated surviving orphans of the academic music teacher. § 2. There shall be excluded, therefore, the children of such university teach¬ ers as occupy the professorship merely as a secondary office, as well as of those professors who in the last two years before their death have delivered no lec¬ tures without being hindered therein by sickness, to be attested by a physician’s certificate, or by other causes, to be adequately established. § .3. The pensions shall be paid only from the interest of the capital fund. The latter shall never be drawn upon. The surplus of receipts over expenditures shall be capitalized and invested on interest on unquestioned security. § 4. qfiie pension to be paid to the guardianship of the orphan shall cease — 1. If a son shall have completed the twenty-third year ; 2. If, although younger, he is already provided for by earning his own sup¬ port ; 3. If a daughter shall have completed the twenty-first year; 4. If she shall be married before that time; or 5. If the child shall lead a scandalous life and shall not desist therefrom after one serious admonition from the chairman of the administra¬ tion committee (§ 10). If such admonition shall have been made by the father before his death, which fact it would not be difficult to establish, the respective child shall have no claim to pension if it shall already have passed the sixteenth year. § 5. From the regulation established in § 4, under Nos. 1 and 3, those children shall be exempt who, by legally proved physical defects, shall be wholly deprived of the possibility of self-support, either for a certain time or forever. § 6. The legal establishment shall be intrusted to the certificate, conformable to duty, of an official physician, signed also by the police magistracy of the resi¬ dence, with strict responsibility as to the truth of the testimony, and with the provision of a triple gradation under which there shall be shown either — (fl) Such limited inability to earn a living as indicates the indispensable need of additional support ; or (&) Total, temporary, or permanent inability to earn a living; or (c) The still worse condition of invalidism, of total blindness, of uninter- ' rupted confinement to the bed, or of other crippled condition which, in addition to total inability to earn a living, renders necessary the assistance of others. § 7. The certificates of the physicians and of the magistracy shall definitely distinguish the case of a decided total incurableness or lifelong inability to earn a living from that of a curable defect or of a temporary inability to earn a living, and in the latter case shall propose a definite number of years for which the con¬ tribution for support shall be allowed, continued, or increased, after the lapse of which time, eventually, a repeated investigation for further decision shall be submitted. § 8. The contribution for support shall continue for the children, even if the still living mother shall change her condition. § 9. The pensions shall be paid in quarterly installments in advance. In the event of the death of a beneficiary the support shall become extinct with the end of the mortuary quarter. These regulations received sovereign confirmation under date of July 6, 1875. PENSIONS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 247 § 10. The administration of the pension fund and decision as to the use of its income under the preceding paragrai)lis sliall be intrusted to a committee of the whole council under the chairmanship of the resi)ective rector. This committee shall consist, in addition to the rector, of one member each of tlie theological, juridical, and medical faculties, and two members of the philosophical faculty, who shall be elected by the assembled council, by simple majority of votes, for five years. Annually, with the exception of the accountant, to be mentioned directly, one of the remaining four members shall retire according to a seipience to be decided by lot, but shall be again eligible. § 11. The valid passage of resolutions on the part of the committee shall re(niir(‘ two-thirds of the votes. The accountant, however, shall be elected by simple majority of votes by the committee from its members. He shall administer his office, like the other members, without pajunent of an honorarium. The account¬ ant shall close his account annually on June 30, and submit it within four weeks from this time to the rector, who subsequently shall submit it to the other mem¬ bers of the committee and then to the remaining council members for eventual correction; he also shall communicate it to the other persons entitled to parti(*i- pation in the advantages of the institute, and subse(iuently shall advise the- accountant in the name of the rector and the council of his discharge from responsibility. The obligations concerning the invested capital funds shall be deposited in the archives. § 12. The grand-ducal ministry, department for educational affairs, shall have the supervision of the institute, and, therefore, report shall be made to it annually before Michaelmas Day concerning the administration of the fund and the use made of its income, with inclosure of a copy of the account, attested by the secretary of the university. § 13. From the said grand-ducal ministry, too, the confirmation of these regula¬ tions and the conferring of the rights of a charitable institution shall be requested by the rector and the concilium. § 14. Amendments of these regulations are not prohibited. They can, however, be adopted only in an assembly of the persons named in § 1, in whose convocation by the rector the object of the deliberations shall be stated, and in which (assembly) at least two-thirds of the interested parties shall be present, by unanimous consent of the persons present, and shall take effect only upon approval by the supervising ministry. r ■ fi 'V i &- m > j’ ,:tv' M' 'i w,7» I CTIAPI’ER IV. DIGEST OF SCHOOL I.AWS. [The following digest was prepared, for the most part, under the direction of the vari¬ ous State superintendents In a few instances the work was done in the Bureau. Flor ida, Hawaii, Idaho, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming are not represented in the present revision, as it was found impossible to obtain a digest of their laws in time for publica¬ tion herewith,] ALABAMA. (1901.) 1. Organization of the System. 8tatc superintendent — County superintendents — School districts — Toicnship trustees. State superintendent. — The super inten dent of education is elected for two years at a salary of $2,250 a year. Vacancies filled by appointment of the gov¬ ernor. He must furnish $15,000 bond; must have an office at the capitol, the books, papers, and records of which are open to persons interested ; has four clerical assistants ; shall devote his time to the care and improvement of the common schools and the promotion of public education, and exercise a general supervision over all educational interests of the State; has power to require from county superintendents, tov/nship trustees, and other school officers such reports as he may deem important, and may remove them from office for failure to make such report or to discharge any other officia.l duty. Other duties are: To visit every county in the State annually, if practicable; to inspect schools and diffuse information as to best methods ; make provision for instruction of all pupils in the constitutions of the United States and Alabama, and in hygiene and physiology, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics ; apportion annually the public school fund to townships and school districts according to the number of children of school age, and see to the proper disbursement of same; print and distribute forms and blanks, his annual report to the governor, laivs, and rules and regula¬ tions pertaining to the State school system, including therein the constitutions of the United States and Alabama; prescribe a uniform system of keejiing accounts and records, and furnish county superintendents and other school ofiicers necessary books for same; keep an account of sixteenth-section and other school funds, with each township or district; require and supervise the collection of poll taxes; elicit and disseminate useful information regarding the school systems of other States and countries ; hold or arrange for one or more teachers’ institutes in each Congressional district for a week or more during each summer, for which he may expend not exceeding $500 in any year in employing instructors. On or before October 10, bienniaily, he shall sub¬ mit a report to the governor embracing the following: A lirief history of his labors ; abstract of reports from county suiierintendents showing condition of the schools; estimates and accounts of expenditures of school money: itemized ^statements showing disbursement of contingent and all other special funds or appropriations under his control ; other matters that he may deem ex]iedient, with such recommendations as he may desire to make for the improvement of the schools. Should the trustees of any township fail to make their semian¬ nual enumeration of children from 7 to 21 years (see Township trustees), or should the State superintendent have reason to believe such euumerotiou is 249 250 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. fraudulent or greatly erroneous,' be may have a new enumeration made at the expense of such township. • County superintendents. — A county superintendent for each county is elected at each general election for a term of two years, beginning October 1 next after his election. Gives bond in amount fixed by State superintendent — not less than double the probable amount of money to be in his hands at any one time. Receives as compensation 4 per cent of all educational funds legally disbursed by him and approved by tile State superintendent. Vacancies are filled by appoint¬ ment of State superintendent, who may remove any county superintendent for cjiuse, whether appointed or elected. He is president of the county board of education and of the teachers’ institute (which see). Other duties are: To have an office at the county seat, where he must be present on the first Saturday of each month during the scholastic year to transact business with school offi¬ cers and teachers ; receive and faithfully keep all funds accruing by taxation or gift for use of public schools in his county ; notify township trustees of the amount of the educational fund apportioned to their respective townships or districts as soon as he receives such apportionment ; examine the condition of all county school funds, including sixteenth-section fund and sixteenth-section lands unsold in his county, bringing suits when necessary for recovery of such lands or against trespassers thereon; pay teachers’ salaries (upon certificate of trusteees) quarterly or monthly in counties and districts so provided by spe¬ cial act ; appoint 3 trustees for each township or school district and remove them from office when the interest of public education so demands ; report by September 30 each year to State superintendent (per blanks furnished) a detailed statement of his official acts and accounts, under penalty of forfeiting his commissions for willfully failing to submit such report within ten days. His books, accounts, and vouchers are subject to examination at any time by the State superintendent or his agent. School districts. — (See Schools.) Toivnship trustees. — Three trustees for each township or school district, who shall be freeholders and householders resident therein, shall be appointed by the county superintendent, to serve two years beginning October 1 each odd year. They have immediate supervision of the public schools in their town¬ ship or district and are exempt from poll tax, jury and road duty. Their duties are : To visit each school at least once a year ; to employ teachers, whom they may remove for cause; to inspect school registers kept by teachers; in July of each odd year the district trustees shall make an enumeration of children in their district, each sex, white and black, from 7 to 21 years, and report same to county superintendent by August 1 following ; annually, on the last Monday in October, or within seven days thereafter, to call a meeting of parents and guard¬ ians of such aged children, advising with whom they shall determine : The number of schools to be established in their township for the current year ; loca¬ tion of each school, time of opening and length of session, which shall not be less than five months (except in rare cases four months by approval of county and State superintendents) ; amount of money apportioned to each school ; children to be transferred to other districts, and amount to be set apart for payment of their tuition, with such other business as may be necessary. Within ten days after such meeting they shall report to the county superintendent the number and location of schools, amount of money apportioned to each, and the names of teachers employed. 2. Teachers. D u ti es — Cert ipca tes — Con tracts — 7 nstitutes. Duties. — Every teacher must keep a register of pupils’ daily attendance, and submit same to trustees for inspection ; forward quarterly to county superin¬ tendent detailed report of all matters pertaining to the school, sworn to before and approved by trustees, prior to which report teacher can not draw pay ; give instruction, in every grade and as regularly as any other subject, in the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics. Certificates. — Every one must obtain a certificate prior to employment as a teacher. State board of examiners, composed of State superintendent (as presi¬ dent) and two teachers of extensive experience and recognized ability appointed by him, have supervision of all examinations of candidates for teachers’ certifi¬ cates in the State. Said board shall meet in November and May each year and prepare questions, lists of which shall be printed by State superintendent and DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - ALABAMA. 251 sent (by the ISth of Deeeml)er and June) to the several county su]»erinten(l(‘nts, who shall, not unseal the same except in the presence of the applicants at tin; hour and day of examination — namely, 10 a. m. on first Mondays in January and July, and for three consecutive days, if necessary. State board may hold si)ecial examinations at the department of education, Montgomery, for pia-sons pre¬ vented by unavoidable cause from taking the regular examinations; and normal school students may be examined at times and places designated by tbe board. No candidate shall be examined who is not known to be of good moral cbarac- ter, and anyone who habitually uses profane language or intoxicants shall be deemed of immoral character. Applicants for third-grade certificates shall be examined in orthography, reading, penmanship, grammar, practical arithmetic through fractious, primary geography, and the elementary principles of physi¬ ology and hygiene ; second grade, practical arithmetic complete, history of Ala¬ bama and United States, English grammar and composition, and intermediate geography, additional ; first grade, algebra, natural philosophy, geometr3% school laws of Alabama, and theoiy and practice of teaching, still additional. No cer¬ tificate shall be issued to anj' candidate who falls below 50 per cent in any branch, and whose general average is less than 75. The State board examine and grade the papers and issue certificates, which are valid for periods as follows : Third grade, two years ; second grade, four; first grade, six. No teacher shall be granted a th'ird or second grade certificate more than twice. Anyone having taught ten years under first-grade certificates and showing a high degree of pro¬ ficiency and professional attainment maj^ be granted a life certificate, which, however, shall be forfeited if the business of teaching is left off for five consecu¬ tive years. Fees for regular and normal school examinations are ; For third- grade certificates, .?! ; second grade, $1.50; first grade, $2; life, $3; special ex¬ aminations, any grade, $5. The two State examiners appointed receive $5 per day while employed; county examiners, $10 per examination conducted by them. The State superintendent shall revoke the certificate of any teacher found guilty of immoral, indecent, or unbecoming conduct. A register of licensed teachers is kept in his office. Contracts. — Are made with trustees, in writing, in duplicate; must specify monthly salarj^ ; one copy must be filed with county superintendent for his approval within ten daj^s, without which it shall not be valid. Trustees shall not contract for a school of more than .50 pupils to one teacher, nor less than 10 if there are more than that number of each race in the district. Institutes. — The county' superintendent shall appoint two teachers in either public or private schools of the county who, with himself as president, shall constitute the county' board of education. They shall meet at least quarterly, and shall organize and maintain teachers’ institutes, one for white and one for colored teachers, if there be not less than 10 licensed teachers of that race in the county'. Every licensed teacher in the county shall be a member of the institute organized for his race, but no fee shall be imposed on a member with¬ out his consent. Institutes shall hold not less than three annual meetings, and every licensed teacher shall attend at least one of them. One such meeting shall be in September, at which an address to the teachers shall be made by a person selected by the board. Institutes shall be devoted mainly to instruction and discussion in regard to methods of teaching and discipline, text-books, and other school matters. 3. Schools. School districts — Attendance — Studies — Location of huildings — Scholastic periods. School districts. — Eveiy township, or fraction thereof, divided by a State or county line or any river, creek, mountain, or other barrier rendering intercourse between the different portions of the township difficult, and every incorporated town or city having 3,000 inhabitants or more shall constitute a separate school district, whose corporate representatives are the township trustees (which see, under Organization). In every district one or more schools for each race sepa¬ rately shall be established, unless the number of children within a reasonable distance be insufficient; in which latter event the trustees shall arrange for the tuition of such children in such manner as they deem proper, paying for same out of the school funds apportioned to such district, and if a transfer to another district can not be conveniently effected the parents or guardians of children that shall have attended some school iu the State during a time equal to the 252 EDUCATIUK KEPOET, 1904. scholastic period of the current year shall be paid by the county superintendent amounts equal to the pro rata of such children in said apportionment of funds. Attendance. — Every minor above 7 years shall be entitled to attend and receive instruction in some public school of his race in the State. Children that have attended the number of days they are entitled to at one school shall not attend another during the same scholastic year unless by consent of the trustees of the latter. Parents or guardians residing in the State, but non- I'esident in a district Vvherein they pay school tax on $500 worth of real estate, shall be entitled to school privileges for their children in such district. Teach¬ ers must keep a register of pupils’ daily attendance. Fifty pupils is the maxi¬ mum number allowed one teacher. studies. — (See Teachers; Certificates; Duties.) Location of tjuildinps. — When but one school is established in a township it shall be so located as to accommodate the largest number of pupils and to encourage the building of a permanent schoolhouse as near the center of the township as possible ; such location may be changed by trustees from year to year in order to provide for those who were not in reach of the school in pre¬ vious years. In locating schools trustees must have regard to population, sur¬ roundings, any schoolhouse already built or site procured, and all other circum¬ stances necessary to be considered, so as to promote the interests of free public education. (See also Finances; Taxation.) ficliolastic periods. — Scholastic year begins October 1, ends September 30. Twenty days constitute a school month ; not less than six hours a school day. County superintendents shall not approve a teacher’s contract (which see) for a less period than five months, except for an unexpired term, unless it be found absolutely impracticable to make the term five months, in which case State superintendent must also approve. 4. Finances. Educational fund — Taxation. Educational fund. — On October 1 each year the State auditor shall place to the credit of the educational fund the following: Six per cent interest on all sums received from sales of lands granted by the United States for school pur- ]ioses ; 4 per cent interest on the surplus revenue of the United States deposited with the State under act of Congress approved .Tune 23, 1836 ; rents or other income from unsold lands received from the United States or other source for the benefit of public schools ; all sums that may accrue to the State as escheats, and a further annual appropriation of $550,000. State superintendent shall set aiairt an amount sufficient to pay expenses of the department of education law¬ fully paid from such fund, amounts appropriated for normal schools, and then j'pportion the balance of such fund among the several townships and school dis¬ tricts according to scholastic population, advising each county superintendent of the several amounts apportioned to schools under his supervision. Taxation. — All poll tax collected in any county shall be retained therein for the support of its schools. Also other licenses, required by law to be paid into the county school fund, shall be paid by county officials direct to the county superintendent and disbursed by him. Each township or district shall receive for the benefit of its schools all the poll tax collected therein. The amount paid by white persons shall be applied exclusively to the maintenance of schools for white children and that paid by colored for colored. All other local school funds raised by taxation or otherwise shall be expended in the districts in and f5r which they were raised. None of the ap]iortionment from the State shall be used for schoolhouses, furniture, or other contingent expenses. ARKANSAS. 1. Organization of the System. fitatc superintendent — Btate commissioners of the school fund — County exam¬ iners — District hoard. State superintendent. — Every two years there shall be elected a State super- intendejit of public instruction, who shall have the general superintendence of the business of the free common schools of the State. He shall have an office DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - ARKANSAS. 253 at tlie seat of j^overninent, wliere he shall keep the matter that aecmmilates by virtue of his olHce and where he shall he in attendance when not necessarily absent on business. Me shall furnish suitable (piestions for the examination of teachers; prepare and transmit to county examiners the necessary forms and registers; prepare and have printed a course of study for the rural schools of the State, giving the branches to he taught in each grade and directions to teach¬ ers on the proper methods of teaching each subject, and supervise the school funds so far as to insure their safety. He shall make an annual rei)ort to the gov¬ ernor, showing the number of persons between the ages of (5 and 21 years resid¬ ing in the State on the 1st day of the preceding July ; number of such i)ersons in each county ; number of each sex ; number white and colored ; the whole number of such persons that attended the free common schools of the State dur¬ ing the year ending the 30th day of the last preceding June, and the number in each county that attended during the same period ; number of whites of each sex that attended and number of colored of each sex that attended the said schools ; the number of common schools in the State ; number of pupils that studied each of the branches taught ; average wages paid teachers of each sex ; the relative average wages paid to male and female teachers, respectively, according to the different grades of the certificates ; number of schoolhouses erected during the year, the material and cost thereof ; the number previously erected, the material of which they were constructed, their condition and value ; the number with their grounds inclosed; the counties in which teachers’ insti¬ tutes were held, and the number that attended the institutes in each county. He shall likewise report the amount of permanent school fund belonging to the State at the close of the fiscal school year and the amount of other property apportioned to school purposes ; the nature, kind, and amount of the invest¬ ments made of the same ; the safety and permanency of such investments ; the amount of revenue accruing from the school funds ; the income received from the per capita assessment of each county and the amount derived from such assessments in all the counties of the State; the income derived from all other sources, together with the amount derived from each; likewise, in what sums, for what purposes, and in what manner the said school revenue shall have been expended and what moneys of various kinds are in the various county treasuries unexpended. He shall also append to his report a statistical table, compiled from the mate¬ rials transmitted to his office by school officers, with proper summaries, aver¬ ages, and totals given, and shall present such comparison of results and such an exhibit of his administration and of the operation of the common free school system, together with such statements of the true condition of the schools of the State as shall distinctly show the improvements and progress made from year to year in the department of public instruction. He may print 5.000 copies of his report. He shall apportion the common school fund on September 1, and shall from time to time issue editions of the school law, shall have access to the auditor’s books and papers, and may grant State and professional certificates. A vacancy in the office shall be filled by the governor. State commissioners of the school fund. — (See Finances; Funds.) County examiner. — The county court of each county shall at the first term thereof after each general election appoint, in each county not divided into two judicial districts, one county examiner ; and in each county divided into two judicial districts may appoint one county examiner for each district, such exam¬ iner to be of high moral character and scholastic attainments : and all county examiners shall be required before entering upon the duties of their offices to stand the same examination as is required of the teachers who receive first- grade licenses, and no one shall fill the offices of county examiner and school director at the same time. All county examiners shall be paid such salary each year as may be fixed by the county judge. It shall be the duty of the examiner to examine and license teachers of com¬ mon schools. The county examiner shall hold at the county seat a public exam¬ ination on the third Thursday and Friday of March, .Tune, September, and Decem¬ ber, using the questions prepared by the department of public instruction. The questions shall be mailed under seal and shall not be opened until the day of examination, and then in the presence of the applicants for license. He shall encourage the inhabitants to organize school districts, to establish public schools ; direct the attention of teachers and patrons to those methods of instruction that will best promote mental and moral culture, and to the most feasible and improved plan for building and ventilating schoolhouses; labor to create 254 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. among the people an interest in the public schools. He shall receive the reports of the district directors, and shall annually on or before August 10, prepare in tabular form an abstract of the reports made to him by the directors of the school districts embraced within his county, showing the number of organized districts in his county on the 1st day of July preceding; districts that have made their annual reports ; number of persons in each district between the ages of 6 and 21 years, distinguishing the sex and color of said persons ; number of said persons that attended school during the year, the average number of males and females in daily attendance, and the number that pursued each of the studies designated to be taught in the common schools ; number of teachers of each sex employed in his county, average wages paid per month to teachers of each sex, according to the grade of their certificates, whole amount paid as teachers’ wages in his county, number of pupils that studied in his county, and the several branches taught ; number of schoolhouses erected during the year in his county, material and cost of same, number before erected, material used in their construction, their condition, and value ; number of grounds inclosed; amount of money raised by tax in each district, and for what pur- I)ose raised ; amounts expended and for what purposes ; amount of revenue received by his county from the common school fund and received for the sup¬ port of schools from each of all other sources ; for what purposes and in what sums the said revenues were expended, and what amounts unexpended were at the close of the school year in the county treasury ; and shall reiwrt also the iiumber of deaf mutes, blind, and insane in each school district in his county under 30 years of age, their names and their post-offices. Failing to make this report he shall forfeit $25. His expenses for actual and unavoidable expenses of his office to the sum of $25 may be allowed by the county court. District hoard. — The county court shall have power to dissolve any school district when petitioned by a majority of the electors concerned to do so. No school district shall be formed having less than 25 persons of the scholastic age. The electors of every school district shall, when lawfully assembled in annual district school meeting, with not less than five electors present, have the power, by a majority of the votes cast at such meeting, to choose a chairman ; adjourn from time to time; appoint when necesary, in the absence of the directors of the district, a clerk pro tempore; elect a director for the district for the next three school years who can read and write ; designate a site for a schoolhouse ; determine the length of time during which a school shall be taught more than three months in the year ; determine what amount of money shall be raised by tax, not to exceed one-half of 1 per cent on the taxable prop¬ erty of the district, sufficient, with the public school revenues apportioned to the district, to defray the expenses of a school for three months, or for any greater length of time they may decide to have a school taught during the year. They may, if sufficient revenue can not be raised to sustain a school for three months in any one year, determine by ballot that no school shall be taught dur¬ ing such year, in which case the revenue belonging to such district shall remain in the treasury to the credit of such school district. There shall be annually elected by the voters in each school district a director, who shall hold his office for the term of three years and until his successor shall have been elected and qualified. Any person who shall have been elected or appointed a director and shall neglect or refuse to qualify and serve as such shall forfeit to his district the sum of $10, which may be recov¬ ered by action against him at the instance of any elector in the district, and which, when collected, shall be paid into the county treasury by the officer before whom the action was maintained and added by the treasurer to the school-fund revenues appropriated by the district. Any director who shall neglect or fail to perform any duties of his office shall forfeit to his district the sum of $25. The directors shall have charge of the school affairs of their districts and shall have the care and custody of the schoolhouses and grounds, books, records, papers, and other property belonging to the district, shall carefully preserve the same, preventing waste and damage, and shall purchase or lease, in the corporate name of the district, such schoolhouse site as may be designated by a majority of the legal vote^ at the district meeting ; shall hire, purchase, or build a schoolhouse with funds provided by the district for that purpose, and may sell or exchange such site of schoolhouse when so directed by a majority of the electors of any legal meeting of the district. They shall hire teachers, but shall not employ any teacher who is related to any of them within the fourth degree of consanguinity or affinity, unless peti- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - ARKANSAS. 255 tionad to do so l)y three-fourths of the patrons of the district ; shall adopt text-books, visit the schools at least once each term, and when not of a special district may expend annually as much as $25 for maps, charts, globes, diction¬ aries, and other apparatus, subject to the approval of the State superintendv ut. They shall procure from the county examiner and furnish the teacher at the commencement of the term a register for his school, and require the said teacher to report in the said register at the close of the school term the number of days of the said term, name and age of each pupil, date ou which each entered the school, separate days on which each attended, whole numher of days each attended, studies each pursued, total numher of days all pui)ils attended, average daily attendance, and the number of visits received from the directors during the term. They shall submit to the district at the annual meeting an estimate of the expenses of the district for that year, including the expenses of a school for the term of three months for the next year, after deducting the probable amount of school moneys to be apportioned to the district for that school year, and shall also submit an estimate of the expenses per month of continuing the school beyond the term of three months, and of whatever else may be necessary for the comfort and advancement of the said school. Cities and towns may organize as separate school districts with a board of six directors. 2. Teachers. Certifica tes — D u t i es — I nsti t utes. Certificates. — Any person who shall teach without a certificate of qualification shall not be entitled to compensation for such service from common school funds, unless his license expires during the term named in the written contract with the board of directors. The State superintendent shall furnish the county examiner suitable questions for the examination of teachers. He may grant State life certificates to any person in the State who may pass a thorough examination in all those branches required for county certificates, and also algebra, geometry, physics, rhetoric, mental philosophy, history, Latin, the Constitution of the United States and of Arkansas, natural history, and the theory and art of teaching. He may grant a professional certificate, valid in any county for six years, to any person who shall pass an examination in the branches required for a first-grade certificate and in plane geometry, general history, algebra, and rhetoric. It shall be the duty of the county examiner to examine and licensq teachers ; but no person shall be licensed who is given to profanity, drunkenness, gambling, licentiousness, or other demoralizing vices, or who does not believe in the exist¬ ence of a Supreme Being. The examiner shall not be required to give private examinations. To those passing a satisfactory examination in grammar, arith¬ metic, United States history, reading, writing, spelling, and geography, he may grant a third-grade certificate, valid in the county for six months ; for a second- grade certificate are required the additional branches of Arkansas history, phys¬ iology and hygiene, and theory and practice of teaching ; for a first grade elementary algebra and civil government still additional. In addition, every applicant shall be examined as to his knowledge and proficiency in the method of designating and reading the survey of lands by ranges, townships, and sec¬ tions, as platted and designated by the United States Government. The county examiner may cite to reexamination any person holding a license and under contract to teach any free school in his county ; and on being satisfied by reexamination or other means that such person does not sustain a good moral character or has not sufficient learning or ability to render him a comi)etent teacher, he may revoke the license of such i)erson ; and in case of such revoca¬ tion he shall immediately give notice to the teacher and directors involved and thereby terminate the contract between said parties, but the wages of such teacher shall be paid for the time he actually taught prior to such notice. (See also Organization — County examiner.) Other duties. — Every teacher shall keep a daily register of his school in the manner prescribed by law and indicated by the blank school register to be fur¬ nished by the directors at the beginning of his school. No teacher shall be entitled to the last month’s pay for any school taught by him until he shall have returned to the directors of the district the daily register, with all statistical work required by law perfected and complete. Every teacher shall follow as 256 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. closely as practicable the course of study issued by the department of public instruction. Institutes. — It shall he the duty of all teachers of the public schools to attend one institute annually, which shall be held by the county examiner after having given twenty days’ notice of the time and place, and no teacher shall be charged for loss of time while necessarily absent from his school to attend such insti¬ tute or to attend a quarterly examination. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — B uildings. Attendance. — The district board shall make provision for establishing separate schools for white and colored children of school age, and shall adopt such other measures as they may judge expedient for carrying the free school system into uniform operation throughout the State, and providing as nearly as possible for the education of every youth 6 to 21 years of age for at least three months in the year. In special districts schools shall be kept open at least three, but not more than ten, months. Character of instruction. — The board of directors in special districts may establish primary, graded, or high schools and employ a superintendent. [Ref¬ erence is made to the studies in which teachers are required to be examined or the text-books used as indicating the branches taught in the public schools.] Text-hooks. — The State superintendent shall prepare, for the benefit of the com¬ mon schools of the State, a list of text-books on orthography, reading in English, mental and written arithmetic, penmanship, English grammar, modern geogra¬ phy, and history of the United States as are best adapted to the wants of the learner, and as have been prepared with reference to the most philosophical methods of teaching those branches, and shall recommend the said text-books to teachers and to directors throughout the State. At the annual school election on the third Saturday in May the voters of each school district may vote on the question of uniformity of text-books. If a majority of the votes cast be in favor of uniformity, the county judge shall appoint two citizens interested in public schools and the State superintendent shall appoint two teachers holding first- grade certificates who, with the county examiner as chairman, shall constitute the county schoolbook board and shall select a series of text-books to be used exclusively in the county for six years. Any teacher using any other book instead of those adopted by said board shall be subject to a fine of not less than ^.15. Fine for selling book at higher than contract price not less than $10. Buildings. — The directors have the care and custody of the district school property, and shall acquire or sell property when directed by a majority of the electors in other than special districts. Any person who shall willfully destroy or injure any building used as a school- house or for other educational purposes, or any furniture, fixtures, or apparatus thereto belonging, or who shall deface, mar, or disfigure any such building, furni¬ ture, or fixtures, by writing, cutting, painting, or posting thereon any likeness, figure, words, or device without the consent of the teacher or other person having control of such house, furniture, or fixtures shall be fined in a sum double the value of any such building, furniture, fixtures, or apparatus so destroyed, and shall be fined in a sum not less than $10 nor more than $50 for each offense for writing, painting, cutting, or pasting in any such building, furniture, or fixtures any such words, figures, likeness, or device, to be recovered by civil action in any court of competent jurisdiction, and this punishment is not in lieu of that pro¬ vided by the statutes for such offenses. 4. Finance. Funds (permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds (permanent or special). — The proceeds of all lands that have been or hereafter may be granted by the United States to this State and not otherwise appropriated by the United States or this State; also moneys, stocks, bonds, lands, and other property now belonging to any fund for purposes of education ; also the net proceeds of all sales of lands and other property and effects that may accrue to this State by escheat, or from sales of estrays, or from unclaimed dividends or distributive shares of estates of deceased persons ; also any pro¬ ceeds of the sale of public lands which may have been or may be hereafter paid DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFORNIA. 257 over to the State (Congress consenting) ; also 10 per cent of tlie net proceeds of the sales of all State lands ; also all grants, gifts, or devises that may have been or hereafter may be made to this State, and not otherwise a])propriatcd by the tenure of the grant, gift, or devise, shall bo securely invested and sacredly pre¬ served as a public fund that shall be designated as the “common school fund” of the State, and which shall be the common property of the State, except the proceeds arising from the sale or lease of the sixteenth section, the principjil of which shall never be apportioned or used. The annual income from said fund, together with i)er capita annually assessed on every male inhabitant over the age of 21 y(‘ars, and so much of the ordinary annual revenue of the State as may hereafter be set apart by law for such purpose, shall be faithfully appropriated for inaintaining a system of free common schools for this State, and shall be ai)pr()priated to no other purpose whatsoever. The State auditor shall, on rcviuisition from the State superin¬ tendent of public instruction, draw warrants on the State treasurer for pay¬ ment to the several county treasurers of the school revenues due their respective counties. The management of the common school fund shall be vested in a board of com¬ missioners of the school fund, composed of the secretary of state, the auditor, and State superintendent of public instruction. Taxation. — The general assembly shall provide by general laws for the sup¬ port of common schools by taxes, which shall never exceed in any one year 2 mills on the dollar on taxable property, and a per capita tax of $1 on every male inhabitant of the State over 21 ; lu’ovided, it may authorize school districts to levy a tax not to exceed 5 mills on the dollar in any one year for school expenses. (See also Organization ; District board.) CALIFORNIA. Organization of the System. State hoard of education — State superintendent of puhJic instruction — County hoard of trustees of the '‘School Teachers' Annuity and Retirement Fund" — County hoard of education — County superintendent of schools — District hoard of school trustees — City hoard of education. State hoard of education. — The State board of education shall be the governor, the president of the University of California, the professor of pedagogy in that institution, the State superintendent, and the principals of the State normal schools, the governor being president and the superintendent secretary of the board. The duties of the board are to adopt I’cgulations for the government of the public schools and the district school libraries ; to prescribe by general rule the credentials u])on which persons may be granted certificates to teach in the high schools of this State. No credentials shall be prescribed or allowed unless the same, in the judgment of said board, are the eciuivalent of a diploma of grad¬ uation from the University of California, and are satisfactory evidence that the holder thereof has taken an amount of pedagogy equivalent to the minimum amount of pedagogy prescribed by the State board of education of this State and include a recommendation for a high school certificate from the faculty of the institution in wiiich the pedagogical work shall have been taken. The said board shall also consider the cases of individual a])i)llcants who have taught suc¬ cessfully for a period of not less than twenty school months, and who are not possessed of the credentials prescribed by the board under the i)rovisions of this section. The said board, in its discretion, may issue to such applicants special credentials upon which they may l)e granted certificates to teach in the high schools of the State. In such special cases the board may take cognizance of any adequate evidence of preparation which the applicants may iiresent. The standard of qualification in such special cases shall not be lower than that repre¬ sented by the other credentials named by the board under the iirovisions of tliis section. To grant diplomas entitling the holder to teach ; to have done by the State printer or other officer having fhe management of the State printing any printing required by it, provided that all orders for printing shall first be approved by the State board of examiners; and to designate some educational monthly journal as the official organ of the department of public instruction. One ED 1904 M - 17 258 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. copy of the Journal so designated shall be furnished by the county superintendent to the clerk of each board of district trustees, to be placed by him in the district library, and the county superintendent of schools shall draw his warrant semi¬ annually in favor of the publishers of such school Journal for a sum not exceed¬ ing ^1.50 a district for each school year and charge the same to the library fund of the district. The actual traveling expenses of the members incurred in at¬ tending the meetings of the board shall be paid out of the general fund in the State treasury. State superintendent of piihJic instruction. — Every four years there shall be elected a State superintendent of public instruction, whose duty shall be: First. To superintend the schools of this State. Second. To report to the governor, on or before the 15th day of September preceding each regular session of the legis- ture, a statement of the condition of the State normal schools and other educa¬ tional institutions supported by the State, and of the public schools. Third. To accomi)any his report with tabular statements, showing the number of school children in the State ; the number attending public schools, and the average at¬ tendance ; the number attending private schools, and the number not attending schools ; the amount of State school fund apportioned, and the sources from which derived ; the amount raised bj" county and district taxes, or from other sources of revenue, for school purposes ; and the amount expended for salaries of teachers, for building schoolhouses, for district school libraries, and for incidental expenses. Fourth. To apportion the State school fund, and to fur¬ nish an abstract of such apportionment to the State comptroller, the State board of examiners, and to the county auditors, county treasurers, and county superin¬ tendents of the several counties of the State. Fifth. To draw his order on the comptroller in favor of each county treasurer for school moneys apportioned to the county. Sixth. To prepare, have printed, and furnish all officers charged with the administration of the laws relating to the public schools, and to teach¬ ers, such blank forms and books as may be necessary to the discharge of their duties, including blank teachers’ certificates to be used by county boards of edu¬ cation. Seventh. To have the laws relating to the public schools printed in pamphlet form, and to supply school officers and school libraries with one copy each. Eighth. To visit the several orphan asylums to which State appropria¬ tions are made, and examine into the course of instruction therein. Ninth. To visit the schools in the different counties, and inquire into their condition ; and the actual traveling expenses thus incurred (provided that they do not exceed $1,500 per annum) shall be allowed, audited, and paid out of the general fund in the same manner as other claims are audited and paid. Tenth. To authen¬ ticate with his official seal all drafts or orders drawn by him, and all papers and writings issued from his office. Eleventh. To have bound, at the State bindery, all valuable school reports, journals, and documents in his* office, or hereafter received by him. Tvrelfth. To report to the comi)troller, on or before the 10th day of July of each year, the total number of children in the State between the ages of 5 and 17 years, as shown by the latest reports of the county superin¬ tendents on file in his office. Thirteenth. To deliver over, at the expiration of his term of office, on demand to his successor, all property, books, documents, maps, records, reports, and other papers belonging to his office, or which may have been received by him for the use of his office. He shall have power to call, biennially, a convention of the county and city superintendents, to assemble at such time and place as he shall deem most con¬ venient, for the discussion of questions pertaining to the supervision and admin¬ istration of the public schools, the expenses of the superintendents being met by the State. County hoards of education. — Except in any ffity and county, there shall be a county board of education, which shall consist of the county superintendent of schools and of four other members, appointed by the board of supervisors of the county ; a majority of the members appointed shall be experienced teachers, holding not lower than grammar school certificates in full force and effect : Proinded, That in all counties in which there are one or more high schools at least one of the appointive members of the board for such county or counties shall hold a certificate of the high school grade. Each county board shall meet annually at such time as they may determine. Special meetings may be called by the superintendent whenever the exigencies of the schools may re¬ quire them to be held. Examination of applicants for teachers’ certificates shall be held only at the annual meeting of the board, but certificates upon credentials may be granted and certificates renewed at any meeting of the board. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFORNIA. 259 The ooard of supervisors shall allow to each meinher of the county hoard of education a compensation of $5 per day for his services, and the same rate of mileage as is allowed to the members of the board of supervisors of the county. The secretary shall be allowed the sum of per day for the actual time tliat the board may be in session ; said compensation of the members of the board, and of the superintendent, shall be payable out of the same fund and in the same manner as the salary of the county superintendent. The board shall have power to examine teachers, and grant certificates, to prescribe and enforce the use of a uniform series of text-books and a course of study in the public schools, and adopt a list of books and apparatus for district school libraries, to issue diplomas of graduation from any of the public schools of the county, except in incorporated cities having boards of education. County superintendents of schools. — Every four years there shall lie elected a county superintendent of schools, whose duty shall be to superintend the schools of his county ; to apportion the school moneys to each school district at least four times a year ; to draw upon the county auditor for the sums due dis¬ trict or city schools ; to keep, open to the inspection of the public, a register of requisitions, showing the fund upon which the requisitions have been drawn, the number thereof, in whose favor, and for what purpose they were drawn, and also a receipt from the person to whom the requisition was delivered; to visit and examine each school in his county at least once in each j^ear, and for every school not so visited the board of supervisors must, on proof therepf, deduct from his salary ; to preside over teachers’ institutes held in his county, and to secure the attendance thereat of lecturers competent to instruct in the art of teaching, and to report to the county board of education the names of all teachers in the county who fail to attend regularly the sessions of the institute ; to en¬ force the course of study, the use of text-books, and the rules and regulations for the examination of teachers prescribed by the proper authority. lie shall have power to issue, if he deem it proper to do so, temporary certificates, valid until the next semiannual meeting of the county board of education, to persons holding certificates of like grade granted in other counties, cities, or cities and counties, or upon any certificates or diplomas upon which county boards are empowered to grant certificates without examination, but no person shall re¬ ceive such certificate more than once in the same county. He shall distribute all laws, reports, circulars, instructions, and blanks which he receives for the use of school officers ; keep in his office the reports of the superintendent of pub¬ lic instruction ; keep a record of his official acts, and of all the proceedings of the county board of education, including a record of the standing, in each stud3^ of all applicants examined, wdiich shall be open to the inspection of any appli¬ cant or his authorized agent; pass upon and approve or reject all plans for schoolhouses, except in incorporated cities having boards of education (and to enable him to do so, all boards of trustees, before adopting any plans for school buildings, must submit the same to the county superintendent for his approval) ; appoint trustees to fill all vacancies, to hold until the 1st day of July succeed¬ ing such appointment ; when new districts are organized, shall appoint trus¬ tees for the same, vrho shall hold office until the 1st day of July next succeed¬ ing their appointment ; make reports, Avhen directed by the superintendent of public instruction, showing such matters relating to the public schools in his county as may be required of him, and failure to do so causes him to lose $100 of his salary ; preserve carefully all reports of school officers and teachers, and, at the close of his official term, deliver to his successor all records, books, docu¬ ments, and papers belonging to the office, taking a receipt for the same, wdiich will be filed in the office of the county clerk. He shall, unless othenvise pro¬ vided by law% in the month of July of each year, grade each school, and a record thereof shall be made in a book to be kept by the county superintendent in his office for this purpose. His traveling expenses shall be paid, provided they do not exceed $10 a dis¬ trict in the year. No superintendent wdio receives an annual salary of $1,500 or more may follow the profession of teaching or any vocation that can con¬ flict wdth his duties as superintendent. The county superintendent may ap¬ point a deputy, but the deputy shall receive no compensation. District hoard of school trustees and city hoard of education. — No new school district shall be formed unless the parents or guardians of at least 15 children of school age, residents in the contemplated district, and residing a greater distance than 2 miles by a traveled road from the public schoolhouse in the district in which said parents or guardians reside, present a petition to the county superintendent. Every city or incorporated towm, unless subdivided by 260 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. the legislative authority, shall constitute a separate school district, which shall be governed by the board of education or board of school trustees. An election for school trustees must be held in each school district on the first Friday of June of each year, at the district schoolhouse, if there is one, and if there is none, at a place to be designated by the board of trustees. The number of school trustees for any school district, except where city boards are otherwise constituted by law, shall be three, each to serve three years. Boards of education are elected in cities under the provisions of the laws governing such cities, and their powers and duties are as prescribed in such laws, except as otherwise provided. The powers and duties of trustees of school districts and of boards of education in cities are as follows : First. To prescribe and enforce rules, not inconsistent with law or those pre¬ scribed by the State board of education for their own government and govern¬ ment of schools, and to transact their business at regular or special meetings called for such purpose, notice of which shall be given each member. Second. To manage and control the school property within their districts, and to pay all moneys collected by them, from any source whatever, for school pur¬ poses into the county treasury, to be placed to the credit of the special fund of their districts. Third. To purchase text-books of the State series for the use of pupils whose parents are unable to imrchase them ; school furniture, including organs and pianos, and apparatus and such other things as may be necessary for the use of schools: Provided, That, except in incorporated cities having boards of educa¬ tion, they purchase such books and apparatus only as have been adopted by the county board of education. Fourth. To rent, furnish, repair, and insure the school property of their respective districts. Fifth. When directed by a vote of their district, to build schoolhouses or to purchase or sell school lots. Sixth. To make, in the name of the district, conveyances on all property belonging to the district and sold by them. Seventh. To employ the teachers and, excepting in incorporated cities having boards of education, immcMiiately notify the superintendent of schools, in writing, of such employment, naming the grade of certificate held by the teachers employed ; and to employ janitors and other em])loyees of the schools ; to fix and order paid their compensation, unless the same be otherwise prescribed by law : Provided, That no board of trustees shall enter into any contract with such employees to extend beyond the 30th day of June next ensuing. Eighth. To suspend and expel pupils for misconduct. Ninth. To exclude from schools children under 0 years of age: Provided. That in cities and towns in which the kindergarten has been adojited, or may here¬ after be adopted, as a part of the public primary schools children may be admitted to such kindergarten classes at the age of 4 years. Tenth. To enforce in schools the course of study and the use of text-books prescribed and adoptect by the proper authority. Eleventh. To ai)point district librarians and enforce the rules prescribed for the government of district libraries. Twelfth. To exclude from schools and school libraries all books, publications, or ]>apers of a sectarian, partisan, or denominational character. Thirteenth. To furnish books for the children of parents unable to purchase them, the books so furnished to belong to the school district and to be kept in the district school library when not in use. Fourteenth. To keep a register, open to the inspection of the public, of all children applying for admission and entitled to be admitted into the public schools, and to notify the j^arents or guardians of such cliildren when vacancies occur, and receive such children into the schools in the order in which they are registered. Fifteenth. To permit children from other districts to attend the schools of their district only upon the consent of the trustees of the district in which such children reside: Provided, That should the trustees of the district in which children whose parents or guardians desire them to attend in other districts reside refuse to grant their consent, the parents or guardians of such children may apjieal to the county superintendent, and his decision shall be final. Sixteenth. On or before the 1st day of April in each year to appoint a school census marshal, and notify the su])erintendent of schools thereof, but in any city, or city and county, the appointment of all school census marshals shall be subject to the approval of the city superintendent of schools. In case of failure DIGEST OE SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFOKNIA. 261 to so appoint marslials the board are jointly and severally liable for the amount the disO'ict loses of the apportionment of school moneys, SeA^enteentb. To make an annual report on or before the 1st day (yf July to the superintendent of schools, in the manner and form and on the blanks pre¬ scribed by the superintendent of public instruction. Eighteenth. To make a rei)ort, whenever required, directly to the sui)erintend- ent of public instruction, of the text-books used in their schools. Nineteenth. To visit every school in their district at least once in each term, and examine carefully into its management, condition, and Avants. This clause to apply to each and every member of the board of trustees. Twentieth. Hoards of trustees may, and upon a petition signed by a majority of the heads of families resident in the district, as shoAvn by the last preceding school census, must, call meetings of the qualihed electors of the district for determining or changing the location of the schoolhouse or for consultation in regard to any litigation in Avhich the district may be engaged or be likely to become engaged, or in regard to any affairs of tlie district. The board must sustain all the schools established by them for an equal length of time and, as far as practicable, Avith equal rights and privileges. The board of education of every city or city and county, or board of school trustees of every school district in this State, containing five or more deaf chil¬ dren, or children avIio from deafness are unable to hear common conversation, between the ages of 3 and 21 years, may in their discretion establish and main¬ tain separate classes in the primary and grammar grades of the public schools, Avherein such pupils shall be taught by the purely oral system for teaching the deaf. The census marshal shall annually take an enumeration of all children, including Indians Avho pay taxes or Avho are not living in tribal relation, under 17 years of age. 2. Teachers. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — EA'ery teacher shall, previous to entering upon duty, file a valid certificate Avith the county superintendent of schools, and shOAV that he is 18 years of age or more. The State board of education shall liaA^e power to grant life diplomas of four grades, A’alid throughout the State, as folloAVs : (a) High school: Authorizing the holder to teach in any primary and grammar or high school, (h) Gram¬ mar school : Authorizing the holder to teach in any primary or grammar school, (c) Kindergarten-primary: Authorizing the holder to teach in the kindergarten class of any primary school, (d) Special : Authorizing the holder to teach in any school such special branches and in such grades as are named in such diploma. Life diplomas may be issued only to such ])ersons as have held for one year, and still hold, a valid county, or city and county, certificate corres])onding in grade to the grade of diploma ai)plied for, and aaJio shall furnisli satis¬ factory evidence of having had a successful experience in teaching of at least forty-eight months. Not less than twenty-one months of said exi)erience shall have been in the public schools of California. Every ai)i)lication must be accompanied to the State board of education by a certilied copy of a resolu¬ tion adopted by at least a three-fourths vote of all the members conqwsing a county, or city and county, board of education, recommending that the diploma be granted, and also by an affidavit of the ap])licant, specifically setting forth the places in Avliich and the dates betAveen Avhich said ai)plicant has taught. The application must be accompanied by a fee of .$2, for the pur¬ pose of defraying the expense of issuing the diploma. To reAmke or suspend for immoral or uni)rofessional conduct, or for evident unfitness for teaching, life diplomas, educational diplomas, documents issued under the provisions of sections 1503 and 1775 of this code, or credentials issued in accordance Avith subdivision 2 of this section, and to adopt such rules for said reA'oeation as they may deem expedient or necessary. County boards of education may, on examination, grant certificates as folloAVs: (1) Grammar school certificates: To those avIio have passed a satisfactory examination in the folloAving studies: Heading, English grammar and advanced composition, English and American literature, orthography and defining, pen¬ manship, drawing, vocal music, bookkeeping, arithmetic, aigebra to quadratics, plane geometry, geography (physical, political, and industrial), elementary 262 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. physics, physiology and hygiene, history of the United States and civil govern¬ ment, history (ancient, medijeval, and modern) , school law, methods of teaching. (2) Special certificates: To those who, by examination or any credentials, or hy both, shall satisfy the board of their special fitness to teach one or more of the particular studies for which special certificates may be granted, and who shall satisfy the board of their proficiency in English grammar, orthography, defin¬ ing, and methods of teaching. No special certificate shall be granted to teach, in any school, studies other than drawing, music, physical culture, and commer¬ cial, technical, or industrial work. All examinations shall be in writing in answer to questions formulated by the hoard of education. The said board shall also examine all applicants, orally, touching the questions asked and such other matters in connection there- Avith as shall have a tendency to demonstrate the fitness of the applicant to assume the duties of teacher. The said board shall ask questions of practical utility, with a view of ascertaining the knowledge and ability of the applicant. All examinations shall be public. The standing of each applicant in each study, and in the class, must be indorsed on the back of each certificate issued upon examination, otherwise it is not a valid certificate. County boards of education may, without examination, grant certificates as folloAvs : High school certificates: (1) To the holders of credentials approved by the State board of education in accordance with subdivision 2 of section 1521 of the Political Code; (2) to the holders of special credentials issued by said State board, in accordance with said subdivision; (3) to holders of high school cer¬ tificates issued by any county, or city and county, board of education in this State; (4) to holders of normal school diplomas accompanied by documents from the faculty of the State university, provided for in subdivision 5 of sec¬ tion 1503 of this code. Grammar school certificates: To the holders of the following credentials: (1) Life diplomas or certificates of any State: Provided, fi'hat the State board of education in this State shall have decided that said diplomas or certificates represent experience and scholarship equivalent to the requirements for the ele¬ mentary [grammar school] life diploma in California: (2) California State normal school diplomas, San Francisco city normal school diplomas heretofore granted and other normal school diplomas : Provided, That the State board of education of this State shall have recommended the normal school issuing said diploma as being of equal rank with the State normal schools of California; (3) diplomas from the University of California, or from any other university that shall be declared by the State board of education to be of equal rank with the University of California when the holders have completed the prescribed course in the pedagogical department of the State university, or a pedagogical course that said State board shall declai-e to be equivalent to such prescribed course, and have been recommended by the faculty of the university issuing such diploma; (4) grammar school or grammar grade certificates of any county, or city and county, of California. Kindergarten-primary certificates: (1) To the holders of kindergarten¬ primary certificates of any county, or city and county, of California; (2) to the holders of diplomas of graduation from the kindergarten department of any State normal school of this State; (3) -to the holders of credentials, showing that the applicant has had professional kindergarten training in an institution approved by the State board of education, and also general education equivalent to the requirements for graduation from the kindergarten department of a California State normal school. When the holder of any certificate or State diploma shall have taught suc¬ cessfully in the same county, or city and county, for five years, the board of education of such county, or city and county, may grant a permanent certificate of the kind and grade of the class in which said applicant has been teaching, A'aiid in the county, or city and county, in which issued, during the life of the holder, or until roA'oked for any of the causes designated in subdivision 4 [3] of section 1791 of this code: Provided, That such permanent certificate shall in no case be of a higher grade than the grade of the certificate or State diploma on which the teaching has been done ; and for a permanent high school certifi¬ cate twenty months of said teaching shall liaA^e consisted of regular high school work : And 2)rovided further. That a certificate when renewed the second time, or any time thereafter, shall become by such renewal a permanent certificate if DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFORNIA. 263 the bolder of said certificate shall have complied with all of the conditions of this subdivision. Whenever any holder of a diploma from the State university, or from any other university that shall he declared by the State board of education to be of equal rank with the State University, shall present to said State board satis¬ factory evidence of having had two years’ successful experience as a teacher, subsequent to graduation, accompanied by satisfactory evidence that such holder lias completed the prescribed course in the pedagogical department of the University of California, or a pedagogical course equivalent thereto, the State board of education shall grant to the holder of said university dip'loma a docu¬ ment signed by the president and secretary of the State board, showing such fact, and said diploma, accompanied by said document of the State board attached thereto, shall become a permanent certificate of qualification to teach in any grammar or primary or high school in the vState, valid until such time as the said document shall be revoked by said State board of education, for any of the causes shown in subdivision 4 [3] of section 1701. of this code. In every city of the first, second, or third class, having a city board of educa¬ tion, and in every city and county, there may be a city, or city and county, board of examination, to be composed of the city, or city and county, superin¬ tendent of schools and four other members, all of whom shall be experienced teachers, elected by the city, or city and county, board of education and holding office for four years. Such board has power to examine applicants and to pre¬ scribe a standard of proficiency which may entitle the person examined to receive: (o) A city, or city and county, grammar school certificate, valid for six years, authorizing the holder to teach any primary or grammar school or class in such city, or city and county: {h) a city, or city and county, special certificate, valid for six years, authorizing the holder to teach such special sub¬ jects in any school of the city, or city and county, and in such grades as are designated in such certificate. Applicants for special certificates by examina¬ tion or anj' credentials, or by both, shall satisfy the board of their special fit¬ ness to teach one or more of the particular studies for which special certificates may be granted, and shall satisfy the board of their proficiency in English gram¬ mar, orthography, defining, and methods of teaching. No special certificates shall be granted to teach, in any school, studies other than drawing, music, physical culture, and commercial, technical, or industrial work. The board of examination shall report the result of the examination to the city, or city and county, board of education, and said board of education shall thereupon issue to the successful applicants the certificates to which they shall be entitled ; and for immoral or unprofessional conduct, pi-ofanity, intemperance, or evident unfit¬ ness for teaching, they shall recommend to the city, or city and county, board of education the revocation of any certificates previously granted by said board of education in such city, or city and county. The city, or city and county, boards of examination may also recommend the granting of city, or city and county, certificates, and the renewal thereof, in the maimer provided for the granting and renewal of county certificates by county boards of education in section 1775 of this code. The holders of city, or city and county, certificates are eligible to teach in the cities, or cities and counties, in which such certificates were granted in schools or classes of grades corresponding to the grades of such certificates, and when elected shall be dismissed only for insubordination or other causes, as mentioned in section 1791 of this code, duly ascertained and approved by the boards of education of such cities or cities and counties. City superintendents of public schools, elected by city boards of education, shall be elected for a term of four years, and said city boards of education shall have full power to fix the salary of all ein]doyees. The holders of special city, or city and county, certificates are eligible to teach the special branches mentioned in their certificates in the grades of all the schools in the city, or city and county, in which such certificates were granted, corresponding to the grade of said special certificates. The teacher shall enforce the course of study, the use of the legally author¬ ized text-books, and the rules and regulations prescribed for schools ; hold pupils to a strict account for their conduct on the way to or from school, on the playgrounds, or during recess ; suspend, for good cause, any pupil from the school, and report such suspension to the board of school trustees or city board of education for review, and if such action is not sustained by them, the teacher may appeal to the county superintendent, whose decision shall be final ; keep a State school register, in which shall be left at the close of the term a 264 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. report showing programme of recitations, classification,- and grading of all pupils who have attended school at any time during the school year, and the superintendent shall in no case draw a requisition in favor of the teacher until the teacher has filed with him a certificate from the clerk of the board of school trustees to the effect that the provisions of this subdivision have been complied with ; make an annual report to the county superintendent at the time and in the manner and on the blanks prescribed by the superintendent of public instruction. Any teacher who shall end any school term before the close of the school year shall make a report to the county superintendent immediately after the close of such term ; and any teacher who may he teaching any school at the end of the school year shall, in his or her annual report, include all statistics for the entire school year, notwithstanding any previous reiwrt for a part of the year, and the superintendent of schools shall in no case draw a requisition for the salary of any teacher for the last month of the school term until the report required by this subdivision has been filed and by him approved; make such other reports as may be required by the superintendent of public instruction, county superintendent, board of school trustees, or city board of education. Preliminary traininy. — -The State normal schools have for their objects the education of teachers for the jaiblic schools of the State. They shall be under the management and control of boards consisting of five members, called trus¬ tees, who shall have the following powers and duties: To elect a secretary, who shall receive such salary, not to exceed $150 per annum, as may be allowed by the board; to prescribe rules for their own government and for the government of the school ; to ])rescribe rules for the reports of oHicers and teachers of the school, and for visiting other schools and institutes ; to provide for the purchase of school ai)paratus, furniture, stationery, and text-books for the use of the pupils; to establish and maintain training or model schools, and require the pupils of the normal school to teach and instruct classes therein; to elect a principal and other necessary teachers, fix their salaries, and prescribe their duties ; to issue diplomas of graduation upon the recommendation of the faculty of the school having the force of grammar grade certificate ; to control and expend all moneys appro])riated for the support and maintenance of the school, and all money received from tuition or from donations ; to cause a record of all their proceedings to be kept, which shall be open to public inspection at the school ; to keep, open to public inspection, an account of receipts and expendi¬ tures ; to annually report to the governor a st;itement of all their transactions, and of all matters pertaining to the school ; to transmit with such report a copy of the principal teacher’s annual report. The age of admission is 16 years. Teachers holding valid certificates to teach in any county in the State may be admitted to any State normal school. Every person making application for admission as a pupil in the normal school must file a declaration that he enters the school to fit himself for teaching and that it is his intention to engage in teaching in the public schools of the State, or in the State or Territory wherein he resides. Joint hoard normal school trustees. — There shall be a joint board of State normal school trustees, to be composed of the governor, the superintendent of public instruction, the presidents of the diff’erent State normal schools, the chairman and tvv’O other members of each normal school board. The two mem¬ bers besides the chairman of each local board shall be selected by the respective local boards for every joint meeting. Said joint board sha.ll meet on the second Friday of April in each year, alternately at the different State normal schools. The fiVst meeting after the passage of this act shall l)e at San Diego, the second meeting at San Francisco, the third at San Jose, the fourth at Chico, and the fifth at Los Angeles. Thereafter the places of meeting shall be in the order mentioned above. Special meetings may be called at any time and at any place by the governor for the transaction of any urgent business affecting the welfare of any or all of the State normal schools when in his judgment it is necessary. The governor shall be ex officio chairman of said joint board of normal school trustees. The powers and duties of said joint board of normal school trustees are as follows: 1. To prescribe and enfoia^e a uniform series of text-books for use in the State normal schools ; the State series of text-books shall be used when pub¬ lished in the grades and classes for which they are adaiffed, 2. d’o prescribe and enforce a uniform course of study and time and standard for graduation from the State normal schools, fi. 'bo prescribe a uniform standard of admission for students entering the normal schools and for transfer of pupils from one nor¬ mal school to another: Provided, That a student for good cause may, upon DrC4EST OF SCHOOL LA IVS - CALIFOKNIA. 2(35 recommendation of the i)resldent of tlie school from which he seeks to he trans¬ ferred, enter any other normal scliool, and without examination he admitted to classes coi'i'espondin.a: to those in the school which he has left. 4. To sit as a board of arbitration in matters concernini^ the mana.ireinent of each State nor¬ mal school that may need adjustment, o. 'Fhe joint hoard shall also have the jx)wer to pass any general rei^nlations that may he ai)j)lied to all the State nor¬ mal schools, thus affectini; their wc'll-heins?. d. Heinhers in attemdin^^ the meet¬ ings of the joint hoard shall receive mileage while in actual attendance ui)()n the meeting, the same to he ])aid out of any ai)i>ropriati()n made by the legislature for that purpose. — The suiteriutendemt of every county in which there are twenty or more school distiacts, and of every city and county in the State, must hold at least one teachers’ institute in oa(‘h year ; and every teacher employcHt in a pub¬ lic school ill the county must attend such institute and jiarticipate in its pro¬ ceedings : Provided, That cities employing 70 or more teachers may have a separate institute, to meet at least once a year, the sessions to he of not less than three nor more than live days: And provided further. That teachers at¬ tending such city institute shall not be reipiired to attend the county institute. The expenses of such city institutes, not exceeding lf200 annually, shall he jiaid from the special school funds of said city. In any county in which there are less than 20 school districts the county superintendent may, in his discretion, hold an institute. When direct'd by the countj’ board of education, he shall hold an institute not oftener than once each jear, at such time and ]>lace as the board may direct. Each session of the insti¬ tute must continue not less than three nor more than live days. ^Vhen the institute is held during the time that teachers are employed in teaching, their pay must not be diminished by reason of their attendance. The county superin¬ tendent must keej) an accurate account of the actual expenses of said institute, with vouchers for the same, and draw his requisition upon the county auditor, who shall draw his warrant on the unai)i)ortioned countj’ school fund to pay said amount: Provided, That such amount must not exceed t^200 for any one year. 3, Schools. Attendance — Charaeter of instniet ion — Te.rt-hooh'S — Buildings. Attendance. — Every school, unless otherwise provided by law, must be oiien for the admission of all children between 0 and 21 years of age residing in the district, and the board of school trustees, or city board of education, have power to admit adults and children not residing in the district whenever good reasons exist therefor. Whenever there is sufheient money in the fund of any school district to support school for six months the county superintendent shall have school kept if the district fail to. Trustees shall have the power to ex¬ clude children of filthy or vicious habits, or children suffering from coiitagious or infectious diseases, and also to establish separate schools for Indian children and for children of Mongolian or Chinese descent. When sin-li separate schools are established, Indian, Chinese, or Mongolian children must not be admitted into any other school : Provided, That in cities and towns in which the kinder¬ garten has been adopted, or may hereafter be adopted, as i)art of the public pri¬ mary schools, children may be admitted to such kinderga.rten classes at the age of 4 years. Unless excused as hereinafter i>rovided, each parent, guardian, or other per¬ son, in the State of C’alifornia, having control or charge of any child between the ages of 8 and 14 years, sliall he required to send such child to a public school, during each school year, for a period of ;it least five months of the time during which a public school shall be in session, in the city or city and county or school district in which said child n'sides, and at least eighteen weeks of such attendance shall be consecutive: Provided, That should it be shown to the satis¬ faction of the board of education of the city or city and county, or of the board of trustees of the school district, in which such child resides, that the child’s bodil3' or mental condition is such as to i)revent or render inadvisable attend¬ ance at school, or application to study, a certificate from any reputable physi¬ cian that the child is not able to attend school, or that its attendance is inad¬ visable, must be taken as satisfactoiy evidence by any such board : or proof being given that the parents, or ))arent, are extremely poor or sick, and that the services of the child are actually needed to support such ])arents or i)arent; or that such child is being taught in a private school or by a private tutor, or at 266 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. borne by any person capable of teaching in sncli branches as are usually taught in the primary and grammar schools of this State ; or that no public school is located within 2 miles, by the nearest traveled road, cf the residence of the child ; or that the child has completed the prescribed grammar-school course ; then it shall be the duty of such board of education or board of trustees, upon application of the parent, or guardian, or other person having the control or charge of such child, to excuse such child from attendance at school during the continuance of such defect or condition upon which such excuse is granted: And provided further, That circumstances rendering attendance impracticable or dangerous to health, owing to unusual storm or other sufficient cause, shall work an exemption from the penalties of this act. If any parent or guardian or other person having control or charge of any such child presents proof to such board of education or board of trustees, by affidavit, that he is unable to compel such child to attend school, said parent, guardian, or other person shall be exempt from the penalties of this act, as regards the subsequent nonattend¬ ance at school of such child, and said child may, in the discretion of such board, be deemed a truant and subject to assignment to the parental school. Any parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge of any such child, who shall fail to comply witli the provisions of this act, shall, unless' excused or exempted therefrom as hereinbefore provided, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be liable, for the first offense, to a fine of not more than $10 or to imprisonment for not more than five days, and for each subsequent offense he shall be liable to a fine of not less than $10 nor more than $50, or to imprisonment for not less than five days nor more than twenty-five days, or to both such fine and imprisonment. The board of education of any city or city and county, or the board of trus¬ tees of any school district, shall, on the complaint of any person, make full and impartial investigation of all charges against parents or guardians or other persons having control or charge of any such child, for violations of any of the provisions of this act. If it shall appear upon such investigation that any such parent or guardian or other person has violated any of the provisions of this act, it is hereby made the duty of the secretary of such board of education, ex¬ cept as hereinafter provided, or the clerk of such board of trustees, to make and file in the proper court a criminal complaint against such parent, guardian, or other person, charging such violation, and to see that such charge is prosecuted by the proper authorities : Provided, That in cities and in cities and counties having an attendance officer or officers such ofiicer or officers shall, under the direction of the boai-d of education or the city superintendent of schools, make and file such complaint and see that such charge is prosecuted by the proper authorities. The board of education of any city, or city and county, may appoint and re¬ move at pleasure one or more attendance officers of such city or city and county, and shall fix their compensation, not exceeding $1,000 per annum for any such officer, payable from the county or special school fund of such city or city and county, and shall prescribe their duties, not inconsistent with law, and make rules and regulations for the performance thereof : Provided, That in any city or city and county containing less than 20,000 school census children not more than one attendance officer shall be appointed, and in any city or city and county containing more than 20,000 school census children not more than one attendance officer shall be appointed for each 20,000 school census children or fraction greater than one-half thereof. It shall be the duty of the attendance ofiicer to arrest during school hours, without warrant, any child between 8 and 14 years of age, found away from his home, and who has been reported to him by tlm teacher, the superintendent of schools, or other person connected with the school department, as a truant from instruction upon which he is lawfully required to attend within the city, or city and county. He shall forthwith deliver the child so arrested either to the parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge of such child, or to the teacher from whom said child is then a truant; or if such child shall have been declared an habitual truant, he shall bring such child before a magis¬ trate for commitment by him to a parental school, as provided in this act. The attendance officer shall report pronq:)tly such arrest, and the disposition made by him of such child, to the school authorities of such city or city and county. Any child may be reported as a truant, in the meaning of this act, who shall have been absent from school without valid excuse more than three days or tardy on more than three days, any absence for a part of a day being regarded as a tardiness. Any child who has once been reported as a truant and who is e DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFORNIA. 2G7 again absent from school, without valid oxenso, one or more days, or tardy on one or more days, may again he reported as a truant. Any child may he deemed an liahitual truant who shall have been reported as a truant three or more times. Any child who has once been declared an habitual truant and who, in a succeeding year, is reported as a truant from school one or more days or tardy on one or more days without valid excuse, may he again declared an habitual truant. The hoard of education of any city, or city and county, may establish schools in a manner hereinafter i)rescrihed, or sot apart rooms in public school build¬ ings, for children between 8 and 14 years of age who are habitual truants from instruction upon which tiiey are lawfully required to attend, or who are insub¬ ordinate or disorderly during their attendance upon such instruction or irregu¬ lar in such attendance. Such school or room shall be known as a parental school. A parental school, as herein designated and provided for, shall bo one of the primary and grammar schools of the city or city and county, and the teachers therein shall have the same qualifications and be employed and paid in the same manner as in other primary and grammar schools; but such i)arental school shall be established and maintained specially for the instruction therein of such pupils, between the ages of 8 and Id years, as shall be committed thereto as provided in this act, and no pupil shall l)e committed to or required to attend such school except as in tills act provided. Said board of education may make such special rules and regulations for the government of a parental school as shall be consistent with the provisions and purpo.ses of this act and not contrary to law. Such board may provide for the detention, maintenance, and instruction of such children in such schools; and such board or the city superintendent of schools in any city, or city and county, may, after reasonable notice to any such child and an opportunity for the child to be heard, and with the consent of the parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge of such child, order such child to attend such school or to be detained and main¬ tained therein for such period and under such rules and regulations as such board may prescribe, not exceeding the remainder of the school year. If such parent, guardian, or person having control or cliarge of such child shall not con¬ sent to such order, such child may l>e proceeded against under this act. If any child in any city, or city and county, in which a parental school shall be established shall be an habitual truant, or be irregular in attendance at school, within the meaning of these terms as defined in this act, or shall be insub¬ ordinate or disorderly during attendance at school, it shall be the duty of the attendance officer or of the secretary of the board of education if there be no attendance officer, to make and file a complaint against such child in the proper court, charging the fact, and to see that such charge is prosecuted liy the proper authority; and if the court, upon the hearing of such complaint, shall find that such charge is sustained, the court shall render judgment that such child be committed to and be detained and maintained in a parental school in such city, or city and county, for a term not to exceed the remainder of the current school year: Frovided, That if the parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge of such child shall, within three days after the retention of such judgment, execaite a good and sufficient bond to the board of education of the city, or city and county, in which said court is situated, with sufficient sureties, in the sum of $200, conditioned that such child will, during the remainder of such current school year, regularly attend some pul)lic or private school in such city, or city and county, and not be insubordinate or disorderly during such attendance, such bond to be approved by the judge of said court and be filed with the secretary of the board of education, then such court shall make an order suspending the exec-ution of such judgment so long as the condition of such bond shall be complied ^’S'ith. If the condition of such bond be violated, such court, upon receiving satisfactory evidence of the fact in any action brought therefor, shall make an order declaring such bond forfeited and directing such judgment to be thenceforth enforced. Such board of educa¬ tion may, at any time within one year after any such bontl shall be declared forfeited, have execution issued against any or all of the ])arties to su<-h bond to collect the amount thereof; and all moneys paid or collected on such bond shall be paid over to the parental school fund of such city, or city and county. No fees shall be charged or received by any court or officer in any proceeding under this section. The confinemejit of any child in a parental school shall be conducted with a view to the improvement of the child, and to its restoration, as soon as practicable, to the school which he would, if not so confined, be required to attend. The city superintendent of schools, or, if there be no city 268 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. superintendent, the board of education of any city, or city and county, shall have authority, in their discretion, to parole at any time any child committed to or ordered to attend a parental school, except when such commitment shall be by judgment or order of a court ; and when such commitment of any child shall be by judgment or order of a court, such court may, on the recommenda¬ tion of the city superintendent of schools or the board of education, make an order paroling such child, upon such terms and conditions as shall be speci¬ fied in the order. The expense incurred by any city, or city and county, in jairchasiug or renting a school site, erecting or renting a building, and equipping the same for the maintenance of a parental school, shall be paid out of funds other than those collected for the maintenance of schools. The salaries of teachers and the expense for all school supplies in a parental school shall be paid out of the same funds from which similar salaries and expense are paid for primary and grammar schools, but all other expense incurred in the mainte¬ nance of such parental schools shall be paid out of the parental school fund. Whenever any board of education shall determine that it is necessary or expedient for the city or city and county to establish and maintain a parental school, said board shall furnish to the city council, or other governing body of such city or city and county, all necessary and required information and statis¬ tics, and if after consideration such city council or other governing body grants its consent for the establishment of such parental school, then the board of educa¬ tion shall furnish to the authorities whose duty it is to levy taxes in such city or city and county, thirty days before the time specified by law for fixing the annual tax rate, an estimate of the cost of purchasing or renting a suit¬ able site, and also an estimate of the cost of renting or erecting a suitable building and equipping the same for occupancy as a parental school and the cost to the city or city and county other than for salaries of teachers and for school supplies of c-onducting the school for the remainder of the current school year. When, pursuant to such consent by such governing body, such estimates shall have been so made and furnished by the board of education of any city or city and county, it is hereby made the duty of the authorities whose duty it shall be to levy taxes in such city or city and county at the time of levying the taxes to levy a special tax upon all taxable property of said city or city and county sufficient in its judgment to provide the facilities requested by the board of education, and for which such estimates shall have been so furnished. It shall be the duty of the board of education yearly thereafter to pre.sent to the authorities of the city or city and county, whose duty it is to levy taxes, on or before the first ^Monday in July an estimate of the moneys required for conducting the parental school for the school year other than for the salaries of teachers and for school supplies. When such estimate shall have been so presented it shall be the duty of the said authorities to levy a special tax upon the taxable property of said city or city and county sufficient to main¬ tain such school for the year, exclusive of salaries of teachers and expense of school supplies. All taxes in this act provided for shall be computed, entered upon the tax roll, and collected in the same manner as other taxes are com¬ puted, entered, and collected ; and when collected shall be placed in a separate fund to be known as the “ parental school fund,” and shall be paid out on the order of the board of education for the purposes set forth in this act : Provided, That all moneys so collected for the purchase of sites or buildings or the erection or equipment of buildings for parental school purposes shall be placed in a separate fund to be known as the “ parental school building fund,” and shall be used solely for the purpose or purposes for which col¬ lected, except that after such purpose or purposes shall have been fully accom¬ plished the residue of such fund, if any, may be transferred to said parental school fund. Two or more school districts or cities may unite in the following manner to form a joint district for the maintenance of a joint parental school : When any board of education or l)oard of school trustees has secured, in the manner as set forth in section 7 of this act, the consent of the legislative body of the city or school district, in which said board of education or board of school trustees holds olRce, for the union of two or more districts to form a joint parental school district, said board of education or board of trustees shall transmit such information to the board of supervisors of the county of which said city or school district, or districts, forms a part, setting forth at the same time the cities oi' districts with which said city or district seeks to unite for the maintenance of a joint parental school. When such information has been received by the board of supervisors from all the cities or school districts seeking to be united, DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFORNIA. 209 it is hereby made the duty of the hoard of supervisors, hy resolution, to declare such cities or school districts united for the inaintenance of a joint parental school, to he known as the joint i)arental school district of (s;ive the names of the school districts unitinfj:). When the districts have been so united, the hoards of education or hoards of trustees of the cities or school districts so unitini? shall appoint a hoard of trustees for the joint parental school district, to consist of five memhers (unless the nuniher of cities or school districts unitiiif; exceeds five), who shall he ap]K)inted from the memhership of the hoards of the several districts or cities unitinjr, hy the respective hoards in approximate pro¬ portion to the census children between o and 17 years of a^e, in the districts unitina:: Provided, however. That each district shall he represented hy at least one member on the board of trustees of the joint i)arental school district. The memhers so appointed to serve for the remainder of the term of ollice for which they were elected on their respective boards of education or hoards of trustees, and when vacancies occur on said hoard of trustees of joint ])arental school districts they shall be filled by the hoard making the original appoint¬ ment. The superintendent of schools of each of the cities or school districts uniting, shall be ex ofiicio memhers of the board of trustees of the joint parental school district, without the right to vote. In the management of a parental school within a school district, city, or city and county, the right to transport pupils to and from school at public expense, when, in the judgment of the hoard of education or hoard of school trustees, the interest of the i)upil demands it, is hereby conferred upon such boards. All the powers and duties hy any section of this act conferred or imposed upon the hoards of school trustees or boards of education of any city, or city and county, in the management of and the securing of funds for, a parental school within a city or school district, are hereby conferred upon and imposed upon the board of trustees of any joint parental school district in the management of and the securing of funds for the support of a joint parental school : Provided, however, That in estimating the expense of maintenance of a joint parental school the amount of money needed for the payment of teachers’ salaries and for the furnishing of school supplies shall be included in the estimate of expenses: And provided further, That the estimates shall be transmitted to the board of supervisors of the county of which the joint parental school district forms a part. When such estimates shall have been so transmitted, it is herebj’' made the duty of the board of su])er- visors to levy a special tax upon the taxable property within the boundaries of the joint parental school district, sufficient to provide the facilities recpiested by the board of trustees of the joint parental school district, and for which such estimates shall have been furnished, and j^early thereafter when the esti¬ mates of the total expense of the maintenance of the joint parental school and increased facilities shall have been furnished the board of supervisors, it shall be the duty of said board to levy a special tax sufficient to maintain the school for the year. All taxes in this act provided shall be computed and entered upon the tax roll and collected in the manner prescril)ed for the collection of taxes in section 7 of this act: Provided, That all moneys so collected shall be collected by the county tax collector and apportioned to the credit of the joint parental school district, and placed in the fund for which they were specially collected. If for sites or buildings, to be placed in a fund known as the joint parental school building fund, to be used exclusively for the purposes for which they were collected, the same as set forth in section 7 of this act. The board of trustees of joint parental school districts shall organize, by the election of one of Hieir number as chairman, and by the election of a secretary, who shall be the city superintendent of schools, or the secretary of a board of education or the clerk of one of the boards of education or boards of trustees of the cities, or school districts united, and such secretary shall serve without additional salary. All moneys in a joint parental school fund shall be paid out on the order of the board of trustees of the joint parental school district for the pur¬ poses herein set forth, and in the same manner that funds are paid from the ordinary school funds of a school district. All fines paid as penalties for the violation of any of the provisions of this act shall, when collected or received, be paid over by the justice or officer receiv¬ ing the same to the treasurer of the city, or city and county, in which the offense was committed, to be placed to the credit of the parental school fund of such city, or city and county, if there be such a fund, otherwise to the credit of the general school fund of such city, or city and county, or to the county treasurer, to be placed to the credit of the school fund of the school district in which the offense was committed. 270 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904 Any parent or guardian of any deaf, dumb, or blind child, legally entitled to admission to said institution, shall send such child to said institution until such child shall have been therein for five years, or shall have reached the age of majority, unless such child shall be excused from such attendance by the board of education or board of trustees of the city, city and county, or school district in which such child resides, for the reason that the child’s bodily or mental condition is such as to prevent or render inadvisable attendance at said institution, or for the reason that such child is receiving proper instruction at home or in some public or private school. Any parent or guardian failing to comply with the requirements of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and be punishable as provided in section 2 of this act. Any justice of the peace, or recorder of the city, or city and county, or any justice of the peace of the township in which the school district is located, or in which the oft’ense is committed, shall have jurisdiction of all offenses com¬ mitted under the i^rovisions of this act. Character of instruction. — The public schools of California, other than those supported exclusively by the State, shall be classed as high schools, technical schools, and grammar and primary schools (including kindergarten classes). Except in incorporated cities having boards of education, the county or city and county board of education shall provide for a final examination and con¬ ferring of diplomas of graduation on those pupils who have satisfactorily com¬ pleted the course of study provided for the grammar and primary schools of the county. The county board of education, except in incorporated cities hav¬ ing boards of education, must on or before the 1st day of July prescribe the course of study in eacli grade for the ensuing year. All schools must be taught in the English language. Instruction must be given in the following branches in the several grades in which they may be required, viz ; Reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, geography, nature study, language, and grammar, with special reference to composition ; history of the United States and civil government ; elements of physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effect of alcohol and narcotics on the human system ; music, drawing, and ele¬ mentary bookkeeping, humane education : Provided, That instruction in elemen¬ tary bookkeeping, humane education, elements of physiology and hygiene, music, drawing, and nature study may be oral, no text-books on these subjects being required to be purchased by the pupiis ; Provided further, That county boards of education may, in districts having less than 100 census children, confine the pupils to the studies of reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, language and grammar, geography, history of the United States and civil government, ele¬ ments of physiology and hygiene, and elementary bookkeeping until they have a practical knowledge of these subjects: And it is further provided. That no more than twenty recitations per week shall be required of pupils in the secondary schools, and no [mpil under the age of 15 j^ears in any grammar or primary school shall be required to do any home study. Other studies may be author¬ ized by the board of education of any county, city, or city and county, but such studies if so authorized shall be in lieu of a corresponding number of such enumerated studies specified in the preceding section, and not in addition thereto. Instruction must be given, in all grades of school and in all classes during the entire school course, in manners and morals and upon the nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics and their effects upon the human system. Attention must be given to such physical exercises for the pupils as may be conducive to health and vigor of body as well as mind and to the ventilation and temperature of schoolrooms. No publication of a sectarian, partisan, or denominational character must be used or distributed in any school, or be made a part of any school library ; nor must any sectarian or denominational doctrine be taught therein. Any school district, town, or city the officers of which knowingly allow any schools to be taught in violation of these provisions forfeits all right to any State or county apportionment of school moneys ; and upon satisfactory evidence of such viola¬ tion, the superintendent of public instruction and school superintendent must withhold both State and county apportionments. No school shall be continued in session more than six hours a day ; and no pupil under 8 years of age shall be kept in school more than four hours per day. Any violation of the provisions of this section must be treated in tlie same man¬ ner as a violation of- the provisions of the preceding paragraph. In all schools of more than two teachers beginners shall be taught by teachers having had two years’ experience or by normal school graduates. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFOKNIA. 271 Any city, incorporated town, or school district accredited by tlie last preceding school census with a school population of dOO or more may, by a majority vote of the qualified electors voting at the election held for the purpose of determin¬ ing the establishment and maintenance of such high school, establish and main¬ tain a high school at the expense of such city, incorporated town, or school dis- tri^-t. Union school districts may be formed, and union schools may be maintained therein, as in this section provided. When a majority in each district, as shown by the last preceding school cen¬ sus, of the head of families residing in two or more school districts in the same county, shall unite in a petition to the county superintendent of schools for the formation of a union school district, to comprise the districts so petitioning, he shall, v.’ithiii twenty days after receiving said petition, call an election for the determination of the question, and shall appoint three qualified electors in each of the districts petitioning, to conduct the election therein. Said election shall be held separately and simultaneously at the public school house in each of the districts petitioning, and shall be called by posting notices thereof in three of the most public places in each district, one of which places shall be the public school house in each district, at least ten days before said election. Said elec¬ tion shall be conducted i)y the officers appointed for that purpose, in the manner provided by law for conducting school elections. The ballots at such election, in each district shall contain the words, “ For the union school district,” and the voter shall write or print after said words on his ballot the word “ Yes ” or the word “ No.” It shall be the duty of said election officers in each district to can¬ vass the vote at said election, and report the result to the county superintendent of schools within five days subsequent to the holding of said election. The povrers and duties of boards of trustees in union or joint union school districts shall be such as are now, or may hereafter be assigned by law to boards of school trustees, except as otherwise provided in this section. The board of trustees of a union or joint union school district may contract, in such manner as they may deem best, for the transportation, to and from school, of such pupils as may seem to such board to be in need of such trans¬ portation, and shall pay for such transportation, in the usual manner, out of any funds available for the purpose: Provided, That all such contracts for transportation shad be first approved by the county superintendent (or super¬ intendents) of schools of the county (or counties) in which such district is situated. Text-dooks. — In compiling' or causing to be compiled and adopted a uniform series of school text-books for use in the coinmon schools of the State, as required by section 7 of article 9 of the State constitution, the State board of education shall, within thirty days after the passage of this act, meet and appoint three members of said board, to wit, the governor, the superintendent of public instruction, and one other member of said State ))oard of education as a standing committee on school text-books. The said comm.ittee shall be desig¬ nated and known as the State text-book committee, and shall iinmediately organize and enter upon the discharge of its duties, and shall have power, sub¬ ject to the approval of the State board -of education, to revise in whole or in part and to manufacture such text-books as are now in use; to compile or cause to be compiled under its direction, and to manufacture such other or additional text-book or books as it may deem necessary or proper for use in the primary and grammar schools (the common schools) of the State; to purchase or hire plates, maps, and engraving.s of copyright matter ; to contract for or lease copyrights for the purpose of being used in compiling, printing, and ])ub- lishing such books ; to provide for the payment of royalties or for the leasing of plates for the making of the whole or any part of a book or books, and to do any and all acts that may be necessary for the i)urpose of procuring a meri¬ torious uniform series of textbooks for use in all the primary and grammar schools of the State of California. Said committee shall have power, subject to the approval of the State board of education, to prescribe and enforce the use of a uniform series of text-books, and to adopt a list of books for supple¬ mentary use from which county and city and county boards of education shall select and adopt books for supplementary use in primary and grammar schools in their respective counties and cities and counties, as required by section 1712 of the Political Code. As soon as any text-book shall have been conq^iled, printed, adopted, and is ready for distribution, it shall be the duty of every county and city and county superintendent of schools in the State to order a sufficient number thereof to give at least one copy of every such book to every 272 EDUCATIOIT KEPOKT, 1904. public school district library in tbe county or city and county in which he is superintendent, and payment therefor shall be made by him by drawing his requisition without the order of the board of school trustees against the library funds of the respective districts in his county or city and county for the cost and remitting the same to the official who has charge of the sale of State school text-books. In cities where the city school superintendent or city board of education is accustomed to draw requisitions upon the library funds, it is hereby made the duty of such superintendents or boards of education to order and pay for copies of books of the State series for their school libraries as hereby provided in lieu of the county superintendents. Instruction shall be given in the following subjects in the primary and gram¬ mar schools of the State in the several grades in which they may be required, viz: Reading, writing, orthography, language lessons and English grammar, arithmetic, geography, history of the United States, elements of physiology and hygiene, vocal music, elementary bookkeeping, drawing, nature study, and civil government ; and it shall be the duty of the said text-book committee to revise such of the books of the present State series or publish such new ones in any of the above-mentioned subjects as may be necessary for the proi^er study and teaching of them, and for the purposes of compilation and publication may make use of any copyright matter deemed suitable, and may purchase or hire plates, maps, or engravings of such copyright matter, may contract and arrange for the payment of royalties, and shall designate such book or books, when pub¬ lished, as belonging to and forming a part of the State series of school text¬ books, subject to the approval of the State lK>ard of education. The said text-book committee shall elect a secretary, who shall be a person of recognized educational ability and experience, who shall be provided with an office at the State capitol, in Sacramento, in connection with that of the superin¬ tendent of public instruction, and who shall keep the books, accounts, and all records of the said committee and perform such other duties as may from time to time be required of said secretary by said committee. Said secretary shall hold office at the pleasure of the committee and shall receive a salary of $165 per month, payable monthly in the same manner and from the same fund as the salaries of State officers are paid. The said text-book committee may secure copyrights in the name of the people of the State of California to any book that may be compiled under this act, and whenever any one or more of the State school text-books shall have been comi)iled, published, and adopted, the superintendent of imblic instruction shall issue an order to all county and city and county boards of education by sending notice by registered mail to the secretaries of all such boards requiring the uniform use of said book or books in all the primary and grammar schools of this State, and when said order shall have thus been given and published, the same shall remain in force and effect for a term of not less than four nor more than eight years: Provided, That said order for the uniform use of said book or books shall not take effect until the expiration of at least one year from the time of the completion, i)urchase or the leasing of the electrotype plates of said book or books: but nothing in this act shall be construed to pre¬ vent any county, city, or city and county from adopting any one or more of tbe State series of school text-books whenever said book or l)Ooks shall have been published and is ready for distribution: Provided further, qdiat whenever any plates, maps, or engravings of any publisher or author are adoi)ted for use as hereinbefore provided, the State text-book committee shall enter into a contract for not less than four nor more than eight years for the use of the same, and shall require a good and sufficient bond of the owner of such plates, maps, or engravings, guaranteeing that the same shall be kept revised and up to date, as may be required by the State board of education. Any county, city and county, city or school district that refuses or neglects to use the State series of school text-books in fhe grades and in the subjects for which they are intended and at the tinie required in the foregoing subdi¬ visions of this act must, upon satisfactory proof of such refusal or neglect, have the State money to which it is otherwise entitled withheld from it by the superintendent of public instruction. The superintendent of State printing shall have the supervision of all mechanical work connected vrith the printing and publishing of such books as may be compiled and adopted by said text-book committee and approved by the State board of education ; and all such printing and binding shall be done in the State printing office. The sui)erintendent of State printing shall DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFOKNIA. 273 annuallj^ on the 1st day of July, and oftoner, if requested, siibinit to the said text-book committee a detailed statement showing the number and name of books of the State series published by him during each year. AVhenever any book authorized to be published under this act is ready for sale or delivery to pupils, the State i)rinter shall submit to the said St;ite text-book committee, and it in turn to the State hoard of edncaiion, an itemized statement showing the exact cost of the material, i)rinting, binding, and linishing of such book in editions of 5,000 or more, and the State board of education shall there¬ upon determine and fix the i>rice of such book, as ren the State treasurer are paid. The sum of .$20,0(.K) is hereby ai)propriated, out of any money in the State treasury not otherwise approi)riated, for the purpose of carrying out the provi¬ sions of this act. Said appropriation, which shall be known as the “ text-book appropriation,” shall be subject to the drafts of the said text-book committee for all the expenses incurred by it, except the salary of the secretary, which is other¬ wise provided for in this act: Provided, That all claims shall be presented to the State hoard of examiners for their approval ; said appropriation shall be subject to the drafts of the said committee for all moneys needed for the pay¬ ment of royalties, for the purchase or hire of such plates, mai)s, or engravings that may be necessary but which can not be arranged to be paid for as provided in subdivision seventh hereof, for expert opinions as provided for in subdivi¬ sion 9 of this act, for printing, stationery, postage, and expressage that will be required by said committee, and for manufacturing any edition of any book of the State series now in use or which may hereafter be adopted for use in the primary and grammar sclnaols. It is provided that all moneys that have been received or that may hereafter be received from the sales of State series of school text-books, except that which is received in payment of royalties and pro¬ vided in this act to be deposited to the credit of the text-book royalty fund, shall be kept by the State treasurer as a separate and distinct fund, to be known as the “ State school-book fund,” which fund shall be subject to the drafts of the said text-book committee for all expenses incurred by the superin¬ tendent of State printing for all material, la'nor, and other expenses necessary in the mechanical work of printing and publishing State school text-books; all claims to be drawn after being certified to by the superintendent of State print¬ ing, as provided in subdivision 4 of section 52G of the Political Code : Provided, That all demands on the State school-book fund shall be presented to the State board of examiners in itemized form for their appi-oval ; and upon the approval of the State board of examiners, the State controller is hereby authorized and directed to draw his warrant, and the State treasurer is hereby authorized and directed to pay the same, in conformity with the provision of this section. Before selecting any text-book matter to be used in the compilation or revi¬ sion of a State school text-hook, the said committee may, subject to the approval of the State board of education, secure one or more educational experts to exam¬ ine and give their opinions on the merits of any l>ook or books or parts of a book that may be taken under consideration, and the claims for payment of such ex¬ pert service shall be paid in like manner as other claims are paid out of the State text-book appropriation : Provided, That the expense of such expert ex¬ amination and opinion shall not exceed the sum of .^200 for any one book that may be adopted and published as a book of the State series. Buildings. — The board of trustees of any school district may, when in their judgment it is advisable and on petition of the majority of the heads of fam¬ ilies, call an election concerning the issuance of bonds for the puiqx)se of pro¬ viding one or more schoolhouses. The clerk of each district must, under the direction of the board of trustees, provide all school supplies authorized hy law. ED 1904 M - 18 274 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. keep the schoolhoiise in repair during the time school is taught, and exercise a general care and supervision over the school premises and school property dur¬ ing the vacations of the schools. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent or special). — The proceeds of all lands that have been or may be granted by the United States to this State for the support of common schools which may be ^or may have been sold or disposed of, and the 500,0(X) acres of land granted to tlie nevy States under an act of Congress distributing the proceeds of the public lands among the several States of the Union, ap¬ proved A. D, 1841, and all estates of deceased persons who may have died with¬ out leaving a will or heir, and also such per cent as may be granted or may have been granted by Congress on the sale of lands in this State, shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with ail the rents of the unsold lands and such other means as the legislature may provide, shall be inviolably appropriated to the support of common schools throughout the State. The public school system shall include primary and grammar schools and such high schools, evening schools, normal schools, and technical schools as may be established by the legislature or by municipal or district authority ; but the entire revenue derived from the State school fund and the State school ta^: shall be applied exclusively to the support of primary and grammar schools. Taxation.— The county superintendent of each county having a population of fewer than 340,000 must, on or before the first regular meeting of the board of supervisors, hand in an estimate of the minimum amount of county school fund needed during the year. This amount he must compute as follows : He must calculate 1 teacher for every 70 school census children or fraction thereof not smaller than 20, and then he must calculate the amount required to be raised at ^500 per teacher. From this amount he must deduct the total amount of State apportionment and the remainder shall be the minimum amount of county school fund needed for the ensuing year: Provided, That if this amount is less than sufficient to raise a sum equal to $0 for each census child in the county, then the minimum amount shall be such a sum as will be equal to $0 for each census child in the county. The board of supervisors of each county having fewer than 340,000 inhabit¬ ants must annually levy a tax to be known as the county school tax, the maxi¬ mum rate of which must not exceed 50 cents on each $100 of taxable property in tbe county nor the minimum rate be less than sufficient to raise a minimum amount reported by the county superintendent. The minimum rate must be determined as follows : The supervisors must deduct 15 per cent from the equalized value of the last general assessment roll, and the amount required to be raised, divided by tb.e remainder of the assessment roil, is the rate to be levied ; but if any fraction of a cent occur, it must be taken as a full cent on each $100. If the county supervisors fail to levy the tax the auditor must, and all money derived from this tax must be paid into the county treasury to the credit of the school fund. All State school moneys apportioned by the superintendent of public instruc¬ tion must be apportioned to the several counties in proportion to the number of school census children, as shown by the returns of the school census marshals of the preceding school year : Provided, That Indian children whose parents are on Government reservations, or are living in the tribal relation, and Mongo¬ lian children not native born, shall not be included in the apportionment list. The superintendent of schools in each county must apportion all State and county school moneys as follows : lie must ascertain the number of teachers each district is entitled to by calculating 1 teacher for every 70 school census children, or fraction of such number not less than 20 school census children, as siiown by the next preceding school census ; and in cities or districts wherein separate classes are established for the instruction of the deaf, as provided in section 1618 of this code, an addi¬ tional teacher for each 9 deaf children, or fraction of such number not less than five, actually attending such classes ; Provided, That all children in any asylum and not attending the public schools of whom the authorities of said asylum are the guardians shall not be included in making the estimate of the number of teachers to which the district in which the asylum is located is entitled. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CALIFOKNIA. 275 He must aseertuin tlie total number of teachers for the county by adding to¬ gether the number of teachers assigned to the several districts. Five hundred dollars shall be apportioned to each district for every teacher assigned to it : Provided, That to districts having 10 and less than 20 school census children shall be apportioned $-100: Provided further. That to districts having over 70 school census children, and a fraction of less than 20, there shall be apportionetl $20 for each census child in said fraction. All school money remaining on b.and after apportioning to the districts the moneys provided for in subdiA'ision three of this section must be apportioned to the several districts in proportion to the average daily attendance in each dis¬ trict during the preceding school year. Census children, wherever mentioned in this chapter, shall be construed to mean those between the ages of 5 and 17 years. Whenever in any school year, prior to the receipt by the counties, cities, or cities and counties of this State, of their State, county, or city school fund, the school districts or cities shall not have suificient money to their credit to pay the lawful demands against them, the county, city, or city and county superin¬ tendent shall give the treasurer of said county, city, or city and county an esti- mat(? of the amount of school money that will next be paid into the county, city, or city and county treasury, stating the amount to be apportioned to each dis¬ trict, Upon the receipt of such estimate, it shall be the duty of the treasurer of said county, city, or city and county to transfer from any fund not immediately needed to pay claims against it, to the proper school fund, an amount not to exceed 90 per cent of the amount estimated by the superintendent, and he shall immediately notify the superintendent of the amount so transferred. The funds so transferred to the school fund shall be retransferred by the treasurer to the fund from which they were taken from the first money paid into the school fund after the transfer. No school district, except one newly formed, is entitled to receive any appor¬ tionment of State or county school moneys which has not maintained a public school for at least six months during the next preceding school year. A dis¬ trict vrhich is prevented by fire, flood, or prevailing epidemic from maintaining a school for the length of time designated in this section is nevertheless entitled to its apportionment of State and county school moneys. No school district is entitled to receive any apportionment of State or county school moneys unless the teachers employed in the schools of such district hold legal certificates of fitness for teaching in full force and effect. The State school fund must be used for no other purpose than the payment of the salaries of teachers of primary and grammar schools. The board of school trustees of any district may, prior to the 15th day of August in any year, when in their judgment it is advisable, call an election and submit to the electoi*s of the district the question whether a tax shall be raised to furnish additional school facilities for the district, or to maintain any school in such district, or for building one or more schoolhouses, or for any two or all of these purposes: Provided, where a tax has been collected for the purpose of building a schoolhouse, and the erection of such schoolhouse shall not have been commenced within two years from the time said tax was collected, the custodian of said money shall return the same to the parties from whom said tax was collected. The board of supervisors must, at the time of levying county taxes, levy the tax voted by the district ; but the amount of tax levied by a dis¬ trict in any one year for building purposes must not exceed 75 cents on each $100, and the maximum rate levied for other school purposes must not exceed 30 cents on each $100 for any one year. State high school fund. — There is hereby levied annually for the fifty-fifth and fifty-sixth fiscal years, ending respectively June 30, 1904, and Juno 30. 1905, an ad valorem tax of 11 cents upon every hundi*ed dollars of the value of the taxable property of the State, which tax shall be c-ollected by the several officers charged with the collection of State taxes, in the same manner and at the same time as other State taxes are collected, upon all and any class of prop¬ erty, which tax is for the support of regularly establisheci high schools of the State. And it is further enacted that, beginning with the fifty-seventh fiscal year, to wit, July 1, 1906, it shall be the duty of the State controller, annually, between the 10th day of Au.gust and the 1st day of September, at the time that ‘ he is required to estimate the amount necessary for other school taxes, to esti¬ mate the amount necessary to be levied for the support of high schools. This amount he shall estimate by determining the amount required at $15 per pupil in average daily attendance in all the duly established high schools of the State 276 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. for the last preceding school year, as certified to him by the State superintendent of public instruction. This amount the State controller, between the dates above given, must certify to the State board of equalization. The money in said State high school fund shall be apportioned to the high schools of the State by the State superintendent of public instruction in the following manner : He shall apportion one-third of the annual amount among the county, district, city, union, or joint union high schools of the State, irre¬ spective of the number of pupils enrolled or in average daily attendance ‘therein, except as hereinafter provided ; the remaining two-thirds of the annual amount he shall apportion among such schools pro rata upon the basis of average daily attendance as shown by the official reports of the county or city and county school superintendents for the last preceding school year : Frovkled, That such high schools have been organized under the law of the State, or have been recognized as existing under the high school laws of the State and have main¬ tained the grade of instruction required by law of the high schools : And pro¬ vided, That no school shall be eligible to a share of said State high school fund that has not during the last preceding school year employed at least two regu¬ larly certificated high school teachers for a, period of not less than one hundred and eighty days with not less than 20 pupils in average daily attendance-’ for such length of time, except in newly established high schools wherein the mini¬ mum average daily attendance for the first year of one hundred and eighty days may be but 12 pupils and but 1 teacher: And provided, That before receiving State aid each school shall furnish satisfactory evidence to the superintendent of public instruction of the possession of a reasonably good equipment of build¬ ing, laboratory, and library, and of having maintained, the preceding school year, proper high school instruction for a term of at least one hundred and eighty days : Provided further. That the foregoing provisions relating to the average daily attendance and the number of teachers employed shall not oper¬ ate to disqualify any legally established high school existing at the date of the passage of this act from receiving a share of said State high school fund until July 1, 1904. COLORADO. 1. Okganizatiox of the System. State hoard of education — State hoard of examiners — State superintendent— County superintendent — District hoard — Truant officers. State hoard of education. — The superintendent of public instruction, the secretary of state, and the attorney-general shall constitute the State board of education, of which the superintendent of public instruction shall be presi¬ dent. The board shall have power to adopt any rules and regulations not inconsistent with la^v for its own government and for the government of public schools. It may grant State diplomas and issue normal institute cer¬ tificates. (See Teachers — Qualifications.) State hoard of examiners. — (See Teachers— Appointment, qualifications, and duties. ) State superintendent. — There shall be elected every two years'a State superin¬ tendent of public instruction, whose salary shall be $3,000 a year, and who shall give bond in the sum of $5,000 v/ith sureties. He shall have an office at the seat of government, where he shall keep the records of his office. He shall decide all points touching the construction of the school law, prepare lists of questions for the use of county superintendents at examinations of teachers, have general supervision of all the county superintendents and of the public schools of the .State, prepare and distribute all necessary blanks and blank books, to be charged to the counties at cost ; report to the governor concerning the condition of the public schools, the amount of the State school fund appor¬ tioned and sources front which derived, with such suggestions and recom¬ mendations relating to the affairs of his office as he may think proper to com¬ municate. He shall visit annually such counties as most need his personal ■attendance, and all counties, if practicable; he shall deliver educational addresses, and shall open a correspondence to enable him to obtain all necessary information relating to the system of public schools in other States. For traveling expenses he shall receive not more than $500, and the incidental expenses of his office shall be paid in the same manner as are those of other DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - COLORADO. 277 state officers. lie sliall apportion tlie school fund, and may employ an assist¬ ant librarian, who shall have charjre of the State lihi-ary. He shall he presi¬ dent of the State hoard of education and of the State board (ffi examiners and a member of the State land beard. County superintendent. — There shall he elected in each comity biennially a comity siiperintcndent of jiiiblic schools, who shall execute a bond in the sum of $2,000, to he increased at discretion, with two sureties. He shall examine teachers, apixirtion the ixeneral school fund amoni; the districts, super¬ vise the schools of his county, visit each school at least once during the quarter to examine the accounts of district officers, and make a report to the State superintendent contaiiiinj? the abstracts of the reports made to him by the dis¬ trict secretaries, and all such other matters as tlie State superintendent may direc't. The county su])eriiitendent may ajipoint a deputy, who shall receive no compensation from public funds. He also shall appoint directors in districts failing to elect them. He shall record the boundaries of districts. He shall hear appeals from district school boards and of teachers or electors of districts. The salaries of county superintendents shall he fixed according to the classifi¬ cation of the various counties, and mileage for distances necessarily traveled may be allowed him to the amount of $800 per year. He shall be provided with a suitable office at the county seat, as also with all the office incidentals. District hoard. — All school districts which shall continue to exercise undis- putedly the prerogatives and enjoy the privileges of a district for the period of one year next succeeding the election of its officers shall be deemed to be a legally formed district. For the purpose of organizing a new district out of a i>ortion of one or more old districts the parents of at least 10 children of school age residing within the limits of the proposed district shall petition the county superintendent in writing, who may call an election to determine the question. There shall be elected in each school district annually a board of directors. The number of persons that shall constitute each board of directors shall be determined as follows : Districts containing a population of more than 1,000 shall be denominated districts of the first class ; districts containing a popula¬ tion of from 350 to 1,000 shall be denominated districts of the second class, and districts containing a population of less than 350 shall be denominated dis¬ tricts of the third class ; and districts of the first class shall annually elect one director for five years, while districts of the second and third classes shall annu¬ ally elec-t one person to serve for three years as a member of the board ; one member of the board of districts of the second and third classes shall be elected as president, one as secretary, and one as treasurer. District boards in first class districts shall fill vacancies until the next annual election. Each school board shall have power to employ or discharge teachers, mechan¬ ics, or laborers, and to fix their salaries : fix the compensation to be allowed the secretary ; enforce the general regulations of the State superintendent ; fix the course of study, the exercises, and the kind of text-books to lie used ; pro¬ vide for school furniture and for everything needed in the schoolhouses or for its own use; rent, repair, and insure schoolhouses, and, when directed by the dis¬ trict, build or remove schoolhouses or purchase or sell school lots. The board may suspend or expel pupils from school ; sha.ll determine the' number of teach¬ ers to be employed and the length of time over and above three months that the schools shall be taught ; provide books for indigent children on the written statement of the teachers that the parents of such children are not able to pur¬ chase them, and shall furnish free text-books for all pupils when direeded to do so by a majority vote of the electors of the district ; make an annual rejwrt to the county superintendent upon the forms furnished by the superintendent ; make a report to the State superintendent when instructed to do so. They shall purchase and display upon the schools the national flag. The district board of any district of the third class may call a special meet¬ ing of the electors, who shall decide as to the location of a schoolhouse, lay a tax to pay teachers, purchase or lease suitable gi-ounds and buildings for school purposes and furnish and repair the same and i)rovide incidentals, procure li¬ braries, books, and stationery for the board, etc., and direct the sale or other disposition of school property. The secretary of the board of school directors shall give bond, with sureties, and shall annually cause to be taken a census of all persons over 0 and under 21, and shall cause reasonable effort to be made I’especting the numher of blind and deaf persons 4 to 22. He shall make a report to the county superintendent containing the following facts ; The number of j^ersons, male and female, in 278 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. bis district beDA^een the* ages of 6 and 21 ; number of schools, the branches taught, and the number of pupils in each ; number of teachers employed and the compensation of each per month ; number of days the school was taught during the year ; number of pupils enrolled during the year and the average daily at¬ tendance ; average cost of each school a month for each pupil based upon the total enrollment, and also the average cost based upon the average daily at¬ tendance (in estimating these averages the secretary shall take account of the teachers’ wages, all current expenses, and G per cent intel-est upon a fair val¬ uation of all property belonging to the district) ; kind of text-books used; num¬ ber of volumes in the library of each school ; aggregate amount paid teachers during the year and the average monthly pay ; number of public schoolhouses, and their value ; amount raised by tax in the district during the year for school library ; amount raised by subscription or by other means than tax ; amount of special tax levied for the support of schools and for buildings, sites, and furniture ; amount of money on hand at the beginning of the year last past and the amount received from all other sources. Should the secretary fail to make this report he shall forfeit the sum of SlOO and be responsible for the loss occasioned by his negligence. In districts of the first class the secretary may, and the treasurer shall not, be a member of the board. In districts of the sec¬ ond and third classes both are elected as members of the board. Truant officers. — (See Schools — Attendance.) 2. Teachees. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Institutes. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No district board shall employ any person to teach in any of the public schools unless such person shall have a license to teach in full force at the time of employment. The State board of education is hereby authorized to grant State diplomas to such teachers as may be found to possess the requisite schohirship and culture and who may exhibit satisfactory evidence of a moral character and whose eminent professional ability has been established by not less than two years’ successful teaching in the public schools of the State. Such diplomas shall supersede the necessity for any and all other examinations by persons holding, the same, whether county, city, or local, and shall be valid anywhere in th€’ State. They shall be granted upon public examination upon such branches and terms and by such examiners as the State superintendent, the president of the State university, the president of the State agricultural college, and the presi¬ dent of the State school of mines may prescribe: Provided, That the State board of education may, upon the recommendation of the State board of exam¬ iners, grant State diplomas without examination to persons who, in addition to good moral character and scholarly attainments, have rendered eminent serv¬ ices in educational work in the State for a period of not less than six years. The county superintendent shall meet all persons desirous of passing an examination as teachers in some suitable room at the county seat, where he shall examine all applicants in orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, the history of the United States, civil government, physiology, laws of health, the elements of the natural sciences, theory and practice of teaching, and the school law of the State. He may appoint a deputy at ?5 a day to examine persons to whom it would be a hardship to attend at the county seat. If the applicant is to teach in a school of high grade, the examinations shall extend to such additional branches of study as are to be pursued in such school. The certificates shall be of three grades. The first grade shall be valid for three years, the second for eighteen months, the third for nine months. A county superintendent may renew a certificate of the first grade by indorsing such renewal thereon. It shall be deemed a violation of law to grant a certificate of either of the above-named grades without requir¬ ing the applicant to pass a thorough and satisfactory examination in the branches required by law and upon questions prepared by the State superin¬ tendent, but failure in the elements of the natural sciences shall not prevent the issuance of a third-grade certificate. A certificate of like grade may be issued by the county superintendent upon a first-grade certificate issued in another county. In school districts of the first class the examination of teachers to fill vacan¬ cies may be conducted by the school boards of such districts, and a teacher thus examined and while thus employed shall not be required to hold a certificate DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - COLORADO. 279 from the county superintendent. In case a certificate is revoked or refused, an appeal may be made to the State board. The teacher shall, at the close of every term (four months at longest), fill in the vStatistical summary in the register, and in ungraded schools hie the register with the secretary of the district ; but in graded schools the register aforesaid shall be filed with the principal or superintendent of the district, in which case the principal or superintendent shall make an abstract of the summaries of all such registers upon blanks prepared by the State superintendent and file the same with the secretary. The teacher, principal, or siiiierintendent who is in charge of the last term of school shall file with the secretary a summary of the statistics for the year; and until these registers, summaries, and abstracts have been filed it shall be unlawful for the officers of any district to draw ji warrant for the last month's salary of any teacher, principal, or superinfendent whose duty it is to make out such statements. Preliminary training. — The purpose of the State normal school shall be to impart instruction in the science and art of teaching, with the aid of a suitable practice department, and in such branches of knowledge as shall qualify teachers for their profession. The school shall be under the control of a board of six trustees (appointed with the concurrence of the senate, two to retire annually) and the State superintendent. The normal school is an integral part of the public school system and shall stand upon the same basis as to apportionment of State school funds as union high schools, and shall be subject to the super¬ vision of the State board of education, under which the board of trustees shall exercise their control. The school shall be open to all persons resident in this State who are 16 years of age, without charge for tuition. The school is author¬ ized to grant diplomas to such students as shall have completed the full course of instruction, shall have been recommended by the facultjg and shall have passed a final examination uiwn the branches embraced in the prescribed course before a board consisting of the State superintendent of schools, a county super¬ intendent, and the principal of the school. This diploma licenses the receiver to teach in any of the public schools of the State. The trustees shall receive $5 per diem and traveling expenses, and shall report annually to the State board concerning the attendance, the curriculum, and the finances of the school. Institutes. — The State is divided for the present into 13 normal institute dis¬ tricts. xV normal institute for the instruction of teachers and those desiring to teach may be held annually for a term of not less than two weeks in each normal institute district. The county superintendents of each institute district shall annually select not more than three of their number as an executive committee, who, with the advice and consent of the State superintendent and the president of the State normal school, shall determine the time and place of holding the normal institute, and shall select a conductor and instructor for the same. To defray the expense of such institute the executive committee shall require the payment of $1 registration fee for each person attending, and each county super¬ intendent shall add 5 per cent to the standing in examination of teachers who shall so attend, xi fee of §1 shall be paid for each applicant at a county teachers’ examination, or for each renewal or indorsement of a teacher’s certifi¬ cate, and shall be sent to the State superintendent, who shail once a year appor¬ tion equally among the 13 normal institute districts all moneys thus forwarded. AYhen a normal institute of not fewer than two weeks is held the number and names of the persons in attendance shall be certified to the county commission¬ ers, who shall allow .$2 for every person certified, and there shall be paid the sum of $50 to institutes having at least 20 persons in attendance who have paid registration fees. No one shall be paid from the fund arising from fees and county appropria¬ tions as conductors or instructors unless holding a certificate of qualification for such vrork from the State board of education on recommendation of the State board of examiners, provided that a member of the State normal school faculty shall be ex ofiicio a conductor of norma] institutes. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — Every public school, except high schools, shall be open for the admission of all children from 6 to 21 years of age residing in the district for at least four school months in each year. xV school day shall not exceed six hours. 280 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Every parent or guardian of a child between 8 and 14 years of age shall send such child to a public, private, or parochial school for not less than twenty weeks each year, not less than ten of which shall be consecutive ; but if two physicians residing within the district shall certify that the child’s bodily or mental condition does not admit of its attendance at school, he shall be exempted during such period of disability ; or if in the opinion of the county superintend¬ ent he is being instructed at home by a qualilied person, he shall not be required to attend school. No child under 14 years shall be employed by any person or cori)oration during the school term unless the parent or guardian has fully complied with the fore¬ going provisions. Anyone emi)loying a child contrary to the law shall be fined not less than ^25 nor more than Every minor between 14 and IG shall attend school one-half of each day, or receive private instruction, until he obtains a certificate from the county super¬ intendent that he can read at sight and write legibly. Every employer shall exact the school attendance or instruction herein required as a condition of employment, under penalty of ^25 to JflOO fine. School boards in first and second class districts must appoint one or more truant officers and fix their compensation. Tlie truant officer has police power, and must examine into any case of truancy within his district, and shall notify the parent or guardian of the truant child and request that the child be required to attend some school within five days ; upon failure of ])arent or guardian to comply, the truant officer sliall make complaint against such parent or guardian in the county court, who upon conviction shall be fined not less than $5 nor more than $20, and upon failure to pay such fine may be imprisoned from ten to thirty days. That upon the trial of any offense as charged herein, before any court of com¬ petent jurisdiction, it shall be determined that such prosecution was malicious, then the costs in such shall be adjudged against the complainant and collected as fines in other cases. Two weeks’ attendance at half time or night school shall be considered within the meaning of this article equivalent to an attendance of one week at a day school. Character of instruction. — The public scliools shall be taught in the English language, and the school boards shall have taught in such schools orthography, history, and Constitution of the United States, physiology, laws of health, the elements of the natural sciences, the effect of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and such other branches of learning and other languages as may be deemed expedi¬ ent. On the demand of the parents or guardians of 20 or more children of school age, the board of directors may procure efficient instructors and introduce the Oerman or Spanish language as a medium of instruction. The school board of districts of the first and second classes shall have the power to establish a separate high school whenever they shall deem it expedient, and shall determine the qualifications for admission to such school, and shall exercise all the powers with reference to such high school which are accorded to them in relation to schools of the lower grade. Two or more adjoining districts may elect a high-school committee and establish and maintain a high school. Kindergartens may be established by the school boards of any district for chil¬ dren 3 to G, but this shall not change the law as to the taking of the school cen¬ sus or the apportionment of State and county school funds. Text-hooks. — The district school board shall determine the kind of text-books to be used, provided that only one kind of text-book of the same grade or branch of study shall be used in the same department of a school, and that after the adoption of any book it shall not be changed in four years unless the price thereof shall be unwarrantably advanced or the mechanical quality lowered or the supply stopped. The board sh:ill also provide books for indigent children on the written statement of the teachers that the parents of such children are not able to purchase them, and shall furnish free text-books for the use of all pupils when authorized to do so by a majority vote of the district. The board shall also require that pupils be furnished with proper books as a condition of mem¬ bership in school. Buildings. — The property of the school district is under the control of the dis¬ trict school board, which may acquire or sell the same when directed by a vote of the district to do so. The national flag shall be displayed upon each school- house. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - COLOKADO. 281 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — State tax — County tax — District tax. Funds {permanent or special). — The public school fund of the State shall con¬ sist of the i)roceeds of such lauds as have heretofore been or may hereafter be granted to the State by the General Governmeiit for educational purposes ; all estates that may escheat to the State; also all other grants, gifts, or devises that may be made to this State for educational purposes. The public school fund of the State shall forever remain inviolate and intact. The interest thereon only shall bo exi)ended in the maintenance of the schools of the State, and shall be distributed among the several counties and school dis¬ tricts of the State in such manner as may be prescribed by law. No part of this fund, principal or interest, shall ever be transferred to any other fund or used or appropriated except as herein provided. The State treasurer shall be the cus¬ todian of this fund, and the same shall be securely and prolitably invested as may be by law directed. The State shall make good all losses thereof that may in any manner occur. The State superintendent shall semiannually apiiortion the public school in¬ come fund among the several counties of the State from which reports have been received, according to the school population. All fines, penalties, and forfeitures provided l)y school laws may be recovered by action of debt, in the name of the people of the State of Colorado, for the use of the proper school district or county, and shall, when they accrue, belong to the respective districts or counties in which the same may have been in¬ curred ; and the county treasurers, for their counties, are hereby authorized to receive and cause to be placed to the proper credit such forfeitures. Except as otherwise provided by law, all sums of money derived from fines imposed for violation of orders of injunction, mandamus, and other like writs, or for contempt of court, shall be paid into the school fund of the county wherein the contempt or such violation was committed ; and the clear proceeds of all fines collected within the several counties of the State for breach of the penal laws, and all funds arising from the sale of lost goods and estrays shall be paid over in cash by the person collecting the same, within twenty days after the collec¬ tion, to the county treasurer of the county in which the same have accrued, and shall be by him credited to the general county school fund. (For the distri¬ bution of the county fund, see Taxation, below.) State tax. — There shall be assessed and levied annually upon all the taxable property in the State taxes for the support and maintenance of certain State educational institutions, as follows ; Two-fifths of 1 mill on ea,ch dollar of the assessed valuation of the taxable property of the State for the use of the State University, to be known as the State University fund; one-sixth of 1 mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of the taxable projierty of the State for the use of the agricultural college, to be known as the agricultural college fund ; one-sixth of 1 mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of the taxable prop¬ erty of the State for the use of the State school of mines, to be known as the school of mines fund; one-sixth of 1 mill on each dollar of the assessed valua¬ tion of the taxable property of the State for the use of the State normal school, to be known as the normal school fund ; one-sixth of 1 mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of the taxable property of the State for the use of the insti¬ tute for the mute and l)lind, to be known as the mute and blind fund. Such taxes shall be levied and collected at the same time and in the same manner provided by law for assessments and collection of other State taxes. County tax. — The county commissioners shall, at the time of levying the tax for county purposes, cause to be levied a tax for the supjiort of schools within the county of not less than 2 mills on the dollar of the assessed value of all tax¬ able property, real and iiersoiial, within the county, which tax shall be collected by the county treasurer at the same time and in the same manner as State and county taxes are collected, except that it shall be receivable only in cash. It is hereby made the duty of the county superintendent of schools to certify to the board of county commissioners at this time the amount of money needed per capita to enable each school district in the county to maintain a public school four months in each year, as required by law. In making his estimate the county superintendent shall not take into consideration districts whose school population is less than 15, as shown by the school census preceding the time of making the levy. He shall use as a basis for making his estimate tlie sum of $40 per mouth for the teacher’s salary. All other expenses of the school must 282 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. be provided for by the board of directors by special tax. It is hereby made the duty of the county commissioners to increase the minimum rate of 2 mills to what shall be required for the purpose as stated above ; but if any school dis¬ trict shall fail to certify a special tax for other expenses of the district neces¬ sary to maintaining a public school each year four months, the county commis¬ sioners shall cause the same to be levied. The county superintendent shall apportion the funds aforesaid among the dis¬ tricts entitled to the same according to the number of persons of school age as shown by the census lists and reports of the several districts for the school year immediately preceding. District tax. — The district meeting of third-class districts may order a special tax. not to exceed 15 mills, such as the voters deem sufficient for any of the fol- lovring purposes : To pay teachers’ wages ; to hire or purchase property and keep the same in repair ; and in districts of the first and second classes a spe¬ cial tax without limit may be voted by the board of directors. On the petition of 20 legal voters of any scliool district, the question of issu¬ ing bonds for the purpose of erecting and furnishing school buildings or pur¬ chasing ground, or for funding floating debts, shall be submitted to the voters ; but in no case shall the aggregate bonded debt exceed per cent of the assessed value of the propert;^" of the district. CONNECTICUT. 1. OllGxiNIZATION OF THE SYSTEM. ^tate hoard of education — Secretarij of the hitate hoard — Ar/eyits of the State hoard — Town school visitors — Acting school visitor or superintendent — Dis¬ trict committee — Board of education — Town school committee — Town high school committee — Truant officers. State hoard of education. — There shall be a State board of education, com¬ posed of the governor, lieutenant-governor, its secretary, and four persons to be appointed by the general assembly for four years. Three members shall con- ^ stitute a quorum at the meetings of the board. The term of one member shall expire every year. Vacancies not filled by the general assembly shall be filled by the governor and lieutenant-governor for the unexpired term of office. The board shall have general supervision and control of the educational inter¬ ests of the State ; may direct what books shall be used in all its schools, but shall not direct any book to be changed oftener than once in five years ; shall prescribe the form of registers to be kept in said schools and the form of blanks and inquiries for the returns to be made by the various school boards and committees ; shall keep itself informed as to and ascertain the condition and progress of the public schools in the State, and shall seek to improve the meth¬ ods and promote the efficiency of teaching therein, by holding, at various con¬ venient places in the State, meetings of teachers and school officers, for the purpose of instructing in the best modes of administering, governing, and teach¬ ing public schools, and by such other means as they shall deem appropriate ; but the expenses incurred in such meetings shall not exceed the sum of $3,000 in any year. It shall, on or before the Monday after the first IVednesday in January in each year, submit to the governor a report containing a printed abstract of said returns, a detailed statement of the doings of the board, and an account of the condition of the public schools, cf the amount and quality of instruction therein, and such other information as will apprise the general assembly cf the true condition, progress, and needs of public education ; but not more than 6,000 copies of the report shall be printed. The board shall appoint a secretary and shall have the power to appoint agents to secure the due observance of the laws relating to the instruction of children, and to grant, upon public examination, a certificate to teach. It shall have power to expend the sums of money necessary to execute the powers conferred upon it, and shall semiannually file with the comptroller a certified account of all State monej’s received or disbursed by it. All orders for drawing State money shall be signed by the secretary and countersigned by a committee of the board. It shall maintain and have general superintendence of the normal schools. Secretary of the State hoard of education. — The State board of education shall DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CONNECTICUT. 283 appoint a secretary who shall, under its direction and control, perform such serv¬ ices in the execution of its duties and powers as the board may prescribe, and who shall be paid such salary as the board may determine. Tlie boai-d may also engage such clerks as are necessary to assist the secretary in performing his duties. Agent of the State hoard of education. — The board shall have power to appoint an agent to secure the due observance of the laws relating to the instruction of children, and such agent shall make written report of his work to the secretary semiannually. The State board of education may ai'point agents, under its supervision and control, for terms of not more than one year, who shall enforce the law regard¬ ing the employment of children under 13 years of age. These agents shall be paid not to exceed $5 per day for time actually employed and necessary expenses, and their accounts shall be approved by the board and audited by the comp¬ troller. The agents so appointed may be directed by the board to enforce the provisions of the law requiring the attendance of children in school and to per¬ form any duties necessaiy or proper for the due execution of the duties and powers of the board. School visitors of towns. — There shall be in every town a board of school visitors, composed of three, six, or nine members, as such town may determine, divided into three equal classes. The first class shall hold office until the next annual town meeting, the second class until the second annual town meeting, and the third class until the third annual town meeting following and until others are elected in their places: Provided, That when said board is composed of only three members they shall not be so divided into classes and shall be elected for three years. Should any vacancy occur, the remaining members of the board may fill it till the next annual town meeting, when all vacancies shall be filled in the manner prescribed in the succeeding section, and the ballots shall distinctly specify the vacancy to be filled. School visitors shall be chosen by ballot. If the number to be chosen be two, four, six, or eight, no person shall vote for more than half of such number. If the number to be chosen be three, no person shall vote for more than two ; if five, not more than three ; if seven, not more than four ; if nine, not more than five. That number of persons sufficient to fill the board who have the highest number of votes shall be elected. In case of a tie, that person whose name stands first or highest on the greatest number of ballots shall be elected. Each board of school visitors shall annually choose from themselves a chair¬ man and a secretary. They shall prescribe rules for the management, studios, classification, and discipline of the public schools, and, subject to the control of the State board of education, the text-books to be used ; shall, as a board, or by a committee by them appointed, examine all persons desiring to teach in the public schools, and give to those with whose moral character and ability to teach they are satisfied, if found qualified to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and grammar thoroughly, the influence of alcohol and narcotics upon the human system, and the rudiments of geography and history, and, if required by the bojR-d, of drawing, a certificate either authorizing the holder to teach in any district in the town so long as desired, without further examination, unless specially ordered, or to teach in any such district during the ensuing term only, or to teach only in a district therein named during such term ; and if a person is examined in and found qualified to teach other branches besides those required in all cases, such branches shall be named in his certificate. They shall revoke the certificates of such teachers as shall at any time be found incompetent to teach or to manage a school or fail to conform to the require¬ ments of the board; shall, if the town so direct, emi>loy the teachers for all its public schools, after consulting with the several district committees ; shall make proper rules for the arrangement, use, and safe-keeping of the district and high school libraries provided in part by the State, and approve the books selected therefor ; shall fill vacancies in district offices, fix sites and approve plans for sclioolhouses, and superintend any high or graded public school and evening schools. Town school committees shall annually appoint one -or more persons who shall, in October of each year, ascertain the name and age of every person over 4 and under 16 years of age who shall belong to such town on the first Monday of said month, and the place, year, and month when such person last attended school, together with the names of the parents, guardians, or employers of such person and return the same to the town school committee on or before the 20th of October. Unless these returns are duly made no money may be obtained by the school visitors from the State treasury. At the close of each 284 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. term the school visitors shall certify to the selectmen that each school had been kept in all respects according to la\Y, and shall submit a report to the town at its annual meeting, all reports and returns being duly sworn to or affirmed. Act'uig school visitor. — The board of school visitors shall annually assign the duty of visiting the schools of the town to one or more of their number. If only one is assigned, he shall be called the acting school visitor or superintendent, who shall visit such schools at least twice during each term, once within four weeks after the opening and again during the four weeks preceding the close, at which visits the schoolhouse and outbuildings, school register, and library shall be examined, and the studies, discipline, mode of teaching, and general con¬ dition of the school investigated. Half a day shall be spent in each school so \isited, unless he is otherwise directed by the board. He shall, one week at least before the annual town meeting, submit to the board a full written report of his proceedings, and of the condition of the several schools during the year preceding, with plans and suggestions for their improvement, which will be pre¬ sented to the tovm with the board’s report. Boards of education, town committees, and boards of school visitors may appoint a person, not one of their own number, to be acting school visitor or sui)eriiitendent of schools, who shall have all the powers, perform all the duties, and receive the pay prescribed by law for acting school visitors, and any town at its annual town meeting may iix the compensation of the acting school visitor or superintendent. No person shall be eligible for appointment who has not had at least five years’ successful experience as a teacher or superintendent or who does not hold a certificate of approval by the State board of education. The town school committee or board of school visitors or board of education of any town employing not more than 10 teachers may petition the State board of education, or such town may by vote request the State board of education, and the State board of education, when so petitioned or requested, is hereby author¬ ized to appoint an agent, who shall discharge the duties of superintendent. Any town for which a superintendent is appointed under the provisions of this sec¬ tion shall pay one-fourth of the salary of said superintendent and the State shall pay three-fourths. Acting school visitors shall each receive a day, or pro rata for a fraction of a day, for the time actually employed in the performance of their duties and such further comi)ensation as the town may fix at an annual meeting. District committee and hoard of edueation. — Each town shall have power to form, unite, alter, and dissolve and completely abolish school districts and parts of districts within its limits, but no new districts shall be formed having fewer than 40 persons 4 to 10 years of age. In the absence of any special ap])oiut- ment the committee of any school district shall be its ex officio agent. Every district shall be a body corporate and have power to erect schoolhouses and fur¬ nish them, to establish schools (if failing to do so the town is empowered to act), to establish and maintain a library, to employ teachers (except when the town directs its school visitors to perform that duty) and i)ay the wages of the teachers it employs, to levy taxes and borrow money for the forementioned pur- I'oses, to make all lawful agreements and regulations for education, and to elect its directors, as follows : Each school district shall choose, by ballot, at the annual meeting, a committee of not more than three persons, a clerk (who shall be sworn), and a treasurer and collector, who shall hold their respective offices for the period of one year and until others are chosen and qualified ; and any resident of the district so cliosen who shall refuse or neglect to perforin the duties of the office shall pay ^5 to said district. The members of the district committee shall be residents of the districts, but the other offices may be filled by any inhabitants of the town to which said district belongs. Any school district having by its enumeration not less than 200 children between 4 and 16 years of age may at any annual meeting, due notice being inserted in the call therefor, order that its committee shall consist of three per¬ sons chosen by ballot, divided into three classes holding office for one, two, and three years, and that annually thereafter one member shall be chosen by ballot to hold office for three years. Should any vacancy occur, the remaining mem¬ bers of the committee may fill it until the next annual district meeting, when all vacancies shall be filled. Whenever any district has appointed its com¬ mittee as herein i)rovided, such district may, at any special meeting called for the purpose, vote that it will no longer so appoint its committee, and thereupon the terms of office of all the members of its committee shall end at its next DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CONNECTICUT. 285 annual meeting, and thereafter its committee shall be appointed according to the provisions of the general hnv. In all elections of olficers of scliool districts a majority of the votes cast shall be required to elect unless otherwise expressly provided. School societies organized under the act of 1855, which are not coextensive with the towns in which thej’ are situated (i. e., are cities?) shall be and remain school districts of the town, but without the jurisdiction of its school visitors, except that each shall annually choose on the third Monday of Sepciiiher, instead of a district committee, a board of education consisting of six or nine persons, who shall be chosen by ballot, one-third to he chosen each year, to serve for three years and until others are elected in their places. That number of persons sutticient to till the hoard who have the highest number of votes shall be elected. Said board shall have all the powers and be subject to all the duties of district committees, and shall also have the general superintendence of the public schools in the district and the management of its property; shall lodge all bonds, leases, notes and other securities with the treasurer of s;iid district, unless the same have been intrusted to others by the grantors or the general assembly ; pay into the treasury of the district all moneys which they may receive for the su})ix)rt of schools ; determine the number and qualifica¬ tions of the scholars to he admitted into each school ; supply the requisite number of qualified teachers ; ascertain annually during the first two weeks of September the expense of maintaining the schools under their superintendence during the year ending the olst day of the previous August and report the same, with the amount of moneys received toward the payment thereof, to the dis¬ trict at a meting to be held on the third Monday of September in each year ; shall at the same time make a full reixirt of their doings and the condition of such schools and all important matters concerning the same, and shall perform all lawful acts required of them by the district or necessary to carry into effect the powers and duties herein defined. In general, shall possess all the povrers and be subject to all the duties granted and imiwsed on the school visitors of the town. Town school committee. — Any town may abolish all the school districts and parts of school districts within its limits and assume and maintain control of the public schools therein, subject to such requirements and restrictions as are or may be imposed by the general assembly, and for this purpose every such town shall constitute one school district, having all the powers and duties of a school district, with the exceptions hereinafter stated. All business relating to public schools in such towns shall be transacted at town meetings. It shall also be the duty of the selectmen to call a special meeting of the town for the purpose of electing by ballot a school committee of the number determined upon at a special meeting held for that purpose, or, if such town shall at such meeting ha.ve failed to fix such number, of the number of six, nine, or twelve, as said selectmen may determine. If the number of tlie committee to be elected shall he six or twelve, no per¬ son shall vote for more than half that number ; if the number shall be nine, no l?erson shall vote for more than f\ye; and the six, nine, or twelve persons, as the case may be, receiving at such election the highest number of votes shall be the school committee of said town for the respective terms as hereinafter provided. The members of such committee so elected shall divide themselves into three equal classes, holding office, respectively, until the second, third, and fourth subsequent annual town elections of said town, at which elections, and every annual election subsequent to the last thereof, two, three, or four mem¬ bers, as the case may be, shall be elected by ballot for a term of three years, in the manner prescribed for the election of school visitors. The school committee in such town shall have, in general, the powers and duties of district committees and boards of school visitors (q. v.). Town high school committee. — Any town may choose, by ballot, a committee of no more than 5 residents of the town, who shall have all such powers and duties in relation to public high schools as are by law imposed upon district committees in relation to district schools. The State board of education may examine any incorporated or endowed high school or academy in this State, and if it appears that said school or academy has a satisfactory high school course of study and sufficient equipment for high school instruction, said board shall approve said school or academy, and any town in which a high school or academy is not maintained shall pay the whole or a part of the tuition fee of scholars attending such schools or academy, and 286 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. Riicli to^YU shall be reimbursed therefor by the State [under the terms and con¬ ditions of said chapter 138]. Any town in which a high school is not maintained shail pay the reasonable and necessary cost of railway or other transportation of any child who resides with his parents or guardian in said town and who, witli the written consent of the school visitors or town school committee, attends a high school in another town : Provided, That such high school be approved by the State board of edu¬ cation. Such necessary and reasonable cost of railway or other transportation shall be paid annually by the town treasurer upon the order of the chairman of the board of school visitors or town school committee. Truant officers. — Every town and the mayor and aldermen of every city hav¬ ing truancy regulations shall annually appoint threp or more persons, who alone shall be authorized to pi'osecute for violations thereof. The selectmen of a town may appoint committees of school districts and janitors of school build¬ ings and other persons special truant officers. The police in the cities, and bailiffs, constables, sheriffs, etc., in their jurisdictions shail arrest all boys between 8 and IG years of age who habitually wander about the streets or pub¬ lic places during school time, and may stop any boy under 16 years of age during such hours and ascertain whether he be a truant from school, and, if he be, shail send him to such school. (See also under Organization — State board.) 2. Teacheks. Appointment and qualifications — D ut ies—P reliminarij training — Meetings. Appointment and qualifical ions. — (See under Organization — School visitors.) No person elected to the office of school visitor or town committee shall be employed as teacher within his town. No teacher of a public school shall be employed by school visitors, boards of education, district committees, town committees, or high school committees until he has received a certificate of approbation, signed by a majority of the board of school visitors, or by all the committee by them appointed;® nor shall any teacher be entitled to any wages, so far as the same are i)aid out of any public money appropriated to schools, unless he can produce such certificate, dated previous to the opening of his school. The teacher of every public school shall keep and fill out the school register provided by the State, in the manner and form required, and deliver it at the close of each term to the school visitors ; and no teacher shall be entitled to receive any pay unless such register shail have been so kept and filled out dur¬ ing the time for which any payment may be made. The State board of education shall maintain normal schools as seminaries for training teachers in the art of instructing and governing in the public schools of this State, and such sum as the State board of education may in each year deem necessary for their support, not exceeding in any year $80,000, shall be annually paid therefor from the treasury of the State on the order of said board. But the board shall not expend any money for any normal school here¬ after established until the town, city, or city school district in which it is located shall have agreed in writing with the board to furnish, and shall have furnished, schools in suitable and sufficient buildings in connection with the training department of the normal school. [The Iward maj" establish and main¬ tain “model schools” in which the pupils of the normal schools shall have an opportunity to practice modes of instruction and discipline.] The num!)er of pupils in each school shall be determined by the State board of education. Said board may make regulations governing tlie admission of candidates. To all pupils admitted to (any ?) normal school all its privileges, including tuition, shall be gratuitous ; no persons, however, shall be entitled to these privileges until they have filed with said board a written declaration that their object in securing admission to such school is to become qualified to teach in public schools, and that they intend to teach in the public schools of this State. The school visitors in each town shall annually, upon request, forward to said board the names of such persons as they can recommend as suitable persons in age, character, talents, and attainments to be received as pupils in said school. The State board of education shall expend the funds provided for the support of “ May be examined by (a) State board of education, (S) school visitors, (c) boards of education, and (d) town committee. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS — COHHECTICUT. 287 normal schools, appoint and remove their teachers, and make rules for their management; shall file semiannually with the comptroller, to he audited by him, a statement of the receipts and expenses on account of them, and shall annually make to the governor a report, for transmission to the general assembl}^ of their condition. Mectinos. — (See under Organization — State board of education.) . 3, Schools. Attendance — Character of insii ruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — All parents and those who have the care of children shall bring them up in some honest and lawful calling oT employment and instruct them or cause them to be instructed in reading, spelling, writing, English grammar, geog¬ raphy, and arithmetic ; and every parent or other person having control of any child over S and under 1(1 years of age whose physical or mental condition is not such as to render its instruction inexpedient or impracticable shall cause siK-h child to attend a public day school regularly during the hours and terms while the public schools in the district wherein such child resides are in session or to elsewhere receive thorough instruction during said hours and terms in studies taught in public schools. But children over 14 years of age shall not be subject to the requirements of this section while lawfully employed to labor at home or elsewhere. But this section shall not be construed to exempt any child who is enrolled as a member of a school from any rule concerning regularity of attend¬ ance which has been enacted by the town school committee, board of visitors, or board of education having control of school. Each week's failure on the part of any person to comply with the provisions of the preceding section shall be a distinct offense, punishable with a fine not exceeding .$.5. But said penalty shall not be incurred when It appears that the child is destitute of clothing suitable for attending school and the parent or per¬ son having control of such child is unable to provide such clothing, or its mental or physical condition is such as to render its instruction inexpedient or imprac¬ ticable. All offenses concerning the same child shall be charged in separate counts, joined in one complaint. When a complaint contains more than one count, the court may give sentence on one or more counts and suspend sentence on the remaining counts. If at the end of twelve weeks from the date of the sen¬ tence it shall appear that the child concerned has attended school regularly dur¬ ing that time, then judgment on such remaining counts shall not be executed. Attendance of children at a school other than public shall not be regarded as compliance with the provisions of the laws of the State requiring parents and other persons having control of children to cause them to attend school, unless the teachei-s or persons having control of such school shall keep a register of attendance in form and manner prescribed by the State- board of education for the public schools, which register shall at all times during school hours be open to the inspection of the secretaiT and agents of the State board of education, and shall make such reports and returns concerning the school under their charge to the secretary of the State board of education as are re(iuired from the school visitors concerning the public schools, except that no report concerning expenses shall be required ; and it shall be the dut:^^ of the secretary of the State board of education to furnish to the teachers or persons having charge of any school, on their request, such registers and blanks for returns as may be necessary for com¬ pliance with the provisions of this section. No child under 14 years of age shall be employed in any mechanical, mercan¬ tile, or manufacturing establishment. Any person acting for himself or as agent in any way whatever of any mechanical, mercantile, or njaiiufacturing estab¬ lishment who shall employ or authorize or permit to bo emi)loyed in such estab¬ lishment any child in violation of the preceding section shall be fined not more than $G(), and every week of such illegal employment shall be a distinct offense; Provided, That no person shall be punished under this section for the employment of any child when at the time of such employment the employer shall demand and thereafter during such employinent keep on file the certificate of anj- town clerk, or of the teacher of the school where such child last attended, stating that such child is more than 13 years of age, or a like certificate of the parent or guardian of such child in such cases only where there is no record of the child’s age in the office of the town clerk and such child has not attended school in this State. Any parent or guardian who shall sign any certificate that his child or 288 EDUGATION EEPOET, 1904. ward is more than 14 years of age when in fact such child or ward is under 14 years of age shall be fined not more than ,‘j500. No child under 14 years of age who has resided in the United States nine months shall be employed to labor unless such child shall have attended a day school in which instruction has been regularly and thoroughly given in the branches of education required in the public schools during at least twelve weeks or sixty full school days of the twelve months next preceding any month in which such child shall be so employed nor unless six weeks at least of this attendance have been consecutive. Any person who shall em*ploy a child con¬ trary to the provisions of this section shall be fined not more than $60. Whenever the school visitors, town school committee, or board of education of any town or district shall by vote decide that a child over 14 and under 16 years of age has not schooling sufficient to warrant his leaving school to be employed, and shall so notify the parent or guardian of said child in writing, the parent or guardian of said child shall cause him to attend school regularly during the days and hours that the public school in the district in which said parent or guardian resides is in session, and until the parent or guardian of said child has obtained from said board of school visitors, town school com¬ mittee, or board of education a leaving certificate stating that the education of said child is satisfactory to said visitors, town school committee, or board of education: Provided, That said parent or guardian shaJl not be required to cause his child to attend school after the child is 16 years of age. Each week’s failure on the part of a person to comply with the provisions of this section shall be a distinct offense, punishable with a fine not exceeding $5. No person over 14 and under 16 years of age who can not read and write shall be employed in any town where evening schools are established unless he can produce, every school month of twenty days, a certificate from the teacher of an evening school showing that he has attended such school twenty consecutive evenings in current school year and is a regular attendant. Any person who shall employ a child contrary to the provisions of this act shall be fined not more than $50. It shall be the duty of every parent or other person having control of a child under 14 years of age to furnish the employer of such child a certificate signed by the teacher, school visitor, or committee of the school which the child attended, showing that the child has attended school as required by the preced¬ ing section. The employer of any such child shall require such certificate, shall keep it at his place of business during the time the child is in his employment, and shall show the same when demanded, during the usual business hours, to any school visitor of the town where the child is employed, or to the secretary or agent of the State board of education. Said certificate shall be evidence that the child has attended school as the law requires. Any parent, or any person having control of a child, who, with intent to evade the provisions of this chapter, shall Tiiake any false statement concerning the age of such child, or the time such child has resided in the United States, or shall instruct such child to make any such false statement, sliall be fined not more than $7 or be imprisoned not more than thirty days. The school visitors in every town shall, once or more in every year, examine into the situation of the children employed in all its manufacturing establish¬ ments, and ascertain whether .‘ill the provisions of this chapter are duly ob¬ served, and report all violations thereof to one of the grand jurors of the town. The selectmen in every town shall inspect the conduct of the heads of fam¬ ilies, and if they find any who neglect the education of the children under their care may admonish them to attend to their duty ; and if they continue negligent, whereby the children grow rude, stubborn, and unruly, they shall, with the advice of a justice of the peace, take such children from those who have the charge of them and bind them out to some proper master or to some charitable institution or society incorporated in this State for the care and instruction of such children — males till 21 and females till 18 years of age — that they may be properly educated and brought up in some lawful calling. Each city and town may make regulations concerning habitual truants from school, and children between the ages of 7 and 16 years wandering about its streets or public places, having no lawful occupation, nor attending school, and growing up in ignorance, and such by-laws, also respecting such children, as shall conduce to their welfare and to public order, imposing suitable penalties, not exceeding $20 for any one breach thereof ; but no such town by-laws shall be valid until approved by the superior court in any county. Any boy arrested thrice for truancy, if not immediately returned to school, DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - CONNECTICUT. 28^ shall be taken before a jiulge of the criminal or j^olice court or any justice of the peace, and if it appear that the boy is idle, vicious, and truant, lie may be committed to a reformatory institution. Upon the reipiest of the parent or guardian of any girl between S and Id years of age a warrant may be issued for her arrest, and, the facts appearing against her, she may be sent to a reforma¬ tory institution for girls. Public schools shall be maintained for at least thirty-six weeks in every school district, and no town shall reireive any money from the State treasury for any district unless the school thei’oin has been kept during the time herein required, but no school need be maintained in any district in which the avm-age attendance of persons at the school in said district during the preceding year, ending the olst day of August, was less than eight; and said school shall be open to all children over 4 years of age in the respective districts, without dis¬ crimination on account of race or color. Character of itistruction. — In the public schools shall be taught, by teachers found duly qualified by tlie school visitors or other legally quaditied body, read¬ ing, spelling, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic, and such other studies, including training in manual arts and the principles of vocal and instrumental music, as may he prescril>ed by the board of school visitors. The duties of citizenship shall be taught in the inibiic scliools. The State board of education shall prepare and distribute to every school an outline of questions and suggestions relating to said subject, and said outline may be used in said schools. In addition to the schools required by law in every town, any town may establish and maintain schools of a higher gr.ide within its limits, and for such purpose purchase, recei’^e, hold, and convey any property, build and repair schoolhouses, lay taxes, and make contracts and adopt regulations for the man¬ agement of such schools. Any town or school district may establish and maintain a kindergarten school, which any child over 3 and under 7 years of age residing in such town or school district may attend. Every town and school district having 10,000 or more inhabitants shall estab¬ lish and maintain evening schools for the instruction of persons over 14 years of age in such branches as the proper school authorities of the town or district shall prescribe, and on petitioii of at least 20 persons over 14 years of age for instruction in any one study usually taught in a high school, which persons, in the opinion of the board of school visitors, town school committee, or board of education, are competent to pursue high school studies, said town or district shall provide for such instruction. Every town in which a school has been discontinued shall furnish, wdienever necessary, by transportation or otherwise, school accommodations so that every child over 7 and under 10 years of age can attend school. If any town refuses or neglects to furnish such accommodations, the parent or guardian of any child who is deprived of schooling, or any agent or officer whose duty it is to compel the observance of the laws concerning attendance at school, may, in writing, request a hearing by the town school committee, board of school visitors, or board of education, as the case may be, and said officers shall give such jierson a hearing within ten days after receipt of his written request therefor and shall make a finding within ten days after said hearing. Text-hooks. — Any town, at its annual meeting, may direct its school visitors, or board of education or town committee to purchase at the expense of said town the text-books and other school supplies used in the public schools of said town, and said text-l)ooks and supplies shall be loaned to the pupils of said pub¬ lic schools free of charge, subject to such rules and regulations as the school vis¬ itors or the board of education or town committee may prescribe. Buildings. — No district shall be entitled to receive an.y money from the State or town unless it has a schoolhouse and outbuildings satisfactory to the board of school visitors. No new schoolhouse sliall be built except according to a plan approved by the board of school visitors and by the building committee of such district, nor at an expense exceeding the sum which the district may appropriate therefor. The vote of two-thirds of those present and voting at a meeting of the district shall be necessary to fix or change the site of a schoolhouse; but if such two- thirds vote can not be obtained in favor of any site, the school visitors of any town adjoining the town or either of the towns in w’hich such district is, on ED 1904 M - 19 290 EDXJCATIOIN' EEPORT, 1904. application of the district, shall, after conferring with the school visitors of the town or towns in which such district is situated, fix the site and make return to the town clerk of the town in which such site is to be, and shall receive a rea¬ sonable compensation for their services from said district. Any school district may take land which has been fixed upon as a site, or addition to a site, of a schoolhouse for a public school, and which is necessary for such purposes and for necessary outbuildings and convenient accommoda¬ tions for its schools, upon paying to the owner just compensation. Any person willfully injuring a schoolhouse or its appurtenances shall be fined $20 or imprisoned ninety days, or both. Any person who shall enter a place of instruction with criminal intent shall be imprisoned not more than four years. No schoolhouse premises may be inclosed with barbed wire, nor, under penalty of from $25 to $100, display the fiag or emblem of any foreign nation. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxation. School fund of Connecticut. — The fund called the school fund shall remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which shall be inviolably appropriated to the sup¬ port and encouragement of the public or common schools throughout the State, and for the equal benefit of all the people J:hereof. The value and amount of the fund shall, as soon as practicable, be ascertained in such manner as the general assembly may prescribe, be published, and recorded in the comptroller’s office ; and no law shall ever be made authorizing said fund to be diverted to any other use than the encouragement and support of public or common schools among the several school societies as justice and equity shall require. (Constitution of Connecticut.) The income of the school fund which, after deducting ail expenses attending its management shall remain in the treasury on the 28th day of February in each year, and also $1.50 for every person between 4 and 16 years of age belong¬ ing to any school district, as ascertained from the last returns of the school vis¬ itors, shall annually, as soon as may be after said day, be divided and dis¬ tributed by the comptroller among the several towns in proportion to the number of persons in each between the ages of 4 and 15 years, as ascertained from said returns; and he shall transmit the amount distributed to each town to its treasurer on the application of its school visitors or of its school commit¬ tee, if such town constitute but one school district ; but no such money shall be transmitted to any town until the comptioller shall have received from its school visitors or committee a certificate signed by them or their chairman and secre¬ tary, and substantially in the following form ; We, the school visitors of the town of - , certify that the schools in said town have been kept for the period required by law during the year ending the 31st day of August last by teachers duly examined and approved, and have been visited according to law ; and that all moneys drawn froiii the public treas¬ ury by said town for said year appropria'ted to schooling have been faithfully applied and expended in paying for teachers’ wages, and for no other purpose whatever. Dated at - , this - day of - , A. D. - . School Visitors. To the COMPTSOLLER. Whenever it shall be found that the amount of income from the school fund is not sufficient to make a distribution of 75 cents for each enumerated child 4 to IG years of age, it shall be the duty of the comptroller, upon the written request of the commissioner of the school fund, to draw upon the treasurer to an amount sufficient to make good the deficiency in the income of the school fund to meet the distribution of not less than 75 cents per capita required by law. Town deposit f und. — The money received from the United States in pursuance of the act of Congress of 183G shall be or remain deposited with the several towns which have received or shall agree to receive it, on the terms hereinafter specified, in the proportion established by law ; and the treasurer shall deliver it to the agents of such towns as have not received it on receiving receipts therefor signed by such agents and a certified copy of the vote of the town to DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - DELAWARE. 291 receive its proportion of said money on the terms and conditions herein specified and appointing an agent to receive the same. The condition on which any town shall receive its share of the said money shall be that it shall keep the money as a deposit in trust for the State, and account for the same when called for ; and that until called for it shall appro¬ priate the entire income thereof aimually for the support of public schools therein. Taxation. — The school visitors and selectmen in each town shall meet as a joint board in .June annuallj' and prepare a statement of the estimated cost of maintaining the public schools in the town, and shall immediately notify the committees of the several school districts of the amounts so fixed. They, as a joint board, shall also report the same fact to the town in annual meeting, and in October shall fix the amounts necessary to pay the teachers, for fuel, and other incidental expenses of the schools in the town, and shall notify the dis¬ tricts of the several amounts so fixed. All taxes imposed by any school district shall be levied on the real estate situated therein and the ratable personal prop¬ erty of those persons who belong to said district at the time of laying such tax, and upon any manufacturing or mechanical business subject to taxation. This paragraph shall not apply to towns which have consolidated their school dis- ti'icts the estimates of school expenses of which are prepared by the town school committee and reported to the town meeting. Local school authorities of places maintaining evening schools shall certify to the comptroller the average number of evening scholars, and the comptroller shall draw his order on the State treasurer to the sum of $2.25 for each scholar certified, provided the school has had sessions and the authorities have reported progress and condition to the State board. Every town having a valuation of less than $500,000 may annually receive from the treasurer of the State upon the order of the comptroller a sum which will enable the town to annually expend for the support of public schools $25 for each child in average attendance, as determined by the attested school regis¬ ters for the school year ending July 14: Provided, That the said State grant shall be expended only for teachers’ wages. DEL A Vf ARE. 1. Okganization of the System. State hoard — County superintendent — County school commission — District school comm issioners. State hoard. — The general supervision and control of the free public schools of this State shall be vested in a State board of education, composed of the gov¬ ernor, secretary of state, president of Delaware College, State auditor, and the senior member of each county school commission — seven members in all. The governor shall be president and the auditor secretary. The board shall hold meetings quarterly, during the last week in September, December, March, and June, in the office of the auditor at Dover, and may hold special meetings at the call of the president or secretary. Whenever the board shall consider appeals or other matters concerning free schools for colored children, the president of the State College for Colored Students shall sit as a member of said State board instead of the president of Delaware College. Except the governor, secretary of state, and auditor, each member shall receive $5 per diem when in attendance upon meetings of the lx>ard, not to exceed $30 in any year. The board shall pre¬ pare questions for the examination of teachers, adopt a series of text-books for use throughout the State, and make contracts for rates at which the same shall be furnished to the different districts, and may make any changes in said list or compile a new list at any subsequent meeting if deemed advisable ; hear and determine finally all appeals from county school commissions, teachers, appli¬ cants for certificates, county superintendents, members of school committees, and boards of education ; issue a uniform series of blanks for the reports of teachers and other school officers, and require all records kept and returns made accord¬ ing to such forms. The board shall make a report to each general assembly, setting forth the work done and suggesting any alterations or amendments to school laws which they may deem advisable. 292 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. County superintendent. — The general superintendence of all free public schools in each county shall be vested in a county superintendent, appointed by the governor for a term of two years, at a salary of $1,200 a year. In addition to being a person of good moral character, he must have had at least twenty months’ experience as a teacher, must be a graduate of some reputable college or normal school, or else hold an unexpired certificate of the highest grade granted to teachers of the State, and must be a resident of the county for which appointed during his term of office. He shall not engage in any other profession or occupation during his term of office, nor shall any of the duties assigned him by law be performed by deputies. He shall advise with and assist teachers in all the free schools in his county, see that improved methods of instruction and discipline are introduced, create a general interest in and give a clearer knowledge to the people of his county about schools and school systems. To this end he shall visit each school in his county at least once a year, each visit to be of at least two hours’ duration ; attend at each stated meeting of the county school commission of his county, and at each stated meeting of the State board of education, and make such report concerning his work and the condition of the schools as the said commission or State board shall require ; execute all reasonable orders which the State board shall give him ; collect and report the school statistics of his county, and generally shall do all matters and things pro]^er and necessary for the interest and advancement of education in the free public schools of his county. In accord¬ ance with the directions of the State board, he shall compile examination papers, hold examinations, make and sign certificates for each successful applicant, and may countersign certificates issued by the other superintendents of the State. He shall hold annually a teacliers’ institute, which all teachers shall be required to attend. He shall devote his entire time to this work. (See also Teachers — Certificates.) The supervision of all the free public schools, including those for colored chil¬ dren, in each of the counties of this State, subject to the State board of educa¬ tion, shall be vested in a county school commission for each county. The said commission shall be composed of three members, no more than two of whom shall be of the same political party. They shall be appointed by the governor and hold office for three years, not more than two to be of the same political party. Each county school commission shall hold meetings quarterly, and special meetings may be held upon the call of any two members. The object of the com¬ mission shall be the investigation of the school system throughout the county of its jurisdiction, the methods of instruction and discipline employed in the schools, the performance of their several duties by the various school officers and teachers, and the condition of school property. To this end each commission shall have full authority to visit all the schools in its county, including incorpo- lated schools, and to observe and question the teachers concerning their methods of instruction and discipline, make all needed changes in school districts, and shall examine all reports, hear complaints, and ask and receive the assistance of the county superintendent. Each member of the commission shall receive $5 for each day’s attendance at its meetings, not to exceed $30 in any year, and shall be allowed mileage in visiting schools not to exceed $25 a year. District school commissioners. — Each district shall annually elect a school commissioner to serve for three years. The commissioners shall determine the site, lease or purchase the necessary ground, and l)iiild or procure a suitable house for the district, as near the center of the distiict as possible, and when built or procured it shall not be removed nor another procured without the direc¬ tion of the school voters at a stated meeting ; keep the schoolhouse in good repaiir, supply it with necessary furniture and fuel, and bring actions, if neces¬ sary, for aiiy injury to it ; provide a school for the district when and as long as tiieir funds will enable them, and employ teachers ; may make regulations for the government of the school, and by the^e provide for the expulsion of a scholar for obstinate misbehavior ; receive and collect all money belonging to, appropriated, or ror^olved to be raised for the district, and apply the same justly ; appoint collectors for the district, and take security by bond ; do all acts requi¬ site for effecting the premises, and acts of a majority shall be as effectual in all cases as if done by them all. The school committee shall also annually, at the stated meeting, exhibit a just account of their receipts and expenditures, and a report of all their proceedings, and must pay to their successors in office all money due from them. If for ten days they neglect to do this, they forfeit and must pay, additionally, at the rate of 5 per cent on the sum due. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - DELAWARE. 293 For these duties the committee may receive no emolument : hut for attendance before the auditor tliey may, on the settlement of their account, be allowed each U per day and 3 cents per mile of necessary traA'eling. 2. Teaciikks. Qualifications and duties — Insiituics — PreVuninanj training. Qualifications and duties. — It shall ho unlawful to employ any person to teach in the public schools unless he holds a certilicate good in the county where emploj’ed. The county superintendent shall examine, either orally or by iirinted or writ¬ ten tpiestions, or both, all persons who a])ply at such times and i)laces as he may appoint. Every api)licant of good character found ([ualilied to teach orthog¬ raphy, reading, writing, mental and written arithmetic, geograjihy, botany, draw¬ ing, pedagogy, history of the United States, Constitution of the United States and of Delaware, English grammar, physiology and hygiene (with special refer¬ ence to tlie effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics), riietoric, algebra, geometry, history of education, psychology, zoology, civics, Latin, and natural philosophy shall be recommended to the State l)oard for a professional certificate good for ten yeai*s. A first-grade certificate shall be issued by the superintendent to an applicant who shall have attained a grade of 00 in all the subjects in the fore¬ going list down to and including temperance physiology, which shall be good for five years. Those attaining an average of To in same subjects shall receive a second-grade certificate good for two years. If certificate be refused, appeal may be taken to the State board. At the end of the term every teacher shall make out a report as per blanks furnished by State board and send same to the county commission. Institutes. — Each county superintendent shall hold a teachers’ institute three daj^s each year, and every teacher of the county must attend. At these insti¬ tutes each superintendent shall give all the information in his power, as well as other instructions such as he may deem advisal)le, and shall cause a general interchange of views among teachers as to the wants of the schools. For paying the expenses of county institutes an annual appropriation of $150 shall be made from the school fund. Preliminary training. — To encourage persons to attend normal schools and pre¬ pare for the work of teaching, the State appropriates .$1,000 annually for each county, to be distributed among 12 successful applicants, each to i-eceive ,$12 per week, or $80 per year. They are exempt from examinations after graduating, but must bond themselves to teach two years in the State. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Tc,rt- books. Attendance. — The State board has designated several schools in each county, to be known as graded schools, to which pupils from single districts may go after having completed the sixth grade. The said graded schools receive from the State the sum of $15 for each such pupil per year. There are separate schools for colored persons. Character of instruction. — The studies required in the public schools are those in which teachers (which see) are examined for a second-grade certificate. All public schools receiving aid from the State shall give instruction in ifiiysiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics, instruction to be oral when the pupils can not read. Text-books. — The school commissioners or trustees of each school district in the State shall furnish the necessary text-books free for the use of iill the pupils enrolled in the free schools of the State in the manner hereinafter provided. The school commissioners or trustees shall order from the publisher or pub¬ lishers the books which have been adopted by the State board of education for use in the free schools of the State, at the net contract prices at which the pub¬ lishers have agreed to supply the same, as follows : ’There shall be a blank order book prepared by the State treasurer for the use of the school commission¬ ers, which shall contain duplicate order blanks, with a printed list of the books which have been adopted by the State board of education, and the net contract prices at which the publishers agree to furnish the same. 294 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Duplicate orders shall be filled out and signed by at least two of the school commissioners, or in case of united or incorporated districts by the president and secretary of the school board ; one of these orders shall be forwarded to the State treasurer, to be forwarded to the publisher, and the other shall be kept as a stub in the order book as a voucher. The State treasurer, on receipt of an order from school commissioners, shall make an entry of the amount of the order against the district in a book kept for that purpose, and shall forward the order at once to the publisher, who shall send duplicate invoices for the same, one to the State treasurer and the other to the district clerk of the school district to which the books are consigned. The State treasurer shall pay the publisher out of the school fund of the State for books thus supplied, and charge the amounts so paid to the respective dis¬ tricts ordering said books, and deduct the same from the amount to which such districts may be entitled under the school laws of the State ; but the State treas¬ urer shall pay no bill for at least thirty days from the time it is rendered, in order that he may be notified by the school commissioners of any error or failure on the part of the publisher to supply the books. It shall be the duty of the clerk of each school district to distribute the books received as aforesaid to the scholars of the district, or their parents, guardians, or other persons, as they may desire, upon receipt for the same. The clerk of each district shall be responsible for the safe-keeping of the books furnished him, and also for prices of books sold to parents, guardians, scholars, or others. Any money or the value of the books which such clerks shall fail to account for ac¬ cording to law may be recovered in the name of the State by the county superin¬ tendent before a justice of the peace, as other accounts, when the amount does not exceed the sum of $200. Such clerk shall, at the expiration of his term of office, turn over to his successor in ofiSce all books on hand and take a receipt for the same, which shall be his voucher in settlement. It shall be the duty of the school commissioners to provide for the safe-keep¬ ing and care of the bocks, which shall be returned by the pupils at the close of the annual school term to the clerk of the district, or to such other person as the school commissioners shall designate. They shall also keep a separate account of the amount expended for books, and shall report it under a separate item in the annual settlement required by law. The school commissioners may furnish books at cost to pupils who wish to replace books lost or willfully destroyed, or V7ho may wish to own their books, and shall turn the proceeds of all such sales into the school fund of the district and report the amount at the time of the annual settlement to State auditor. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent or special). — The clear income of the school fund of this State is apportioned among the school districts as follows : 1. The dividends on an investment in 5,000 shares of Farmers' Bank stock, made under act of February 21, 1837 ; the interest on $131,750 of a bond of the State of Delaware to the school fund of the said State, at 6 per cent interest, and the interest on the sum of $5,000 advanced to the county of Sussex under act of February 17, 1837, must be divided, as tliey fall due, among the counties equally, except that Sussex County is to have, for its schools, the interest on the $5,000 above mentioned in addition to its one-third of the dividend from the general school fund. 2. All the clear dividends or profits from any other bank stock, securities, or property belonging to said fund, together with the clear sum from feeg for marriage and tavern licenses, one-fourth of all money arising from licenses for auctioneering, foreign life-insurance agencies, vending of goods by samples, keep¬ ing of traveling jacks or stallions, keeping eating houses, taking photographs, acting as brokers, real-estate agencies, exhibiting circuses, practicing jugglery, selling vinous, spirituous, or malt liquors ; also one-fourth of the fees on com¬ missions issued to prothonotaries, clerks of the peace, recorders of deeds, clerks of the orphans’ court, and sheriffs, and any other income of said fund, or money directed by law to be paid to the trustee of said fund for distribution, must be apportioned among the several counties according to their white population, as ascertained by the census. The trustee of the school fund, in apportioning annually the share of its in- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - GEORGIA. 295 come to each county in tlie State, must distribute it eermission of the county board, attend school in another subdistrict, and when a school is located near a county line children from the adjoining county may attend, if convenience requires, by concurrent permission of both county boards, and in such cases the teacher shall make out two accounts, one against each county board, in proportion to the number of children in the school from each county. Studies. — County boards shall prescribe what text-books and books of refer¬ ence shall be used. (See Text-books.) The Bible shall not be excluded from the common or public schools of tlie State. Boards shall not introduce any text or miscellaneous book of a sectarian or sectional character, and shall provide for the teaching of physiology and hygiene v.dth special reference to alcoholic drinks and narcotics. (For general branches taught see Teachers — Certificates.) Text-hooks. — County (or city) boards of education, in order to prevent exces¬ sive rates of charges for school books, may purchase directly from the publishers such books as may be adopted for their schools, and shall supply same to patrons and pupils at cost, or at such an advance as shall cover cost of handling. The board may make such contract with a local merchant or other person, whom they may require to give bond. Pupils, parents, or guardians about to move to another county wherein different books are used may sell their school books to the county at such discount as may cover wear aiid tear. The boards may arrange to rent books to pupils at just and proper fees and make all proper rules to insure payment of such fees and proper care of books. Copies of all con¬ tracts for text-books must be filed v.uth the State board of education within ten days. No county board may change or renew any contract for such books before the expiration of five years without first giving sixty days’ notice by newspaper advertisement and sixy days’ notice to the publisher party to such contract, and then only by a three-fourths vote of the members of such board in ^ session. .1 Manual training. — County boards shall have power to organize one or more manual labor schools in each county on such a plan as shall be self-sustaining, which plan shall first be submitted to and approved by the State board of edu¬ cation. ! Evening schools. — County boards may establish, at such places as they deem proper within the limits of their jurisdiction, a suitable number of evening schools for the instruction of such youth over 12 years of age as are prevented by their daily avocations from attending day school®. Buildings and grounds. — County boards shall have power to purchase, lease, or rent school sites; build, repair, or rent schoolhouses ; purchase maps, globes, school furniture, and other such things as are necessary for efficient schools; and said boards are vested with the title, care, and custody of all schoolhouses, sites, libraries, apparatus, or other property belonging to the several sub¬ districts in their respective counties, with all power to control the same as they think will best subserve the interests of public schools. When in the opinion of the board any schoolhouse site has become unnecessary or inconvenient, they may sell the same, such conveyance to be executed by the president or secretary of the board. Boards may provide for the building of schoolhouses either by labor on the part of the citizens or by a tax on the property of the subdistrict. The State school commissioner, through the several county commissioners, shall cause the public schools of the State to observe arbor day as superin- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - ILLINOIS. 299 teiidents and teachers may think best in order to show tlie pupils tlie value and beauty of forestry by practical tree planting on school, church, and other public lots, lawns, and highways. 4. Finances. Common school ftiiid — Apportionment — County tax. Common school fund. — The sources from which the common school fund is derived are as follows : Foil tax ; special tax on shows and exhibitions ; all tax on the sale of spirituous and malt liquors; dividends upon the stock of the State in the Bank of the State of Georgia, Bank of Augusta, Georgia Bailroad and Banking Company ; one-half of the proceeds of the Western and Atlantic Railroad, or one-half of the net earnings of said railroad under any change of policy which the State may adopt concerning same ; all endowments, devises, gifts, and bequests made or hereafter to he made to the State or State board of education; the proceeds of any commutation tax for military service; all taxes which may be assessed on such domestic animais as from their nature and habits are destructive to other property ; all money received by the agricul¬ tural department of the State for the inspection of oils and fertilizers in excess of the expenses of said department ; the net amount arising from the hire of convicts ; money accruing from the lease of oyster lands ; such other sums as the legislature may raise from time to time by taxation for educa¬ tional purposes ; fines for illegal granting of diplomas by medical colleges ; fines for the sale of rejected illuminating oil or fluids, or for wrongful use of branded vessels for illuminating oil or fluids, payable to the school fund in the county where prosecution is made, as is also one-half of fines for cruelty to ani¬ mals ; gaming contracts — money recovered aft^’ six months goes to public school fund of county in which suit is entered ; property not returned but assessed — overplus above amount due and costs, goes to educational fund, sub¬ ject to claim of true owner within four years. Apportionment. — On the first day of each month the State treasurer shall place to the credit of each county in the State on his books its proportion of the common school fund in the treasury, such proportion to be determined b.y the State school commissioner, comptroller-general, and treasurer, based upon the scholastic population. Each countj" school commissioner shall transmit to the State school commissioner an itemized statement of the various sums due and unpaid on the first day of each month by the county board, and when said state¬ ments shall have been approved by the State school commissioner, the governor shall issue his warra,nts upon the treasurer for all funds standing to the credit of each county, or for sucli part thereof as maj" be needed to cover said itemized statement, and the treasurer shall draw his check in favor of each countj’- school commissioner accordingly. County tax. — In any county where a school system is not in existence, or where the common school fund is not sufficient for the support of same, when¬ ever two successive grand juries shall so recommend, an election shall be held to determine whether a local tax shall be collected for school purposes. If two- thirds of the lawful votes cast at such election shall be in favor of such local taxation, the county board of education shall levy an acl valorem tax not to exceed one-fourth of 1 per cent upon all the taxable property, and the tax col¬ lector shall collect the same from year to year as other taxes are collected. ILLINOIS. 1. Oeganization of the System. ^tate superintendent — County superintendent — Township school trustees — Dis¬ trict hoard of directors — City and village hoards of education. The State superintendent . — There shall be elected every four years a State superintendent of public instruction, who shall hold his office for four years. lie shall take the oath of olfice, and shall give bond in the penalty of .‘f2.5,000 with securities, conditioned for the prompt discharge of his duties as superintendent and for the faithful application and disposition, according to law, of all school moneys that may come into his hands by virtue of his office. His salary shall 300 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. be fixed by law as a salary for the services required under the provisions of this act or other law that may be passed. All necessary contingent expenses tor hooks, postage, and stationery pertaining to his office shall be audited and paid by the State as the salary and contingent expenses of other officers are paid. It shall be his duty to keep an office at the seat of government of the State; to file ali papers, reports, and public documents transmitted to him by the school officers of the se^ eral counties each year separately ; to keep and pre¬ serve all other public documents, papers, and books relating to the schools com¬ ing into his hands as superintendent, and to hold the same in readiness to be exhibited to the governor or to any committee of either house of the general assembly ; to keep a fair record of all matters pertaining to the business of his office ; to pay Vv ithout delay all money which may come into his hands by virtue of his office to the officer or person entitled to receive the same in the legal manner ; to counsel and advise in such manner as he may deem best, vrith expe¬ rienced and practical school-tea, chers, as to the best manner of conducting com¬ mon schools ; to supervise all the common and public schools in the State ; to be the general adviser and assistant of county superintendents of the schools of the State ; to address circular letters to county superintendents from time to time, as he shall deem for the interests of schools, giving advice as to the best manner of conducting schools, coiistructing and furnishing schoolhouses, and examining and procuring competent teachers ; to report to the governor the con¬ dition of the schools, their number for each preceding year by counties, the number taught exclusively by men and exclusively by women, the number taught by men and women at same time and at different periods, the attend¬ ance, the number of persons under 21 years of age, and the number 12 to 21 years that are unable to read and write, the amount of township and county funds, the amount of the interest of the State or common-school fund, and of the interest of the tovrnship and county fund annually paid out, the amount raised by an ad valorem tax, the amount annually expended for schools, the number of schoolhouses, their kind and condition, the number of townships and parts of townships in each county, the number and description of books and apparatus purchased for the use of schools and school libraries, the price paid therefor, the total amount purchased and what qua,ntity and how distributed, the number and condition of the libraries, together with such other information and suggestions as he may deem important in relation to the school laws, schools, and the means of promoting education throughout the State, which report shall be laid before the general assembly at each regular session ; to make such regulations as may be necessary and expedient to carry into effect the provisions of the school law ; to be the legal adviser of all school officers, and when requested by a school officer to give his opinion in writing upon any question arising under the school laws ; to hear appeals from county superin¬ tendents, they, having certified to a written statement of the facts in issue; to grant State certificates to such teachers as may be found worthy to receive them ; to be ex officio a member of the board of trustees of the University of Illinois, of the Southern Normal University, of the State board of education,® and to act as secretary thereof, of the Northern Illinois State Normal School, of the Eastern Illinois State Normal School, of the Western Illinois State Normal School, of the State library board, of the Natural History Museum, of the Lin¬ coln Monument, of the Lincoln Homestead ; to report to the general assembly at its regular session the condition and exiienditures of tiie Normal University, and such other information as the State board or the general assembly shall direct ; and finally, to visit such of the charitable institutions of the State as are educational and to examine their facilities for instruction, and to prescribe forms for such reports as he may desire from the superintendents thereof. He shall be vested with the following powers : To direct and cause the county superintendent of any county, directors or boards of trustees or township treasurer, or other school officer, to withhold from any officer, township, dis¬ trict, or teacher any part of the common school or township or other school fund until such person or corporation shall have made ail schedules, reports, and returns required of him by this act, and until such persons or bodies, unless excused by him, shall have executed and filed ali official bonds and accounted for all common school or township or other school funds which have theretofore come into his hands ; to require county superintendents to furnish him the information he desires to embody in his report to the general assembly, and See Teachers — Preliminary training. DIGEST OE SCHOOL LAWS - ILLINOIS. 301 to require at any time from the township hoard a report on the condition of schools under its care, and to determine Aviiat statistics local odicers shall report to county sui)eriiitendents ; to authorize county sui)erintendents to i)ro- cure such assistance as may he necessary to conduct county institutes ; to i;rant permission to hoards of education or hoards of directors to esta.hlish classes for deaf and for crippled children in their respective schools, mid to appoint teachers for such classes in said schools; to reipiire annual laqiorts from the authorities of incoriiorated towns, townships, cities, or districts havinjj: a. sys¬ tem under special charter to the same extent as r(\a:ular school odicers are or may be required to make such reports; to require the jiresident, principal, or other jiroper odicer of e’lery orfj:anized (whether incorjiorated or not) institu¬ tion of learning to make a report that he may exhihit a fair and full statement of the condition of such institutions and of the educational resources of the State. He shall not he interested in the sale of any hook or apiiaratus or fur¬ niture used or to. he used in any school in the State, and for violatimi of this ])rovisicn shall he fined not less than 5^2.’') nor more than .$r)00, and may he imprisoned in the county jail not less than one month nor more than one year. County superintendents. — There shall he elected every four years a county superintendent of schools, who shall he sworn in and shall execute a bond witii joint and several sureties for 2,000, to he increased if deemed best, condi¬ tioned on the faithful discharge of his duties. In case of vacaiicy the county board shall appoint a successor. lie shall he provided with a siiitai-le olic sch.ool work, and com.petent to visit schools. The county superintendent sliall receive in full for all services rendered by him .3 per cent upon the amount of sales of school lands or sales of lands upon mortgage, or sales of real estate taken for debt, including all services therewith ; 2 per cent upon all sums distributed, paid, or loaned out by them for the supi)ort of schools. For all other duties retors to tliem in tlieir ofllcial capacity, cstablisli a hi^li school if directed to do so by a majority of the electors, lay off the township Into one or more school districts, chaiii^e districts when petitioned for by a majority of each of the districts affected by the change and hy tv.'O-thirds of the voters in the terri¬ tory transferred. In case any school district shall for two consecutive years fail to maintain a public school as required by law to do. the trustees of schools of the township or townshi])s in which such district lies shall attach it to one or more adjoining districts. Trustees may not be interested in the profits on any book or apparatus, etc., to be used in any school with which they may be con¬ nected, and are personally liable for loss through their neglect of duty. District hoard of directors. — In all school districts having a population of fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and not governed by any special act in relation to free schools now in force, there shall be elected a board of 3 directors, elected for three years, one retiring annually. Any person of either sex, married or single, 21 years of age, able to read and write in the English language, shall be eligible, as long as he resides in the district, to the ollice of school director, if not a member of the board of school trustees ; vacancies are filled by a new election. The directors, within ten days after every election, shall meet and organize b^^ appointing one of their number president and another clerk. They shall hold regular meetings at such times as they may designate, and special meetings as occasion may require. No director shall be pecuniarily interested in school affairs. It shall be the duty of tlie board to make a detailed report of their receipts and expenditures to the voters, and transmit a copy to the township treasurer within five days ; to report to the county superintendent within ten days after employment the full names of all persons employed as teachers, the date of the beginning and the end of their contract ; to provide for the necessary revenue to maintain free schools in their district in the manner provided; to maintain free schools for at least one hundred and ten days ; to adopt and enforce all necessary regulations for the management and government of schools and to inspect them ; to appoint teachers, fix and pay their salaries ; to direct what branches of study shall be taught, what text-books and apparatus shall be used ; to purchase text-books for children of indigent parents ; to furnish proper blanks to teachers. In addition, they shall be clothed with the follov/ing pov/ers : To use any funds belonging to their district for their records, to pay their clerk if the amount of his services justify it, to dismiss teachers, to assign pupils to the several schools in the district, fix rates of tuition and collect the same ; to suspend or expel pupils v/ho may be guilty of gross disobedience or misconduct, and no action shall lie against them for such expulsion or suspension ; to appro¬ priate for the purchase of libraries and apparatus any funds remaining after all necessary school expenses are paid ; to sell personal property belonging to district when not needed ; to grant special holidays ; to control and supervise all school buildings ; to borrow money and issue bonds therefor to build schoolhouses, pur¬ chase sites, and improve and repair buildings ; but it shall not be lawful for a board of directors to purchase or locate a schooihouse site, or to purchase, build, or move a schooihouse, or to levy a tax to extend schools beyond nine months, without a vote of the people. Board of education. — Incorporated cities and villages, except such as now have charge and control of free schools by special acts, shall be and remain parts of the school townships in which they are respectively situated and be subject to the general provisions of the school law, except as follows : In all school districts having a population of not fewer than 1,000 and not over 100,000 and not governed in educational matters by any special act, there shall be elected, instead of the directors provided by law in other districts, a board of education, consisting of a president of the board, G members, and 3 additional members for every additional 10,000 inhabitants, but in no case to consist of more than 15 members. * One-third* the members shall retire annually, but the president shall be elected annually. The powers of the board shall be all the poAvers of school directors and to establish and levy tax to support free schools not fewer than six nor more than ten months in each jmar, except upon petition of the majority of the voters of the district; to repair and improve schoolhouses and furnish them with the necessary fixtures, furniture, appa¬ ratus, libraries, and fuel, and have cliarge of the same ; to examine teachers as supplemental to other examination ; to employ teachers and to fix the amount of their salaries ; to establish schools of different grades and make regulations for the admission of pupils into the same and their government ; to buy or lease sites for schoolhouses, Avitli the necessary grounds, if authorized by the voters at an election called in pursuance of a petition signed by at least 500, or one- 304 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. fifth of the voters ; to employ a conipetent and discreet person or persons to superintend the schools and to fix the salary of such persons (each superintend¬ ent may be required to act as principal or teacher in the schools) ; to lay off and divide the district into subdistricts, to alter and consolidate the same; to visit all the public schools as often as once a month ; to inquire into the progress of scholars and the government of the schools ; to prescribe the method and course of discipline and instruction ; to expel grossly disobedient or misbehaving pupils, and no action shall lie against them for such expulsion ; to dismiss un¬ qualified teachers; to provide fuel and other like necessities as may be required; to appoint a secretary ; to annually prepare and publish in some newspaper or in pamphlet form a report of the number of pupils instructed in the year pre¬ ceding and the several branches of study pursued by them, of the number of persons between the ages of 12 and 21 unable to read and write, and of the re¬ ceipts and expenditures of each school, specifying the source of such receipts and the objects of such expenditures. They shall appoint truant officers to en¬ force compulsory-attendance act. They shall see that a national flag is pro¬ vided for the school, to be used upon appropriate occasions. They may estab¬ lish kindergartens upon the vote of the district, and classes for deaf and crip¬ pled children upon permission of the State superintendent. In cities having a population exceeding 100,000 inhabitants the board of edu¬ cation shall consist of 21 members, to be appointed by the mayor, by and with the advice and consent of the common council, one-third to retire annually. Any person having resided in a city more than five years next preceding his ap¬ pointment shall be eligible to membership of such board. The board shall have charge and control of the public schools, and with the concurrence of the city council may erect or purchase buildings, buy or lease sites, issue bonds for pro¬ viding sites or buildings or to pay bonds, and to borrow money. The board has power to establish, maintain, and support schools, examine, license, employ, pay, and dismiss teachers; may establish parental schools; may form classes for deaf and for crippled children on permission of State superintendent; may cre¬ ate teachers’ and employees’ pension and retirement funds ; has entire superin¬ tendence and control of all schools in such cities, with power to enact and enforce all necessary rules for the government and maintenance of the schools. 2. Teachers. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — PreHminary training — Meetings. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No teacher shall be authorized to teach a public school who is not of good moral character, at least 18 years of age if a man, or 17 years if a woman, and who does not, possess a certificate of qualifications. The district board of directors or city or village board of educa¬ tion shall emploj^ teachers and fix their pay. The State superintendent is authorized to grant State certificates which shall be of two grades, the higher of which shall be for life and the lower for five years. Both grades shall only be given after public examination (of which due notice shall be given) in such branches and upon such terms and by such exam¬ iners as the State superintendent and the principals of the State [normalj uni¬ versities may prescribe. Such certificates are revocable for cause. It shall be the duty of the county superintendent to grant certificates to such Piersons as may upon due examination be found qualified. They shall be of two grades ; those of the first grade shall be valid in the county for two years, and shall certify that the holder is of good moral character, and is qualified to teach orthography, reading (in English), penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geography, the history of the United States, and effects of alcohol and narcotics. The county superintendent may renew such certificates at their expi¬ ration, and may at any time revoke them for cause. For the purpose of examin¬ ing teacliers, the county superintendent shall hold meetings at least quarterly, and oftener if necessary. He shall require a fee of $1 from every applicant, and for each certificate renewed he shall also charge $1, which fees shall go to the institute fund. It shall be the duty of every public school teacher to see that the school prop¬ erty of the district is not unnecessarily damaged or destroyed, and no teacher shall be paid any part of the school funds unless he shall have kept and fur¬ nished the schedules or statements required by law, and shall have satisfactorily accounted for all books, apparatus, and other property belonging to the district. Each teacher shall keep correctly daily registers, which shall exhibit the name, DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - ILLINOIS. 305 ' age, and attendance of each pnpil, the day of the inontli and the year, which reg¬ ister shall he handed to the clerk of the hoard under i)enalty of loss of ])ay. Preliminary training. — There shall he established the Illinois Normal Univer¬ sity, the Southern Illinois Normal University, the Eastern Illinois Normal School, the Northern Illinois Normal School, and the Western Illinois Normal School, with the object of (iiialifying teachers for the common schools of the State by imparting instruction in the aid of teaching and all branches of stndy which pertain to a common school education, in the elements of the natural sciences, including agricultural chemistry, animal and vegetable jihysiology, in the fnndamental laws of the United States and of the State in regard to the rights and duties of citizens, and such other studies as the governing body of each institution may prescribe. Each county shall be entitled to have two juipils instructed gratuitously in each school, and each re])resentative district shall he entitled in each school to a number of pupils equal to the numher of representa¬ tives in the district, the piqiils to be selected from applic-ants iiassing the best examination. The Illinois State Normal Ihiiversity is managed and controlled by the “ State hoard cf education ; ” the Southern Illinois Normal University, the Eastern Normal School, the Northern Normal School, and the Western Normal School by hoards of trustees not exceeding five each in numher. No memher of the State hoard of education or of the hoard of trustees shall receive any com¬ pensation other than his necessary traveling expenses. In each countj' adopting township organization the hoard of sirpervisors, and in other counties the county court (if authorized by vote of the people), may es-- tablish a county normal school for the purpose of fitting teachers for the common, > schools, which shall he under the county hoard of education. Two or more coun¬ ties may unite in estahlishing a normal school. Meetings. — The county superintendent shall hold annually a teachers’ insti¬ tute, continuing in session not fewer than five days, for the instruction of teach¬ ers and those who may desire to teach, and with the concurrence of the State superintendent procure such assistance as may he necessary to conduct the insti¬ tute at such time as the schools of the county are generally closed. Two or more counties may hold a joint institute. Instruction shall he free to tiiose who hold certificates good in the county. The time, not exceeding three days in any one term or five days in any one school year, during term time, actually spent by a teacher of any public school in this State in attendance upon a teachers’ in- - stitute held under the direction of the county superintendent of schools shall he • considered time lawfully expended by such teacher, and no deduction of wages, shall be made in the teacher’s pay. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — Every person having control of any child between the ages of 7 and 14 years shall annually cause such child to attend for the entire time, during which the school attended is in session, which period shall not be less than one hundred and ten days of actual teaching, some public or private day school Provided, That this act shall not apply to any child that has been or is being- otherwise instructed for a like period of time in the elementary branches of education or whose physical or mental condition renders its attendance imprac¬ ticable, or who is excused for good reasons for temporary absence by the princi-' pal or teacher in charge of the school which said child attends. For every willful neglect of such duty as prescribed above the offender shall be fined from $5 to $20 and costs of suit. The board of education in cities, towns, villages, and school districts and the board of school directors in school districts shall, at the time of the appointment or election of teachers, appoint one or more truant oflicers, whose duty it shall be to report all violations of this act to such board of education or board of. directors and to enter complaint against and prosecute all persons who shall appear guilty of such violation. Truant officers so appointed shall he entitled to such compensation as may be fixed by the board and shall be paid out of the distributable school fiincL Any fine or penalty mentioned above may be sued for and recovered before any court of record or justice of the peace of the proper county. Any person having control of a child who, with intent to evade the provisions of this law regarding compulsory attendance, shall make u willfully false statement concerning the ED 1904 M - 20 306 EDUCATIOI4' EEPOET, 1904. age of such child or the time such child has attended school shall forfeit from $3 to $20 for the use of the public schools. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation to employ or hire any child under 14 years of age during any portion of any month when the pub' lie schools are in session, or before the hour of 7 o’clock in the morning or after G o’clock in the evening or for more than eight hours a day. Every person, firm, or corporation employing ufinors under 16 and over 14 years of age shall keep register, wall lists, age and school certificates of said minors, open to inspection ; said minors must be. able to read at sight and to write legibly simple sentences, or be in regular attendance at a public evening school. Age and school certificates shall be certified to by the superintendent or principal of the school. Any person, firm, or corporation violating the provi¬ sions of this act shall be fined not less than $5 nor more than $100 and shall stand committed until fine and costs are paid, and any father, guardian, or per¬ son having control of any child under the age of IG years v.dio permits such child to be employed in violation of this act shall, for each offense, be fined not less than $.j nor more than $25, and shall stand committed until fine and costs are paid. The district directors shall have power to assign pupils to the sev¬ eral schools in the district, to admit nonresidents, to fix rates of tuition, to pro¬ vide that children under 12 years of age shall not be confined in school more than four hours daily, to establish and keep in operation for at least one hun¬ dred and ten days of actual teaching in each year, without reduction by reason of closing schools on legal holidays or for any other cause and longer if prac¬ ticable, a sufficient number of free schools for the accommodation of all children in the district G to 21 years of age, and shall secure for all such children the right and opportunity to an equal education in such free schools. It shall be the duty of boards of education in cities and villages to support free schools not fewer than six nor more than ten months. Character of instruction. — Every public school established shall be for instruc¬ tion in the branches of education prescribed in the qualifications for teachers and in such other branches, including vocal music and drawing, as the directors, or the voters of the district at the annual election of directors, may prescribe. If the majority of the voters in a township shall vote to establish a township high school, a township board (high school) shall be elected, consisting of five members, which shall enjoy the powers and discharge the duties of directors for such district. Text-hooJes. — The directors shall direct what branches of study shall be taught and what text-books shall be used in the public schools, and shall strictly en¬ force uniformity of text-books therein, but shall not permit text-books to be changed oftener than once in four years. The directors shall have power to purchase at the expense of the district a sufficient number of the text-books used to supply children whose parents are not able to buy them. The text-books bouglit for such purpose shall be loaned only, and the directors shall require the teacher to see that they are properly cared for and returned at the end of each school term. Buildings. — District directors shall have the control and supervision of all Bchoolhouses in their district, and may grant the temporary use of them, when not occupied by schools, for religious meetings and Sunday schools, for evening schools and literary societies, and for such other meetings as the directors may deem proper ; but they shall not purchase or locate a schoolhouse site, or pur¬ chase, build, or move a schoolhouse unless directed by vote of the people. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent and special). — The common school fund of this State shall consist of the proceeds of a 2-mill tax, to be levied upon each dollar’s valua¬ tion of the property of the State annually until otherwise provided by law, the interest on what is knovrii as the school fund proper being 3 per cent upon the proceeds of the sales of the public lands in the State, one-sixth part ex¬ cepted, and the interest on what is known as the surplus revenue distributed by act of Congress and made a part of the common school fund by the legisla¬ ture March 4, 1837. The State shall pay the interest mentioned in the preceding paragraph at the rate of 6 per cent per annum, to be paid into and become a part of the school fund. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - INDIANA. 307 On the first Monday in January in- each and every year next after the takinj; of the census of the State by Federal or State authority, the auditor of public accounts shall ascertain the number of children in each county under 21 years of age, and shall thereupon make a dividend to each county of the sum of the tax and the interest due on the school fund proper and surplus revenue in proportion to the number of children in each county under 21 years of age, and issue his warrant to the superintendent of each county. All bonds, notes, mortgages, moneys, and effects heretofore accrued or which may hereafter accrue from the sale of the sixteenth section of the common school lands of any township or county, or from the sale of real estate or other property taken on any judgment, or for any debt due to the priucii)al of any township or county fund, and all other funds of every description which have been or may hereafter be carried to and made a part of the principal of any township or county fund by any law, shall forever constitute the principal of the township or county fund, and no i)art thereof shall ever be distributed or expended for any purpose whatever, but shall be loaned and held to use, rent, or profit, as pro¬ vided by law. But the interest, rents, issues, and profits arising and accruing from the principal of the township or county fund shall bo distributed by tlie county superintendent on a basis of the number of children under 21 years, if the several townships and parts of townships have kept school in accordance with the law. All fines, penalties, and forfeitures imposed or incurred in any of the courts of record or before any justice of the peace of the State, except fines, forfeitures, and penalties incurred or imposed in incorporated towns or cities for the viola¬ tion of the by-laws or ordinances thereof, shall be, when collected, paid to the county superintendent of schools, who shall annually distribute such fines, pen¬ alties, or forfeitures in the same maimer as the common school funds of the State are distributed. Taxation. — For the purpose of establishing and supporting free schools for not fewer than six nor more than nine months in each year and defraying all tlie expenses of every description of the same, the directors of each district and the authorities of each village or city are authorized to levy a tax annually upon the taxable property of the district, village, or citj^ not to exceed 2^ per cent for educational and 2J per cent for building purposes. [Note the 2-mill State tax forming a part of the common school fund.] All money raised by taxation for school purposes or received from the State common school fund or other sources for school purposes shall be held by the township treasurer as a special fund for school purposes, subject to the order of the board of education upon warrants signed by the president and secretary thereof. For the purpose of building schoolhouses or purchasing school sites or repair¬ ing and improving the same the directors of any school district, when authorized by a majority of the voters at an election called for the purpose, may borrow money, issuing bonds signed by not fewer than two members of the board of directors, in sums of not less than $100, at a rate not exceeding 7 per cent per annum, provided that the sum borrowed in any one year shall not exceed 5 per cent, including existing indebtedness, of the taxable property of the district. INDIANA. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard of education {and text-hook commissioners) — State superintend¬ ents — County hoard — County superintendent — Toivnship, toicn. and city trus¬ tees, director, and superintendent — Advisory hoard — City hoards — Truant officers. State hoard of education. — (See Teachers — Appointment, qualifications, etc.; also Schools — Text-books.) State superintendent. — There shall be elected by the qualified voters of the State at a general election a State superintendent of public instruction, who shall hold his office for two years. His salary shall be $3,000, $1,000 for office expenses, and $600 for traveling expenses annually. He shall be charged with the administration of the system and a general superintendence of the business relating to the common schools, and of the funds and revenues set apart for their support. He shall be provided with a suitable office at the seat of govern- 308' EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. ment, \Yhere the records of his office shall -be kept, and at which he shall give a reasonable attendance to the business and duties of the position. He shall render an opinion, in writing, to any school officer asking the same, touching the construction of the school law. He may employ one deputy, salary $1,500 ; one clerk at $1,200, and one stenographer at $720. He shall make a biennial report to the governor, indicating in general terms the enumeration of the children of the State for connnon school purposes, the additions to the permanent school fund and the , amount of school revenue collected during the year, and the amounts apportioned and distributed to the schools. At each regular session of the general assembly he shall make a brief exhibit of his labors, the results of his experience and observation as to the operation of said system, and sug¬ gest the remedy for observed imperfections ; of the amount of the permanent school funds and their placement, revenue given by them and arising from other sources, and the estimated value of all other property ; of the condition of affairs, with the condition at previous periods, and of such matters as he thinks of inter¬ est to the general assembly. He shall visit each county in the State at least once during his term of office, and examine the auditor's books and records relative to the school funds and revenues, with a view to their security, meet with such officers as may attend his appointment, counseling with teachers and lecturing upon educational topics. To enable him to defray his traveling expenses he shall be alloAved $000 annu¬ ally. He may require county auditors, superintendents, treasurers, district trustees, clerks, and treasurers to furnish copies of all reports made by them and such other information as he may desire. He may prepare and transmit the forms used in making reports, and shall publish the school laws. Coinitij hoard. — The county superintendent, the trustees of the townships, and the chairman of the school trustees of each town and city of the county shall constitute the county board of education, which shall meet semiannually at the office of the county superintendent. The board shall consider the general wants and needs of the schools and school property of which they have charge and all matters relating to the i)urchase of schoolbooks, furniture, maps, etc. The change of text-books, except in cities, and the care and management of township libraries shall be determined by the board, and each township shall conform as nearly as practicable to its action. County superintendent. — The township trustees of the several townships of each county shall meet at the office of the county auditor every four years and appoint a county superintendent, who shall be a citizen of such county, shall execute a bond in the amount of $5,000, and shall be removable for cause. He shall examine at least once a month fi-om January to August, inclusive, all appli¬ cants for license to teach, and shall license successful competitors, which licenses he may for cause revoke. He shall have general superintendence of the schools of the county; attend each township institute at least once in each year, con¬ ducting its exercises ; visit each school of the county at least once each year ; encourage teachers’ institutes and associations, and labor in every practical way to elevate the character of instruction and the condition of the schools ; decide questions arising under the school laws, but either party may appeal to the State superintendent. He shall be the intermediary between the State super¬ intendent and the local school authorities (cities having a superintendent may be removed from his jurisdiction, however), and in general shall carry out the orders of the State superintendent. He shall, in case of failure of any trustees to do it, cause an enumei'ation of the childi'eii in any township, town, or city ; shall make an annual I'eport to the State superintendent of the enumeration of the children of the county, with the same particular discrimination required of the trustees; shall annually furnish the statistical information which the trus¬ tees are required to report to them in such form as may be prescribed by the State superintendent, together with such additional information, embodied in a written report, relative to the conditions of the schools, schoolhouses, and the general progress of education in the county as the State superintendent may require. Failure to make the report of enumeration of children by June 15 causes the county to lose $25 in the next apportionment of school revenue, and failure to make the other reports required causes the county to lose $10 ; both forfeits to be collected from the delinquent superintendent in proceedings before a justice of the peace. He shall cast the apportionment of school revenues from the lists of enumerations and reports of transfers of the several townships, towns, and cities, and report it to the county auditor. He shall receive $4 per diem for every day actually employed in discharge of his duties, but the board of commissioners may determine the number of days, though they shall not be DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - INDIANA. 309 fewer than the whole nnnihoi- of schools niider the jurisdiction of the superin¬ tendent. Toicmhip school trustees and city and toicn school hoards. — Each civil town¬ ship and each incorporated town or city in the several counties of the State shall be a district nuniici])al corporation for school piir])()seij by the name and style of the civil townshij), town, or city corporation, respectively, and the trustees of the townshij) and the school board of each city and town shall be school trustees and perforin the duties of clerk and treasurer lor school pur¬ poses. In cities and towns the common council shall annually elect a school trus¬ tee for a term of three years. These three trustees shall constitute the school board of the city or town, and shall elect one of their number president, one secretary, and one as treasurer, the last exeentini? a bond, with two securities not members of the board, in a sum double the amount annually cominii into his hands; the other oliicers shall i^ice bond in any sum not less than one-third of the treasurer's. The school trustees of every township, incoi'iiorated town, or city, shall receive the special school revenue beloiii^ing thereto, and the revenue for tuition which may be apportioned to the township, town, or city by the State for tuition for the common schools, and shall pay out the same for the purpose for which such revenues were collected and appropriated, rejiorting annually the particulars to the county commissioners. They shall have charge of the educational affairs of their re.spective townships, towns, and cities ; shall employ teachers, establish and conveniently locate a sufficient number of schools for the education of the children of school age, and build or otherwise provide suitable houses, furniture, apparatus, and other articles and educational appliances necessaiT for the thor¬ ough organization and efficient management of the schools ; maj^ establish graded schools, or such modifications of them as may be practicable; shall have the care and management of all i)roperty except the Congressional township school lands. They may in cities and incorporated towns employ a superintend¬ ent for their schools and prescribe his duties. They shall annually make a report to the county superintendent containing the statistical information fur¬ nished by the teachers, and embody in tabular form the following additional items : The number of districts, schools taught and their grade, teachers by sex, average compensation of each grade, balance of tuition revenue on hand at the commencement of the current year, amount received during the year from the county treasurer and the amount expended for tuition, balance on hand, length of time school was taught in days, schoolhouses erected during the year, the cost of the same, the nundjer and kind before erected, and the estimated value thereof and of all other school property, number of volumes in the library and the number taken out during the year and the annual increase, the assessment on each $100 of taxable property and on each poll of special tax for schoolhouse erection, and the amount of such levy, balance of special school revenue on hand at the commencement of the current year, amount received during the year from the county treasurer, the amount expended during the year and balance on hand, the number of acres of unsold school lands, their value and income given, together with such other information as may be reriuired by the county or State superintendent. Failure to make the reports required subject the township, town, or city to a loss of $2.5 and the trustee in fault shall be lialile for all dam¬ ages arising from his neglect to the locality concerned. (For election and duty of director, see Schools — Buildings.) Advisory hoard. — At the time of electing township trustees the voters of the several townships shall elect an advisory board, consisting of three resident freeholders and qualified voters of the township. Their term of office shall be four jmars. If a vacancy occurs in s;iid board it sluiU be filled by the remaining members of the board for the unexpired term. They shall meet annually^ on the first Tuesday of September, at a convenient place in the township. Two members shall constitute a quorum. At such meeting the board shall consider the various estimates of township expenditures proposed by^ the township trus¬ tee, and shall have power to concur in such estimates, or in any^ jiart thereof, or to reject any proposed item, in whole or in part. And the advisory- Ixiard, at the first annual meeting, may apportion the paymient of any existing indebted¬ ness other than to the county or for current expenses for a named term not exceeding five years. When they shall have determined upon the estimates and amounts for which taxes should be levied upon the property’ and polls within said township for the ensuing ymar, they’ shall then determine and fix the rates of taxation upon such property and polls as to the estimated purposes seve»-allv. The rates so determined by such board they shall then certify to the county 310 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. auditor, who shall place the same upon the tax duplicate, and the same shall be collected and enforced as prescribed by law. The rates so prescribed shall be deemed a levy and lien upon the property of such township from and after the first day in April of such year, and such levy shall be deemed an appropriation for the specific purposes for which such estimates are fixed. City hoard of school commissioners. — In all cities of 30,000 or more inhabit¬ ants there shall be elected by each school district one school commissioner for a term of three years. The board of school commissioners thus formed shall district the city, levy taxes for the support of schools and libraries in addition to those elsewhere authorized, examine applicants for teachers’ places, purchase sites, construct buildings, purchase supplies, pay teachers, appoint superin¬ tendents, disburse the sums required for the support of schools and libraries, regulate the grading, course of instruction, and government in the schools of the city, and issue bonds in anticipation of the revenue to obtain money, not exceeding in the aggregate .^100,000, for building purposes. All parts of the general school laws not inconsistent with the provision for cities of 30,(X)0 and over hold good for them. The members of the board of school commissioners serve without compensation. Truant officers, — (See Schools — Attendance.) 2. Teachers. Airpointment and duties — Certificates — Preliminary train in y — Institutes — Salaries. Appoiritment and, duties. — The trustees of townships, towns, and cities shall employ teachers, but no teacher shall be employed unless holding a license to teach issued by the proper State or county authority and in force at*the date of employment ; but if the license expire during a term, the teacher may com¬ plete th t term, A trustee shall not employ a teacher whom the other two trustees^ have decided at any regular meeting they do not wish to employ. Teachers may be dismissed for cause. The te-cher shall make a complete report to the proper trustee at the end of the term„ and until such report has been made the trustee shall not pay more than 75 per cent of the teacher's salary. Certificates. — The State board of education shall consist of the governor. State superintendent, tlie presidents of the State university, Purdue Univer¬ sity, and the State normal school, the superintendents of common schools of the three largest cities in the State, and three citizens of prominence actively en¬ gaged in educational work in Indiana, appointed by the governor, at least one of whom shall be a county superintendent. The board may grant certificates of qualifications to such teachers as may, after a thorough and critical examina¬ tion, be found to possess eminent scholarship and professional ability and shall furnish satisfactory evidence of good moral character. The certificates the board grants shall be valid during life, and good in any locality for any school. The applicant shall, on making application, pay a fee of 1^5. The county superintendent shall examine all applicants for license as teachers for the common schools of the State by a series of written or printed questions, requiring answers in writing, but questions may also be put and answered orally ; and if from the ratio of correct answers and other evidences disclosed by the examination the applicant is found to possess a knowledge sufficient to enable him to successfully teach orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog¬ raphy, English grammar, physiology, the science of education, literature, and the history of the United States, the county superintendent shall license the ap¬ plicant for the period of six, twelve, twenty-four, or thirty-six months, according to the ratio of correct answers and other evidences of qualification given upon said examination, the standard of which shall be fixed by the county superin¬ tendent. In examining persons to teach in graded schools in cities and towns the county superintendent may take into consideration the special fitness of such applicants for the services required of them, noting on the license the kind of work they are specially qualified for. Before being licensed every applicant must produce satisfactory evidence of good moral character. The license for six months, however, shall be regarded as a trial license, and not more than one of the kind shall be granted to an applicant in the same county. Any person who shall receive two thirty-six month licenses in succession may receive at the expi¬ ration of the latter a license for eight years after such an examination as may DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - INDIANA. 311 be prescribed by the State board of education ; but such license sliall issue only oil approval of the State hoard of education, and shall be styled a professional license, entitling the holder to teach in any school. Applicants niay, if they so elect, have their inannscripts sent to the State superintendent for exaininatioii for a license whieh shall be valid anywhere within the State; in which ‘case each ai)plicant shall pay to the comity superin¬ tendent a fee of ^1, which shall by him he transmitted to the State superintend¬ ent, who shall nse such funds in employing qualified persons to grade the manu¬ scripts. In forwarding snch inannscripts the comity superintendents shall indicate thereon the grade of the applicant’s selioolroom success, which shall be given equal weight with his academic standing as shown by said inannscripts in deterniining his general average. PreViminarij trainiufj. — There shall be established and maintained a normal school, the object of which shall be the preparation of teachers for teaching in the common schools of Indiana, which shall be governed by a board of 4 trustees appointed by the governor and approved by the senate. The lioard shall pre¬ scribe the course of study for the normal school, elect the instructors, and fix their salaries, and determine the conditions of admission; but applicants must be IG years of age if women and 18 if men, of good health, of nndonhted moral character, and each shall file a pledge that he or she will, as far as practicable, teach in the common schools of Indiana a period equal to twice the time spent as a pupil in the normal school. Tuition shall be free. The trustees shall make a biennial report to the legislature in years that it meets, and in other years to the governor. The board is authorized to grant certificates of pro¬ ficiency to such teachers as shall complete any of the prescribed courses of study and whose moral character and disciplinary relations to the school have been satisfactory. After the lapse of two years after graduation, and on satis¬ factory evidence of professional ability, they shall be entitled to diplomas appropriate to professional degrees entitling them to teach in any school. Institutes. — At least one Saturday in each month during which the public schools may be open shall be devoted to township institutes or model schools for the im])rovement of the teachers. The township trustee shall specify in a written contract with each teacher that such teacher shall attend the full ses¬ sion of each institute or forfeit one daj-'s wages for every day’s absence there¬ from unless the absence is caused by sickness. In order to the encouragement of teachers’ institutes, the county auditors of the several counties of this State shall, whenever the county superintendent of such county shall fde with said auditor his official statement, showing that there has been held for five daj’s a teachers’ institute in said county, with an aver¬ age attendance of 25 teachers, or i^ersons preparing to become such, draw his warrant on the county treasurer in favor of said county superintendent for 835 ; and in case there should be an average attendance of 40 teachers, or per¬ sons preparing to become such, then the said county auditor shall draw his warrant for $50-; and in case there should be an average attendance of 75 teachers, or persons preparing to become such, then he shall draw his warrant for $100, for the purpose of defraying the expenses of said institute. Salaries. — The daily wages of teachers for teaching in the public schools of the State shall not be less in the case of beginning teachers than an amount determined by multiplying 2^- cents by the scholarship given said teacher on his highest grade of license at the time of contracting ; and after the first school term of any teacher said teacher’s daily wages shall not be less than an amount determined by multiplying 2^ cents by the general average of scholarship and success given the teacher on his highest grade of license at the time of contracting; and after three years of teaching said wages shall not he less than 2^ cents multiplied by the general average of scholarship and success given the teacher on his highest grade of license at the time of contracting : Pro¬ vided, That 2 per cent shall be added to a teacher’s general average of scholar¬ ship and success for attending the county institute the full number of days, and that said 2 per cent shall be added to the average scholarship of beginning teachers. All teachers now or hereafter exempt from examination shall be paid not less than 2f cents multiplied by the general average of scholarship and success given said teachers, the grade of scholarship to be that given at the teacher's last examination,, and the grade of success that of the teacher’s term last preceding the date of contracting. The State superintendent of public instruction is authorized to bring action against any school officer violating any of the provisions of this law, the penalty being a fine not to exceed $100. 312 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — Every parent, guardian, or other person in the State having con- trol of any child between 7 and 14 years of age shall send such child to a public, private, or parochial school each year for a term not less than that of the public schools of the school corporation where the child resides: Provided, That no child in good mental and physical condition shall for any cause, any rule or law to the contrary, be precluded from attending school when such school is in session. The county board of education shall appoint one truant officer in each county. AVhen, from personal knowledge or by report or complaint from any resident or teaclier, a truant officer believes that any child subject to these provisions is liabitually tardy or absent from school, he shall give notice to the parent or guardian that the attendance of such child at school is required ; and if within five days such parent or guardian does not comply therewith, then the truant officer shall make complaint against such parent or guardian for violation of the comi)ulsory attendance law, the penalty for which is a fine not to exceed $25, to which may be added imprisonment from two to ninety days. Only one notice shall be required for any child in any year. A city having a school enumeration of 5,000 or more children, or two or more cities and towns in any county having a combined school enumeration of 5,000, may, in the discretion of the county board, constitute a separate district for the administration of this law. Cities containing 10,000 school children or less shall have but one truant offi¬ cer ; from 10,000 to 20,000 school children, two truant officers; 20,000 to 30,000, three ; 30,000 to 40,000, four ; more than 40,000, five. OMty truant officers shall be appointed by the board of school trustees or commissioners, as the case may be. Truant oflicers shall receive from the county treasury $2 for each day of actinil service. Character of instruction. — All schools in a township shall be taught an equal length of time as nearly as the same can be done. The school meeting deter¬ mines the length of time schools are to be taught. The common schools of the State shall be taught in the English language, and there shall be taught in them orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, physiology, history of the United States, and good behavior, and such other branches and languages as the advancement of the pupils and the county board may require. The trustees may establish graded schools or such modifications of them as they may deem practicable. The board of any incorporated town or city is empowered to establish kindergartens for children 4 to 0 years of age, cost to be defrayed from local funds. All cities having a population of 3,000 or more shall maintain a night school from 7 to 0 p. m. during the regular school term, open to pupils from 14 to 30 years of age employed in business during the day. In cities of 100,000 population manual training schools may be established. Text-hooks. — The State board of education shall constitute a board of com¬ missioners for the pur])Ose of making a selection or the compilation for use in the common schools of a series of text4)ooks on the foliowing branches : Spell¬ ing, reading, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, physiology, history of the United States, and a graded series of writing books, no book to contain anything of a sectarian character. As soon as the board shall have entered into contract for the furnishing of the books the governor shall announce the fact, and the school trustees of every school corporation within thirty days shall certify to the county superintendent the nund)er required by the schools under their care. The county superintendent makes requisition upon the State superintendent and the latter upon the contractor, who shall, within ninety days, ship the books to the county superintendent, from whom the school trustees shall immediately procure and furnish them to the patrons at the price fixed. It shall be the duty of each townshii) trustee and each school board to furnish the necessary school books to all such indigent children as may desire to attend the schools. Buildings. — The voters shall annually elect one of their number director, who shall serve without pay. lie shall have charge of the school property, under the general concurrence of the trustees (see Organization — Trustees) , and shall make all temporary repairs and provide the necessary fuel, and may expei pupils for cause. When a schoolhouse is unoccupied by a common school of the State and the DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - IOWA. 3ia people who form the school at such house desire that a pi’ivate school he taught therein, and a majority of them make application to the trust(‘e having charge of such house for the use of it for a private school, the use shall ho granted. i)ro- vided the house he vacated when desired for a public school and the i)rivato school teacher rei)ort the number of teachers, of pupils, the coverage attend¬ ance, and the average cost of tuition for each pupil. 'When a majority of the legal voters of any school district desire the use of the schoolhouse the trustee having charge of the same shall authorize the director to ])ermit such use. 4. Finances. Funds (pcrniancnt or special) — Ta.ration. Funds {permanent or special). — The common school fund shall consist of the surplus revenue fund, the saline fund and the lands belonging thereto, the bank-tax fund, and the fund arising from section 1 14 of the charter of the State bank of Indiana, the fund arising from tines assessed for breaches of the penal laws of the State and from all forfeitures which may accrue, all lands and other estate which shall escheat to the State for want of lieirs, all lands granted to the State without designation of a purpose, the proceeds of the sales of swamp lands granted to the State, and taxes on the property of corporations that may be assessed by the general assembly for common school ])urposes. The Congres¬ sional township school fund slmll consist of the fund derived from the sale of Congressional township school lands and the unsold lands belonging thereto. These funds shall never be decreased, but the income shall always be invari¬ ably appropriated to the support of common schools. Taxation. — There shall be assessed annually 11 cents on each $100 on taxable property, real and personal, in the State, irrespective of color, and 50 cents on each taxable poll, for the purpose of supporting a general system of common schools. The trustees of the several townships, towns, and cities shall have power to levy a special tax for the construction, renting, or repairing of schoolhouses, for providing furniture, school apparatus, and fuel, and for the payment of other necessary expenses of the school except tuition; but no tax [for such purposel shall exceed the sum of 50 cents on each $100 worth of property and $1 on each poll in any one year, and the amount derived from the tax shall be denominated the special school revenue. The trustees of the several townships, towns, and cities shall have power annually to levy a tax not exceeding 50 cents on each $100 of taxable property and 25 cents on each taxable poll, which shall con¬ stitute a supplementary tuition fund, to extend the terms of school after the tui¬ tion funds apportioned by the State to such localities shall have been exhausted. They may also lay a special tax to pay debts, but not to exceed 25 cents on each $100 in any one year. IOWA. 1. Organization of the System. State supcruitendent — State hoard of exetent lecturers, and impart such information as will stimulate teachers in their work and better fit them for their duties. Teachers’ associations may occupy schoolhouses. The Maryland State Teachers’ Association is an incorporated body, with power to organize and direct reading circles; to members completing the course of study covering one, two, or three years certificates are issued setting forth the respective facts ; to such members as shall satisfactorily complete the full four-year course the association may grant the honorary degree of master of the science of teaching ; to teachers of learning, merit, and acknowledged professional skill the association may, with the advice and consent of the State board of education, grant the honorary degree of doctor of pedagogy. Training. — (See Schools — ^Normal.) Pensions. — Whenever any person has taught twenty-five years in the public or normal schools of the State, has a record without reproach, has reached the ® Added by the State board under the law providinj? “ But the State board of education may add further requirements * * * wli^iiever the same may seem necessary.” 344 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. age of 60 years, and by reason of physical or mental infirmity is unable lo teach longer, he may lay his case before the State board of education, who, after due investigation, may place such teacher’s name upon the teachers’ retired list. Every person so placed upon said list shall be entitled to receive from the State a pension of $200 per annum, payable quarterly, for which purpose there is a standing appropriation of $10,000 a year. 3. Schools. M iscellaneous provisions — Attendance — Scholastic periods — Studies — Text- hooks — Buildings and grounds — High schools — Manual-training schools — Schools for colored children — Normal schools. Miscellaneous provisions. — Whenever the average attendance of a school is more than 40 an assistant may be employed, and for every additional 40 another teacher may be appointed, dividing pupils so as to form a graded school ; whenever attendance exceeds 100, county board and trustees may estab¬ lish schools of different grades or divide the district. Whenever the average attendance for two consecutive terms is less than 10 (7 in Allegany County), the county board may close the school, or else the trustees may keep the school open in part at the expense of the district, and shall receive their proportion of the school fund for said school, rating a full attendance of 20 scholars. Any person who shall be convicted of disturbing any public school in session shall incur a fine of $20 (payable to the trustees for benefit of the school dis¬ trict) or imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or both. Attendance. — All white youths (see Schools for colored children) between the ages of 6 and 21 shall be admitted into the public schools. Where there are graded schools the teachers and trustees shall determine which school pupils may attend. Children living remote from the school of their own district may attend in an adjoining district by consent of both school hoards. Schools on or near county lines shall be free to children from either county and be main¬ tained jointly by both county boards. (See also preceding paragraph.) Scholastic periods. — The school year is divided into four terms — fall, winter, spring, and summer. Times of beginning and closing each term shall be regu¬ lated by the county board, so as to aggregate ten months of school each year if possible. (See Finances — State tax.) Schools shall be kept open six hours each week day, except Saturday, during such hours as may be determined by the several county boards. The school fiscal year ends July 31. Studies. — In eveiy school shall be taught orthography, reading, writing, Eng¬ lish grammar, geography, arithmetic, history and constitutions of the United States and Maryland, civil government, good behavior, algebra, bookkeeping, natural philosophy, vocal music, drawing, physiology, the laws of health, and domestic economy. The elements of agricultural science may be added by the State board. County boards may cause German to be taught in districts of large German population. In connection with physiology and hygiene special instructions shall be given as to the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics. Public examinations shall be held in each school twice a year, of which due notice shall be given, that parents and others may attend. (See also Teachers — Certificates.) Text-hooks. — Boards of county school commissioners shall adopt text-books, purchase, after inciting competition, and loan them to pupils without charge under proper regulations for their care. Change to free books to be made gradually as new books are needed, beginning with first grade ; no board being I'equired to expend more for such books than the county’s pro rata of a standing appropriation of $150,000 a year : Provided, That indigent pupils in all grades shall receive free books. Parents or pupils who desire may purchase their own books. Any book or series may be changed at the option of the county board. County boards shall report annually to State board the title, publisher, and net cost of each book so purchased, which information shall appear in State board's annual report. No book shall contain anything of a sectarian or partisan char¬ acter. Buildings and grounds. — The boards of county school commissioners shall select sites for location or change of schoolhouses. They may receive donations of such sites, or oT houses already built adapted to school purposes or suitably located, or may purchase same. Where property proves unsuited for school purposes board maj’ sell or lease it and apply proceeds to purchase or lease of DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MARYLAND. 345 property more suitable. If the county board be unable to agree with owners for purchase of lands for location or enlargement of schoolhouse lots, condem¬ nation proceedings may be instituted for same, not to exceed a total area of 1 acre. Schoomouses shall be built and furnished according to plans issued from office of county board. Shall not be used for other than school pur])oses except by consent of said board. District trustees shall see that every schoolhouse is provided with suitable outbuildings. In Washington County no bituminous coal other than lump shall be used, except in a furnace or other heating system wherein coal is burned outside of schoolroom. High schools. — A district, one or more contiguous districts, or a county, may establish a high school, which, after the building has been provided, shall be maintained by the county board, and teachers’ salaries be paid out of the gen¬ eral school fund. If a high school be established by a district or districts, the county board of school commissioners shall appoint three persons who shall con¬ stitute a board of high school commissioners and exercise over such school the authority of district school trustees (which see, under Organization) ; but high schools established by counties shall be under the direct control of the county board. Each high school shall be visited annually by the principal or a pro¬ fessor of the State normal school, and at least once each term by the county examiner. Military tactics may, if practicable, form a department in high schools. (See also Manual training schools.) Manual training schools. — When a suitable building or room or rooms con¬ nected with one or more of the large graded or high schools shall be provided by the county, the board of school commissioners may accept the same and pro¬ vide fop the maintenance of a manual training school or department. When the establishment of a manual training school has been reported to the State board they shall appoint the principal or a teacher of the State normal school to visit the same and give a certificate of approval, upon which certificate the State shall pay toward the maintenance of such school .$50 annually per scholar in average daily attendance, not to exceed $1,500 a year to any county. By August 20 each year the county board shall report to the comptroller the con¬ dition of such schools, number of instructors, and number of pupils enrolled. The State superintendent shall provide an outline for, supervise, and inspect the work done aksuch schools, and certify to the comptroller by August 20 annu¬ ally such as have complied with requirements and are entitled to appropria¬ tions for the ensuing year, and how much ; he shall also report to State board all matters pertaining to manual training in such counties. Schools for colored children. — Shall be established in* each district affording an average attendance of not less than 15, under direction of a special board of trustes appointed by county board, and subject to same general laws as schools for white children. Appropriations for colored schools shall be apportioned per population between 5 and 20 years ; taxes paid for school purposes by colored people of any county shall be devoted to said schools therein. Industrial schools for colored may be established and maintained under like provisions as for white youths. (See Manual training schools.) Normal schools. — There shall be located in Baltimore (another at Erostburg) a State normal school for the instruction and practice of teachers in the science of education, the art of teaching, and the mode of governing schools. It shall be under the control of the State board of education, who shall appoint a princi¬ pal (at $2,500 per annum) and as many teachers and at such salaries as the board may determine, prescribe courses of study, and fix the length of session at not less than nine months in each year. Free scholarships (including use of books) shall be apportioned by State board according to representation in gen¬ eral assembly, students to be selected by the several county boards ; applicants shall procure certificate of the county examiner or city superintendent as to their scholastic proficiency, and shall signify in writing their purpose to engage in teaching within the State, upon failure to fulfill which condition they shall forfeit $30 for each session they may have attended the normal school, to be collected as other debts. The number of such students sent by the State shall not exceed 200, in addition to whom, in the ratio to them of 1 to 2 and until all vacancies in the school have been filled, there may be admitted other persons having the requisite qualifications, who shall pay $25 per session and purchase their own text-books. The State board shall make provision for model and ex¬ perimental primary and grammar schools, in which normal school students shall have opportunity to practice best modes of instruction and discipline. Salaries of teachers in such model schools shall be paid in part from tuition fees derived from pupils attending same. 346 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. 4. Finances. State tax — County tax. State tax. — A State tax of 10 cents on each $100 of taxable property through¬ out the State shall be levied annually for the support of the free public schools, and be collected at the same time and by same agents as the general State levy. On the 1st day of January and October and the 15th day of March and June the treasurer shall pay to the counties the amount to which each is enti¬ tled according to population from 5 to 20 years of age. But if in any county the schools have been kept open less than seven and a half months of the year ended December 31, the March installment of State school tax shall be withheld. ( See also Schools — Scholastic periods ; Organization — County examiner. District school trustees. ) County tax. — If, in apportioning the State school tax among the several coun¬ ties, the share of any county shall prove inadequate to pay the salaries of teach¬ ers therein and provide school books and stationery for the children, then the county commissioners of such county are required to levy and collect such a tax upon the assessable property therein as the board of county school commis¬ sioners shall designate as sufficient to make good the deficiency, not to exceed 10 cents on $100 unless the county commissioners shall sanction an additional tax. Moneys collected in any district by special taxation for school purposes shall be used only for the purposes originally intended. (See also Schools — Build¬ ings and grounds.) MASSACHUSETTS. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard of education — Secretary of the State hoard of education — Agents of the State hoard of education — Commissioners of the State school fund — Town school committee — Town superintendent — Truant officer. « State hoard of education. — The board of education shail consist of the gov¬ ernor and lieutenant-governor, ex officio, and eight other persons, one of whom shall annually in May bje appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent cf the council, for a term of eight years. The board may annually expend not more than $2,300 for clerical and messenger service, which, with the incidental expenses of the board and the exjienses of the members thereof incurred in the performance of their official duties, shall be paid by the Commonwealth. The board may take and hold, in trust for the C'ommonwealth, a grant or devise cf land, or a gift or bequest of money or other personal property made to it for educational purposes ; and shall forthwith pay it over or deliver it to the treasurer and receiver-general, who shall invest such money in the name of the Commonwealth and, on the warrant of the governor, pay to the board the income or principal thereof, as it shall require ; but no disposition shall be made of any gift, bequest, or devise which is inconsistent with its conditions or terms. The State board of education shall prescribe the form of census, of registers to be kept in the public schools, and of returns to be made by school committees ; shall annually make to the general court a report containing a printed abstract of said returns and a detailed report of all the doings of the board,' with obser¬ vations upon the condition and efficiency of the system of public education and suggestions in regard to the most practicable means of improving and extending it. The board shall have the general management of the State normal schools and the boarding houses connected therewith, and money appropriated for their maintenance may be expended under its direction. Secretary of the hoard of education. — The board may appoint a secretary, who, under its direction, shall make the abstract of school returns required by law, shall collect and distribute information respecting the condition and effi¬ ciency of the public schools and other means of popular education, and the best system of studies and the best method of instruction ; shall suggest improve¬ ments in the present system of public schools to the board and to the general court ; shall visit, as often as his other duties will permit, different parts of the Commonwealth for the purpose of arousing and guiding public sentiment in relation to the practical interests of education ; shall collect in his office such school books, apparatus, maps and charts as can be obtained without expense to DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - M ASSACHXTSETTS. 347 the Commonwealth ; shall receive and arrange in his office the reports and returns of the school committees ; and shall receive, preserve or distribute the State documents relative to the public school system. He may also publish for general distribution such parts of the annual report of the board and such other matters as he may consider best adapted to promote the interests of pub¬ lic school education, if the expense thereof is paid out of the appropriation for the incidental and contingent expenses of the board and does not in any one year exceed $500. He shall, under the direction of the board, give sufficient notice of and attend such meetings of teachers of public schools, of members of the school committees of the several towns, and of friends of education generally in jiny county as may assemble at the time and place designated by the board ; and shall at such meetings devote himself to collecting information relative to the condition of the public schools of such county, the fulfillment of their duties by the school committees of all the cities and towns, and the condition of the towns in regard to teachers, pupils, books, apparatus, and methods of education, with a view to enabling him to furnish all information desired for the annual report. He shall receive fin annual salary of $4,000, and $500 for traveling expenses, which shall be paid from the half of the school fund applicable to educational expenses. The incidental and other necessary expenses of his office shall be paid by the Commonwealth. Agents of the hom'd of education. — The board may appoint agents to visit the cities and towns for the purpose of inquiring into the condition of the schools, of conferring with teachers and committees, of lecturing upon subjects con¬ nected with education, and in general of giving and receiving information upon such subjects in the same manner as the secretary. Couimissioners of the fund. — (See Finances — Funds, permanent or special.) Superintendent of puhlic schools. — The school committee of a city or town which is not within an existing union for the employment of a superintendent shall, at the expense of the city or town, employ a superintendent of schools, who, under the direction and control of the committee, shall have the care and supervision of the public schools. The compensation of the superintendent shall not be less than $1.50 for each day of actual service, and shall be deter¬ mined by the school committee. Two or more towns may, by a vote of each, form a district for the purpose of employing a superintendent of public schools therein. Such superintendent shall be annually appointed by a joint committee com¬ posed of the chainuan and secretary of the school committee of each of the towns in said district, who shall determine the relative amount of service to be performed by him in each town, fix his salary, apportion the amount thereof to be paid by the several towns, and certify the same to each town treasurer. The school committees of two or more towns the valuation of each of which is less than $2,500,000 and the aggregate number of schools in all of which is not more than 50 nor less than 25, and the school committee of four or more towns the valuation of each of which does not exceed $2,-500,000, without reference to the minimum limit in the aggregate number of schools aforesaid, shall form a union for the purpose of employing a superintendent of schools. Such union shall not be dissolved for three years after the date of its formation, except by a vote of a majority of the towns constituting the union, nor shall it be dis¬ solved for the reason that the valuation of any one of the towns shall have so increased as to exceed $2,500,000, nor for the reason that the number of schools shall have increased beyond 50 or, in a union of less than four towns, shall have decreased below 25. The school committees of such towns shall be a joint committee, which, for the purposes of such union, shall be the agents of each town therein. The joint committee shall annually, in April, meet at a day and place agreed upon by the chairmen of the committees of the several towns coinprising the union, and shall organize by the choice of a chairman and secretary. They shall choose, by ballot, a superintendent of schools, determine the relative amount of service to be performed by him in each town, fix his salary, apportion the * amount thereof to be paid by the several towns, and certify it to each town treasurer. When the chairman and secretary of such joint committee certify to the auditor of accounts, under oath, that a union has been effected, that the towns, in addition to an amount equal to the average of the total amount paid, or to the amount paid for each child, by the several towns for schools during the three years then last preceding, unitedly have apj)ropriated and raised by tax¬ ation not less than $750 for the support of a superintendent of schools, and that 348 EDUCATION REPORT, 19C4. a superintendent of schools has been employed for one year, a warrant shall, upon the approval of the certificate by the board of education, be drawn upon the treasurer and receiver-general for the payment of $1,250, three-fifths of which shall be paid for the salary of such superintendent, and two-fifths thereof shall be apportioned and distributed to the towns forming such union on the basis of the amount appropriated and expended for a superintendent in such towns for the preceding year and shall be paid for the salaries of teachers em¬ ployed in the public schools therein. There shall be annually appropriated by the Commonwealth such amount as may be necessary to carry out the provisions relating to union superintendencies. Towns whose valuation exceeds $2,500,000 may participate in a union in the same manner, and subject to the same terms, conditions, and benefits as towns having such limited valuation, except that the allowance by the Commonwealth in aid of said union shall not be made to the entire union, but shall first be apportioned to the several towns upon the basis of the amount appropriated by them respectively for the support of a superintendent of schools for the preceding year, and the wan-ant upon the treasurer and receiver-general shall then be drawn in favor of and only for the portions so assigned to those towns of the union whose valuation at the time of said union did not exceed the limit provided, namely, $2,500,000. If the valuation of a town in a union superintendency shall so increase as to exceed $3,500,000, such increase shall have the same effect as if the valuation of said town had exceeded $2,500,000 at the date of the formation of such union. The State board of education is authorized to form or readjust unions of towns for the employment of superintendents of schools whenever in its judg¬ ment it becomes imperatively necessary to include a town which is otherwise unable to comply with the law. In carrying out the provisions of this act the board may allow the formation of unions with a number of schools less than 25, and in no case shall the readjustment deprive any town of its right to aid under the law. Town school committee. — Every town shall at its annual meeting, or at a meeting held in the same month in which the annual town meeting occurs, choose members of the school committee, which committee shall consist of any number of persons divisible by three which said town has decided to elect, one-third thereof to be elected annually and to continue in office three years. If a town fails or neglects to choose such committee, an election at a subsequent meeting shall be valid, and the town may, at its annual meeting, vote to increase or diminish the number of its school committee ; and any town in which ballots for town officers are provided at the expense of the town may vote so to change the number of its school committee at a meeting, other than the annual meeting, called for the purpose and held thirty days at least before the annual meeting at which such change is to become operative. Such increase shall be made by adding one or more to each class, to hold office according to the tenure of the class to which they are severally chosen. Such diminution shall be made by choosing anually such number as will in three years effect it, and a vote to diminish shall remain in force until the diminution under it is accomplished. Women shall be eligible to serve on the school committee. (By this section the school committee have general charge and superintendence of the schools, as the chief justice of the Commonwealth remarked from the bench upon the question regarding a sufficient number of schools : “ There being no specific direction how schools shall be organized ; how many schools shall be kept ; what shall be the qualificjitions for admission to the schools ; the age at which children may enter ; the age to which they may continue — these must all be regulated by the commit¬ tee under their power of general superintendence.’') In towns which are in union superintendencies and which vote to authorize the school committee to receive compensation the members of the committee shall each be paid $2.50 a day for the time actually occupied in performing the duties of the office, and such additional compensation as the town may allow. In other towns and in cities they shall receive no compensation. Truant officers. — The school committee of every city and town shall appoint * and fix the compensation of one or more truant officers, and shall make regula¬ tions for their government. Truant officers shall not receive fees for their services. The school committees of two or more cities or towns may employ the same truant oflicers. Truant officers shall inquire into all cases of truancy, and may make com¬ plaints and serve legal processes. They shall have the oversight of children placed on probation, and may apprehend and take to school, without a warrant, DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MASSACHUSETTS. 349 any truant or absentee found Avandering about in the streets or public places thereof. 2. Teachers. Apiwintment, qualificatious, and duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — The school committee shall select and contract with the teachers of the public schools, shall require full and satis¬ factory evidence of their moral character, and shall ascertain by personal examination their qualihcations for teaching and their capacity for the govern¬ ment of schools ; or in lieu thereof may accept the diplomas granted by the State normal schools of this Commonwealth to their graduates or the certificate issued by the State board of education The State board of education shall, at convenient times and places designated by it, cause public examinations to be held of (-andidates for the position of teacher in the public schools. Such examinations shall test the professional as well as the scholastic abilities of candidates, and shall be conducted by the per¬ sons and in the manner designated by the board. Public notice of the time, place, and other conditions of the examinations shall be given in such manner as the board may determine. A certificate of qualification shall be given to all candidates who pass satis¬ factory examinations in such l>ranches as are re^iuired l).v law to be taught in the public schools and who in other respects fulfill the requirements of the board. Such certificate shall be either probationary or permanent, and shall indicate the grade of school in which the candidate is qualified to teach. A list of approved candidates shall be kept in the office of the secretary of the board, and copies thereof, with such information as may be desired, shall be sent to school committees at their request An amount not exceeding $500 may be annually expended in carrying out the provisions of the three preceding sections. Every teacher shall, before he opens any public school, obtain from the school committee a certificate in duplicate of his qualifications, one of which shall be deposited with the selectmen, or, in a city, with the auditor or treasurer or with any officer who may be prescribed in the charter, before any payment is made to him on account of his services, and upon so filing such certificate he shall be entitled to receive, on demand, his wages due at the expiration of any quarter, or term longer or shorter than a quarter, or upon the close of any single term of service, subject to the fol¬ lowing provision : No teacher of a pul3lic school shall receive payment for services for the two weeks preceding the close of any term until the register, properly filled up and completed, is so returned. Preliminary training. — [The board of education by vote May G, 1880, stated the design of the normal schools to be as follows : “ The design of the normal schools is strictly professional ; that is, to prepare in the best possible manner the pupils for the work of organizing, governing, and teaching the public schools of the Commonwealth. To this end there must be the most thorough knowledge of the branches of learning required to be taught in the schools, of the best methods of teaching those branches, of right mental training.” The time required for the completion of the elementary course in the State normal schools depends upon the students. It may not exceed two years for those of satisfactory preparation and superior ability ; for others three years are needed to do the work properly. In many cases more than two years are insisted upon. A diploma is given when the course is satisfactorily completed. The board of visitors (composed of members of the State board of education) and the principal of any normal school may arrange for its students a third year of study and of practice in teaching whenever, in their judgment, such action is desirable. The object is a more complete mastery of the topics arranged for the regular two years’ course, as well as further experience in teaching. There is a four years’ course provided for, which includes two years’ work in the subjects of the elementary course and two years’ work in the languages and advanced English studies. It is a distinct course from the beginning.] Institutes and meetings. — If 25 teachers of public schools in at least three contiguous towns desire to form a teachers’ institute, the board of education shall, by a committee, by its secretary, or in case of his inability by such person as it may delegate, appoint a time and place for such meeting and make suitable arrangements therefor. An amount not exceeding $3,000 may annually be paid from the treasury 350 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. of the Commonwealth to defray the necessary expenses and charges and to procure teachers and lecturers for such institutes. The board of education may determine the length of the session of such institute and may apply not more than .$350 to meet the expenses thereof. If a county association of teachers and others holds an annual meeting of not less than one day for the express purpose of promoting the interests of public schools, it shall, upon filing with the governor a certificate under oath of its president and secretary that a meeting had been so held, receive $25 from the Commonwealth. If the Dukes County Educational Association holds an annual meeting of not less than three days for the express purpose of promoting the interests of the public schools, it shall, upon filing with the governor a certificate of the presi¬ dent and secretary of such association, under oath, that an annual meeting has been held in accordance with the provisions of this section, receive $50 from the Commonwealth. Subject to the approval of the board of education, $300 shall annually be allowed and paid from the treasury of the Commonwealth to the president or treasurer of the Massachusetts Teachers’ Association, to be applied to the purposes of said association. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings — Nautical traini)ig school. Attendance. — Every child between 7 and 14 years of age shall attend some public day school in the city or town in which he resides during the entire time the public day schools are in session, subject to such exceptions as to children, places of attendance, and schools as are provided for hereinafter. The superin¬ tendent of schools or, if there is no superintendent of schools, the school com¬ mittee, or teachers acting under authority of said superintendent or commit¬ tee, may excuse cases of necessary absence. The attendance of a child upon a public day school shall not be required if he has attended for a like period of time a private day school approved by the school committee of such city or town in accordance with the provisions of the following section, or if he has been otherwise instructed for a like period of time in the branches of learning required by law to be taught in the public schools, or if he has already acquired such branches of learning, or if his physical or mental condition is such as to render such attendance inexpedient or impracticable. Every person having under his control a child as described herein shall cause him to attend school as herein required ; and if he fails for five day sessions or ten half-day sessions within any period of six months while under such control to cause such child, whose physical or mental condition is not such as to render his attendance at school harmful or impracticable, so to attend school, he shall, upon complaint by a truant ofiicer and conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not more than $20. Whoever induces or attempts to induce a child to absent himself unlaw¬ fully from school or employs or harbors a child who, while school is in session, is absent unlawfully from school, shall be punished by a fine of not more than $50. For the purposes of the preceding section school committees shall approve a private school only when the instruction in all the studies required by law is in the English language, and when they are satisfied that such instruction equals in thoroughness and efficiency and in the progress made therein the instruction in the public schools in the same city or town ; but they shall not refuse to approve a private school on account of the religious teaching therein. Every child shall have the right to attend the public schools in the city or town in which his parent or guardian has a legal residence or in which the child him- vself actually resides, subject to such reasonable regulations as to the numbers and qualifications of pupils to be admited to the respective schools and as to other school matters as the school committee shall from time to time prescribe. No child shall be excluded from a public school of any city or town on account of race, color, or religion. If a child resides in a city or town other than that of the legal residence of his parent or guardian for the sole purpose of there attending school, his parent or guardian shall be liable to said city or town for his tuition while attending school in said city or town to an amount equal to the average expense of such school for each pupil during the preceding year, for a period equal to the time during which the child so attends, unless the city or town in which the parent or guardian resides is required to pay for said tuition. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MASSACHUSETTS. 351 For tlie tuition in tiie imblic schools in any city or town of a child between the ages of 5 and 15 years who shall be placed elsewhere than in his own home by the State board of charity, or by the trustees of the Lyman and industrial schools, or kept under the control of either of said boards in said city or town, the Commonwealth shall pay to said city or town, and for such tuition of any such child so placed by the trustees for children of the city of Boston, or so kept under the control of said trustees, the city of Boston from its appropria¬ tion for school purposes shall pay to said city or town, 50 cents for each week of five days, or major part thereof, of attendance of every such child in the pub¬ lic schools. For the transportation to and from a public school of any child whose tuition is payable by the Commonwealth or by the city of Boston under the provisions of this section the Commonwealth or the city of Boston, as the case may be, shall pay to the city or town furnishing such transportation, for each week of five days, or major part thereof, an amount equal to the average amount for each child paid by said city or town per week for the transporta¬ tion of children to and from school over the route by which such child is con¬ veyed. Settlements of the accounts of the several cities and towns with the Commonwealth and with the city of Boston shall be made annually on the 1st day of April, and the amounts found due shall be paid within three months thereafter. The money received by said cities and towns under the provisions of this section shall be applied to the support of schools. For the tuition in the public schools in any town of less than 10,000 inhabitants of any child between the ages of 5 and 15 years not theretofore resident in such town, who is an inmate of an institution containing more than six inmates, said town may recover from said institution the extra school expense incurred, as may be deter¬ mined jointly by the school committee of said town and the trustees or man¬ agers of said institution, or, in case of disagreement between said school com¬ mittee and said trustees or managers, as may be decreed by the probate court; but no demand shall be made upon said trustees or managers without a vote of the town instructing the school committee to that effect. Any child, with the consent of the school committee of the city or town in which he resides, may attend, at the expense of said city or town, the public schools of another city or town, upon such terms as may be satisfactory to the school committees of the cities or towns in interest. A child who has not been vaccinated shall not be admitted to a public school except upon presentation of a certificate signed by a regular practicing physi¬ cian that he is not a fit subject for vaccination. A child who is a member of a household in which a person is ill with smallpox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, or measles, or of a household exposed to such contagidn from another household as aforesaid, shall not attend any public school during such illness or until the teacher of the school has been furnished with a certificate from the board of health of the city or town, or from the attending physician of such person, stating that, in a case of smallpox, diphtheria, or scarlet fever, at least two weeks, and in a case of measles, at least three days, have elapsed since the recov¬ ery, removal, or death of such person, and that danger of conveying such disease by such child has passed. The parent, guardian, or custodian of a child who has been refused admis¬ sion to or excluded from the public schools shall on application therefor be fur¬ nished by the school committee with a statement in writing of the reasons for the exclusion. After a statement has been so furnished a child who has been so refused admission to or excluded from said schools may recover damages from the city or town in an action of tort for unlawful exclusion, and may examine any member of the school committee or any other officer of the defendant city or town, upon interrogatories, as if he were a party to the action. A school committee shall not permanently exclude a pupil from the public schools for alleged misconduct without first giving him an opportunity to be heard. The county commissioners of each county, except the counties of Barnstable, Berkshire, Dukes County, and Nantucket, shall maintain either separately or jointly with the commissioners of other counties as hereinafter provided, in a suitable place, not at or near a penal institution, a truant school for the instruc¬ tion and training of children committed thereto as habitual truants, absentees or school offenders. The county commissioners of two or more counties may, at the expense of said counties, establish and maintain a union truant school which shall be organized and controlled by the chairmen of the county com¬ missioners of said counties. The chairmen of the respective boards of county commissioners of the counties of Norfolk, Bristol, and Plymouth, having the man- 352 EDUCATIOT^ REPOKT, 1904. jigement of the Norfolk, Bristol, and Plymouth union truant school, shall each be paid the sum of $100 annually by said counties, respectively. The county commissioners of the counties of Barnstable, Berkshire, Dukes County, and Nantucket shall assign a truant school established by law as the place for the instruction and training of children committed within their respective counties as habitual truants, absentees or school offenders, and shall pay for their sup¬ port in said school such reasonable sum as the county commissioners having control of said school may determine. For the purposes of this chapter the parental school of the city of Boston shall be deemed the county truant school of the county of Suffolk, and commitments from the towns of Revere and Win- throp and the city of Chelsea shall be to the truant school for the county of Middlesex. The city or town from which an habitual truant, absentee, or school offender is committed to a county truant school shall pay to the county within which it is located $1 a week toward his support ; but the towns of Revere and Winthrop and the city of Chelsea shall pay to the county of Middle¬ sex, for the support of each child committed to the truant school of said county, $2.50 a week, and such additional sums for each child as shall cover the actual cost of maintenance. County truant schools shall be subject to visitation by the board of education and by the State board of charity, and said boards shall report thereon an¬ nually to the general court. A child between 7 and 14 years of age who willfully and habitually absents himself from school contrary to the provisions of law shall be deemed to be an habitual truant, and, upon complaint by a truant officer and conviction thereof, may, if a boy, be committed to a county truant school for not more than two years and, if a girl, to the State industrial school for girls, unless such child is placed on probation. A child between 7 and Id years of age who may be found wandering about in the streets or public places of any city or town, having no lawful occupation, habitually not attending school, and growing up in idleness and ignorance, shall be deemed to be an habitual absentee, and, upon complaint by a truant officer or any other person and conviction thereof, may, if a boy, be committed to a county truant school for not more than two years or to the Lyman school for boys, and, if a girl, to the State industrial school for girls, unless such child is placed on probation. A child under 14 years of age who 'persistently violates the reasonable regu¬ lations of the school which he attends, or otherwise persistently misbehaves therein, so as to render hknself a fit subject for exclusion therefrom, shall be deemed to be an habitual school offender, and, upon complaint by a truant officer and conviction thereof, may, if a boy, be committed to a county truant school for not more than two years or to the Lyman school for boys, and, if a girl, to the State industrial school for girls, unless such child is placed on probation. The court or magistrate by whom a child has been committed to a county truant school may make an order relative to the payment by his parents to the county of the cost of his support while in said school, and may from time to time revise and alter such order or make a new order, as the circumstances of the parents may justify. A court or magistrate by whom a child has been convicted of an offense under the provisions of this chapter may place such child on probation under the over¬ sight of a truant officer of the city or town in which the child resides, or of a probation officer of said court, for such period and upon such conditions as said court or magistrate may deem best; and if, within such period, the child vio¬ lates the conditions of his probation, such truant officer or probation officer may, without warrant or other process, take the child before the court, and the court may thereupon sentence him or may make any other lawful disposition of the case. County commissioners, if they think it will be for the best interest for any child who has been committed to a county truant school under their control, after notice and an opportunity to be heard has been given to the superintend¬ ent of schools, or, if there is no supei'intendent, to the school committee of the city or town from which such child was committed to said school, may permit him to be at liberty upon such conditions as said commissioners may deem best ; or, with the approval of the court which imposed the sentence, they may dis¬ charge him from said school ; and upon such parole or discharge they shall make an entry upon their records of the name of such child, the date of parole or discharge, and the reason therefor ; and a copy of such record shall be trans¬ mitted to the court or magistrate by whom such child was committed and to DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MASSACHUSETTS. 353 the school coiniiiittee of the city or town from which he was committed. If such child, in the opinion of said commissioners, violates the conditions of his parole at any time previous to the expiration of the term for which he was com¬ mitted to said school, such parole may be revoked. If a superintendent of schools or a school committee furnishes evidence satisfactory to said commis¬ sioners of the violation by a child of the conditions of his parole, said commis¬ sioners shall revoke such parole, and maj" thereupon issue an order directed to the truant or police officers of any city or town to arrest such child wherever found and return him to said school. Such officer shall arrest such child and return him to said school, where he shall be held, subject to the provisions of this chapter, for the residue of the term of the original sentence. The expense of such arrest and return, so far as approved by the commissioners, shall be paid by the county or counties maintaining said school. Releases from the parental school of the city of Boston shall be governed by the provisions of chapter 514 of the acts of the year 1896, and shall be made by the trustees for children who shall have Jind exercise the powers given by said chapter to the institutions commissioner of said city. If a near relation of a child who is confined on a sentence as an habitual tru¬ ant, habitual absentee, or habitual school offender dies or is seriously ill, a court or trial justice which has jurisdiction of such offenses may order such child to be released for a si)ecified time, either with or without the custody of the superintendent or other officer, and may revoke, extend, or otherwise modify such order. The expenses incurred in serving such order shall be approved and paid in the same maimer as other expenses of the institution in which the child is confined. An inmate of a county truant school or of the parental school of the city of Boston who persistently violates the reasonable regulations thereof, or is guilty of indecent or immoral conduct, or otherwise grossly misbehaves, so as to ren¬ der himself an unfit subject for retention therein, may, upon complaint by the officer in control of said school and conviction thereof, if under 15 years of age, be committed to the Lyman school for boys ; if over 15 years of age, to the Massachusetts reformatory. Police, district, and municipal courts and trial justices shall have jurisdiction of offenses arising under the provisions of the law relating to school attend¬ ance and truancy. A summons or warrant issued by such court or justice may be served, at the discretion of the court or magistrate, by a truant officer or by any officer qualified to serve criminal process. LTpon complaint against a child for any such offense the parents, guardian, or custodian of the child shall be notified. A child against whom complaint as an habitual absentee is brought by any other person than a truant officer shall not be committed until notice and an opportunity to be heard have been given to the State board of charity. No child under the age of 14 years shall be employed in any factory, workshop or mercantile establishment. No such child shall be employed at work performed for wages or other compensation, to whomsoever payable, dur¬ ing the hours when the public schools of the city or town in which he resides are in session, nor be employed at work before 6 o'clock in the morning or after 7 o’clock in the evening. No child under 16 years of age shall be employed in a factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment unless his employer procures and keeps on file, acces¬ sible to the truant officers of the city or town, and to the district police and inspectors of factories and public buildings, an age and schooling certificate and keeps two complete lists of all such minors employed therein, one on file and one consi)icuously posted near the principal entrance of the building in which such children are employed, and also keeps on file and sends to the superintendent of schools or, if there is no superintendent, to the school com¬ mittee a complete list of the names of all minors employed therein who can not read at sight and write legibly simple sentences in the English language. An age and schooling certificate shall be approved only by the superintendent of schools or by a person authorized by him in writing, or if there is no super¬ intendent of schools, by a person authorized by the school committee ; but no member of a school committee or other person authorized as aforesaid shall approve such certificate for any minor then in or about to enter his own employment or the employment of a firm or corporation of which he is a mem¬ ber, officer, or employee. The person who approves the certificate may admin¬ ister the oath provided for therein, but no fee shall be charged therefor. ED 1904 M - 23 354 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. An age and schooling certificate shall not be approved unless satisfactory evidence is furnished by the last school census, the certificate of birth or bap¬ tism of such minor, the register of birth of such minor with a city or town clerk, or in some other manner, that such minor is of the age stated in the certificate. The age and schooling certificate of a minor under 16 years of age shall not be approved and signed until he presents to the person who is authorized to approve and sign it an employment ticket duly filled out and signed. A dupli¬ cate of each age and schooling certificate shall be filled out and shall be kept on file by the school committee. Any explanatory matter may, in the discre¬ tion of the school committee or superintendent of schools, be printed with such certificate. The employment ticket and the age and schooling certificate shall be separately printed, and shall be filled out, signed, and held or surrendered, as indicated in the following forms : Employment Ticket, Revised Laws, c. 106, § 32, When [name of minor] , height [feet and inches] , complexion [fair or dark], hair [color] , presents an age and schooling certificate duly signed, I intend to employ [him or her]. (Signature of intending employer or agent.) (Town or city and date.) Age and Schooling Certificate, Revised Laws, c. 106, § 32. This certifies that I am the [father, mother, guardian, or custodian] of [name of minor] , and that [he or she] was born at [name of city or town] , in the county of [name of county, if known] , and state [or country] of , on the [day and year of birth] , and is now [number of years and months] old. (Signature of father, mother, guardian, or custodian.) (City or town and date.) Then personally appeared before me the above-named [name of person signing] , and made oath that the foregoing certificate by [him or her] signed is true to the best of [his or her] knowledge and belief. I hereby approve the foregoing certifi¬ cate of [name of minor] , height [feet and inches] , complexion [fair or dark], hair [color] , having no sufficient reason to doubt that [he or she] is of the age therein certified. I hereby certify that [he or she] [can or cannot] read at sight and [can or cannot] write legibly simple sentences in the English language. This certificate belongs to [name of minor in whose behalf it is drawn] , and is to be surrendered to [him or her] whenever [he or she] leaves the service of the cor¬ poration or employer holding the same ; but if not claimed by said minor within thirty days from such time, it shall be returned to the superintendent of schools, or, if there is no superintendent of schools, to the school committee. (Signature of person authorized to approve and sign, with official character or authority.) (City or town and date.) In the case of a minor who cannot read at sight and write legibly simple sentences in the English language, the certificate shall continue as follows, after the word “ lan¬ guage : ” I hereby certify that [he or she] is regularly attending the [name] public evening school. This certificate shall continue in force only so long as the regular attendance of said minor at the evening school is indorsed weekly by a teacher thereof. Whoever, being authorized to sign the foregoing certificate, knowingly certifie.s to any materially false statement therein shall be punished by a fine of not more than $50. Whoever employs a minor under 16 years of age, and whoever having under his control a minor under such age permits such minor to be employed, in viola¬ tion of the provisions of law, shall for such offense be punished by a fine of not more than $50 ; and whoever continues to employ a minor in violation of the law, after being notified by a truant officer or an inspector of factories and public buildings thereof, shall for every day thereafter that such employment continues be punished by a fine of not less than $5 nor more than $20. A failure to i)ro- duce to a truant officer or inspector of factories and public buildings an age and schooling certificate or list required by law shall be prima facie evidence of the illegal employment of any person whose age and schooling certificate is not produced or whose name is not so listed. A corporation or employer who retains an age and schooling certificate in violation of the provisions of said certificate shall be punished by a fine of $10. Truant officers may visit the factories, workshops, and mercantile establish¬ ments in their several cities and towns and ascertain whether any minors are DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MASSACHUSETTS. 355 employed therein contrary to the provisions of this chapter, and shall report any cases of such illegal emijloyment to the school committee and to the chief of the district police or to the inspector of factories and public buildings. Inspectors of factories and public buildings and truant officers may require that the age and schooling certificates and lists of minors who are employed in such factories, workshops, or mercantile establishments shall be produced for their inspection. Complaints for offenses under the provisions of this chapter shall be made by inspectors of factories and public buildings. While a public evening school is maintained in the city or town in which any minor who is over 14 years of age and who does not have a certificate signed by the superintendent of schools, or by the school committee, or by some person acting under authority thereof, certifying to the minor’s ability to read at sight and write legibly simple sentences in the English language resides, no person shall employ him, and no parent, guardian, or custodian shall permit him to be employed unless he is a regular attendant at such evening school or at a day school ; but, upon presentation by such minor of a certificate signed by a registered practicing physician and satisfactory to the superintendent of schools, or, if there is no such superintendent, to the school committee, showing that his physical condition would render such attendance in addition to daily labor prejudicial to his health, said superintendent or school committee shall issue a permit authorizing the employment of such minor for such period as said superintendent or school committee may deter¬ mine. Said superintendent or school committee, or teachers acting under authority thereof, may excuse any absence from such evening school which arises from justifiable cause. Any minor not holding the certificate described above shall furnish to his employer a record of his school attendance each week while the evening school is in session, and’ when this record shows unex¬ cused absences from the sessions his attendance shall be deemed irregular according to this act. Whoever employs a minor in violation of the provisions of this section shall forfeit not more than $100 for each offense to the use of the evening schools of such city or town. A parent, guardian, or custodian who permits a minor under his control to be employed in violation of the pro¬ visions of this section shall forfeit not more than $20 to the use of the evening schools of sucli city or town. No person shall employ, exhibit, sell, apprentice, or give away a child under 15 years of age for the purpose of employing or exhibiting him in dancing on the stage, playing on musical instruments, singing, walking on a wire or ro])e, or riding or performing as a gymnast, contortionist, or acrobat in a circus, theatrical exhibition, or in any public place, or cause, procure, or encourage sucli child to engage therein ; but the provisions of this section shall not pre¬ vent the education of children in vocal and instrumental music or dancing, or their employment as musicians in a church, chapel, school, or school exhibition, or prevent their taking part in any festival, concert, or musical exhibition, upon the special written permission of the mayor and aldermen of a city or of the selectmen of a town. Whoever violates the- provisions of this section shall be punished by a fine of not more than $200 or by imprisonment for not more^ than six months. A license shall not be granted for a theatrical exhibition or public show in which children under 15 years of age are employed as acrobats or contor¬ tionists or in any feats of gymnastics or equestrianism, or in which such children who belong to the public schools are employed or allowed to take part as performers on the stage in any capacity, or if, in the opinion of the board authorized to grant licenses, such children are employed in such a manner as to corrupt their morals or impair their health ; but the provisions of this section shall not prevent the granting of special permission authorized by the preceding section. If it appears to the judge of probate of any county that a minor under 14 years of age resident therein is without a guardian and is entirely abandoned, or is treated with gross and habitual cruelty by his parent or other person who has the care or custody of him, or that he is illegally deprived of his liberty, he may for such period as he sees fit appoint the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children as his guardian, and may at any time, for good cause, revoke such appointment. Said society, upon such appointment, shall be entitled to the exclusive custody of said child, but shall not be entitled to the management of his property. The parents, surviving parent, or guardian of a child under 14 years of age, if unable to support him, may by an agreement in writing, fixing the terms of the 356 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. custody, place him in the charge of said society, which shall thereupon have custody of him as provided in the preceding section. A police, district or municipal court, or a trial justice, upon a complaint made by any person that any child under IG years of age within its or his jurisdiction, by reason of orphanage or of neglect, crime, or drunkenness, or other vice of its parents, is growing up without education or without salutary control, or in cir¬ cumstances exposing him to lead an idle and dissolute life, or is dependent upon public charity, may issue a precept to bring such child before said court or trial justice, and shall issue a notice to the State board of charity and shall also issue a summons requiring the board or person to whom such notice or summons is directed to appear before said court or trial justice at the time and place stated in the notice and summons, to show cause why such child should not be com¬ mitted to the State board of charity, or be otherwise provided for. Character of the instruction. — Every city and town shall maintain, for at least thirty-two weeks in each year, a sufficient number of schools for the in¬ struction of all the cliildren who may legally attend a public school therein, ex¬ cept that in towns whose assessed valuation is less than $200,000 the required period may, with the consent of the board of education, be reduced to twenty- eight weeks. Such schools shall be taught by teachers of competent ability and good morals, and shall give instruction in orthography, reading, writing, the English language and grammar, geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United States, physiology and hygiene, and good behavior. In each of the sul)jects of physiology and hygiene special instruction as to the effects of alco¬ holic drinks and of stimulants and narcotics on the human system shall be taught as a regular branch of study to all pupils in all schools which are sup¬ ported wholly or partly by public money, except schools which are maintained solely for instruction in particular branches. Bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, one or more foreign languages, the elements of the natural sciences, kindergar¬ ten training, manual training, agriculture, sewing, cooking, vocal music, physical training, civil government, ethics, and such other subjects as the school commit¬ tee consider expedient may be taught in the public schools. A town of less than 500 families or householders in which a public high school or a public school of corresponding grade is not maintained shall pay for the tuition of any child who resides in said town and who, with the previous approval of the school committee of his town, attends the high school of another town or city. If such town neglects or refuses to pay for such tuition it shall be liable therefor to the parent or guardian of a child who has been furnished with such tuition if the parent or guardian has paid for the same, and otherwise to the city or town furnishing the same, in an action of contract. If the school committee of a town in which a public high school or public school of corre sponding grade is not maintained refuses, upon the completion by a pupil resi¬ dent therein of the course of study provided by it, to approve his attendance in the high school of some other city or town which he, in the opinion of the super¬ intendent of schools of the town in which he is resident is qualified to enter, the town shall be liable in an action of contract for his tuition. A town whose valu- ♦ation is less than $750,000 shall be entitled to receive from the treasury of the Commonwealth all necessary amounts, and a town whose valuation exceeds $750,000, but whose number of families is less than 500, shall be entitled to re¬ ceive from the treasury of the Commonwealth half of all necessary amounts which have actually been expended for high school tuition under the provisions of this section : Provided, That such expenditure shall be certified under oath to the board of education by its school committee within thirty days after the date of such expenditure ; but if a town of less than 500 families maintains a high school of its own of the character described m section 2 of this chapter and employs at least two teachers therein, it shall be entitled to receive annually from the treasury of the Commonwealth toward the support of such high school the sum of $300. No town the valuation of which averages a larger sum for each pupil in the average membership of its public schools than the correspond¬ ing average for the Commonwealth shall receive money from the Commonwealth under the provisions of this section ; and no expenditure shall be made by the Commonwealth on account of high school instruction under the provisions of this section unless the high school in which such instruction is furnished has been approved by the board of education. A town of less than 500 families or householders in which a public high school or public school of corresponding grade is not maintained shall pay for the tui¬ tion of any child who resides in said town and who, with the previous approval of the school committee of his town attends the high school of another town or DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MASSACHUSETTS. 357 city. If such town neglects or refuses to pay for such tuition, it shall be liable therefor to the parent or guardian of a child who has been furnished with such tuition if the parent or guardian has paid for the same, and otherwise to the city or town furnishing the same, in an action of contract. If the school committee of a town in which a public high school or public school of corresponding grade is not maintained refuses, ui)on the completion by a pupil resident therein of the course of study provided by it, to approve his attendance in the high school of some other city or town which he, in the opinion of the superintendent of schools of the town in which he is resident is qualified to enter, the town shall be liable in an action of contract for his tuition. A town whose valuation does not exceed $500,000 shall be entitled to receive from the treasury of the Com¬ monwealth all necessary amounts which have been actually expended for high school tuition under the provisions of this section, if such expenditure shall be certified under oath to the board of education by its school committee within thirty days after the date of such expenditure, and such high school shall have been approved by the board of education. Two adjacent towns, each having less than 500 families or householders, may vote to form one high school district for establishing a high school. The school committees of such towns shall elect one person from each of their respective boards, and the persons so elected shall form the committee for the management and control of such school, with all the powers of school committees. Such committee shall determine the location of the schoolhouse, if one is authorized, to be built by the towns of such high school district ; otherwise it shall authorize the location of such school alternately in the two towns. The proportion to be paid by each town for the erection of a permanent school- house for such school, for its support and maintenance, and for all incidental expenses attending the same, unless otherwise agreed, shall be according to its proportion of the county tax. Two or more towns may severally vote to establish union schools for the accommodation of such contiguous portions of each as shall be mutually agreed upon. The management and control of such schools, the location of the same or of the schoolhouses therefor, and the apportionment of the ex})enses of erect¬ ing such schoolhouses, and of the support and maintenance of said schools, with all expenditures incident to the same, shall be governed by the provisions of the three preceding sections. Every city and town containing 20,000 inhabitants or more shall maintain the teaching of manual training as part of both its elementary and its high school system. A town may establish and maintain one or more industrial schools, and the school committee shall employ the teachers, prescribe the arts, trades, and occu¬ pations to be taught therein, and have the general control and management thereof; but it shall not expend for any such school an amount exceeding the appropriation specifically made therefor, nor compel a pupil to study any trade, aid, or occupation without the consent of his parent or guardian. Attendance upon such school shall not take the place of the attendance upon public schools required by law. Any town may, and every city or town of 10,000 or more inhabitants shall, maintain annually evening schools for the instruction of persons over 14 years of age in orthography, reading, writing, the English language and grammar, geography, arithmetic, industrial drawing, both free-hand and mechanical, the history of the United States, physiology and hygiene, and good behavior. Such other subjects may be taught in such schools as the school committee consider expedient. Every city of 50,000 or more inhabitants shall maintain annually an evening high school, in which shall be taught such subjects as the school committee thereof consider expedient, if 50 or more residents, 14 years of age or over, who are competent, in the opinion of the school committee, to pursue high school studies shall petition in writing for an evening high school and certify that they desire to attend such school. The school committee shall, two weeks next before the opening of each term of the evening schools, post in three or more public places of their city or town notice of the location of said schools, the date of the beginning of the term, the evenings of the week on which they shall be kept, such regulations as to attend¬ ance as they deem proper, and the provisions of the law relating to the attend¬ ance upon evening schools of illiterate minors over 14 years of age. The school committee may employ competent persons to deliver lectures on the 358 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. natural sciences, history, and kindred subjects, and may provide cards or pamphlets giving the titles and authors of books of reference on the subject- matter of said lectures which are contained in the local public libraries. The school committee of a city or town may establish and maintain schools to be kept open during the whole or any part of the summer vacation ; but at¬ tendance thereon shall not be compulsory or be considered as a part of the school attendance recpiired by law. A town may establish and maintain, upon shore or upon vessels at the election of the school committee, one or more schools fol* training young men or boys in nautical duties ; such schools shall be subject to the direction of the school com¬ mittee under the law, except that the school committee may excuse boys attend¬ ing such nautical schools from attendance on other schools. In every public school having an average of 50 pupils one or more female assistants shall be employed unless the town votes otherwise. The president, professors, and tutors of the university at Cambridge and of the several colleges, all preceptors and teachers of academies, and all other instructors of youth shall exert their best endeavors to impress on the minds of children and youth committed to their care and instruction the principles of piety and justice and a sacred' regard for truth, love of their country, humanity and universal benevolence, sobriety, industry and frugality, chastity, modera¬ tion and temperance, and those other virtues which are the ornament of human society and the basis upon which a republican constitution is founded ; and they shall endeavor to lead their pupils, as their ages and capacities will admit, into a clear understanding of the tendency of the above-mentioned virtues to pre¬ serve and perfect a republican constitution and secure the blessings of liberty as well as to promote their future happiness, and also to point out to them the evil tendency of the opposite vices. A portion of the Bible shall be read daily in the public schools, without writ¬ ten note or oral comment ; but a pupil whose parent or guardian informs the teacher in writing that he has conscientious scruples against it shall not be required to read from any particular version or to take any personal part in the reading. The school committee shall not purchase or use schoolbooks in the public schools calculated to favor the tenets of any particular religious sect. In all the public schools the last regular session, or a portion thereof, prior to the 30th day of May, known as Memorial Day, shall be devoted to patriotic exercises. No person shall, in the presence of a pupil in any public school or of a minor there present, practice vivisection or exhibit an animal which has been vivi¬ sected. Dissection of dead animals or of any portions thereof in the public schools shall be confined to the class room and to the presence of pupils engaged in the study to be illustrated thereby and shall in no case be for the purpose of exhibition. Whoever violates the provisions of this section shall be punished by a fine of not less than $10 nor more than $50. Teact-hooks. — The school committee shall direct what books shall be used in the public schools, and shall prescribe, as far as is practicable, a course of studies and exercises to be pursued therein. Such exercises may, at the discre¬ tion of the committee, include calisthenics, gymnastics, and military drill ; but no special instructors shall be employed therefor except by a two-thirds vote of the committee. No pupil shall be required to take part in any military exer¬ cise if he, his parent or guardian, notifies the committee that he or his parent or guardian has conscientious scruples against such exercise or believes that it would be injurious to his health. The school committee shall, at the expense of the town, purchase text-books and other school supplies used in the public schools, and, subject to such regulations as to their care and custody as it may prescribe, loan them to the pupils of such schools free of charge, and, if instruc¬ tion is given therein in the use of tools and in cooking, may so purchase and loan the tools, implements, and materials necessary therefor. In a city which, by vote of the board of aldermen, and in a town which, by vote of the inhabitants at an annual town meeting, accepts the provisions of this section or has accepted the corresponding provisions of earlier laws, the school committee shall make regulations with reference to the care, custody, and distribution of books and supplies so loaned, and may provide for the continued u^e of any text-books by such pupils throughout any grades. Such pupils may, if the school committee so votes, purchase from such city or town, at such time and jilace as the school committee designates, at not more than the cost price to such city or town, any text-books which are or are to be used by them in the public schools, and, if the committee so votes, pupils who complete two years DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MASSACHUSETTS. 359 in any public school in grades more advanced than the fourth grade may, upon graduating from the grammar school and upon application to the school com¬ mittee, be permitted to acquire the permanent ownership of such free text¬ books used during the last year of their attendance in the school as they may select. The school committee shall, at the expense of the town and in accordance with appropriations therefor previously made, procure apparatus, reference books, and other means of illustration. A change may be made in the schoolbooks used in the public schools by a vote of two-thirds of the whole school committee at a meeting thereof, notice of such intended change having been given at a previous meeting. Building. — Every town shall provide and maintain a sulRcient number of schoolhouses properly furnished and conveniently located for the accommoda¬ tion of all children therein who are entitled to attend the public schools. A town which for ojie year refuses or neglects to comply with the requirements of this section shall forfeit not less than $500 nor more than $1,000, to be paid and applied as provided in sections 23 and 24. The school committee, unless the town otherwise directs, shall have general charge and superintendence of the schoolhouses therein, shall keep them in good order, and shall procure a suitable place for the schools, if there is no schoolhouse, and provide fuel and all other things necessary for the comfort of the pupils therein at the expense of the town. The school committee of every city and town shall provide for each school- house in which public schools are maintained and which is not otherwise sup¬ plied, a United States flag of silk or bunting not less than 4 feet in length, and suitable apparatus whereby such flag may be displayed on the schoolhouse building or grounds every school day when the weather permits and on the inside of the schoolhouse on other school days. A town may, at a meeting called for the purpose, determine the location of its schoolhouses, and adopt all necessary measures to purchase and procure land therefor. Whoever willfully and maliciously or wantonly and without cause destroys, defaces, Jiiars, or injures a schoolhouse or any of its appur¬ tenances shall be flned $500 or imprisonment in the jail not exceeding one year. Every public building and every schoolhouse shall be kept clean and free from effluvia arising from any drain, privy, or nuisance; shall be provided with a suffi¬ cient number of proper water-closets, earth closets, or privies, and shall be venti¬ lated in such a manner that the air shall not become so impure as to be injurious to health. The provisions of this section shall be enforced by the inspection de¬ partment of the district police. If it appears to an inspector of factories and public buildings that further or different sanitary or ventilating provisions, which can be provided without unreasonable expense, are required in any pub¬ lic building or schoolhouse, he may issue a written order to the proper person or authority, directing such sanitary or ventilating provisions to be provided. A school committee, public officer, or ])erson who has charge of, owns, or leases any such public building or schoolhouse who neglects for four weeks to comply with the .order of such inspector shall be punished by a fine of not more than $100. Whoever is aggrieved by the order of an inspector, issued as above pro¬ vided and relating to a public building or a schoolhouse, may, within thirty days after the date of the service thereof, apply in writing to the board of health of the city or town to set aside or amend the order, and thereupon the board, after notice to all parties interested, shall give a hearing upon such order and may alter, annul, or affirm it. The nautical training school. — There shall be a board of commissioners of the Massachusetts Nautical Training School consisting of three citizens of the Com¬ monwealth, one of whom shall anniTally, before the 1st day of July, be appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council, for a term of three years from said 1st day of July. Said commissioners shall serve without com¬ pensation, but they shall be reimbursed by the Commonwealth for all expenses actually incurred by them in the i)erformance of their official duties. They shall provide and maintain a nautical training school for the instruction and train¬ ing of pupils in the science and practice of navigation, shall ijrovide accommo¬ dations for the school on board a proper vessel, purchase and provide books, stationery, apparatus, and supplies needed in the work of the school, appoint and remove instructors and other necessary employees, determine their number and compensation, fix the terms and conditions upon which pupils shall be received and instructed in the school and be discharged or dismissed therefrom, establish all regulations necessary for its proper management, and shall from 360 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. time to time provide for cruises in or from the harbor of Boston. They may receive from the United States Government, and use for the accommodation of the school, such vessels as the Secretary of the Navy may detail. They may annually expend not more than $50,000 which shall be paid by the Common¬ wealth ; and they shall annually submit an estimate of the expense required in making cruises in or from the harbor of Boston, and the amount of said estimate, after apin-oval by the governor and council and subject to the provi¬ sions of chapter 0, shall be advanced to the commanding officer of the vessel detailed therefor, who shall give a bond in the siun of $10,000, with sureties ap’proved by the governor and council, for its proper disbursement. Said jidvance shall not exceed $10,000 for six months, and shall be accounted for by j)roperly approved vouchers within thirty days after the termination of said <‘ruises. They shall annually, in .Tanuary, report to the general court a detailed statement of all moneys appropriated and expended during the preceding year for the nautical training school, stating the results of the work during such year and making any necessary recommendations. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. The Massachusetts school fund. — The present school fund of the Common¬ wealth, such additions as may be made thereto, and any money received by the Commonwealth from the Government of the United States, the disposition of which is not otherwise provided for, shall constitute a permanent fund, to be called the “ Massachusetts school fund.” The principal thereof shall not be diminished, and the income shall be appropriated as hereinafter provided. The fund is now $4,070,548.14, and $100,000 shall annually be paid from the treasury of the Commonwealth into said fund, until the principal thereof amounts to $5,000,000. The secretary of the board of education and the treasurer and receiver- general shall be commissioners who shall invest and manage the fund, and report annually to the general court the condition and income thereof. The premiums on any securities purchased for said fund, to an amount not exceed¬ ing in any one year $50,000, may be paid from any money in the treasury of the (Commonwealth not otherwise appropriated. All investments shall be made with the approval of the governor and council. The annual income of the ^Massachusetts school fund shall, without specific appropriation, be appor¬ tioned and distributed for the support of the public schools in the following manner : Every town which complies with all laws relative to the distribution of said income and whose valuation of real and personal property, as shown by the last preceding assessors’ valuation thereof, does not exceed $500,000, shall annually receive $500; but if its rate of taxation for any year shall be $18 or more on $1,000, it shall receive $75 additional ; every such town whose valuation is more than $.500,000 and does not exceed $1,000,000 shall receive $300 ; and every such town whose valuation is more than $1,000,000 and does not exceed $2,000,000 shall receive $150 ; and every town whose valuation is more than .$2,000,000 and does not exceed $2,500,000 shall receive $75. The remainder of said income shall be distributed to towns whose valuation does not exceed $2,500,000, and whose annual tax for the supi)ort of public schools is not less than one-sixth of their whole tax for the year, as follows : Every town whose school tax is not less tlnin onedhird of its whole tax shall receive a proportion of said remainder expressed by one-third ; every town whose school tax is not less than one-fourth of its whole tax shall receive a proportion expressed by one-fourth; every town whose school tax is not less than one-fifth of its whole tax shall receive a proportion expressed by one-fifth ; and every town whose school tax is not less than one-sixth of its whole tax shall receive a proportion expressed by one-sixth. All money appropriated for other educational pur¬ poses, unless otherwise provided for, shall be paid from the treasury of the Commonwealth. The income of said fund which has accrued on the Stst day of December in each year shall be apportioned by the commissioners of the Massachusetts school fund in the manner provided for by section 1 of this act, and shall be paid to the several towns on the 25th day of January thereafter. The sums received by any town under the provisions of this act shall be held by the town treasurer, and shall be expended only for exjienses in maintenance of the public schools authorized by the school committee, in accordance with DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS— MICHIGAN. 361 existing laws ; and it sliall be the duty of the treasurer to keep a separate account of all sums so received and expended, and the school committee shall make an annual report to the State hoard of education, in such form as may be prescribed by said board, of the amount received during each year, the amount expended from such receipts, the purpose tor which such expenditures have been made, in detail, and the balance, if any, remaining unexpended. And whenever it appears that, in the opinion of the State board of education, the sums paid to any town have not been used in whole or in part in accordance with the provisions of this section, or that they have not been held and accounted for separately, or that the report thereof herein required has not been made, the commissioners of the school fund are hereby authorized to with¬ hold, as they may deem advisable, the whole or any part of the future allow¬ ances otherwise falling to such town under the provisions of this act. No such apportionment and distribution shall be made to a town which has not maintained a schooi as required by law ; or which, if containing 500 families or householders, has not maintained, for at least thirty-six weeks during the year, exclusive of vacations, a high school such as is mentioned therein ; or which has not made the school returns, and complied with the laws relative to truancy ; or which has not raised by taxation for the support of public schools which are authorized or required by law, including the wages of teachers, the transporta¬ tion of school children, fuel, the care of fires, schoolrooms, and school premises, supervision, text-books, and supplies, and school sundries or incidentals during the school year embraced in the last annual returns, an amount not less than $3 for each person between the ages of 5 and 15 years resident in such town on the 1st day of September of said school year. The income of said fund shall be api)lied by the school committees of the towns receiving it to the support of the public schools therein ; but said committees may apply not more than 25 per cent thereof to the purchase of books of reference, maps, and apparatus for the use of said schools. The income of the Todd fund shall be paid to the board of education, to be applied by said board to specific objects, in connec¬ tion with the normal schools, not provided for by legislative appropriation. Moneys received by a county treasurer under the provisions relating to dogs and not paid out for damages, shall in the month of January be paid back to the treasurers of the cities and towns in proportion to the amounts received from such cities and towns ; and the moneys so refunded shall be expended for the support of public libraries or schools. In Suffolk County moneys so received by the treasurer of a city or town, and not so paid out, shall be ex¬ pended by the school committee for the support of public schools. Taxation. — Tov.ms shall raise by taxation money necessary for the sup])ort of public schools. A town which refuses or neglects to raise money for the support of schools as required by law shall forfeit an amount equal to twice the highest sum ever before voted for the support of schools therein. A town which refuses or neglects to choose a school committee shall forfeit not less than $500 nor more than $1,000 to the use of the county. Three-fourths of such forfeiture so paid shall be paid by the county treasurer to the school committee, if any ; otherwise, to the selectmen of the town from which it has been recov¬ ered, who shall appropriate it to the support of the schools of such town as if it had been regularly raised by the town for that purpose. A town may appropriate money for conveying pupils to and from the public schools, or, if it maintains no high school or public school of corresponding grade but affords high school instruction by sending pupils to other towns, for the necessary transportation expenses of such pupils, the same to be expended by the school committee in its discretion. MICHIGAN. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard — State superintendent — Countii hoard of examiners — County com¬ missioner of schools — Township school inspectors— District hoard of direct¬ ors — Board of trustees. State hoard. — There shall be elected every two years a member of the State board of education, who shall serve for six years. The State superintendent shall be ex officio a member as well as secretary of the board. The board shall 362 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. have the general supervision of the State normal schools, and shall grant teach¬ ers’ certificates to certain persons, as hereinafter set forth. ^tate superintenclent. — At each biennial election there shall be elected a super¬ intendent of public instruction, who shall have his office at the seat of govern¬ ment. A vacancy shall be filled by the governor, by and with the advice of the senate. The State superintendent shall have general supervision of public in¬ struction and of all the State institutions, other than the university, that are essentially educational in their character ; and he shall visit the university, the agricultural college, the institutions for the deaf, for the blind, the industrial school for boys and for girls, the school for dependent and neglected children, and meet with the governing boards of each institution at least once in each year. He shall biennially report to the governor the following : The condition of the university and of each of the other State educational institutions, all in¬ corporated institutions of learning, and the primary, graded, and high schools ; the estimated cost of the system and amount of expenditures from all educa¬ tional funds and plans for their better management; plans for the better organi¬ zation of the educational system ; the annual reports and accompanying docu¬ ments, so far as he shall deem the same of sufficient public interest, of all the State institutions of educational character ; abstracts of the annual reports of the school inspectors of the several townships and cities of the State, and all such other matters relating to his office and to the subject of education in general as he may deem expedient to communicate. The State superintendent shall semiannually apportion the primary school interest fund among the several townships and cities of the State in proportion to the number of children in each between the ages of 5 and 20 years, as the same shall be reported to him by the board of school inspectors made to him for the school year closing prior to the May apportionment, drawing on the State treasurer in favor of the treas¬ urer of each county. County Tjoard of examiners. — The board of supervisors of each county shall biennially appoint two persons as school examiners, who, together with the county commissioner shall constitute a board of school examiners who shall examine all persons who offer themselves at two regular public examinations at the county seat ; and shall also hold, for the same purpose, not more than two special public examinations as the interests of the schools may demand. The board shall grant certificates to those found qualified. The appointed mem¬ bers shall receive $4 per diem for each day actually employed in performance of duty. County commissioner of schools. — There shall be elected every fourth year, beginning April, 1903, a county commissioner of schools, and in case of vacancy the judge of probate, together with the county board, shall appoint some suitable person to the office. The person so elected or appointed shall execute a bond in the sum of $1,000 for the faithful performance of fiscal duties. No person shall be eligible to the office of county commissioner who shall not be a graduate in the literary department of some reputable college, university, or State normal school, or hold a State teacher’s certificate, or hold a first-grade certificate : Pro¬ vided, That in counties having less than 50 schools subject to the supervision of the county commissioner a person holding at the time of election a second-grade certificate shall be eligible. It shall be the duty of the county commissioner to notify the superintendent of public instruction and the chairman of each town¬ ship board of school inspectors of the county of his election ; keep a record of all examinations held by the board of school examiners, and sign all certificates and other papers and reports issued by the board ; receive the institute fees pro¬ vided by law, and pay the same to the county treasurer quarterly ; keep a record of all certificates granted, suspended, or revoked by the board or himself, show¬ ing to whom issued, with the date, grade, and duration of each certificate, and if suspended or revoked, with the date and' reason therefor; furnish to each town¬ ship clerk a list of persons, with data, legally authorized to teach in the county at large and in the township ; to visit each of the schools in the county at least once in each year, and examine carefully the discipline, mode of instruction, prog¬ ress, and proficiency of the pupils, provided that in counties having 120 or more districts he may appoint such assistants as may be necessary, who shall perform such duties as the commissioner shall direct, but their expenses shall not in any one year exceed $90; counsel with the teachers and school boards as to the courses of study to be pursued and as to any improvement in the discipline and instruction in the schools ; promote the improvement of the schools in the county, and of the teachers and officers, and act as assistant conductor of institutes appointed by the superintendent of public instruction ; receive the triplicate DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MICHIGAN. 363 annual reports of the several boards of school inspectors, examine into the cor¬ rectness of the same, and, when approved, forward one copy of each to the State superintendent and the other to the county clerk ; make an annual report to the State superintendent, and obey all instructions from him, and distribute the blanks and communications forwarded by him. His compensation shall be not less than $500 in a county having 50 schools, not less than $1,000 where there are 100 schools under such supervision, and not less than $1,200 where there are 125 schools under supervision, but in no case shall it exceed $1,500 per annum. The necessary contingent expenses of the commissioner for printing, postage, stationery, record books, and room rent for public examinations shall be allowed by the county supervisors to the sum of $200. No traveling expenses shall be allowed either to a commissioner or any assistant visitor or school examiner. No commissioner shall receive an order for compensation until he shall have filed with the county clerk, first, a certified statement from the State superin¬ tendent that all reports required of him have been properly made and filed ; and, second, a detailed statement, made under oath, showing what schools have been visited by him during the preceding quarter and what amount of time was con¬ sumed in each school, naming township and school district. No commissioner shall act as agent for the sale of any school furniture, text-books, maps, charts, or other school apparatus, nor be interested financially in any summer, normal, or teachers’ training class in the county for which he was elected. In case of vacancy, the office shall be filled by the chairmen of the township boards of school inspectors in joint session. Toionsliip hoard of school inspectors. — At the annual meeting of each town¬ ship there shall be elected one school inspector, who shall hold office for two years and be an elector of the district, or a woman 21 years of age who has resided in the State three months and in the township ten days. The school inspectors of each township, together with the township clerk, shall constitute the township board of school inspectors. The township clerk shall be clerk of the board, and the other members shall be elected chairman and treasurer, and shall give bond to double the amount of moneys to come into his hands. The said board shall annually make in triplicate a report setting forth the whole number of districts in their townships, the amount of money raised and received for township and district libraries, and such other items as are given in the reports of the district school directors for the preceding year or as may be required by the State superintendent. Two copies of the report shall be for¬ warded to the commissioner and one filed in the office of the township clerk. Before making their annual report, it shall be the duty of the board to examine the list of legally qualified teachers on file in the office of the township clerk, and if the examination shows school has not been taught for the legal period, the board shall certify to the facts in the case in the annual report. It shall be their duty also to render to the township board [not school inspectors] a full account of all moneys received and disbursed by them. The whole number of meetings of the township board of school inspectors at the expense of the town¬ ship during any one school year shall not exceed eight. The chairman of the township board of school inspectors shall have general supervisory charge of the schools of his township, subject to such advice and direction as the county commissioner may give, and shall make such reports of his official labors and of the condition of the schools as the State superintendent may direct or the commissioner request. The board shall divide the township into school districts, which they may from time to time alter and regulate, and the districts shall be as compact as practi- calde. District hoard of directors. — At the first meeting in each school district there shall be elected by ballot a moderator for the term of three years, a director for two years, and a treasurer for one year ; and on the expiration of their res])ec- tive terms and annually thereafter their successors shall be elected in like man¬ ner for a term of three years. Removal from the district, neglect to file his ncceptance or renew any official bond, or other vacancy, however caused, shall be filled by the board thus created ; or, in case of two vacancies, by the district, in special meeting ; or in case of the entire board being vacant, or if any vacancy is unfilled for twenty days, then the township board of school inspectors shall appoint a new board or fill the vacancy, as the case, may be. Any qualified voter in a school district who has property assessed for school tax shall be eligible to office in such school district, unless an alien. Meetings may be called by one member serving the other with notice twenty-four hours in advance, but a majority shall constitute a quorum. 364 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. The board sliall purchase the necessary boolvs and stationery for doing and recording the business of the district in an orderly manner ; shall have the gen-* eral care of the schools, make and enforce suitable rules and regulations for their government and management and for the care and preservation of school j)roi)erty which is under their care, if not specially confided to the custody of the director; lease or ])urchase sites and build or rent schoolhouses ; sell sites and other property when directed by the district meeting ; estimate the amount to be raised which, in addition to other school funds, is necessary for the entire support of the schools and to meet the deficit of the previous year ; report to the township clerk the amount of taxes voted and the character of all taxes which the board is authorized to impose on the taxable property of the district, and present to the district in writing an accurate statement of all moneys of the dis¬ trict received and disbursed by it ; contract in writing with duly qualified per¬ sons who desire to teach in the public schools, and specify what studies shall be taught in the public schools other than those required by law, and may purchase text books for impecunious [uipils. 4’be moderator shall preside at all meetings of the district and board, counter¬ sign all orders legally drawn by the director, prosecute for the district on the treasurer’s bond, and perform such other duties as may be required. The director shall act as clerk to the district and board meetings, draw and sign warrants upon the township treasurer and the district treasurer, provide the necessary appendages for the schoolhouse and keep the same in repair, pre¬ sent at each annual meeting an estimate of the exjcenses necessary to be incurred by the director and for the payment of any district officers, preserve and file copies of all reports made to the school inspectors, and safely preserve and keep all books, etc., belonging to his office or to the district when not otherwise pro¬ vided for ; take the census of the district, making a list of the names and ages of all the children from 5 to 20 years of age, verified by oath, but children in almshouses, prisons, or asylums* not residents of the district or attending the schools shall be omitted, as also Indian children. He shall report to the board of school inspectors at the close of each school year the whole number of children belonging to the district between the ages of 5 and 20 yeai*s, the num¬ ber attending school during the year under 5 or over 20 years of age, the number of nonresident pupils of the district that have attended school during the year, the whole number that have attended school during the year, the length of time the schools have been taught during the year by qualified teachers, the teachers’ names, wages, and duration of service, the average time pupils 5 to 20 years of age have attended school during the year, percentage of attendance, the amount of money received from the township treasurer, the amount raised by the district and the purpose for which intended, the kind of books used, and such other facts as may be required. The director of a fractional district shall make his annual report to the clerk of the township in which the schoolhouse is situated, and also to the clerk of the other township in which the fractional district is situated. The treasurer of each school district shall give bond in double the amount probably coming into his hands, pay all orders of the director, report to the dis¬ trict board in writing concerning the receipts and expenditures, and shall ap¬ pear for the district when directed by it, except in cases in which he is inter¬ ested adversely to the district. Any school district containing more than 100 children between the ages of 5 and 20 years may, by a, two-thirds vote of the qualified electors present at any annual or special meeting, organize as a graded district, and shall elect by ballot from the qualified voters of the district a trustee for one year, two for two years, and two for three years, and annually thereafter their successors for three years, who shall select from among themselves a moderator, director, and treasurer, and for cause shall remove any of them, and shall fill vacancies until the next meeting of the district, and twenty days after the meeting the vacan¬ cies left by it unfilled shall be filled by the school inspectors of the township or city. The board of trustees shall classify and grade the pupils attending schools in their district, and shall cause them to be taught in such schools or departments as they may deem expedient (including a high school, if ordered at the annual district meeting to establish a high school). When ordered at annual district meeting, the board shall fix the requisites for admission to and the fees to be paid in such high school, shall audit the accounts of the director, who shall be limited to an expenditure of $50 annually upon the school property of the district, unless authorized by the board to exceed that amount ; shall employ the teachers and other necessary employees and determine the amount of their compensation: Provided, I'liat when nonresident pupils, their parents or DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MICHIGAN. 365 guardians, shall pay a school tox in the district, they shall be required to pay only a sum equal to the difference between the amount of the tax and the amount charged for tuition in the high school. 2. Teachers. Appointnient, qualifications, and duties— Preliminary training — Institutes— Associations. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No contract with any person not holding a legal certificate of qualification shall be made by a district board. The board of school examiners shall meet at the county seat on the second Thursdays in March and August, and upon not more than two other occasions, for the purpose of examining all persons who may offer themselves as teachers of the public schools. First, second, and third grade certificates shall be granted only at the regular public examinations. The board of school examiners shall meet on the Saturday following each public examination. The board shall grant certificates to persons in such form as the State superintendent shall prescribe, licensing as teachers all persons 18 years of age who have attended the public examinations and who shall be found qualified In respect to good moral char¬ acter, learning, and ability to instruct and govern a school ; but no certificate shall be granted to any person who shall not have passed a satisfactory exami¬ nation in orthography, reading, writing, grannuar, geogra])hy, arithmetic, theory and art of teaching. United States history, civil government, and physiology and hygiene, with reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and nar¬ cotics. The hoard of examiners shall have the right, however, to renew without examination the certificates of persons who shall have previously obtained an average standing of at least 85 per cent in all studies covered in two or more pre¬ vious examinations and who shall have been since the examination continuously and successfully teaching in the same county. All certificates shall be signed by the county commissioner and at least one other member of the board of examin¬ ers. All examination papers shall be prepared by the State superintendent and be furnished by him to the county commissioner under seal, only to be broken in the presence of the persons to be examined and on the day of examination. There shall be three grades of certificates granted. The certificate of the first gnide shall be issued only to those who have taught at least one year with ability and success, and shall be valid for four years. When granted, however, the examination papers and certificate shall be, within ten days, forwarded to the State superintendent for inspection, and if countersigned by him shall be good in any county in the State. A certificate of the second grade shall be granted only to those who shall have taught at least seven months with ability and success, and it shall be valid throughout the county in which issued. A certificate of the third grade shall be either of two classes, to wit : Third-grade certificates of class A shall be granted only to persons who have taught successfully and con¬ tinuously in primary departments of graded schools for at least three years next preceding the examination, and such certificate shall entitle the holder to teach in primary departments of graded schools only. Third-grade certificates of class B shall license the holder to teach in any school of the county in which it shall be granted for one year, but no more than three certificates of this class shall be granted to the same person. The county commissioner, however, shall have power, upon the results of an examination satisfactory to himself, to grant cer¬ tificates licensing the holder thereof to teach in a specified district, but a second special certificate shall not be granted the same person, nor shall it continue in force longer than the next public examination. Any certificate may be revoked for cause. [The force of normal-school certificates is given below.] The teacher shall keep a correct list of the pupils and their age, number of days each pupil attends, average attendance, and percentage of attendance, and shall furnish the director a correct copy of the same at the close of school. Preliminary trammg. — The purpose of the State normal schools shall be the instruction of persons in the art of teaching and in all the various branches per¬ taining to the public schools of Michigan, and the schools shall have a course of study intended specially to prepare students for the rural and the elementary graded schools, giving not less than twenty weeks of professional instruction. The State board of education shall provide the necessary rules for the govern¬ ment of the schools, the courses of study, a fully equipped training school as a school of observation and practice, grant diplomas, and upon the completion of the course specially prescribed for rural and elementary graded schools shall 366 EDTJ CATION REPORT, 1904. grant, upon the recommendation of the principal and a majority of the heads of departments of the school, a certificate, which shall be signed by the board and the principal of the normal school, and shall contain a list of the studies included in the course. This certificate shall entitle the holder to teach in any of the appropriate schools of the State for five j'ears. Upon the completion of either of the four years’ advanced courses of study prescribed by the board it may grant, upon recommendation of the principal and a majority of the heads of the departments, a certificate, which shall set forth the studies completed, and shall be a life certificate. Training classes for teachers in rural schools may be estab¬ lished in connection with some high school in any county upon application by the board of supervisors of the county and the voters of the district in which the high school is situated to the State superintendent. The State superintendent, the county commissioners, and the superintendent of the high school constitute the county normal board, and may fix courses of study and grant certificates for five years upon completion of a two years’ course of study. One-half the expense of these classes is borne by the State ; whole expense not to exceed $2,000 in any year. Institutes. — The State superintendent is authorized to hold annually an insti¬ tute for the State at large, the cost of which shall not exceed $400, to be paid out of the general fund. The superintendent shall annually appoint a time and place in each county for holding a teachers’ institute unless there are less than 1,000 children between the ages of 5 and 20 years, when it may be held at the option of the State super¬ intendent, and if 15 teachers interested do not request that an institute be held the superintendent may hold a joint county institute for several counties, draw¬ ing from the institute fund the amount to the credit of each county. Inability of the State superintendent to conduct an institute warrants him in appointing a conductor to act under his supervision. Every teacher attending an institute thus provided for shall be given a certificate setting forth the fact, and no teacher shall be deprived of pay for the time lost in attending. Associations. — Any 15 or more teachers or other persons residing in the State who shall associate for the purpose of promoting education and science and improvements in the theory and practice of teaching may form themselves into a corporation under such name as they may choose, providing they shall have pub¬ lished in some newspaper published at Lansing, or in the county in which the association is to be located, for at least one month previous to its organization, and shall file in the office of the secretary of state, a copy of the constitution and by-laws of said association. The association may hold and possess real and per¬ sonal property to the amount of $5,000, but the funds or property thereof shall not be used for any other purpose than for the legitimate business of the associa¬ tion in securing the objects of its incorporation. It shall have all the powers and duties of a corporation. 3. Schools. Attendance— Character of instruction — Text-hooJxS — Buildings. Attendance. — All persons resident in any school district and 5 years of age shall have an equal right to attend any school therein, and no separate school or department shall be kept for any persons on account of race or color, but this shall not prevent the grading of the schools according to the intellectual progress of the pupil, said schools of different grades to be taught in separate places if deemed expedient. The district meeting shall determine the length of time school shall be taught, which shall not be less than nine months in dis¬ tricts having 800 children 5 to 20 years of age nor less than five months in all other districts on pain of forfeiture of their share of the primary-school interest fund. Every parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child between the ages of 8 and 15 years shall be required to send such child to a public school for a period of at least four months in each school year, at least six weeks of which shall be consecutive, unless such child be excused from such attendance by the board of the school district in which such parents or guard¬ ians reside, upon its being shown to the board’s satisfaction that the child’s bodily or mental condition has been such as to prevent its attendance at school or application to study for the period, or that such child is taught in a private school or at home in such branches as are usually taught in primary schools or has already acquired the ordinary branches of learning taught in public DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MICHIGAN. 367 schools : Provided, In case a public school shall not be taught for four mouths during the year within 2 miles by the nearest traveled road of the residence of any child within the school district, such child if under 9 years of age shall not be liable to the provisions of this act. No child under 10 years shall be employed in any factory, warehouse, or workshop. No child under 14 years of age shall be employed by any person, company, or corporation to labor in any business, unless such child shall have attended some public or private day school where instruction was given by a teacher qualified to instruct in such branches as are usually taught in primary schools for at least four months of the twelve next preceding the month in which such child shall be so employed. Every parent, guardian, or other person having charge of any child from 8 to 14 years of age who has been temporarily discharged from any business or employment shall send such child to some public or private day school for a period for which such child shall have been discharged, unless such child shall have been excused from such attendance by the board of the school district for reasons stated above. Failure to comply with the above provisions is a misdemeanor, subjecting the guilty person to a fine of not less than $5 nor more than $10 for the first and not less than $10 for each subsequent offense ; and it shall be the duty of the officers detailed or appointed under the provisions of this act to assist in the enforcement thereof and to institute proceedings. In all cities, villages, and townships in this State maintaining and supporting a graded school the board of education or other authority may establish one or more ungraded schools for the instruction of certain children, and may require such children to attend the school through the city police or village marshal. The following classes of persons, 8 to 16 years, shall be subject to this compul¬ sion : Habitual truants from any school, the incorrigibly turbulent or disobe¬ dient, the vicious or immoral, and loiterers on the streets. If parent or guard¬ ian shall, after warning, fail to comply with the law, he or she shall be proceeded against before a justice of the peace and subjected to a fine of not less than $10 nor more than $25, or may be required to give bond for $100 that he will comply with the law. But if the offending party plead his inability to cause the child to attend school, then the child shall be sent to one of the State indus¬ trial schools, according to its sex. (For transportation of pupils, see Finances — Taxation.) Character of instruction. — The district board shall specify the studies to be pursued in the schools of the district in addition to the branches in which instruction is now required to be given in the public schools. ( See Teachers — Appointment and qualifications.) Any school district containing more than 100 children between the ages of 5 and 20 years may, by a two-thirds vote of the qualified electors present at any meeting, organize as a graded school dis¬ trict and shall immediately elect a board of trustees, who shall classify and grade the pupils of the district and cause them to be taught in such schools or departments as they may deem expedient, including a high school if that grade of instruction be ordered by the district meeting and may charge fees for any branch of such secondary instruction. Text-1)ooks. — The district board may purchase at the expense of the district such text-books as may be necessary for the use of children when parents are not able to furnish the same, and they shall include the amount of such pur¬ chase in the report to the township clerk to be levied in like manner as other district taxes. Each school board of the State shall, when authorized by the district, purchase the text-books used by the pupils of the schools in the district in each of the following subjects : Orthography, spelling, writing, reading, geography, arithmetic, grammar (including language lessons), national and State history, civil government, and physiology and hygiene, and all text-books used in any district shall be uniform in any one subject. Text-books so adopted shall not be changed within five years. The text-books to be used for instruction in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the nature of .alcohol and narcotics and their effects upon the human system, shall give at least one-fourth of their space to the consideration of the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and the books used in the highest grade of graded schools shall contain at least twenty pages of matter relating to this subject, and all text-books used in giving the foregoing instruction shall first be approved by the State board. When the district has authorized the district board to raise by tax a sufficient sum to comply with the foregoing provisions. 368 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. it shall contract, at a price not greater than the net wholesale price, or through advertisement, for the books selected, to be loaned to the pupils. Any district may take further action at a subsequent annual meeting after it has either adopted or rejected free text-books. Any officer refusing or neglecting to purchase or to provide the money for purchasing the text-books voted shall be deemed guilty of a inisdemeanor, and upon conviction shall he liable to a fine of $50 or imprisonment in the county jail for thirty days, or both. But any board may buy its books of local dealers if sold as cheaplj^ as offered in the lowest bid. Buildiugs. — The district board shall have the care and custody of the school- house and other property of the district, except so far as the district shall not have confided the care and custody thereof to the director. It may be opened for public meetings unless determined otherwise. The director shall provide the necessary appendages and keep them in good condition and repair during the time school shall be taught, but he shall not purchase charts or any apparatus to be used in the schoolroom without a vote of the district authorizing him to do so. The district board shall purchase or lease in the corporate name of the district such sites for schoolhouses as shall have been lawfully designated, and shall build, hire, or purchase such schoolhouses as may be necessary out of the fund provided for that purpose and make sale of any site or other property of the district when lawfully directed by the qualified voters ; but no district in any case shall build a stone or brick schoolhouse upon any site without having first obtained a title in fee to the same or a lease for ninety-nine years, nor shall any district build a frame schoolhouse on any site for which they have not a title in fee or a lease for fifty years without securing the privilege of removing the said schoolhouse. After schools have been maintained at least eight months in the year, any surplus money arising from the 1-mill tax may be used in purchasing sites, buildings, or furniture, if so ordered by district meeting. 4. Finance. Funds {permanent and speeial) — Taxation. Funds {permanent and special). — The proceeds from the sale of all lands that have been or hereafter may be granted by the United States for educational pur¬ poses, and the proceeds of all lands or other iiroperty given by individuals or a]ipropriated by the State for like purposes, shall be a perpetual fund, the income of which shall be inviolably appropriated annually to the specific objects of the original gift, grant, or appropriation. All escheated lands shall become a part of the school fund. The State superintendent shall semiannually, in May and November, apportion interest of the primary school fund among the several town¬ ships and cities of the State in proportion to the number of children in each between the ages of 5 and 20 years, as shall appear from the reports of the boards of school inspectors made prior to the May ai)i)ortionment or from the best sources of information at his command, and shall prepare a statement of the amount in the aggregate payalile to each county ; and on receipt of such state¬ ment the auditor-general shall draw his warrant upon the State treasurer in favor of the treasurer of each county to the amount due. ITie superintendents shall also send written notices to the clerks of the several counties of the aggre¬ gate amount to be disbursed in their respective counties and the amount payable to the townships and cities therein, respectively. In y law, and all moneys arising from the issuing of liquor licenses and from un¬ claimed moneys arising from the sale of estrays. And the county auditor shall open an account with each district or portion of district in his county, and keep an accurate account of all moneys received by or due to each of said districts, and all such matters as are necessary to show the condition of accounts be¬ tween each of said districts and the county treasury, and for this purpose he shall examine any and all of the books in the office of the county treasurer. There shall be levied annually for school district purposes, in addition to the general tax of 1 mill, such sum as may be voted at any legal meeting of the qualified voters of the district, the rate of which shall not exceed 15 mills, for the support of the school (provided it will support the schools for the legal term), or 1 per cent for the erection of a schoolhouse. MISSISSIPPI. 1. Organization of the System. f^tate hoard of education — ^tate superintendent — Htate hoard of examiners — County superintendent — County school hoard; school districts — District trus¬ tees — Separate school districts. State hoard of education. — The State board of education consists of the sec¬ retary of state, attorney-general, and State superintendent, and shall have charge of the management and investment of school funds, and shall regulate all mat¬ ters arising in the practical administration of the school system not otherwise provided for. The State superintendent and one other shall constitute a quorum. Meetings shall be held at the seat of government at such time as the board shall determine, and one member may call a meeting at any time. The board shall appoint county superintendents (which see) in certain counties, and decide finally appeals from State or county superintendents, except those per¬ taining to examinations. (See State board of examiners.) They may suspend for neglect of duty county superintendents appointed by them, and for continued 378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. neglect of duty, drunkenness’, incoinpetency, or official misconduct may remove such a superintendent after ten days’ notice and an opportunity to make defense. Said board shall audit all claims against the common school fund and the expenditures of the State superintendent’s office. They may adopt a course of study to 1)0 pursued in the schools, and may designate a day to be observed as Arbor Day. siiperhitoident. — The State superintendent of public education shall be elected at the same time and in the same manner as the governor, to hold office four years. He shall keep his office in the capitol, and give $5,000 bond. He shall have general supervision of the public free schools, and may prescribe such rules and regulations for the efficient organization and conduct of the same as he may deem necessary. He shall preside over all the meetings of the State board of education ; solicit reports from all educational institutions of the State, public and private; apportion semiannually the State common school fund to the several counties and separate school districts, according to the number of educable children enumerated, and shall furnish a copy of said apportionment to the State auditor and treasurer, to each county sui)erintendent and treasurer, and to the treasurer of each separate school district ; and shall not act as agent of any publisher or bookseller, nor receive any gift or reward for recommending any book, furniture, or school apparatus, under penalty of removal from office and forfeiture of all moneys due him from the State. He shall appoint the State board of examiners (which see), and shall be ex officio a trustee in the State University, the Agricultural and Mechanical College, the Industrial Institute and College, the State Normal School, and the Alcorn Agri¬ cultural and Mechanical College. He shall keep a complete record of his official acts and those of the State board of education. Biennially, by January 10 of each year in which the legislature meets, he shall have printed a report showing the receipts and disbursements of the common school fund ; number of school districts, schools, teachers, pupils, attendance of pupils, and studies pursued by them; financial condition of the schools, their receipts and expenditures, value of schoolhouses and other property, cost of tuition, and salaries of teachers ; the educational and financial condition of the normal and higher institutions con¬ nected with the State school system, and, as far as can be ascertained, of private schools, academies, and colleges, together with such other information and recommendations relating to educational interests as he may deem im¬ portant. He shall have the school laws printed, together with forms for con¬ ducting school business, the rules and regulations adopted by the State board of education, questions for the examination of teachers, and such other matters of public interest that may be deemed worthy, and shall distribute same to county superintendents and other school officers interested. He shall hold con¬ ferences with the county superintendents of each judicial district, or of several judicial districts combined, at such time and place as he shall appoint ; advise county superintendents on all matters regarding the welfare of the public schools ; and shall render decisions on questions and controversies arising out of the interpretation of the school laws, after having submitted the statement of facts to the attorney-general for counsel. i^tate hoard of examiners. — The State board of examiners shall consist of three first-grade teachers of scholarly attainments and successful experience, appointed by the State superintendent, no two of whom shall be from one Con¬ gressional district. They shall aid the State superintendent in preparing all examination questions for the teachers of the State, grade papers of applicants for professional and State licenses, and hear and decide all appeals from teach¬ ers or county superintendents regarding examinations. Each applicant or can¬ didate for county superintendent shall be examined by said board in his own county, under regulations passed by the State board of education. Each mem¬ ber of said State board of examiners shall serve four years, unless removed by the State superintendent for cause. As compensation they shall receive $5 from each applicant for a professional license, $5 from each applicant or candidate for county superintendent, Riid 50 cents from each applicant for State license. ( See also Teachers — Certificates. ) County superintendent. — In each of the counties of Adams, Hinds, Sunflower, and Washington a county superintendent of education shall be appointed by the State board of education, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, and in each of the other counties a county superintendent shall be elected by the peo¬ ple. His term of office shall be four years, and to be eligible he must be 21 years of age, a qualified elector, a resident of the State four years and of the county two years, and shall have passed an examination in first-grade subjects DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MISSISSIPPI. 379 andseliocl law. (See also State board of examiners.) He shall not teach iaany school during his term of office; shall give bond in a sum from $500 to $2,000, as determined by the board of supervisors, and shall keep an office at the county seat, which shall be provided by the supervisors and furnished with necessary supplies from the school fund. He shall employ teachers recommended by the local trustees (and shall him¬ self select and employ teachers for schools whose trustees fail to report a selec¬ tion within ten days of the time fixed by the county board for the beginning of the term), fix their salaries, and make contracts with them; examine teachers’ monthly reports, requiring that a majority of the trustees certify to the accuracy of the same, and shall thereupon issue the teacher’s pay certificate, in the form prescribed by the State board of education ; enforce the course of study ado])ted by the State board of education and the uniform text-books adopted by the county ; administer oaths in school matters, and take testimony in appeal cases under the school law ; distribute promptly all reports, laws, forms, circulars, and instructions which he may receive from the State superintendent for school officers and teachers ; preserve carefully all reports of school officers and teach¬ ers, and at the end of his term deliver to his successor books, records, and papers pertaining to his office ; make an annual written report to the board of super¬ visors, and mayor and aldermen of a municipality constituting a separate school district, indicating the name, sex, and color of the teachers employed during the year, number of months taught by each, and the aggregate amount of pay certifi¬ cates issued to each and to all. He shall keep in his office and carefully pre¬ serve the public school record provided, enter therein the proceedings of the county school board, decisions on appeal cases, and other official acts ; a list of teachers examined, licensed, and employed ; record the data of monthly and term reports of teachers and annual reports of county and district treasurers ; and from the summaries of records thus kept render a report to the State super¬ intendent by October 20 each year, or forfeit $50. He shall be at the county seat on Saturdays to receive monthly reports, issue pay certificates, and attend to other official duties, or else forfeit $10 for each such day’s absence without leave previously granted by the board of supervisors, unless prevented by illness or other unavoidable cause. He shall visit each school of his county at least once during each term, ill county schools correcting any defect in classification of pupils or the govern¬ ment of the school, and in separate districts he shall call attention of trustees to such deficiencies for correction by them ; note the condition and value of building, lot, and furniture, the branches taught, methods, and his estimate of the ability of the teacher ; examine classes, and give such directions and recom¬ mendations as he may deem expedient ; and urge patrons to provide comfortable and well-furnished schoolhouses. For every school not so visited the super¬ visors shall deduct $10 from his salary. He shall decide controversies arising under the school law. From his deci¬ sion appeal may be taken to the State superintendent. He shall enforce the law, rules, and regulations in regard to the examination of teachers, and for incom¬ petency, neglect of duty, immoral conduct, or other disqualification may suspend or remove any teacher or trustee from office, except in separate school districts ; and for intemperance, immoral conduct, brutal treatment of a pupil, or other good cause may revoke the license of a teacher. The salary of the county superintendent is fixed at 3 per cent of the total school funds received annually by the county, not to exceed $600 nor be less than $150 a year, but the board of supervisors may increase the same not to exceed 5 per cent of the school fund nor more than $800, Any county superin¬ tendent (or other county officer) who shall trade or speculate in teachers’ war¬ rants or pay certificates, purchasing same at a discount, or loaning or advancing thereon, shall be subject to a fine of from $i00 to $500, Comity school hoard — School districts. — The county school board shall consist of one member from each supervisor’s district, appointed for four years by the county superintendent, subject to ratification by the supervisors, and shall receive $3 for each day of actual service, not to exceed three days in any year. The county superintendent shall be ex officio president of the board. The board shall define the boundaries of school districts (outside of special districts) or make alterations therein and designate the location of the schoolhouse in each district if not already located, paying due regard to the larger water courses and using them as boundary lines whenever practicable. A regular school dis¬ trict shall contain not less than 45 educable children, excei)t where too great distance or impassable obstructions would debar children from school privileges, 380 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. in which cases the board may establish a regular district containing not less than 15 educable children. Special districts containing not less than 10 edu- cahle children may he established for such children as live between the forks or bends of large streams or other impassable obstructions which render it imprac¬ ticable to establish regular districts ; but when less than five children attend school in a district the school shall he discontinued by the county superintendent at the end of any scholastic month. District trustees. — There shall be three trustees for each school district (ex¬ cept separate school districts), elected by the patrons of the school for a teiau of three years, one to retire each year ; vacancies may be filled by the county superintendent. The trustees shall be patrons of the school, and able to read and write ; and if a trustee refuse to discharge the duties of his office or to pat¬ ronize the school, the office becomes vacant. The trustees shall elect teacliers, and shall scrutinize the enumeration of educable children attending as made by the teacher, and certify the same in the teacher's register, which enumer¬ ation and certification shall guide the county superintendent in determining the teacher’s salary for the ensuing year. One or more of their numiiei shall visit the school at least once a month ; they shall make provision for fuel and other things needful for the comfort and welfare of the pupils, and shall pro¬ tect and care for the school property during vacation. They may sus|>end or expel a pupil for misconduct, and shall arbitrate difficulties arising between teacher and pupils, but either party may appeal to the county superin hmdent and from him to the State board of education. t^eparate school districts. — Any municipality of 300 or more inhabitants which shall maintain a free public school at least seven months in each scho¬ lastic year shall he entitled to the rights and privileges of a separate school dis¬ trict. The schools of said districts shall be under the control of five trustees, patrons of said schools, who shall be elected by the mayor and hoard of aider- men, or in the manner prescribed by said board, for terms of three years. The powers and duties of said trustees are : To prescribe and enforce rules, consistent with law and those of the State board of education, for the govern¬ ment of themselves and the schools ; manage and control school property within their districts, and employ janitors ; enforce the course of study and text books adopted by proper authority ; enforce the rules prescribed for the government of school libraries, and appoint librarians therefor, excluding therefrom all pub¬ lications of a sectarian, partisan, or immoral character ; suspend or expel pupils for misconduct ; visit every school in their district at least once a month, exam¬ ining carefully into its management, condition, and wants ; maintain all schools under their control for an equal length of time during the year ; furnish blac!:- hoards and other necessary furniture ; elect a superintendent, if required, and principal for each of the schools, and prescribe their powers and duties ; elect teachers, fix their salaries and terms of service and penalties for neglect of duty, but they can not contract with a teacher or principal who does not hold a license from the county superintendent ; require the principal of each school to keep the records so as to show, by age, race, and sex, the enrollment, attend¬ ance, and average attendance, and at the end of the term to make complete report to the trustees showing the above and such other statistics as may be required of the county superintendent for his annual report to the State board of educa¬ tion, which report the secretary of the trustees shall transmit to the county su])erintendent within ten days after the close of the term. (See also Schools — Character of instruction — High schools.) 2. Teachers. D.rtniiiiiations — Certificates — Contracts and. salaries — Duties — Preliminary train¬ ing — Institutes. E.rain illations. — Two first-grade teachers, to be appointed annually, one by the county school board and one by the board of supervisors, shall, with the county superintendent, constitute an examining hoard for each county. The members of said board shall not be related by affinity or consanguinity, and no teacher of a normal or training school shall be appointed thereon. Said board shall con¬ duct all examinations of teachers, and review and grade the examination papers submitted. The teachers upon the board shall each receive $2.50 per day of actual service in holding examinations and 25 cents additional for grading the pa})ers of each applicant, payable from the school fund as teachers’ salaries are paid. DI(4EST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MISSISSIPPI. 381 Examinations shall be held separate for the two races. The State superin¬ tendent shall prepare questions and send same sealed to the county superin¬ tendent, to he opened in the presence of those to be examined after they shall have assembled in the examination room. Certilicates. — It shall be unlawful for any county superintendent or trustees to contract with a teacher who does not hold a license valid for the scholastic year in which the school is to be taught and of a grade sufficiently high to meet the requirements of the school. Before a license shall be granted the applicant must furnish the county superintendent satisfactory evidence of good moral character and of ability to govern a school. To obtain a first-grade license the applicant must be examined in spelling, reading, practical and mental arithmetic, geography, English grammar and composition, history of the United States and of Mississippi, elements of natural philosophy, civil government, elements of physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effects of alcohol and narcotics ; and to obtain a second-grade license the applicant must be examined in spelling, reading, mental arithmetic, elementary geography, elementary English grammar and composition, and pri¬ mary United States history and physiology. Licenses shall be granted to those who make a general average of 75 per cent with not less than 50 on any subject, except that a third-grade license may be granted to an applicant who shall aver¬ age not less than 60 on second-grade subjects, with not less than 40 on any subject. Second and third grade licenses shall be valid for one year; licenses of the first grade, with a general average of 85, shall he valid for two years; with a general average of 90, three years ; and the second such three-year license shall be renewable in the county where issued as long as the holder desires to teach ; and any teacher who shall have taught under a first-grade license for five consecutive years shall he exempt from further examination. Applicants shall be at least 17 years of age, nor shall a license for more than one year be issued to an applicant who has had less than six months’ experi¬ ence in teaching. The State hoard of education may grant special examinations (fee, $2) for licenses which shall be valid only until the next regular examina¬ tion. When a teacher desires to have his license transferred to another county he may have the county superintendent forward his papers to the State hoard of examiners, and if the grading of the county hoard is sustained by the State hoard the license may be transferred to any county which the apidicant may designate. Applicants shall pay a fee of $1.50 to the State board of examiners for grading their papers. The State hoard of education may issue professional licenses to teachers of recognized ability, moral character, and scholarly attainments who shall pass a satisfactory written examination in algebra, geometry, rhetoric, English litera¬ ture, elements of botany and chemistry, science of teaching, civil government, and Latin through Csesar and Virgil. Such licenses shall be valid for life. A teacher with a third-grade license shall not he principal of a school which requires an assistant, and in schools requiring more than two assistants the principal must have a first-grade license. Contracts and salaries. — The county (or city) superintendent shall enter into duplicate written contract with each teacher, which shall specify the name of the school, the position of the teacher, whether principal or assistant, and the monthly salary. In addition to the fixed salary, there shall be stated in the contract two successively smaller amounts, which shall he the salary in case the attendance decreases to a number for which the conditional amounts would be the fixed salary. It shall be unlawful to issue a [pay] certificate for services rendered before the contract is made and signed. Superintendents shall fix the salaries of teachers so that the amount to he paid in salaries for maintaining all the schools for one month shall not exceed that fractional part of the whole school fund which one month is of the whole number of months the schools are to be taught. Salaries for schools requiring one teacher shall be fixed between the following limits : For a third-grade teacher, between $15 and $20 ; second-grade, $18 to $30 ; first-grade, $25 to $55. In fixing same the superintendent shall take into consideration the executive and teaching capacity of the teacher and the size of the school, to be determined by the educable population of the district and the average attendance of the two preceding years. The salary of an assistant shall not exceed by more than $5 the minimum fixed as above for the grade of license he holds if second or third grade, nor by more than $10 if first grade, hut the salary of an assistant may be lower than said minimums. In schools requiring more than one teacher the salaries of principals and assistants shall be regulated so that the cost per pupil 382 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. shall not materially vary from the average cost per pupil in schools having but one teacher. The superintendent shall have power to allow one teacher to every 50 educable children in a school district, but may grant an assistant in a school having more than 40 pupils in actual attendance, or two assistants if more than 80 pupils in actual attendance ; but in schools of more than 100 pupils, only one teacher shall be allowed for every 85 pupils. The principal teacher in a public school shall keep a daily record of such facts as the form of the register requires, and shall be responsible for the safe keeping and delivery of the register to the county superintendent at the end of the term, and the county superintendent shall not issue a pay certificate for the last month taught until the teacher shall have delivered such register in good order and properly filled out. The register shall show the name, age, and sex of each ])upil attending, and the names of absentees for each day. At the end of each scholastic month the teacher shall report to the county superintendent the name, age, sex, and number of days’ attendance of each pupil during the month. At least two trustees shall certify thereto, and upon receipt of same the county superintendent shall issue to the teacher and assistant, if any, a pay certificate. If the trustees, without good cause, refuse to sign the report, the teacher may appeal to the county superintendent, who may issue the certificate without the signature of the trustees. With the last monthly report of the session the teacher shall make a term report. Prelhninarij training. — The Mississippi Industrial Institute and College, the purpose of which is the moral and intellectual advancement of the white girls of the State, maintains a department for training in normal school methods and kindergarten. The State normal school for colored youth is under the control of five trustees, appointed biennially by the governor and confirmed by the sen¬ ate. The aim of the institution is the training of colored persons of both sexes as teachers in the common schools. Institutes. — In every county having more than fifteen school districts for either race there shall be held annuallj’^ for each race a separate teachers’ institute for a term of not less than five days. These institutes are under the direction of the State board of education, who may name a list of experienced and competent institute conductors from which the board of examiners in each county shall select a conductor. Regulations and outlines of work shall be prescribed by the said State board, who shall determine the amount to be paid for conductors and incidental expenses, and shall require of the county superintendent full reports of the work, attendance, and expenses. A fee of 50 cents is paid by each appli¬ cant for examination for a teacher’s certificate, and if license is issued for more than one year, 50 cents additional for each year’s duration of the license. If the amount of the institute fund be insutficient, the State board of education may empower the county superintendent to draw on the county common school fund for not exceeding $40 in any scholastic year to make up the deficit. If there be a surplus in the institute fund the county superintendent may spend 20 per cent of such fund in the purchase of works on teaching, to be kept by him for the use of teachers. 3. Schools. School terms— Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Schools shall be kept in continuous session four months, and as much longer as the school fund will maintain them ; trustees may, however, with the consent of a majority of the patrons, divide the session and have a portion of it taught in either term. The county school board shall fix the day for the opening of the winter term between the first Monday in November and the second Monday in January, and the summer term on the first Monday in May, or as soon thereafter as they deem suitable, said action in all cases to be at least twenty days before the opening of the term, whereupon the county superintendent shall notify the secretary of the board of trustees of each school in the county. The trustees in city districts fix the dates for the opening and closing of their schools. Twenty days of actual teaching shall constitute a school month, and trustees shall deter¬ mine the number of hours which shall constitute a school day — not less than five nor more than eight. Attendance. — The districts shall be so arranged as to place all children within reasonable distance of a schoolhouse, and one public school shall be maintained in each district, but may be discontinued at the end of any scholastic month when less than five attend. Children residing in one district may attend in . another, with the written consent of the trustees of both districts and the county DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MISSOURI. 383 superintendent ; but pupils shall not be allowed to attend more than one term during the scholastic year. In districts containing not more than one chartered institution of learning the board may locate the public school at the site of same, and the public school shall be conducted in accordance with the imles and regulations of the chartered institution, and the trustees of the public school and the trustees of the chartered school shall in joint session elect teachers for the public school. Character of mstruction. — The branches of study upon which teachers are required to be examined (see Teachers — Certificates) constitute the curriculum of the free public schools. Educable children may attend a high school or college in their county, and shall be enrolled, reported, and paid for as resident pupils of the district if the school has been established as a free public school of the county. A tuition fee may be charged all pupils who pursue studies beyond the public school cur¬ riculum. A separate (city) school district may make its schools graded schools; and graded schools may be of two kinds — grammar schools and high schools. In every graded school there shall be a graded grammar school, including the com¬ mon school curriculum ; and the high school shall be composed of pupils who shall have passed through the grammar-school grades or shall have passed an examination therein. The course in such high school shall be completed in three years, and the trustees may fix reasonable tuition fees, or the same may be free ; and they may prescribe what other studies may be taught in the high school. Text-l)Oolcs. — The county school board shall appoint five teachers of recognized ability, and the superintendent two, who shall constitute a committee for select¬ ing a uniform series of text-books. They shall serve five years, and books shall be selected for five years. The county superintendent is ex officio secretary of the committee, shall record its proceedings, and shall fill any vacancy occurring in said committee. He shall contract with publishers for books adopted, the form of contract and amount of publishers’ bond to be fixed by the State board of education, which contracts shall specify prices for exchange, introduction, and permanent supply. The books adopted shall be used by all schools in the county, except in city districts, the trustees of which shall adopt books for use therein. Instruction shall not be given in any branch to a pupil who is not supplied with the books adopted for that branch. The State board shall provide for the adoption of a text-book on any additional branch which may be added to the curriculum. BuilcUngs. — Any pupil who willfully defaces or injures any school property is liable to suspension or expulsion, and his parents or guardians shall be liable for all damages. Any one disturbing a public school shall be fined not less than $10 nor more than $50. 4. Finances. There shall be a common school fund, which shall consist of the poll tax (which is to be retained in the counties where collected) and an additional sum from the general fund in the State treasury, which together shall be sufficient to maintain the common schools for the term of four months of the year. The fund shall be distributed among the counties in proportion to the educable chil¬ dren in each. Any county or separate school district may levy an additional sum to keep the schools open for a longer period than four months. MISSOURI. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard — State superintendent — State library hoard— County commissioner of public schools — County superintendent — County hoard — District directors — City, town, and village directors. State hoard. — The State superintendent, governor, secretary of state, and attorney-general shall form the State board of education, which shall have general supervision over the entire educational interests of the State. The board shall report to the general assembly concerning its proceedings. State superintendent. — There shall be elected by the qualified voters of this 384 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. State at the general election every four years a State superintendent of public schools, who shall give bond with sureties in the sum of $10,000. He shall reside at the seat of government and keep the records and other accumulations of his office in an office furnished by the State, where he shall be found when not called thence by public business. He shall exercise such supervision over the educational funds of the State as may be necessary to secure their safety and correct application and distribution according to law ; require of county clerks or treasurers, boards of education or other school officers, recorders and treasurers of cities, towns, and villages copies of all records by them required to be made, and also such other information in relation to the funds and condi¬ tion of schools and the management thereof as may be deemed important ; cause copies of the law and instructions to be printed and distributed, as well as all blanks that may be necessary ; examine teachers and grant certificates of qualification to those who pass a satisfactory examination, but the applicant shall not be charged a fee ; may employ a chief clerk at a salary of $2,000 ; shall make an annual report to the general assembly when in session and on the following year to the governor, in which he shall present a statement of the condition and amount of all funds and property appropriated to purposes of education, the number of schools in the State, the number and sex of pupils attending the schools, the branches taught, the number of teachers employed, the average amount of wages paid to teachers, the number of teachers’ institutes formed and their condition, the number of teachers engaged in teaching within the State who have been trained for not less than six months in either of the State normal schools, the estimates and accounts of the expenditures of public school funds of every description, plans for the improvement and management of public schools, and such other matters as he may deem important; but no such report shall exceed 200 pages of printed matter of ordinary book form. He shall annually spend at least five days in each Congressional district conferring with the board of education and other school officers, counseling teachers, visit¬ ing schools, and delivering lectures. All reasonable sums expended by him in the execution of his duties shall be allowed him on due proof. titate lihrary hoard. — This board consists of the State superintendent of pub¬ lic schools and 4 other members appointed by the State board of education. The board compiles a list of school library and reference books, from which all school boards must supply their schools. The library board enters into contract with publishers as to prices and terms of supply, etc. Every district board and board of education shall spend out of the incidental funds annually not less than 5 cents and not more than 20 cents per pupil enumerated in the district each year in supplying and maintaining these supplementary and reference libraries. By vote of district this amount may be increased. County commissioner of yiihiic schools. — There shall be elected every two years a county commissioner of public schools, who shall be at least 21 years of age, a resident of the county for at least one year prior to his election, and shall hold a first-grade county, normal, or State certificate entitling him to teach in the public schools of such county. The county commissioner is chairman ex officio of the county board of education. He shall condense and forward to the State superintendent the educational statistics of the county, and see that the local authorities are supplied with copies of the school law and blanks. He shall receive for making his reports and perfecting the record of his office, in counties of less than 10,000 inhabitants, $20; 10,000 to 15,000. $30; 15,000 to 20,000, $35; 20,000 or more, $40. County superintendent. — Whenever the inhabitants of any county in this State may desire to establish county school supervision, the matter may be accomplished by 100 freeholders petitioning the county court for the same, and the court shall order an election. The county superintendent shall give bond, with sureties in double the amount of his salary, and shall keep his office and its records, etc., at the county seat, where a room shall be provided for him, with stationery, postage, etc. He shall have general supervision over all the schools of his county, except in cities having more than 1,000 children and organized as a city school district, and shall perform all the duties now required by the county commissioner and county board of education and receive like compensation therefor. He shall visit each school district in his county as often as practicable, examining the records, the character of instruction, and the con¬ dition of school property; and shall (privately) advise the teacher in matters calling therefor, consult with the district clerks and examine their accounts, organize a county teachers’ association, hold public meetings in each township DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MISSOURI. 385 ill the comity annually for the purpose of discussing educational questions of all kinds, formulate a course of study and a plan for grading the schools of his county, and require the same to be observed as nearly as practicable. His com¬ pensation shall be as follows : In counties wherein the number of children of school age is less than 2,000, he shall receive $200 ; from 2,000 to 3,000, $300 ; from 3,000 to 4,000, $400 ; from 4,000 to 5,000, $500 ; from 5,000 to 6,000, $600 ; from 6,000 to 7,000, $700 ; from 7,000 to 8,000, $800 ; from 8,000 to 9,000, $900 ; and for 9,000 or more, he shall receive $1,000. County hoard. — The county board of education consists of the county com¬ missioner of schools, one member appointed by the county court and one member appointed by the State board of education every two years. This board holds three regular teachers’ examinations each year for certificates on fourth Satur¬ days and preceding Fridays in March, June, and August ; questions furnished by the State superintendent. It adopts a course of study for all the rural and village schools in the count3^ and has authority to enforce its use. It holds a three days teachers’ association in September, October, or November of each year. District school directors. — Each county is divided into districts, which may be modified by the voters of the locality interested. The qualified voters at the annual school meeting shall have power by a majority to choose bj- ballot one director, who shall hold his oflice for the term of three years ; to fill vacancies caused by his death, resignation, removal, or change of residence ; determine the length of term in excess of six months that the schools shall be taught ; determine the rate of taxation ; vote such sum as may be deemed necessary for the purchase of books for a district library ; direct the sale of any school property ; vote for county commissioner or superintendent ; determine the amount to be levied to purchase school site and erect school buildings. The government and control of the district shall be vested in a board of direct¬ ors, composed of three members, who shall be citizens of the United States, resi¬ dent taxpayers for one year, and qualified voters of the district. The directors shall be elected by the voters and shall hold for the term of three j^ears, one retiring annually ; vacancies are to be filled by the other members, but if they fail to agree or there is more than one vacancy, the county commissioner shall fill the vacancy or vacancies. The board shall annuallj^ take an accurate census of persons 6 to 20 years of age (by race and sex), with the full name and post- office address of parent, on penalty of $100 for falsification ; shall have the care and keeping of the schoolhouse and other property. It shall furnish libraries, maps, globes, and other necessary apparatus ; regulate the organization and government of the schools ; shall have power to employ legally qualified teach¬ ers ; shall visit the schools ; may remove the district clerk for dereliction of duty ; shall annually estimate the amount of funds necessary to sustain the schools for the time required bj- law or by the district, together with the amount required for building and other expenses. City, town, and village schools. — Any city, town, or village having filed a plat in the recorder’s office, or any districts having 200 or more children of school age, may be organized into a special or consolidated school district, to be governed by the same general laws as other school districts. Whenever it is desired to organize a city, town, village, special, or consolidated district the question shall be submitted to the voters ; and if the vote is affirmative, six directors shall be elected, each for three years after the first election, two to retire annually. (Such directory is called the board of education. It has more authority than a district school board in levying higher rates of taxation, in maintaining longer terms of school, and in establishing and maintaining high schools.) The school board of any city having more than 50,000 inhabitants may relieve itself of the duty of enumeration for four consecutive years by passing a resolu¬ tion each year adopting the last enumeration. 2. Teachers. Appointment — Certificates — Duties — Preliminary training — Associations. Appointment. — Boards of directors shall contract with persons holding teach¬ ers’ certificates in full force for the time for which the contract is made, and anyone who shall enter a public school in this State to teach, govern, or discipline the same without being legally authorized shall be fined not exceeding ED 1904 M— 25 386 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. $100, as shall also any director indorsing or encouraging such unlawful act. The board shall not appoint one of its members as teacher, nor shall a teacher serve as clerk to the board. Certificates. — It shall be the duty of the county board to examine all persons presenting themselves for examination at the regular times fixed by law, and, if found qualified, to grant them certificates good in the county ; examination fee, $3. The State superintendent may examine teachers and grant certificates good anywhere in the State until revoked. County superintendents and boards are authorized to issue three grades of cer¬ tificates. Third-grade certificates, good for one year, shall be granted to persons of good moral character who shall pass a satisfactory examination, with a general average of 80, in arithmetic, language lessons, English grammar, geog¬ raphy, spelling, reading, penmanship. United States history, civil government, physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and elementary pedagogy. For a second-grade certificate, valid for two years, the general average must be 85, including the following addi¬ tional subjects : Elementary algebra and two years of high school English. For a first-grade certificate, valid for three years, the applicant is required to have had one year’s experience and to make a general average of 90 on the afore¬ mentioned subjects, with the addition of one branch of science and one division of general history. No certificate shall be issued to an applicant failing to make GO in any branch. Third-grade certificates may be renewed once, second- grade twice, and first-grade an indefinite number of times, without reexamina¬ tion or fee, on condition that the holder has taught the previous year and is a regular attendant at the county teachers’ association. Other duties. — It shall be the duty of every teacher to keep a daily register and make monthly and term reports to the district clerk, giving the number of pupils (by sex) in attendance during the month, the average attendance, and such other statistics as the directors may require, and no warrant shall be ordered by the board for the month’s salary until such reports have been filed when due. The term report must show list of pupils enrolled during the term, indicating the amount and character of work done by each in the official course of study. Every teacher shall attend the teachers’ county association. Preliminary training. — The following provisions apply to the normal depart¬ ments of the University of Missouri and Lincoln Institute (for colored persons), as well as to the State normal schools proper : The normal diploma, conferred upon pupils completing the advanced course, shall entitle the holder to teach in any county in the State without further examination until revoked for cause. The normal certificate, granted upon comi)letion of the elementary course, shall bear the names of the branches of study completed and the grade obtained in each, and shall entitle the holder to teach such branches for two years. Grades made in the summer terms of State educational institutions and other summer schools approved by the State board shall be taken in lieu of examination by county boards and superintendents in such subjects as may be designated by the State superintendent. Associations. — There shall be held in each county, in September, October, or November each year, a teachers’- association, for three days, under the direction of the county board of education. (See also Certificates — Other duties.) 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hool-s — Buildings. Attendance. — Separate free schools shall be established for the education of children of African descent, and it shall be unlawful for any colored child to attend a public school for wdiites or for a white child to attend a school for col¬ ored children. When there are within any school district in this State 15 or more colored children of school age, the district board shall maintain a sepa¬ rate free school for such colored children, and the length of the school term for the colored school and their advantages and privileges shall be the same as those enjoyed by white children in schools of corresponding grade. The board shall in all cases conduct, manage, and control the school as other schools of the district are conducted, managed, and controlled ; and all indebtedness in¬ curred by the board in providing suitable buildings, employing teachers, and maintaining schools shall be paid out of the appropriate funds of the district. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MISSOURI. 387 The board shall provide a suitable building and furnish the same, using the building or incidental funds of the district ; but should the average daily at¬ tendance of colored children for any one school month be less than 8, then the board may discontinue the school for not more than six months at any one time. In school districts the annual meeting shall determine by ballot the length of school term for children 6 to 20 years of age in excess of six months that the public schools of the district shall be maintained for the next scholastic year. The district board is required to continue the public schools for six months in each scholastic year. Should any board fail to comply with these provisions, the district shall be deprived of any part of the public school moneys for the ensuing year. City, town, and village schools shall continue for not less than seven months when it will not increase the estimated expenditure to an amount exceeding 40 cents on the dollar. Character of instruction.- — The school board shall have power to make all needful rules and regulations for organization, grading, and government. In counties having county supervision the county superintendent, and in other counties the county board of education, shall formulate a course of study and a plan for grading the schools of the county, and forward a copy of same to each district clerk and each teacher, and require the same to be followed as nearly as practicable. There are no restrictions on branches of knowledge that may be taught or grade of instruction that may be given, if the voters of the district, in regular form, consent to pay for it and raise the taxes for that pur¬ pose. Text-hooks. — The State auditor, attorney-general, State superintendent, presi¬ dent of the State Normal School at Kirksville, and one practical public school teacher to be appointed by the governor, constitute the school-book commission, each of whom shall receive $5 per day and actual traveling expenses for the time they are in session, not to exceed thirty days. They shall advertise for bids from reliable publishing houses, and each house bidding shall submit a copy of the book or books proposed to be furnished, and a deposit of $500 to cover costs and damages in the event of failure to enter into contract in case such bid be accepted by the commission. Upon opening of bids the commission shall pro¬ ceed to select the cheapest and best course of text-books so offered, such list to include books needful for high schools on all subjects which the commission think necessary ; and contracts shall be entered into with the publishers of such books to supply same for five years, stating price at which books will be supplied to dealers and citizens and terms upon which exchanges of new for old books will be made, and publisher shall execute a bond of $10,000 for the faithful performance of such contract. No text-books except those contracted for by said commission shall be used or taught in the public schools of the State nor sold for use in said schools ; and any school director who shall sanction or permit the use of other books (except for supplementary reading) shall be fined from $5 to $25. Directors may purchase at the expense of the district suffi¬ cient books for children whose parents are unable to buy them. Cities having 50,000 or more population are not subject to this law. Buildings. — The annual meeting of the district fixes the location of the school- house in new districts, and for the purpose of erecting schoolhouses and furnish¬ ing them the board of directors of cities, towns, or school districts are authorized to borrow money and issue bonds if directed by their constituents. The board of directors shall have the care and keeping of the schoolhouse and other prop¬ erty belonging to the district, and shall provide the necessary libraries, su])ple- mentary books, maps, etc., keep the building in good repair and supplied with fuel, etc. The schoolhouse may be used for religious or agricultural, educa¬ tional, or labor meetings if ordered by the voters. Every person who shall will¬ fully injure or destroy any building used as a schoolhouse or for other educa¬ tional purposes, or any furniture, fixtures, or apparatus thereto belonging, or who shall deface, mar, or disfigure the building or any of its appurtenances, shall be fined a sum double the damage done, and $10 to $50 for any pasting, painting, or cutting upon the building. When the demands of a city, town, or village or consolidated district require more than one public school building, the board shall, as soon as sufficient funds have been provided, establish an adequate number of primary or ward schools, corresponding in grade to those of other public school districts, and for this purpose the board shall divide the district into school wards and fix the bound¬ aries thereof, and erect a, suitable school building thereon and furnish the same. 388 EDUCATlOl^ EEPORT, 1904. 4. Finances. Funds i permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent or special). — The proceeds of all lands that have been or hereafter may be granted by the United States to the State and not otherwise appropriated by the State or United States ; all moneys, stocks, bonds, lands, and other property now belonging to any State fund for education ; the net pro¬ ceeds of the State tobacco warehouse, and of all sales of lands and other prop¬ erty and effects that may accrue to the State by escheat or from unclaimed dividends or distributive shares of the estates of deceased persons, or from fines, penalties, or forfeitures; any proceeds of the sales of public lands which may have been or hereafter may be paid over to the State (if Congress consent) ; also other grants, devises, or gifts that may be or may have been given to the State and not otherwise appropriated by the State or the terms of the grant, devise, or gift, shall be paid into the State treasury and securely invested and sacredly pre¬ served as a public school fund, the annual income of which, together with 33^ per cent of the ordinary revenue of the State, shall be faithfully appropriated for establishing and maintaining free public schools. The State superintendent of public schools shall annually apportion the public school fund among the dif¬ ferent counties upon the eninneration of persons G to 20 years of age, from the treasuries of which it shall be apportioned to the districts, towns, or cities which have made the enumeration required by law. The county fund shall consist of all stocks, bonds, etc., known as such fund, and of the clear proceeds of all penalties and forfeitures and of all fines col¬ lected in the several counties for any breach of the penal or military laws of the State as well as exemptions from military duty, the income of which shall be appropriated to the support of the public schools. The proceeds of the sixteenth section, or other land selected in lieu thereof ; the interest on such proceeds ; the rents and profits of such lands, and all the public school moneys which shall be apportioned to any unorganized township arising from dividends and profits of the public school fund, shall constitute a township school fund, which shall be under the care and management of the county court. Taxation. — -For school purposes in districts school boards may levy an annual rate of taxation on property not to exceed 40 cents on the $100 valuation ; in cities of 100,000 population, not to exceed GO cents on the $100; but in city, town, and consolidated districts the rate may be increased to an amount not to exceed $1 on the $100 of valuation, and in other districts to an amount not to exceed G5 cents on the $100 valuation, if a majority of the voters assent at an election held to decide the question. For the purpose of erecting public buildings the rates of taxation above limited may be increased when the rate of such increase and the purpose for which it is intended shall have been submitted to a vote of the people and two-thirds of the qualified voters of such school district shall vote therefor. MONTANA. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard of education — State superintendent of puhlic instruction — County superintendent of schools — District hoard of trustees — Truant officer. State hoard of education. — ^The State board of education shall consist of 11 members, including the governor. State superintendent, and attorney-general, the others being appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, for terms of four years, 2 to retire annually. The board shall have the general con¬ trol and supervision of the State institutions, shall grant State diplomas valid for six years and life diplomas, shall make an annual report of its proceedings, shall appoint experienced teachers to act as instructors in county institutes. The members of the board shall receive no compensation, but shall be allowed their actual traveling expenses in attending the meetings of the board. State text-hook commission. — The State text-book commission consists of seven members appointed by the governor, subject to called meetings, and hav¬ ing full authority to make contracts and agreements, in the name of the State, DIGEST OF SCHOOL LA.W8 - MONTANA. 389 for the supply of all text-books for use in the public schools, without further recommendations to the legislature, it being the duty of all school officers, under penalty, in their respective districts, to comply with the provisions of the law for the exclusive use of text-books adopted by said commission. Voters of each district may hold elections “ for ’’ or “ against ” free text-books, such books, in case of affirmation, to be paid for by special tax levy when amount in general fund is insufficient. Members of said commission to receive $G per session day and actual traveling expenses. (Synopsis of senate bill 54, approved March 7, 1903.) State superintendent of pudlic instruction. — There shall be chosen by the qualified electors of the State a superintendent of public instruction, who shall have attained the age of 30 years at the time of his election, shall have been a resident for the two years immediately preceding his election, and shall hold a State certificate of the highest grade issued in some State or be a graduate of some reputable university, college, or normal school, lie shall be elected for four years and have his office at the seat of government, and shall give a bond in the penal sum of $10,000, Vvith not fewer than two securities. He shall pre¬ serve the matters accumulated by virtue of his office and turn them over to his successor. He shall have the general supervision of the public schools of the State, shall prepare, print, and distribute the necessary blank books and forms, shall prepare and furnish county superintendents lists of publications approved by him as suitable for school libraries and prescribe rules for the same, shall prepare all questions to be used in the examination of applicants for teachers’ county certificates and prescribe the rules for conducting such examinations, shall prepare and prescribe a course of study for all the public schools of the State, shall prescribe rules for holding teachers’ institutes, shall counsel with the county superintendents and when requested shall give opinions concerning the school laws and decide all appeals from them, shall once in four years at most print the school laws with annotations, shall attend and assist at county institutes, and shall make a biennial report to the legislature through the gov¬ ernor, which shall contain the number of districts, schools, teachers, pupils, the attendance, and the studies ; the financial particulars, value of schoolhouses, cost of tuition, and wages of teachers ; the educational and financial condition of the State institutions connected with the public school system, and, as far as ascertainable, of private schools, academies, and colleges of the State ; finally, general matters, information, and recommendations, etc. Fifteen hundred copies of the report of the State superintendent shall be printed. He shall apportion the State school fund among the several counties in proportion to the number of children of school age in each. He may appoint a clerk at an annual salary of $1,800 and a clerk at an annual salary of $1,200, and shall himself receive $2,500 and not more than $500 for traveling expenses. County supermtendent of schools. — A county superintendent of schools shall be elected in each organized county for a term of two years and give bond in an amount fixed by the county commissioners. No one is eligible unless he has a certificate of the highest county grade, has resided one year in the State next preceding his election and one year in the county, and has had twelve months’ successful experience in teaching in the State public schools. He shall have the general supervision of the public schools of the county and shall carry out the instructions of the State superintendent. He shall visit every school, advising the teacher and noting in writing his judg¬ ment of her efficiency, shall decide all questions arising under the school law, shall apportion school moneys to the school districts, shall preside over teachers’ institutes, and shall select suitable persons as instructors from the list commis¬ sioned by the State board. He shall act as agent of the board of trustees of the State Orphans’ Home, shall see that the rules of the board are carried out with reference to any children adopted from said home within the limits of his county, and shall annually report to said board, on the 1st day of October of each year. He shall have power to issue temporary certificates, shall make an annual report to the State superintendent containing such matters as that officer may require, under penalty of the loss of a month’s salary. He shall see that the district boundaries are plainly marked, shall provide himself with an office at public expense, and shall be allowed postage, stationery, and in counties of the seventh and eighth class actual necessary expenses when engaged in visiting schools within his county. He shall not engage in teaching during his term of office. District hoard of trustees. — The term “ school district ” is declared to mean 390 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. the territory under the jurisdiction of a single board designated as “ board of trustees.” For the purpose of organizing a new district, a petition in writing shall be made to the county superintendent, signed by the parents or guardians of at least 10 census children residing within the boundaries of the proposed new district, but the boundaries of any district shall not be changed, except in forming new districts, unless a majority of heads of families resident therein present a petition to the county superintendent. An annual election for the election of school trustees shall be held in each district. Districts having a population of 12,000 or more are first class, having 7 trustees ; more than 1,000 and less than 12,000, second class, having 5 trus¬ tees ; less than 1,000, third class, having 3 trustees, each serving three years, excepting in first-class districts of over 20,000 population, trustees serve two years, give bond of $10,000, and are entitled to $4 for each meeting attended, not to exceed one each week. Vacancies to be filled by appointment by the county superintendent of schools. The board of trustees shall meet not less than once nor more than five times in each month in districts of the first class, and in all districts not less than four times each year. The board shall employ teachers and other employees, fix and pay their wages, fix the charge for the tuition of nonresident students, and fix the compensation of the clerk for time spent in the service of the dis¬ trict, enforce the rules of the State superintendent, provide school furniture and other essentials of the schoolhouse, rent, repair, and insure, build, or remove them ; hold in trust for the district all property, expel or suspend pupils, pro¬ vide books for indigent children, make an annual report to the county superin¬ tendent, report directiy to State superintendent when required, determine what branches, if any, shall be added to those required by law, subject to the approval of the county superintendent ; visit every school in their district at least once in each term. The board has custody of all school property, and shall provide each schoolhouse with an American flag 4 by 6 feet at least, of durable material, and the necessary apparatus for flying it. The board may issue bonds and sell them to meet maturing bonds. In addition to the boards of trustees as above specified, there shall be a board consisting of six members, appointed by the county superintendent of schools, which, together with said county superintendent, shall constitute a board of trustees of the high school, when, after a i)etition of 100 freeholders of any county, an affirmative election shall establish a high school in such county. Said board shall give bonds satisfactory to the county superintendent, shall hold office for two years, members not residing in place where high school is estab¬ lished being entitled to mileage in attending meetings, and the board shall be governed in the matter of meetings and procedure by the provisions of the gen¬ eral school laws of the State. The district clerk shall make annually a census of the persons 6 to 21 years of age, by sex, together with the names of their parents or guardians. He shall take separately a census of children under 6, by sex. He shall be paid 10 cents for each child’s name obtained, and he shall receive such other compensation for other services as may be allowed by the board of trustees. If, through the fail¬ ure of the clerk to take the census, the district lose its share of the annual apportionment of school money, he shall be individually liable for the amount. In districts having a population of 5,000 and upward, the board of trustees of such district may appoint a superintendent of schools, to hold at the pleasure of the board. The person so appointed shall hold a State certificate of Hie highest grade issued in some State or be the graduate of some reputable university, col¬ lege, or normal school, and shall have taught at least five years. He shall per¬ form the duties prescribed by the board, and he shall not engage in any work that will conflict with his duties as superintendent. Truant officer. — See under Schools, Attendance. 2. Teacheks. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No person shall be counted a quali¬ fied teacher who has not obtained a certificate from the county superintendent, or State certificate or life diploma from the State board of education, or a special certificate to teach either music, drawing, modern languages, or penmanship only. The State board of education shall issue State diplomas to such persons as DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MONTANA. 391 have a good moral character and who have held for one year and still hold in full force and effect a first-grade county certificate, with the addition of English literature and mental science, and who shall furnish satisfactory evidence of having been successfully engaged in teaching for at least five years. The term “ five years ” shall be construed to mean for five years of not less than seven months each ; that is, the applicant must have taught a part of each year for five years — not necessarily consecutive years — and in all thirty-five months, of which at least twenty-one months must have been in the public schools of Montana, provided that the State board of education shall have power to add such other studies to those enumerated in this paragraph as they may deem necessary. Life diplomas may be issued upon all and the same conditions as State diplo¬ mas, except that the applicant must pass a satisfactory examination upon the rudiments of botany, geology, political economy, zoology, and general history, and must furnish satisfactory evidence of having been successfully engaged in teaching for at least ten years. “ Ten years ” shall be construed to mean ten years of not less than seven months each ; that is, the applicant must have taught some part of each year for ten years — not necessarily consecutive years — and in all seventy months, of which at least twenty-one months must have been in the public schools of Montana. A State or life diploma may be granted to any graduate of the State normal school of Montana or of the State University of Montana when the said grad¬ uate furnishes satisfactory evidence of having successfuly taught after grad¬ uation, a public school in this State for sixteen school months. State or life diplomas may be granted to graduates of other educational institutions, within or without the State, upon conditions established by the State board of education. The county superintendent shall hold public examinations of all persons over 18 years offering themselves as candidates for teachers of common schools at the county seat on the third Fridays in February, April, August, and November of each year by a series of written or printed questions, according to the rules prescribed by the State superintendent. If from the percentage of correct answers required by the rules and from other evidences disclosed by the exami¬ nation, including particularly the superintendent’s knowledge and information of the candidate’s successful experience, the applicant is found to be a person of good moral character, to possess a knowledge and understanding, together with an aptness to teach and govern, which shall enable such applicant to teach in the common schools of the State, the county superintendent shall grant such applicant a certificate of qualification. Certificates shall be of three regular grades, the first of which shall be good for three years, the second for two years, and the third grade (only issued once to the same person in the same county : Provided, That the State superintend¬ ent of public instruction, may, at his discretion, authorize the issuance of more than one permit to the same person within the same county) for a term of one year, according to the percentage of correct answers and other qualifica¬ tions appearing from the examination. No certificate shall be granted unless the applicant shall be found proficient in and qualified to teach reading, pen¬ manship, orthography, written arithmetic, mental arithmetic, geography, Eng¬ lish grammar, ph.ysiology and hygiene. United States history, and theory and practice of teaching. In addition to the above, applicants for a second-grade certificate shall pass a satisfactory examination in civics of the United States and of Montana, physical geography, and elementary algebra. The examina¬ tion for a first-grade certificate shall include all of the forementioned branches and also American literature, natural philosophy, and plane geometry, and the applicant must have taught twelve months acceptably. In addition to the 3 regular certificates the county superintendent may issue a temporary certificate to teach until the next regular examination to any person applying at any other time than that during which the regular examination is held, under regulations fixed by the State superintendent, but such certificate may be issued but once to the same person. Any person thinking himself unjustly treated may have his papers reexamined by the State superintendent on paying a fee of .$2. To validate the first-grade certificate for any county in the State other than that for which it has been granted it must be registered by the superintendent of the county in which the possessor wishes to teach. Every applicant shall pay $1 for the benefit of teachers’ institute in the county. The questions forwarded by the State superintendent shall not be opened until the day of examination. Every teacher shall make an annual report to the county superintendent, a copy of which shall be delivered to the district clerk. The teacher shall also make such other reports as may be lawfully required, and no warrant shall be 392 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1901. dra^Yn for a teacher’s salary until all reports have been furnished, but in dis¬ tricts having superintendents the reports shall be made to them. The teacher shall also keep a register in a proper manner or forfeit her last month’s salary, as also enforce the course of study and obedience on the part of pupils, but any teacher who shall maltreat or abuse any pupil shall be fined not to exceed $100. Preliminary training. — The object of the State normal school shall be the instruction and training of teachers for the common schools of the State, the control of which shall be vested in the State board, which shall elect all teachers and employees. Meetings. — The county superintendent in every county in which there are five or more school districts must hold one teachers’ institute in each year, and every teacher employed in the county must attend the institute on penalty of losing pay, if teaching, or, if not teaching, of having certificate revoked, although such attendance, owing to the contradictory nature of the law in the premises, fur¬ ther rests on the permission of boards of trustees for the closing of schools dur¬ ing the time of such institute meeting. As to other counties the county superintendent shall confer with the State superintendent. The session of the institute shall last five to ten days. Funds for the institute shall be derived from the following sources : All moneys received from the issuance of teachers’ certificates by the county superintendents, the appropriations from counties of the first class of $150 to $250, of the second class $100 to $200, of the third class $75 to $125, and of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth classes $25 to $100. The State board shall appoint experienced teachers to act as instruct¬ ors in county institutes. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-l)00lcs — Buildings. Attendance. — Every common school not otherwise provided for by law shall be open to the admission of all children 6 to 21 for at least three months in each year for six hours a day, exclusive of noon recess, but any board in any district having a population of five hundred or more may fix as the school day a less number of hours than six : Provided, That it be not less than four hours, except in the lowest primary grades, where the pupils may be dismissed after an attendance of two hours. Every parent, guardian, or other person in the State of Montana having con¬ trol of any child or children between the ages of 8 and 14 years shall be required to send such child or children to a public school, or private school taught by a competent instructor, for a period of at least twelve weeks in each year, six weeks of which time shall be consecutive : Provided, That such parent, guard¬ ian, or other person having control of such child or children shall be excused from such duty by the school board of the district whenever it shall be shown to their satisfaction, subject to appeal as provided by law, that one of the fol¬ lowing reasons exists therefor, to wit : First. That such child is taught at home by a competent instructor in such branches as are usually taught in the public schools. Second. That such child has already acquired the branches of learning taught in the public schools. Third. That such parent, guardian, or other person is not able, by reason of poverty, to properly clothe such child. Fourth. That such child is in such a physical or mental condition (as declared by a competent physician, if required by the board) to render such attendance inexpedient or impracticable. Fifth. That there is no school taught the requisite length of time within 2^ miles of the residence of such child by the nearest traveled road ; Provided, That no child shall be refused admission to any public school on account of race or color. Any parent, guardian, or other person failing to comply with these provisions shall, upon conviction, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and fined in a sum not less than $5 nor more than $25 for each offense. Said action shall be prose¬ cuted in the name of the State of Montana, before any court of competent juris¬ diction, and all fines so collected shall be paid into the county treasury and placed to the credit of the school fund of the district in which the offense occurs. In school districts having a population of 25,000 or more, there shall be estab¬ lished * * * an industrial school for the purpose of affording a place of confinement, discipline, instruction, and maintenance of children of compulsory DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - MONTANA. 393 school age, who may he committed thereto according to prescribed conditions. Such schools to be established and conducted the same as other public schools. (Note.) One such school at Butte. It shall be the duty of the district clerk of each school district, not later than twenty days after the commencement of each school term, to furnish the board of trustees with a list of names of all children between 8 and 14 years of age in attendance at school ; and any district clerk failing to furnish such lists within the time specified herein shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and be liable to a fine of not less than $5 nor more than $25 for each offense ; and such fine, when col¬ lected, shall be paid into the county treasury and placed to the credit of the school fund of the district in which the offense occurs. It shall be the duty of the school trustees of the district to inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in this title and ascertain from the per¬ son neglecting the reason, if any, therefor, and they shall forthwith proceed to secure the prosecution of any offense occurring under this title ; and any trustee neglecting to secure such prosecution for such offense within ten days after receiving the lists mentioned above, unless the person so complained of shall be excused by the board of trustees for the reason hereinbefore stated, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and liable to a fine in the sum of not less than $10 nor more than $50 ; and such fine, when collected, shall be paid into the county treasury and placed to the credit of the school fund of the district in which the offense occurs. In every school district having a population of 2,000 or more the board of trustees may appoint one person, who shall be designated as “ truant officer,” whose duty it shall be, acting discreetly, to apprehend on view all children between 8 and 14 years of age who are residents of the said district and who habitually frequent or loiter about public places and have no lawful occupation, and place such children when so apprehended in the public school. And such officer shall report all cases of truancy to his respective board of trustees im¬ mediately. Upon the receipt of such information from such “ truant officer ” any member of the board of school trustees shall forthwith proceed to prosecute the person so offending as prescribed. Such officer shall be entitled to such compensation as shall be fixed by the board appointing him, which shall be paid out of the school fund. If, upon the trial of any offense as charged, it shall be made to appear to the satisfaction of the court or judge trying the same that such prosecution was malicious, then the costs in such case shall be adjudged against the complain¬ ant or person instituting such proceedings and collected as fines in other cases. Character of instruction. — All common schools shall be taught in the English language, and instruction shall be given in the following branches : Reading, penmanship, orthography, written arithmetic, mental arithmetic, geography, English grammar, physiology, and hygiene — with special reference to the effect of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics on the human system — history of the United States, civics of the United States and of Montana. No publication of a sectarian, partisan, or denominational character must be used or distributed in any school, or be made a part of any school library ; nor must any sectarian or denominational doctrine be taught therein. Attention must be given during the entire course to the cultivation of manners, to the laws of health, physical exer¬ cise, ventilation, and the temperature of the school room. Whenever the inter¬ ests of the district require it the board of trustees may establish a high school, employ a principal and other teachers, and grade the school ; and the board may also determine what branches, in addition to those required by law, shall be taught in the public schools, subject, however, to the approval of the county superintendent. Buildings. — The board of trustees shall have custody of all the district school property. Any pupil who shall in any way cut, deface, or otherwise injure any schoolhouse, furniture, fence, or outbuilding, or any book belonging to other pupils, or to the district library shall be liable to suspension and punishment, and his parent or guardian for damage done. Any person willfully disturbing any public school or public school meeting shall be fined from $10 to $100. The national flag must be displayed on or near each schoolhouse. 4. Finances. The principal of the State school fund shall remain irreducible and perma¬ nent. The said fund shall be derived from the following sources, to wit : Appropriations and donations by the State to this fund ; donations and bequests 394 EDUCATIOT^ REPORT, 1904. by individuals to the State or common schools; the proceeds of land and other property which revert to the State by escheat and forfeiture ; the proceeds of all property granted to the State when the purpose of the grant is not specified or is uncertain ; funds accumulated in the treasury of the State for the dis¬ bursement of which provision has not been made by law ; the proceeds of the sale of timber, stone, materials, or other property from school lands other than those granted for specific purposes, and all moneys other than rental recovered from persons trespassing on said lands; 5 per cent of the proceeds of the sale of public lands lying within the State which shall be sold by the United States subsequent to the admission of the State into the Union, as approved by section 15 of the enabling act ; the i)rincipal of all funds arising from the sale of lands and other property which have been and may hereafter be granted to the State for the support of common schools. The board of trustees, at any time when in their judgment it is advisable, may submit to the qualified electors of the dis¬ trict the question whether a tax, not to exceed 10 mills on each dollar on the taxable proi>erty in the district, shall be raised to purchase lots and to furnish additional school facilities for said district, or to maintain any school or schools in such district, or for building one or more schoolhouses, or for removing or building additions to one already built, for the purchase of globes, maps, charts, books of reference, and other appliances or apparatus for teaching, or for any or all of these purposes. Such election shall be called by posting iiotices in three public places in the district for at least fifteen days before the election, and conducted as nearly as practicable according to the provisions herein made for holding annual school elections. The notice shall contain the time and place of holding the election, the amount of money proposed to be raised, and the pur¬ pose or purposes for which it is intended to be used. All moneys arising from the sale of town lots in virtue of the several acts of the legislature shall be paid into the county treasury for the benefit of the com¬ mon schools of the school district in which such city or town is situated. The State superintendent shall annually ai)portion the State school fund among the several counties of the State in proportion to the number of children of school age, and it shall be the duty of the State board of land commissioners to notify the State auditor of the amount. The county superintendent shall apportion all school moneys to the district quarterly. No school district shall be entitled to receive any apportionment of school money which shall not have maintained a free school for at least three months during the next preceding school year, and every school district using text-books other than those prescribed by the State legislature (except for supplementary purposes) shall forfeit 25 per cent of their school fund for that year, and the county superintendent shall deduct that amount from the apportionment to be made to any district. The board of trustees of any school district may, when authorized by a ma¬ jority of the voters, submit to the electors the question of issuing bonds at a rate of interest no greater than G per cent per annum, but in no case shall the whole issue of bonds exceed 3 per cent of the taxable property within the dis¬ trict, but not to exceed in gross $250,000. NEBRASKA. 1. Organization of the System. ^tate superintendent — State hoard of commissioners for managing school fund — ■ County superintendent — School districts — Rural districts — High school dis¬ tricts — City districts — Metropolitan city districts {Omaha) — Truant officers. The State superintendent of puhlic instruction shall be elected biennially. He shall be furnished with an office at the seat of government, where he shall keep the records of his office, which are ever to be open to the governor, auditor, or committee of either branch of the legislature. He shall organize and, as far as practicable, attend teachers’ institutes and provide proper instructors. He shall visit such schools as he may have it in his power to visit, and witness and advise with teachers and school officers upon the manner in which they are conducted ; decide disputed points in school law ; prescribe forms for making all reports and regulations for all proceedings under the general school laws of the State ; cause to be printed, in pamphlet form, the school laws and laws relat- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEBRASKA. 395 ing to the school lands, with blank forms prescribed by him, and furnish each county superintendent with a sufficient number to supply the district officers within his jurisdiction ; annually submit to the governor a report containing a statement of the school funds of the State, an account of the receipts and expend¬ itures for the purpose of schools, a statement of the condition of the common schools and other educational institutions chartered or fostered by the State, embracing the number of schools of the several grades, number and average compensation of teachers, names and compensations of county superintendents, number of pupils attending the several schools, the enumeration of youth by counties, value of schoolhouses, sites, apparatus, and furniture; a statement of such plans as he may devise for the better management of the school funds and the school system, and such other statements as he may deem expedient to com¬ municate relating to his office and to popular education. He shall cause his report to be printed by the State printing board, and shall deliver at the commencement of each regular session of the legislature 50 copies thereof to the senate and 150 copies to the house of representatives, and shall transmit one copy to each county and city superintendent of schools in the State and one to each State superintendent of other States. He shall, semi¬ annually, on or before the third Monday in June and the last Monday in Decem¬ ber, make an apportionment of the funds which are in the treasury and which are applicable to the support of schools, which apportionment shall be based upon the enumeration of youth reported to the State superintendent by the county superintendents. The State superintendent may appoint a deputy at a salary of $1,500 per annum. State hoard of commissioners for managmg school lands. — (See Finances — Funds. ) Comity superintendent. — There shall be a county superintendent in each organized county, whose term of service shall be two years, and who shall be elected at the same time and in the same manner as other county officers. It shall be the duty of the county clerk to notify the State superintendent of the election of the county superintendent at the time said election is ascertained. The county commissioners, or a majority of them present at the first regular session of each year, shall determine the compensation to be paid to the county superintendent, but such compensation shall not be less than $1,200 per annum in counties having a school population of 4,000 or more, not less than $1,000 in counties having a school population of 2,500 and less than 4,000, not less than $800 in counties having a school population of 1,500 and less than 2,500, and in counties having a school population less than 1,500 a per diem of not less than $4 or more than $5 for each day actually employed in the duties of his office, but the total compensation in this class shall not exceed $800 per annum. The number of days necessary for the duties of his office shall be determined by the county superintendent, but the number of days so employed shall not be less than twice the number of districts in such county, and one day for each precinct thereof for the examination of teachers. The superintendent shall file in the office of the county clerk a sworn statement of his account. The county superintendent shall examine all persons offering themselves as teachers for the public schools, shall grant certificates, and may indorse a cer¬ tificate in force in any other county of any State. He shall visit each of the schools of his county at least once a year to examine carefully into the disci¬ pline and modes of instruction and into the progress and efficiency of the pupils ; counsel with the teachers and district boards as to the course of study to be pursued ; note the condition of the schoolhouse and appurtenances thereto ; suggest places for new schoolhouses to be erected and plans for warming and ventilating and the general improvement of the schoolhouse and grounds ; pro¬ mote, by public lectures, teachers’ institutes, and such other means as he may devise, the improvement of the schools in his county ; consult with the teachers and school boards to secure general and regular attendance of the children of his county upon the public schools ; receive all such blanks and communications as may be directed to him by the State superintendent and dispose of the same in the manner directed by the State superintendent ; examine into the correct¬ ness of the reports of the district boards and, when necessary, require the same to be amended. The county superintendent shall be subjected to such rules and instructions as the State superintendent may from time to time prescribe, to whom he shall report annually. Whenever, by death, resignation or removal, or otherwise, the office of the superintendent shall become vacant, the county board shall have power to fill such vacancy. 396 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. He shall report the names of every blind or deaf person from 5 to 21 years of age to the superintendent of the State institution for each class, respectively. School districts. — There are four distinct classes of school districts in this State: (1) The rural or village school district, with a board of 3 members; (2) the high school district, with a board of 6 members; (3) the city school district, (a) cities having a population of more than 1,500 inhabitants and less than 5,000, with a board of 6 members, (&) cities having a population of more than 5,000 and less than 25,000, with a board of 6 or 9 members, optional, (c) cities having a population of more than 25,000 and less than 40,000, with a board of 5 members, at a salary of $300 each per annum, payable in monthly installments of $25 each (South Omaha), (d) cities having a j^opulation of more than 40,000 and less than 100,000, with a board of 5 members (Lincoln) ; (4) metropolitan cities, with a board of 15 members (Omaha). Rural or village districts. — There shall be elected at the annual meeting a director, a moderator, and a treasurer, each of whom shall serve for three years, and one of whom shall retire annually. The moderator shall preside at the dis¬ trict meetings and countersign all orders on the treasurer. The director shall be clerk of the board, take the school census, hire teachers (with the consent of another member of the board, but not employ a district school officer without consent of two-thirds of the voters), and draw orders on the treasurer. The school director of the district shall, within ten days after the annual district meeting, deliver to the county superintendent a report, under oath, showing the whole number of children belonging to the district between the ages of 5 and 21 years, according to the census taken aforesaid; and any district board neg¬ lecting to take the enumeration and make a return of the same shall be liable to said district for all school moneys which such district may lose by such neg¬ lect. Within ten days after the annual district meeting the director shall report to the county superintendent the number attending school during the year under 5 and the number over 21 years of age ; whole number that have attended school during the year ; whole number in the district between the ages of 7 and 15 years ; whole number in the district between the ages of 7 and 15 years that have attended school not less than twelve weeks during the school year ; length of time the school has been taught during the year by a qualified teacher, length of time taught by each teacher, and wages paid to each ; total number of days all scholars between the ages of 5 and 21 years have attended school during the year ; amount of money received from the county treasurer during the year, and the amount of money expended by the district during the year; number of mills levied for all school purposes ; kind of books used in the school ; number of chil¬ dren to whom text-books are furnished, and kind of books ; amount of bonded indebtedness ; such other facts and statistics as the county superintend¬ ent shall direct. The district school board shall have the general care of the schools, and shall have the power to cause pupils to be taught in such branches and classified in such grades or departments as may seem best adapted to a course of study which the school boards of any county shall establish by the consent and advice of the county superintendent thereof, and the school board of each district shall cause a record of the advancement in each branch of study of all the pupils to be kept in a book to be provided for this purpose; and it is hereby made the duty of each district board, or of one of their number empowered by the board, to attend all meetings called by the county superintendent for the purpose of adopting or revising a course of study for the advancement of district schools, of making rules and regulations as they may think necessary for the government and health of the pupils, and of devising such means as may seem best to secure regular attendance and progress of children at school. High school district. — Any district containing more than 150 children from 5 to 21 years of age may elect a district board consisting of 6 trustees, 2 to retire annually, vacancies being filled by the board until the next meeting of the dis¬ trict. The board shall have power to classify and grade the scholars in such district, and cause them to be taught in such schools and departments as they may deem expedient ; to establish in such district a high school, when ordered by a vote of the district at an annual meeting, and to determine the qualifica¬ tions for admissions to such schools ; to employ all teachers necessary for the several schools of said district; to prescribe courses of study and text-books for the use of said schools, and to make such rules and regulations as they may think needful for the government of the schools and for the preservation of the DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEBRASKA. 397 property of the district, and also to determine tbe rates of tuition to be paid by nonresident pupils attending any school in said district. It shall present annually a statement of all the receipts and expenditures and the net balance, and an estimate of the amount necessary to be raised by the district, in addition to the money received from the primary school fund and other sources for the support of the school for the ensuing year, and the district annual meeting may vote the sums to be raised. City districts. — The territory embraced within the corporate limits of each incorporated city in the State having a population of more than 1,500 and less than 100,000, including such adjacent territory as may be attached for school purposes, shall constitute one school district, and as such shall be a body cor¬ porate and possess all the usual powers of a corporation for public purposes, may sue and be sued, purchase, hold, and sell such personal and real estate and control such obligations as are authorized by law ; and the title to all school buildings or other property owned by any school district within the cor¬ porate limits of any city shall, upon the organization of the new city district under these provisions, vest immediateiy in the new district, and the board of education shall have exclusive control of the same for all purposes herein con¬ templated. All schools organized within the limits of such cities shall be under the direction and control of the board of education (for number of members of which, see School districts). Such schools shall be free. to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years whose parents or guardians live within the limits of the district, and all children of school age nonresidents of said district who may be by law allowed to attend said school without charge. Metropolitan city districts {Ofnalia). — Each incorporated metropolitan city in the State, or those hereafter incorporated as such, shall constitute one school district, and as such shall be a body corporate and possess all the usual powers of a corporation for public purposes, may sue and be sued, purchase, hold, and sell such personal and real estate and control such obligations as are authorized by law ; and the title to all school buildings or other property owned by any school district within the corporate limits of metropolitan cities shall, upon the organization of a metropolitan city district under these provisions, vest imme¬ diately in the new district, and the board of education (consisting of 15 mem¬ bers) shall have exclusive control of the same for all purposes herein contem¬ plated. All schools erected or organized within the limits of said metropolitan cities shall be under the direction and control of the board of education, and shall be free to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years whose parents or guardians reside within the limits of said district, and to all children of school age nonresidents of said district who may be by law allowed to attend said schools without charge. Truant officers. — (See Schools — Attendance.) 398 6 oicc O cc O T3 S © © EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. ® o > ;s il I t>rC P § = > > ?3 g 'B '2-o'2 CO © _ {C © S , CO o ^ *rr f— I rQ o co-g 2.2 (-*< .- CO CO ^ d d'-i • pd d05 d©= d '~; C.2 d d o o .2 d P o o fi .2 d 0.2 d •+^ od-4^ o .2 d -4J O o p O rH P o 6 Q C fl' ■p O' ©ft ©ft! S'" (D 8® ® w CO g CO 8’^ 8’^ 8* 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 'S'3 1-2 © . M O ? O g gS •1=1 © bn 5U0 rs ,0 o © O' ^ ^ ^ © © b^ O g- ^1 — I rr-i .■s CO O © © O’ > ai-'i S'? ® 'CS © c -4^ be o ^ ,|&s •S bcr;3 ri ” ;-i Pi !3« i/j I— < Q, -g -2 'k -2 ^ g ©^ ^ p, as ft's g ^ "g d ft ® o (I) (X) •’^ $f ^ iM ^ . ®f>3 ftS § 2 o p g sfo d ts P “rg .|8 2S|>:.S|^| . ISo &C+3-IJ.P bcp a3Cp,e2 S o .2 Pi 4J O ®a2 ft-^s la O © © '<-1 p © 't-i „' . '*-1 p © '*-< ^i> S®2®o So2®o 2a3 fts©h,02 ftce®'" ^P-i-''i:i 2-tJpQp CO S-dJ^dOdeg . a- 03 o d 03 g 2-4^4 d ©^ p. >4 ■la i| 'd'^ So 'd s “"I « >>S .‘2 ft © ce 2 ft re a S-d d ■do ©.2 d f3 H o8 tate ent. op-- o o s s idors< supei Nebi tate ent. ...do d 03 02 ft ft 02 ; ft s Sft a2 g d >='2 il © d ft © d d « ao 8S beg ■|£ 5a 2h O 03 © ^ a c3 Jz; -is « =§ © ad-2 2 © d ft ^'d 02 o 1® ggft ‘Std d It I o ©d 2 © ft ft 02‘ o3^ o © 2 § ll§ © dft *o_ 0 . d-^S aa-d o ft d © P3 02 fH © © J d d3 oS © eed'"'-^-©' f" ©el"-' 'i'--" ^ © d © d © ii ft02 drddoco©drft be'© ^ iz; Iz; 02 t3 o h2 o t>d II ^d^g8 ^2 a-sSd |o s^ggp^.s- fH >4 ftp f-l © -§ >4 eg P d §c3ft.-y^fecag.-gg .og a ^ a © 2ft “ © !^S 2 ©'^ g©„^-p©©'ybc !=^'-P © c3 d be - ^4j_©^c3>-ddo+=>Pi>^^aA'^ ri CS 0.^*S n n ^ ^r n?*rr\ •^1 ® © education. I I I I ! subdivision 17. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEBRASKA 399 '> ^ 2 •S CO CO • ' > ^ '5 Ss./p f.K^ 5 “ o ^ ■-+3 o cc m rt .2s;§ 0_;+^ OC •433 g Eo CO CO 1s| 3 -^+3 43 ,.2 =s y ^ c/3 ,'• SlsisgS-li &.S.2gS|M Op, •c3 ™'r3 gif ^ ^ .SS-^£.S 4^ _ _ ^ t'D $2 C ^ 02 S &i-i ;o ^28 ■E s-^-5- j|« I i'o ; S 00^^ M-TC X U ^ O c5-^3o;OOci3®2’:^ +j ^ 4^ =M X ct P-,^ H W p rt O o c p o o . ^ 8 h'J=i c p 80 cSS c3 CO O o b s.s s ^ 0 03 ^ 2S^S t>. ^ p -. Eo CO O . .-rcC O ^5-43^ 0=^ s fn q-l ^ CS C 0.2 a g > •■^^U2 “t o 5 I 6-^ ^0) 'B ^ 2 2 CO 8 ”0 O '-'& ^ ...^ 43 (T> rO ° 2”^ 2 m CO p; ^ J I S^ J O Soc^l ® o O P ® o S ^'.Tb g Crt |5§8 I ^ gS O 8 CO o 0.3 O .2^00 « ^.2cop .2 .251S § ^ c 2S > CC ® P cfl P p: p! o o p3 p c^I^; CO o > O O PQ -2rCgP 2 n o o p P 00 20: (D > p O-gib 60 -§ 2^ 0^.2 o _^Q ’> 2 5T^ ? g 04S p _ t> ot^'S.2 p^ 'P ® 3 CO OObP .—I 'g 'Oi .Crrt 2 oD'rt S3 § § p -I CO . p .1^ CT-; 3 O P 2' o P o fl O « 3 2o rU o^ ce of ^ Oh 3^ ® ^ bo p "P O CO CO 0 § 3 P ® 53h P ® CO P Q;_g O '^2 >.o§.8s^g CO >8 3 0 3 P- P-CD 400 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. Institutes. — For the purpose of allowing teachers an opportunity to improve themselves in the art of teaching and to promote uniform methods of instruction in the public schools of the State, county teachers’ institutes shall be organ¬ ized and conducted annually by the county superintendents. Two or more county superintendents, with the approval of and in conjunction with the State superintendent, may organize and conduct joint institutes at such time and place and for such leugtn of term as they may deem practicable, in lieu of the county institute. It shall be the duty of county superintendent and teachers to attend the institute of their county — or district in case of joint institutes — • at least one week for the purpose of comparing notes, planning and outlining the work of the current or coming school year, and to study methods of school work and the science and art of teaching. The county superintendent may at his dis¬ cretion revoke the certificate of or refuse to grant a certificate to any teacher who fails or refuses to attend the county or joint institute. Should graduates from the elementary course of the State normal school refuse to attend such institute, it shall be the duty of the county superintendent to report said refusal to the principal of the normal school, who shall revoke the certificate of said normal graduate ; but the county superintendent may excuse experienced teach¬ ers from such attendance when application is made before the opening of the institute and satisfactory reasons for absence are given in writing by such teachers. (See also Preliminary training — Junior normal schools.) Preliminary training. — The first term of the Nebraska State normal school, Peru, Nebr., opened October 24, 1867. The State normal school shall be exclu¬ sively devoted to the training of persons for teaching and managing schools and in the principles and practice of the various branches of learning taught in the public schools. It shall be under the direction of a board of education, consist¬ ing of 7 members, 5 of whom shall be appointed by the governor for a term of five years each, arid the State treasurer and the State superintendent of public instruction shall, by virtue of their offices, be members of said board. The said board shall have power to appoint a principal, assistant teachers, and such other employees as may be required, to fix their compensation, and prescribe their duties and shall make regulations for the admission of pupils. The board of education shall receive no compensation for their services, but shall be reim¬ bursed for actual expenses incurred in attending upon meetings of the board. Any student having completed the “ common school course ” shall be entitled to a certificate good for two years in any part of the State; and any student completing the higher course of study in a satisfactory manner shall be entitled to a diploma entitling the holder to teach in any school for three years ; any graduate of the higher course who shall after graduation teach two annual terms of school of not less than six months each, or their equivalent, and shall produce a certificate of good moral conduct and satisfactory discharge of pro¬ fessional duties from the board or boards of directors of the district or districts in which the applicant taught, countersigned by the county superintendent of the proper county or counties, shall be entitled to receive an additional diploma, good for life : Provided, That any teacher producing satisfactory proof of three years’ successful teaching previous to graduation in the higher course of study may receive, upon graduation, a diploma good for life: Provided, That no life diploma shall be in force after its holder shall permit a space of three years to elapse without following some educational pursuit, unless said diploma be in¬ dorsed by the State superintendent : Provided. That each holder of a certificate from the" common school course, or a diploma from a higher course, shall, before he begins to teach, register the same in the office of the county superintendent of the county in which he shall teach ; and for such registration he shall pay a fee of $1, which shall go into the institute fund of said county. All funds appropriated for the use and benefit of the normal school, together with the income arising from the lease and sale of the endowment lands belong¬ ing to said school, shall be under the direction and control of said board of edu¬ cation, subject to the provisions herein contained. All the lands remaining unsold of the 20 sections heretofore appropriated as an endowment fund for the State normal school and all the endowment fund hitherto derived from the sale of such lands shall be forever an endowment. The legislature of 1903 passed a law providing for one additional State nor¬ mal school to be located at any point west of a point not exceeding 5 miles east of the ninety-eighth meridian, to be determined and designated by the board of education of the State normal school. Said school was located by said board September 1, 1903, at Kearney, Buffalo County, Nebr. Said school shall be in all respects under the direction and control of the board of education of the DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEBEASEA. 401 State normal school located at Pern, Nemaha Comity, Nebr., and said school shall be for the same puriiose and governed in all respects by the provisions of the statutes now in force regulating and governing the State normal school at Peru, Nemaha County, Nebr. There shall be not less than three and not more than five junior normal schools at such time and places as are hereinafter designated. The terms and time of holding these junior normal schools shall be not less than ten weeks betv.men the 1st day of June and the 1st day of September of each year ; and three of these junior normal schools shall be established and maintained in the school districts of Alliance, McCook, and Valentine, and at not more than two other places, to be determined by the State superintendent : Provided, That at each of these places the puldic school buildings, text-books, and apparatus of the respective school districts be placed at the service of the State under the juris¬ diction of the State superintendent. The organization and management of the junior normal schools shall be under the jurisdiction of the State superintendent, and he shall as far as practicable attend such junior normal schools, provide proper instructors for the same, and make and complete all other arrangements. The studies pursued at these junior normal schools shall be a part of the regu¬ larly prescribed course of the State normal school or schools, and students in regular attendance and pursuing and completing these studies in a satisfactory manner shall be granted a certificate to that effect, signed by the conductor of the junior normal school and countersigned by the State superintendent, which certificate shall entitle the holder to proper credit at the State normal school or schools. 3. Schools. Length of term — Attendance — Truant schools — Text-hooks. Length of term. — District school boards shall determine at each annual meet¬ ing the length of time a school shall be taught in the district the ensuing year, which shall not be less than three months by a legally qualified teacher in a dis¬ trict having less than 20 pupils of school age, nor less than six months in districts having between 20 and 75 pupils, inclusive, nor less than nine months in districts having more than 75 pupils. They may also determine and instruct the district officers as to the different length of the terms of school, and the seasons of the year in which the same shall be taught ; and the district officers shall see that school is actually taught therein by a licensed teacher in conformity to such in¬ structions and for not less than the length of time herein required. No district shall receive any portion of the State funds unless school shall have been actually taught therein for the length of time stated above, except in cases of epidemic disease, by reason of which the school board shall deem it advisable to close the school, or because of the destruction of the schooihouse, or when it shall appear that the district has in good faith raised and expended the maximum tax allowed by law and the funds so raised have been insufficient to maintain a school for the time required. Attendance. — Every person having charge or control of any child not less than 7 nor more than 15 years of age shall during each school year between the second Monday of July and the last Monday of June following cause such child to attend the public day schools for a period of not less than twelve weeks ; and if the public day schools of the school district in which such person or persons having charge or control of such child lUciy reside shall be in session more than twelve weeks during the school year between the second Monday of July and the last Monday of June following, then the person having control of such child shall cause him to attend such public day school not less than two-thirds of the entire time the said schools shall be in session. Such attendance shall begin with the first opening of the public day schools after the second Monday of July, and shall continue consecutively until the required period of attendance is completed : Provided, That the portion of this act requiring attendance in public day school shall not apply in any case where the child is, for a time equal to that required by this act, instructed in some private or parochial school ; or w’here the child is instructed at home or elsewhere by a person qualified to give instruc¬ tion in the studies required to be taught in the public schools ; or where the child has completed the studies required for obtaining a certificate of graduation from the eighth grade of such schools ; or where a youth, being of the age of 14 years, is of necessity regularly employed for his own support or the support of ED 1904 M - 26 402 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. those actually dependent upon him ; or where the child is physically or mentally incapacitated for the work done in the schools ; or where the child lives more than 2 miles from the school by the nearest traveled road, unless free transpor¬ tation to and from such school is furnished. In case exemption is claimed on account of mental or physical incapacity, the school authorities shall have the right to employ a physician who shall have authority to examine such child, and if such physician shall declare that such child is capable of undertaking the work of the schools, then such child shall not be exempt from the requirements of this law. In case exemption is claimed and granted on account of youth of the age of 14 years being compelled to support themselves or those dependent upon them, such youth may be required to attend a public evening school or some other suitable school for not less than two hours each school day, during the time provided for school attendance. All persons of from 7 to 18 years of age, residents of this State, who by reason of partial or total blindness or deafness are unable to obtain an education in the public schools, shall be required to attend the institute for the blind or the school for the deaf, unless said persons are being privately or otherwise educated, or unless (under the provisions of chapter 22, Compiled Statutes of Nebraska of 1901) they are not subjects for admission to the institutes for the deaf and dumb and blind. In case exemption is claimed on account of attendance at a private or paro¬ chial school, or on account of attendance upon suitable instruction elsewhere given, the authorities of the private or parochial school so attended, or the person giving elsewhere such instruction, shall keep a record showing the names and ages of all children enrolled, the number of the school district, and the county of their residence, the number of days such child or children claiming exemp¬ tion were members of such school or attendants upon such instruction, the days on which such pupils were present and absent, respectively ; and the authorities of such private or parochial school, or the person giving elsewhere such instruction, as well as the authorities of all public schools, shall furnish at the end of each month a report to the county or city superintendent covering said items of record as above. And it is the duty of such county or city superintendent, upon the receipt of the report for the first month of school in said district and each two weeks thereafter, to compare such reports with the last census report on file in his office from such district, and prepare a list of all children or youth resident in such district who are not receiving instruc¬ tion as required, and to transmit said list to the officer or officers in such dis¬ trict whose duty it is to enforce the provisions of this law. District boards in other than city districts may appoint a truant officer, or else the director shall act as such truant officer. Boards of education in cities shall appoint one or more truant oflicers. All truant officers shall qualify as special constables or police officers ; shall see that the requirements of law are duly enforced in the districts for which they severally act; shall have authority to apprehend and take to his home or to some public, private, or paro¬ chial school any child subject to and violating the law; shall receive for such services a compensation to be determined by the district board or board of education to be paid out of the general school funds of the district as are other ordinary expenses of maintaining the school ; and on failure or neglect to discharge the duties herein prescribed shall be deemed guilty of a misde¬ meanor, and on conviction shall be punished by a fine of not less than $5 and not more than $25. Any truant officer who has reason to believe that any per¬ son having control of a child subject to the provisions of this law is neglecting or failing to comply with the provisions thereof shall immediately investigate the case and give written notice to such person that the law must at once be complied with, and if within one week after giving such notice the said person shall not have complied the truant officer shall file complaint against him in some court having jurisdiction, and upon conviction thereof he shall be punished by a fine of not less than $5 nor more than $25. The county superintendent in each county shall, without additional salary, act as head truant officer, and it shall be his duty as such head truant officer to see that each truant officer in the county discharges properly the duties of his office. Truant schools. — Boards of education in cities may establish and conduct spe¬ cial schools for the instruction of children who can not profitably or properly be cared for in the usual schools. Any child of school age who is habitually truant or incorrigible, or whose conduct and habits are such that he can not with profit to himself or justice to the other members of the school be retained and DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - HEBEASKA. 403 instructed in the usual schools, may, upon complaint of the person having legal or actual control of such child, or of the principal or head of the school where such child is attending, or of the truant officer, be required by the superintend¬ ent of the city schools to attend a special school until such time as the child’s habits and conduct become such as to make it advisable and proper for him to be received again into the usual school. These special schools shall be taught in such localities as may be considered proper and suitable by the board of edu¬ cation. They shall give instruction in the branches required by law to be taught in the common schools. They shall be as good in conveniences, equip¬ ment, and condition of health as the usual schools of the city where they are situated, and they shall be taught by teachers specially fitted by nature and experience to control and instruct wisely and successfully the special class of children to be educated therein. Text-hooks. — District school boards, boards of trustees of high school dis¬ tricts, and boards of education in cities shall purchase all text-books necessary for the schools of such district, and they are further authorized to enter into contract as hereinafter provided with the publishers of such books for not to exceed five years. Before any publisher shall be permitted to enter into con¬ tract with any school district he shall file with the State superintendent a good and sufficient bond in the sum of $2,000 to $20,000 for the faithful performance of the conditions of such contracts and the observance of the law ; and such publisher shall also file with the State superintendent a sworn statement of the lov/est prices for which his series of text-books are sold anywhere in the United States. For the purpose of paying for schoolbooks the school district officers may draw an order on the county or towmship treasurer for the amount of schoolbooks ordered. The county or township treasurer shall pay orders drawn by school district officers for the purchase of schoolbooks out of any funds in his hands belonging to the district, except the money received from that derived from the teachers’ fund. Any contract entered into with any publisher who shall subsequently become a party to any combination or trust for the purpose of raising the price of school text-books shall, at the wish of the school board of the district using such books, become null and void. The State superintendent shall, within thirty days after the filing of the herein¬ before-mentioned sworn statement of prices of text-books, have the same printed and forward a sufficient number of certified copies of the same to each of the county superintendents of the State to furnish all the school districts of such county with one copy of each ; and the county superintendent shall, immediately after receiving said certified copies of prices of books, send or deliver one of such certified copies to the director or secretary of each school district or board of education in such county, to be filed as a part of the records of such district ; and he shall also file one of said certified copies of prices in his office as a part of the records of said office. It shall be the dutj^ of the State superintendent to prepare and have printed a form of contract between district boards and pub¬ lishers of school books, and to furnish the same, through the county superin¬ tendent, to the several district boards of the State ; and no other form of con¬ tract shall be used by such district boards and publishers. All books purchased by district boards shall be held as the property of the district and loaned to pupils of the school while pursuing a course of study therein free of charge ; but the district boards shall hold such pupils respon¬ sible for any damage, loss, or failure to return such books at the time and to the person that may be designated by the board of such district. The provisions of this law include all school supplies. Any pupil or parent may purchase from the board such books as may be necessary, at cost to the district. The board may designate some local dealer to handle books for the district, with such an increase above contract price to pay cost of trans¬ portation and handling, as may be agreed upon between said board and said dealer. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds {permayienf or special) governor, secretary of state, treasurer, attorney-general, and commissioner of public lands and buildings shall, under the direction of the legislature, constitute a board of commissioners for the sale, leasing, and general management of all lands and funds set apart for educa¬ tional purposes and for the investment of school funds in such manner as may be prescribed by law. 404 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. The following are perpetual funds for common school purposes, of which the annual interest or income only can he appi-opriated, to wit: (1) Such per cent as has been or may hereafter be granted by Congress on the sale of lands in this State; (2) all moneys arising from the sale or leasing of sections Nos. 16 and 36 in each township in this State, and the land selected or that may be selected in lieu thereof; (3) the proceeds of all lands that have been or may hereafter be granted to this State, where, by the terms and conditions of such grant, the same are not to be otherwise appropriated; (4) the net proceeds of lands and other property and effects that may come to the State by escheat or forfeiture, or from unclaimed dividends, or distributive shares of the estates of deceased persons ; (5) all moneys, stocks, bonds, lands, and other property now belonging to the common school fund. All other grants, gifts, and devises that have been or may hereafter be made to this State, and not otherwise appropriated by the terms of the grant, gift, or devise, the interest arising from all the funds mentioned in the preceding sec¬ tion, together with all the rents of the unsold school lands, and such other means as the legislature may provide, shall be exclusively applied to the sup¬ port and maintenance of common schools in each school district in the State. All fines, penalties, and license moneys arising under the general laws of the State shall belong and be paid over to the counties respectively where the same may be levied or imposed, and all fines, penalties, and license moneys arising under the rules, by-laws, or ordinances of cities, villages, towns, precincts, or other municipal subdivisions less than a county, shall belong and be paid over to the same respectively. All such fines, penalties, and license moneys shall be appropriated exclusively to the use and support of common schools in the respec¬ tive subdivisions where the same may accrue. Taxation. — For the purpose of affording the advantage of free education to all the youth of this State, the State common school fund, in addition to the funds derived from the sale of school lands and interest thereon, and fines and forfeitures, as provided by statutes and the constitution, shall be further increased by annual levy and assessment of not to exceed 11 mills upon the dol¬ lar valuation on the grand list of the taxable property of the State; and the amount so levied and assessed shall he collected in the same manner as other State taxes, and when collected shall be semiannually distributed to the sev¬ eral counties of this State in proportion to the enumeration of scholars, and be applied exclusively to the payment of teachers’ wages. The several county superintendents shall, within twenty days after receiving such apportionment, and after adding thereto all moneys received by the county treasurer on account of fines and licenses, apportion the entire amount as fol¬ lows, to wit : One-fourth of the whole amount to be distributed equally to the several districts in the county, and the remaining three-fourths of the whole to be distril)uted to the several districts in his county pro rata according to the enu¬ meration of scholars last returned by the directors of the various districts ; and no district, city, or village which shall have failed to sustain a school for the length of time required by law shall be entitled to receive any portion of the fund. (See Schools — Length of term.) The legal voters of a rural or village school district and of a high school dis¬ trict shall determine tlie number of mills on the dollar of assessed valuation, which shall be lev ied for all purposes except for the payment of bonded in¬ debtedness and purchase or lease of schoolhouse, which shall not exceed 25 mills in any year, and shall be levied by the county board and collected as other taxes are collected. The board of education of schools in cities shall annually, during the month of .June, report to the county commissioners an, estimate of the amount of funds required for the support of the schools during the fiscal year next ensuing, and thereupon the county commissioners are authorized and re¬ quired to levy and collect the necessary amount the same as other taxes. The board of education in metropolitan cities shall annually, during the month of January, estimate the amount of resources likely to be received for school purposes, including the amounts available from fines, licenses, and other sources ; they shall report during the month of January to the city council the number of mills tax on the dollar deemed necessary to be levied upon all tax¬ able property of the district during the fiscal year next ensuing for the support of the schools, purchase of school sites, erection and furnishing of school build¬ ings, payment of interest upon all bonds issued for school purposes, and for the creation of a sinking fund for the payment of such indebtedness ; and the city DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEVADA. 405 council shall levy and collect the number of mills tax so demanded by the board of education in the same manner as other taxes are levied and collected, but in case the purchase of school sites and the erection of buildings shall re¬ quire an expenditure exceeding $25,000 for any one calendar year the question shall be submitted to a vote of the electors of the said district. The aggregate school tax shall in no one year exceed 2 per cent upon all the taxable property of the district. NEVADA. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard — State superintendent — County superintendent — County hoard of examination — D istrict hoard. State hoard. — The State board of education shall consist of the governor, Avho shall act as president, the president of the State university, and the State super¬ intendent, who shall be secretary. The board shall meet at least twice a year and has the following duties : To prescribe and cause to be adopted a uniform series of text-books, regulate State and county examinations, prescribe the course of study in the public schools, recommend a list of books for district school libra¬ ries, determine appeals from decisions of county superintendents, and grant life diplomas, educational diplomas, and State certificates to the graduates of the Nevada State normal school and to the holders of life diplomas of other States or of any State normal school. State superintendent. — There shall be elected every four years a State super¬ intendent of public instruction, who shall be paid an annual salary of $2,000. He shall apportion school money to the several counties, subject to the super¬ vision of the State board; report to the governor biennially (of which report 250 copies shall be delivered to the State superintendent, who shall distribute the same among school officers of the State and the United States) a full state¬ ment of the condition of public instruction in the State, the condition and amount of all funds and property appropriated to the purpose of education, the number and grade of schools in each county, and number of children in each county between 6 and 18 years of age, the number of children of such ages attending public schools, number attending private schools, and the number attending no school, number under G years of age, number 18 to 21 years of age, amount of public school money apportioned to each county, amount raised by county taxa¬ tion, district tax, rate bills, subscription, or otheiuvise, amount raised for build¬ ing schoolhoiises, plans for the management and improvement of public schools, and other information of educational importance. He shall prescribe and dis¬ tribute the forms and books required by the service, compile the laws regarding schools and distribute copies thereof, visit the schools of each county in the State at least once in each year, and shall be allowed his traveling expenses, not to exceed $1,000 a year. County superintendent. — The district attorneys, in addition to their duties as such, shall be ex ofiicio county superintendents. It shall be the duty of the county superintendent to apportion the public school moneys in the county treasury among the several school districts, to visit each school in his county within 10 miles of the county seat at least once each term (provided he shall visit all the schools in his county once each year), exercise a general supervision over the interests of the public schools, distribute promptly the blanks, etc., received from the State superintendent, file the reports made to him, and report annually an abstract of all the various annual reports of the city boards of education, school trustees, marshals, and teachers, conduct all county institutes, appoint school trustees where none have been elected to fill vacancies, and to draw warrants for the purchase of schoolbooks to be furnished to indigent children. Should the county superintendent fail to make a correct report to the State superintendent he shall forfeit $200 from his salary. He may appoint a deputy, but the county shall not be responsible for the salary of the deputy. He or the deputy shall be present in his office during the business hours of each Saturday. County hoard of examination. — (See Teachers — Appointment, qualifications, and duties.) District hoard. — Each village, town, or incorporated city of this State shall 406 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. constitute but one school district, and the public schools therein shall be under the supervision and control of a board of trustees. The board of commission¬ ers of the county may create new districts or change or abolish those already established when, in the judgment of the board, it is expedient. There shall be elected in each school district every two years two trustees, one to serve two and the other four years. The board of trustees shall have the care and custody of all school property, and if directed by the district sliaii sell any portion of it, or buy, build, or otherwise provide sites and buildings for school purposes. The board may repair buildings when the cost does not exceed $500, and supply schoolhouses with necessary furniture, fixtures, and fuel. Tlie board of trus¬ tees of each school district shall cause the school census marshal to annually enumerate the children between the ages of G and 18 years ; shall also report the number of schools, specifying the grades, number and sex of teachers, number and sex of pupils, average attendance, length of term, compensation of teachers by sex, number and condition of schoolhouses and furniture and the estimated value thereof, number of books in public school libraries, the text¬ books used in the schools, value and kind of school apparatus, the amount raised by rate bills, district taxation, and subscription for school purposes, amount expended in erecting and furnishing schoolhouses, and such other statistics as the State superintendent may require. The board shall employ teachers, pro¬ vide books for indigent pupils, grade the schools if possible, suspend or expel pupils, apportion the school fund among the several schools in proportion to the average number of pupils attending each, establish a union school district, levy a tax when necessary to support schools for six months, call an election as to laying a tax to furnish additional school facilities, and assess rate bills after school has> been maintained six months in the year. 2. Teachers. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Institutes. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No teacher shall be paid from public school funds unless legally employed by the board of trustees, unless having had a certificate from the State board of education or the county board of examina¬ tion in fuil force and effect, unless making a, full report in manner and form prescribed by law, and taking oath to support the Constitution of the United States and the State and (in case of men) not to fight duels during the term of office. State educational diplomas may be is.sued to such persons only as have held a State certificate or a first-grade county certificate for at least one year and shall furnish satisfactory evidence of having been successfully engaged in teaching for at least five years. Every application for an educational diploma must be accompanied by a certified copy of a resolution adopted by a board of trustees recommending the applicant as a successful teacher and as worthy of the di¬ ploma. Life diplomas may be issued by the State board upon all and the same conditions as educational diplomas, except that the applicant must furnish satis¬ factory evidence of having been successfully engaged in teaching for at least ten years. The State board may grant State certificates upon an appeal only after an examination held by a county superintendent. The county superintendent shall appoint Uvo competent persons, who, with himself, shall constitute the county board of examination. The board shall grant three grades of certificates; High school grade, for teaching a high school, good for four years; grammar school grade, for teaching unclassified and gram¬ mar schools, good for three years ; primary grade, for teaching a primary school, good for two years. Certificates shall be issued only to those having passed a satisfactory examination in all the branches of study pursued in each specified grade of the public schools and having given evidence of good moral character and fitness to teach. The board of examiners may renew the certificate of a teacher acceptably teaching in the schools of the county. Examinations for teachers’ certificates shall be held semiannually and the questions shall be prepared by the State board, so as to be uniform throughout the State. The questions shall not be opened by the county superintendent until the day of examination. Meetings. — The State superintendent, with the consent of the State board, shall have power to convene two State teachers’ institutes annually in different sections of the State and shall preside over them. Teachers who attend one DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS— NEVADA. 407 shall not be required to attend the other. The sessions shall last from three to ten days. The purpose of the institute shall be to train and instruct teachers of the State so far as may be necessary in practical and scientific methods of work, to simplify and unify the courses of study in the public schools, etc. Class work in common school branches shall be a prominent feature of all institute pro¬ grammes. All teachers shall be required to attend the institute held in the sec¬ tion where they are engaged, and without loss of salary. The State superin¬ tendent shall have power to engfsge lecturers and instructors. The county superintendent shall have power to call one or more teachers’ in¬ stitutes annually, and the expenses to the sum of $100 shall be paid out of the county general fund, provided they have been authorized by the board of com¬ missioners. 3. Schools. Attendance — Course of study — Text-hooks — Buildinys. Attendance. — Every parent or guardian or other person having control of a child between the ages of 8 and 14 years residing within 2 miles of a public school shall be required to send such child to a public school for a period of at least sixteen weeks in each school year, at least eight of which shall be consec¬ utive, unless such child be excused from such attendance by the board of school trustees of the school district in which such parents or guardians reside, upon its being shown to their satisfaction that the bodily or mental condition of such child has been such as to prevent his attendance a,t school or application to study for the period required, or that such child is taught in a private school or at home in such branches as are usually taught in primary schools, or has already acquired the ordinary branches of learning taught in the public schools. It shall be the duty of the board of school trustees of each school district in the State, on or before the first Monday in September of each year, to furnish the principal of each public school taught in such district with a list of all children resident in the school district between the ages of 8 and 14 years, said list to be taken from the report of the school census marshal. At the beginning of each school month thereafter it sliall be the duty of the principal of each school in such district to report to the board of school trustees the names of all children attending school during the previous school month ; when, if it shall appear, at the expiration of four school months, to the board of school trustees that any parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child shall have failed to comply with the provisions of this act, the board shall cause demand to bo made upon such parent, guardian, or other person for the amount of the penalty hereinafter provided ; when, if such parent, guardian, or other person shall neglect or refuse to pay the same within five days after the making of said demand, the board shall commence proceedings, in the name ol the school district, for the recovery of the fine hereinafter provided, before any justice of the peace in the township in which said school district is located ; or, if there shall be no justice of the peace therein, then before the nearest justice of the peace in the county. Any such parent, guardian, or other person failing to comply with the provisions of this act shall be liable to a fine of not less than $50 nor more than $100 for the first offense, nor less than $100 nor more than $200 for the second and each subsequent offense, besides the cost of col¬ lection. All fines collected under the provisions of this act shall be paid into the county treasury on account of the State school fund. It shall be the duty of the county superintendent in each county to cause this law to be published in some newspaper in his county, if there be one, four consecutive times annually, for a period of two years, the expense of such pub¬ lication to be allowed and paid out of the general school fund of the county. The board of school trustees in each school district shall cause to be posted annually, for a period of two years, in three public places in their district, notices of the requirements and penalties of this act. Course of study. — There shall be taught in the public schools orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, history of the United States, chemistry, and elementary physiology and hygiene, which shall give special prominence to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics ; and in such schools as the district trustees may direct, algebra, geometry, drawing, natural history and philosophy, astronomy, and the elements of bookkeeping. 408 EDUCATIOJf KEPORT, 1904. Text-hooks. — The State board of education shall recoiumend to the legislature a series of text-books in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geog¬ raphy, history of the United States, physiology, drawing, and language, to be adopted for use in all public schools in the State; and no school district shall be entitled to receive its pro rata of the public school money unless such text¬ books are used as shall have been adopted by an act of the legislature. No change shall be made in such series except by legislative act, and then not oftener than once in four years. For the schools in which the trustees may direct instruction to be given in additional branches, there shall also be pre¬ scribed by the State board text-books in algebra, geometry, physics, astronomy, physical geography, chemistry, Latin, rhetoric, literature, English histoiy, gen¬ eral history, civics, geology, bookkeeping, and music. Whenever it shall appear to the satisfaction of the board of trustees of any Bchool district that parents, guardians, or other persons having control of any child in attendance upon the public school of said district are unable to pro¬ cure suitable books, stationery, etc., for such child it shall be the duty of such board to procure for such child all necessary books, stationery, etc., the same to be paid for out of the fund of said school district in the same way that other claims against the school district are now allowed and paid. Ail books, station¬ ery, etc., purchased under this provision shall be the pro])erty of the school dis¬ trict, under the care and control of the school trustees when not in actual use. Buildings. — No public schooihouse shall be erected unless its plan shall have been approved by the county superintendent. The care and control of school property shall be in the hands of the board of district trustees. It shall be a misdemeanor for any person to disturb the peace of aiiy public school within the grounds or building of such school, or within a distance of 50 yards in all directions from the school building. It shall be a misdemeanor for any person to detain, beat, whip, or otherwise interfere with any pupil attending any public school on his way to or from school. Penalty in both the forego¬ ing cases shall be a fine of not more than $300, or imprisonment in the county jail for six months, or both. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent or special). — The principal of all moneys accruing to this State from the sale of lands given or bequeathed for public school purposes, all fines collected under the penal laws of the State, 2 per cent of the gross pro¬ ceeds froju all toll roads and bridges, and all the estates that may escheat to the State shall be solemnly pledged for educational purposes, and shall not be transferred to any other fund for other uses, but shall constitute an irreducible and indivisible fund to be known as the State school fund, the interest accruing from which shall be divided semiannually among the counties in this State entitled by law to receive the same, in proportion to the number of persons 6 to 18 years of age, for the payment of qualified teachers ; and no portion of the amount distributed shall, either directly or indirectly, be paid for the erec¬ tion of schoolliouses, the use of schoolrooms, furniture, or any contingent ex¬ penses of public schools. Taxation. — There shall be levied an ad valorem tax of one-half of 1 mill on the dollar of all taxable property in the State, to be known as the State school tax, which shall become a part of the State school fund. There shall be set apart semiannually 5 per cent out of all moneys received as State tax for school purposes, and such amount shall be distributed pro rata. The board of county commissioners of each county shall annually levy a county school tax, not to exceed 50 nor less than 15 cents on each $100 of taxable property, which shall be collected into the county treasury as a special deposit. When the State and county money to which any district is entitled is not suf¬ ficient to keep a school open for six months in each year, the trustees of such district shall levy a tax upon the taxable property of the same sufficient to supplement the said State and county money so as to keep a school open for six months each year. And the board of trustees of any school district may sub¬ mit to the electors the question of taxing themselves to raise funds for addi¬ tional school facilities or to keep the schools open for a longer period. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW HAMPSHIRE. 409 NEW II A xM PS II I RE. 1, Organization of the System. State superintendent — School districts — School hoard — Truant officers — Super¬ intendent of schools. State superintendent. — The governor, with advice of the coiiiicii, appoints a superintendent of public instruction for a term of two years, who has general supervision and control of the educational interests of the State. It is his duty to prescribe the form of school register, and of blanks and inquiries for returns of school boards, sending same seasonably to clerks of towns and cities ; pre¬ serve or distribute all State documents pertaining to education ; arrange in his office reports and returns of school boards ; investigate the condition of popular education in the State, especially in relation to temperance instruction ; report biennially a concise abstract of returns of school boards, detailed statement of his own doings, condition and progress of popular education in the State, with recommendations in regard to improving same; lecture upon education in as many towns and cities as time will permit ; arrange for at least one teachers’ institute in each county per year, appointing some other suitable person to conduct the same where he can not do so ; forward copy of his annual reiiort to chairman of every school board in the State ; arrange for examinations of can¬ didates for teachers’ certificates, at times and places designated and advertised by him, and issue probationary or permanent certificates to those found quali¬ fied (each certificate indicating the grade of school the holder is qualified to teach), which shall be accepted by school boards in lieu of personal examina¬ tions ; keep a list of such approved candidates, and send copies of same, with other information, to school hoards upon request. H-is annual report shall state the condition of the State normal school, terms of admission and graduation, and the times of beginning and closing sessions ; which information he shall also cause to be printed on the cover of the school register. School districts. — Each town constitutes a single district for school purposes, except certain districts organized under special acts of the legislature. Special districts may unite with town districts by vote of each. Two or more town or special districts may combine for establishing a high or other school or for employing a superintendent (see Superintendents). A district may admit schol¬ ars from other districts into its schools on terms determined by vote or by the school board; a district may contract with an academy or other literary institu¬ tion within its immediate vicinity for furnishing instruction to its scholars, using the school money therefor. School hoard. — Consists of three persons, except that where a high school is maintained the number may be increased to six" or nine; one-third chosen annually by town meeting (women may vote), to hold office three years; com¬ pensation determined by town or selectmen. Duties of the hoard are to provide schools at such places and times each year as will best subserve the interests of education and give to scholars as nearly equal advantages as practicable ; visit and inspect each school at least twice eacli term ; hire or dismiss teachers ; fur¬ nish fuel ; make occasional repairs to buildings and furniture, not to exceed 5 per cent of the school money ; purchase text-books and other supplies at the expense of the town ; prescribe regulations for school government which, when recorded by town clerk and read before school, shall be binding upon scholars and teachers ; appoint truant officers and fix their compensation ; prescribe in all mixed schools and graded schools above primary the study of physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effects of alcohol and narcotics ($200 pen¬ alty for noncompliance), and to provide well-approved text-books on said sub¬ ject; annually in June or July, and at such other times as they deem best, they shall examine applicants for teachers’ certificates and issue certificates (good for one year) to those found qualified. By August 1 they shall report to select¬ men (sending copy of said report, with answers to other inquiries, to State superintendent, under penalty of $50 for noncompliance) stating the number of weeks of school during the year ; number of teachers, male and female ; number of scholars attending each school ; number instructed in each study ; number of days’ attendance of all pupils ; number of scholars 5 years old and over who have attended two weeks or more during the year ; number of each sex reported by truant officers; number of each sex between 5 and 16 who have not attended school ; number between 14 and 21 who can not read and write, together with such suggestions as they think useful. (See also Attendance.) 410 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Truant officers. — School boards shall appoint truant officers (for one year), fix their compensation, and may remove them for cause. Truant officers shall, under direction of the board, enforce laws and regulations relative to compul¬ sory attendance; also relative to employment of children, for which purpose they may visit and inspect manufacturing and other establishments. They have authority to take and place in school any child found truant or employed con¬ trary to law. Annually, in April, truant officers must make an enumeration of children (each sex) between 5 and IG in their town or city, giving such items in regard to each child as may be required by school hoard, to whom report shall be submitted within fifteen days after completion of enumeration. Superintendents. — x\ school district may require the board to appoint a super¬ intendent of schools, who shall hold office for such term, receive such compensa¬ tion, and be vested with such of the powers and charged with such of the duties of the board as it may determine. Two or more towns or districts, employing not less than 20 nor more than CO teachers, may unite to form a supervisory dis¬ trict for the purpose of employing a superintendent, who shall give his entire time to the work ; their several boards constitute a joint committee, who pre¬ scribe superintendent’s duties, fix his compensation, and apportion same among the several districts in proportion to service to be rendered each. Such districts formed outside of cities and employing as superintendent at an annual salary a person holding a permanent teacher’s certificate, receive half the amount of such salary from tlie State. 2. Teachers. Appointment and duties — Certificates — Institutes — Training-. Appointment and duties. — Teachers holding certificates are appointed by the scliool boards, who shall dismiss any teacher found by them incompetent or un¬ suitable, or who may not conform to regulations by them prescribed. Pay can not be recovered for service rendered after notice of dismissal. Twenty dollars of each teacher’s wages shall be withheld until he returns the school register to the board at the end of the term, with all entries properly made as required by State superintendent. Certificates. — Examinations are held annually by the school boards in June or July, and at such other times as the boards may deem best. They embrace the studies required by law (see Schools — Course of study) or prescribed by the school board in accordance with law, and involve professional as well as scholastic ability and good moral character. Candidates found competent re¬ ceive certificates signed hy the board, good for not more than one year. Certifi¬ cates issued-by State superintendent are received by the school boards in lieu of personal examination. (See also Organization — State superintendent.) Institutes. — At least one teachers’ institute in each county per year shall be held by the State superintendent; or, if he be unable to conduct it in person, he shall appoint the principal of the State normal school or some other suitable per¬ son for that purpose. The income from certain State lands constitutes a perma¬ nent teachers’ institute fund, from which are paid all necessary expenses of such institutes, including cost of instruction and lectures (see also Schools, nor¬ mal). Teachers may close tlieir schools and attend such institutes held within the State for not exceeding three days in any term or five days in any year with pay. Training. — {See Schools, normal.) 3. Schools. MisccUaneous pro u ision s — A t ten dan ce — aS t u d i es — Text-J) ooks — B uildings and grounds — High schools — Evening schools — Nomnal schools. Miscellaneous provisions. — Three hours in the forenoon and three in the after¬ noon constitute a school day, five such days a school week, and four such weeks a school month. Every district shall maintain its schools at least twenty weeks every school year. Disturbance of a school by a person not a scholar (see also Attendance) is punishable by a fine of not more than $50 or imprisonment not exceeding thirty days. One session or a part thereof in Memorial Day wmek shall be devoted to exercises of a patriotic nature. Attendance. — Persons shall attend or send to school in the district wherein they reside, unless by consent of school board. No child shall attend any public DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW HAMPSHIEE. 411 or private school who has not been vaccinated, unless he has had smallpox. A scholar may be dismissed by the school board for gross misconduct or neglect or refusal to conform to rules and shall not attend until restored by board. Schol¬ ars shall attend the schools to Avhich they are assigned. If after notice a scholar shall attend or visit a school where he has no right, or shall interrupt or disturb the same, he shall be fined |5 for first offense, $10 for any subsequent offense, or be imprisoned not exceeding thirty days. Districts may make by¬ laws not repugnant to law concerning truants, with penalties not above $10 for each offense, or committal to reform school not exceeding one year ; but court maj' remit penalties upon proof that offender is unable to pay and has no parent or guardian able to pay. The offender may give $25 bond, with sureties ap¬ proved by court, that he will regularly attend school for one term and comply with regulations ; whereupon the fine may be remitted on payment of costs. No child under 12 shall be employed in any manufacturing establishment; no one under 14 shall be engaged at any employment during the term of school in his district ; nor any one under 16, without first presenting a statement of his age sworn to by parent or guardian before superintendent (or, if none, before some person so authorized by school board), v.’ho must also certify that such child can read at sight and write legibly simple English seiitences. No minor who can not readily read and write simple English sentences shall be employed while a free public evening school is maintained in his district, unless he is a regular attendant at such school or a day school, or unless he presents a physi¬ cian’s certificate that his physical condition is such as would render such at¬ tendance, in addition to dailj^ labor, prejudicial to his health. Parents or guardians permitting minors under their care to violate the foregoing shall for¬ feit not more than $20 for the use of the evening school. An employer violating any of the foregoing provisions shall be fined not exceeding $50 for each effense. Children between 8 and 14 shall attend public school during the session unless excused by school board because of physical or mental condition such as to pre¬ vent attendance or because of approved private instruction (in the English lan¬ guage) for a like term; uoncompliance incurs fine of $10 for first and $20 for every subsequent offense. School boards failing to prosecute offenders under this chapter shall forfeit $20 for each neglect. Boards may use not exceeding 25 per cent of the school money for conveying scholars to and from school. Studies. — In public schools shall be taught reading, writing, English gram¬ mar, arithmetic, geography, and such other branches adapted to the advance¬ ment of the schools as may be prescribed by the local school board, which may include algebra, geometry, surveying, bookkeeping, philosophy, chemistry, and natural history. In all mixed schools and in all graded schools above primary must be taught physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics ; amount and character of such instruction is the subject of special investigation by State superintendent, who shall rec¬ ommend to the school boards what he considers the best text-books on said subject and the best mode of teaching them ; the boards must see that well- approved text-books are furnished teachers and scholars, and that the subject is thoroughly taught. Boards neglecting this duty are subject to a fine of $200. Text-hooks. — The school boards shall purchase text-books and other supplies required in public schools at the expense of the town, loan the same to pupils free of charge under such regulations for their care as the board may prescribe, and make provision for their sale at cost to pupils wishing to purchase. No book shall be introduced that is calculated to favor any particular religious sect or political party. Buildings and grounds. — The location of schoolhouses is determined in town or rural districts (1) by vote; (2) by a committee appointed for the purpose, which shall not have power to bind the district beyond the amount of money voted; (3) if 10 or more voters are aggrieved by a location determined by “(1)” or “(2),” they may petition the school board, who shall hear both sides and determine the location; (4) if the district fails to agree upon a location or upon a committee, or if such committee fails to agree upon a location within thirty days, the school board, upon petition of 10 or more voters, shall determine the location ; (5) if 10 or more voters are aggrieved by a location determined by “(1),” “(2),” “(3),” or “(4),” they may petition the county commissioners within ten days, who shall hear both sides and determine the location. The location, however made, shall be conclusive for five years. Upon similar peti¬ tions school boards or county commissioners may enlarge existing schoolhouse lots up to 1 acre in total area. If a district neglects to procure land selected for location or enlargement of a schoolhouse lot, or if the owner refuses to sell the 412 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. same at a reasonable price, the selectmen, upon petition of the school board or three or more voters, shall appraise the damages occasioned the landowner. In cities (except Concord and Keene) the school board has sole power to select schoolhoiise lots and to purchase same with moneys specifically appropriated by the city council ; no schoolhouse shall be erected or altered except upon plans approved by the school board ; all new schoolhouses shall be constructed under direction of a joint special committee chosen in equal numbers by the city coun¬ cil and the school board. Upon the completion of a new schoolhouse the city council shall transfer it to the school board, and whenever a schoolhouse is no longer required for school purposes the board shall retransfer it to the council. Districts shall keep schools in their own houses if suitable ; otherwise suitable accommodations shall be provided at the expense of the district. A district or school board may grant the use of any schoolhouse for a writing or singing school, or for religious or other meetings, whenever such will not conflict with regular school exercises. Shade trees presented to any town may be set out and protected at public expense in schoolhouse yards, highways, cemeteries, com¬ mons, and other public places as indicated by the donor. High schools. — Any school district may, by vote or by law, establish and main¬ tain a high school, in which the higher English branches and Latin, Greek, and modern languages may be taught. Two or more districts may maintain a high school jointly. Where a high school is not maintained, the town shall pay the tuition of scholars resident therein who attend a high school or academy else¬ where in the State ; the parent or guardian shall notify his school board what high school or academy he has determined to patronize; if the town fails to pay such tuition, it is liable for the same to said parent or guardian, or the school attended, in an action for debt ; a State appropriation of $.5,000 a year for payment of such tuition is distributed in the ratio of the several rates of taxation of the towns interested. Evening schools. — Upon petition of 5 per cent of the voters of any town ' exceeding 5,000 population per last United States census, said town shall establish and maintain, in addition to other schools, evening schools for the instruction of persons over 14 in such branches of learning or art as the school board may determine. The board also may determine length of term, hours per evening, and malie such regulations as to attendance as they deem expedient ; but the establishment of evening schools shall not exempt anyone from the requirements of laws relating to compulsory attendance and the employment of children. (See Attendance.) Normal schools. — The New Hampshire State normal school shall confine its instruction to normal school branches and be in session at least twenty weeks each year. Its management is vested in a board of seven trustees, composed of the governor. State superintendent, and five other persons appointed by the governor and cofirmed by the council, who hold office two years. They meet once a year ; receive no conq:>ensation beyond reasonable expenses ; ap¬ point a principal, who, with their advice and consent, selects assistants and pro¬ vides for the discipline of the school. The trustees and principal arrange courses of study, prescribe and control examinations for admission and graduation, and grant certificates. Tuition and graduation are free to those who agree to teach in the public schools of the State for a period equal to the length of the course taken. The principal and teachers assist at teachers’ institutes with¬ out additional compensation other than necessary expenses, so far as their normal duties will permit. On the cover of each school register must be printed the salient facts about the State normal school. (See State superin¬ tendent. ) 4. Finances. Taxation — Literary fund — Dog tax — State aid. Taxation. — Towns or districts may raise money to maintain public schools; to build, purchase, rent, repair, or remove schoolhouses or outbuildings; to procure insurance; to provide suitable furniture, fuel, books, maps, charts, apparatus, and conveniences for schools ; to plant and care for shade and ornamental trees upon schoolhouse lots ; to convey scholars to and from school, and to pay debts. They may hire money for building schoolhouses, not exceed¬ ing four-fifths of the cost thereof, which shall be assessed as tax, collected and paid within five years with the interest. Literary fund. — All taxes collected by the State upon banking, trust, build¬ ing, loan, and other similar corporations resident outside the State, shall be DIGEST OE SCHOOL LAWS - KEW JERSEY. 413 known as the “literary fund,” and be distributed (in November) among the towns in proportion to the number of children not less than 5 years old who attended the public schools in such towns not less than two weeks during the year preceding. Such fund shall be applied to the maintenance of the schools during the current year. The school board may use one-fifth thereof in the purchase of blackboards, dictionaries, maps, charts, and school apparatus. Dog tax. — Money accruing from the taxation of dogs, after payment of loss or damage to domestic animals occasioned by dogs, shall be applied to the support of the public schools. ^tate aid. — (See also Organization — Superintendents — Teachers — Institutes — Schools, high.) NEW JERSEY. 1. Oeganization of the System. State hoard of education — State superintendent of puhlic instruction — Comity superintendents — Boards of examiners — School districts. State hoard of education. — The general supervision and control of public instruction shall be vested in a State board of education, which shall consist of two members from each Congressional district, who shall not be members of the same political party and who shall not reside in the same county, except where a Congressional district shall lie wholly within one county. Said members shall be appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, each for the term of five years ; and in the place of any member whose term shall expire a successor shall be appointed in like manner for the term of five years, so that there shall be always two members from each Congressional dis¬ trict. The State board of education shall have the control and management of the State normal schools, the New Jersey School for the Deaf, the Farniim Prepara¬ tory School, and the Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth. [It shall have power] To frame and modify by-laws for its own government ; to elect its president and other olficers, and to prescribe and enforce rules and regulations necessary to carry into effect the school laws of this State ; to appoint county superintend¬ ents of schools and for cause to remove them ; to prescribe rules and regulations for holding teachers’ institutes ; to decide appeals from the decisions of the State superintendent of public instruction ; to make and enforce rules and regu¬ lations for the examination of teachers and the granting of certificates or licenses to teach. The members of the State board of education shall receive no compensation for their services, but the State treasurer shall, upon the warrant of the State comptroller, pay their necessaiy expenses. The State board of education shall report annually to the legislature in regard to all matters committed to its care. State superintendent of puhlic instruction. — The State superintendent of pub¬ lic instruction shall be appointed bj^ the governor, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of five years and until his successor shall be appointed and confirmed. He shall receive a salary of |5,000 a year, payable in equal monthly installments. [He] may appoint an assistant State superintendent of public instruction and fix his salary, [vvho] shall perform ail the duties of the State superintendent of public instruction during his absence, [He may also employ clerks.] The State superintendent of public instruction shall be the secretary of the State board of education, and a member ex officio of all boards of examiners. He shall enforce all rules and regulations prescribed by the State board of edu¬ cation. He shall have supervision of all the schools of the State receiving any part of the State appropriation. He shall, from time to time, dnstriict county and city superintendents as to their duties and as to the best manner of conduct¬ ing schools, constructing schoolhouses and furnishing the same. [He] shall decide, subject to appeal to the State board of education and with¬ out cost to the parties, all controversies and disputes that shall arise under the school laws or under the rules and regulations of the State board of education. 414 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. [He shall fill vacancies in the office of county superintendent of schools, with¬ hold his salary from any county superintendent wdio fails to perform his duty, authorize the withholding of school funds placed to the credit of any school dis¬ trict from such district for nonperformance of the school duties required by the rules and regulations of the State board of education, and shall also withhold teachers’ salaries for nonperformance of duty. He shall apportion to the sev¬ eral counties the amounts of the school fund appropriated to them by the State.] Reports of private schools. — The superintendent or manager of each educa¬ tional institution receiving support or aid from the State, and the president, manager, or principal of each seminary, academy, or private school shall report to the State superintendent of ])iiblic instruction anniialiy, on or before the 1st day of August, such statistics relating to such institution, seminary, academy, or school, as said State superintendent of public instruction may require, and in the manner and form prescribed by him : Provided, That no report concern¬ ing the expenses or finances of such seminary, academy, or private school shall be required: And provided farther, That no report of any seminary, academy, or private school shall be published or made public by the State superintendent of public instruction. [The State superintendent of public instruction is^ required to make an annual report.] County superintendents. — The State board of education shall appoint for each county a suitable person to be the county superintendent of schools of that county, who shall hold office for the term of three years from the date of his appointment and until his successor shall have been appointed as aforesaid, unless sooner removed for cause by said board. No person shall be appointed as county superintendent of schools unless he shall hold a State teacher’s certificate. The yearly salary of a county superintendent of schools shall be a sum which shall be equal to ^8 for each teacher employed in the public schools in his county as ascertained from the last published report of the State superintendent of public instruction, but such salary ’shall in no case be less than $1,300 nor more than .$2,000. [His actu:il expenses incurred in the performance of duty shall also be paid, provided they do not exceed $350.] A county superintendent of schools shall have power to administer, without charge, oaths or affirmations to teachers and school officers ; to issue orders on the county collector in favor of the custodian of the school moneys of the sev¬ eral school districts in said county for that portion of the State school tax, the State appropriation, and the interest of the surplus revenue to which each of sr»id school districts shall be entitled ; to exercise general supervision over the public schools of the county under his charge in accordance with the rules and regulations prescribed from time to time by the State board of education ; to visit and examine all the schools under his care; to inquire into the man¬ agement, methods of instruction, and discipli]ie in such schools ; to note the condition of the schoolhouses, sites, buildings, and appurtenances ; to examine the courses of study, text-books, and school libraries ; to advise with and counsel boards of education in relation to their duties, particularly in respect to the construction, heating, ventilating, and lighting of schoolhouses, and to recom¬ mend to boards of education and teachers proper studies, methods, discipline, and management for the schools ; to appoint members of the board of education for a new township, incorporated town or borougii school district, and for any school district under his supervision which shall fail to elect members at the regular time. Such appointees shall serve only until the next election in the district for members of the board of education. Each county superintendent of schools shall [make an annual report, as shall also] the superintendents, district clerks, and the custodians of school moneys of the several school districts. Whenever a superintendent of schools shall be appointed in any city school district, the supervision of the schools of such dis¬ trict shall devolve upon such superintendent and not upon the county superin¬ tendent of schools. Board of examiners, f^tate examiners. — There shall be a State board of exam¬ iners, consisting of the State superintendent of public instruction, the principals of the State normal schools, and one person to be appointed by the State board of education, [who] shall hold office for one year from date of his appointment as aforesaid. This member shall hold a first-grade State certificate, or shall be a graduate of a college or university. He shall receive for his services, in addi¬ tion to traveling expenses, such compensation as may be fixed by the State board of education, not to exceed $10 for each meeting of said board of exam¬ iners. Said board shall hold examinatipns of teachers, grant State certificates DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - HEW JERSEY. 415 to teach, and revoke the same under rules and regulations prescribed by the State board of education. County examiners. — There may be in each county a county board of examiners consisting of the county superintendent of schools, who shall be its chairman, and a number of teachers not to exceed three to be appointed by him, who shall hold office for one year from the date of their respective appointments. No per¬ son shall be appointed as a county examiner unless he or she shall hold either a State or a first-grade county certificate. Said county board of examiners shall conduct examinations and grant certificates to teach at such times and under such rules and regulations as the State board of education may prescribe. It shall meet at such places as may be designated by the chairman. Each member of said board of examiners, except the county superintendent of schools, shall receive for his or her services, in addition to traveling expenses, such compen¬ sation as may be fixed by the State board of education not to exceed |10 for each regular examination. City examiners. — [In each city school district there may be a board of exam¬ iners, consisting of the superintendent of schools of such district, if there be one, and such persons as the board of education of the school district shall ap¬ point. No person can be appointed an examiner without a proper certificate. The board shall grant certificates which shall be valid in the district] School district. — Each township, city, incorporated town, and borough shall be a separate school district, but each incorporated village shall remain and be a part of the school district in which said incorporated village shall be situate at the time of its incorporation. The State appropriation and the State school tax shall not be apportioned in any year to any district which shall not have maintained a public school for at least nine months during the preceding school year : Provided, That the State superintendent of public instruction may, for good cause shown, remit said penalty. City school districts, appointive hoard. — In each city the mayor or other chief executive officer of such city shall, during the month of December next after the acceptance of the provisions of this section, as is hereinafter provided [i. e., by referendum], appoint nine persons to be members of the board of education of such city school district, who shall severally possess the qualifications for said membership prescribed in this article, [viz, he must have been a citizen and resident of the school district for three years before becoming a member of the board, and must be able to read and write. He shall not be interested in any claim against or contract with the board]. Three of such persons shall be ap¬ pointed to serve for one year, three for two years, and three for three years, and annually thereafter, during the month of December, the Said mayor or other chief executive officer of such city shall appoint three members of said board of education to serve for the term of three years, to take the place of those mem¬ bers whose terms shall expire with such year. Elective hoard. — In each city there shall be elected at the first municipal elec¬ tion held in such city next after the acceptance of the provisions of this section, as is hereinafter provided [i. e., by referendum], nine persons to be members of the board of education of such city school district, who shall severally possess the qualifications for said membership [described above]. Three of such persons shall be elected to serve for one year, three for two years, and three for three years, and thereafter, at the regular municipal election in such city in each year, there shall be elected three members of said board of education to serve for the term of three years, to take the place of those members whose terms shall ex¬ pire with such year. Referendum. — The acceptance of the [foregoing] provisions shall be submitted to the qualified voters of any city at a general or municipal election to be held therein. [After the acceptance has been once submitted, the question shall not be submitted again for five years.] Said board of education or other body shall be hereafter deemed to be incorporated under the provisions of this act and shall have all the powers and be charged with all the duties conferred or imposed upon a board of education, as provided in this article. Such board shall, in and by its corporate name, sue and be sued, purchase, lease, receive, hold, and sell property, real and personal, take and condemn laud and other property for school purposes in the manner provided by law regulating the ascertainment and payment of compensation for property condemned or taken for public use. [It] shall succeed to and be vested with all the property of every kind and all the rights and privileges, not inconsistent with the provisions of this act, thereto¬ fore vested in or possessed by any board of education, school commissioners, or other body theretofore having charge and control of the public schools or public 416 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. school property of the school district or of the city in which said district shall be situate. Every such board shall have the supervision, control, and management of the public schools and public school property in its district, and shall keep such property insured. It shall appoint a person to be its secretary, and may appoint a superintendent of schools, a business manager and other officers, agents, and employees as may be needed, and may fix their compensation and terms of employment, but no such appointee, officer, agent, or employee other than the secretary shall be a member of said board. [The board shall make an annual report of the condition of the schools under its charge, of the property under its control, and a statement of the finances.] Toicnsliip, incorporated town and horough school districts. — In each township, incorporated town and borough school district, there shall be a board of educa¬ tion consisting of 9 members, [except that the number may be reduced to 3 when deemed best], 3 members of such board shall be chosen by ballot at the polls at each annual school meeting and shall hold office for the term of three years. In case there shall be a vacancy in a board of education, such vacancy shall be filled at the next annual meeting after such vacancy occurs, and the person elected to fill such vacancy shall be elected for the uuexpired term only. The board of education shall have power to employ and dismiss principals, teachers, janitors, mechanics, and laborers, and to fix, alter, and order paid their salaries and compensation ; to make, amend, and repeal rules, regulations, and by-laws for its own government, for the transaction of business, and for the government and management of the public schools and the public school property in said district, and also for the employment and discharge of princi¬ pals and teachers ; to purchase, sell, and improve school grounds ; to erect, lease, enlarge, improve, insure, repair, or furnish school buildings and to borrow money therefor with or without mortgage : Provided, That for any such act it shall have the previous authority of a vote of the legal voters of the district ; to take and condemn land and other property for school purposes in the manner provided by law regulating the ascertainment and payment of compensation for property condemned and taken for public use ; to enforce the rules and regula¬ tions prescribed by the State board of education, select the text-books, and, in connection with the county superintendent of schools, to prescribe the course of study to be pursued in the school or schools under its charge ; to suspend or expel pupils from school ; to provide text-books and other necessary school sup¬ plies ; to call a special meeting of the legal voters of the district at any time when, in its judgment, the interests of the school require it, or whenever 50 of such legal voters shall request it by petition so to do. 2. Teachers. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment. — A board of education may make rules and regulations gov¬ erning the engagement and employment of teachers and principals, the terms and tenure of such employment, and the promotion and dismissal of such teachers and principals, the salaries, and the time and mode of payment thereof, and may from time to time change, amend, or repeal such rules and regulations. The employment of any teacher by such board, and the rights and duties of such teacher with respect to such employment, shall be dependent upon and shall be governed by the rules and regulations in force with reference thereto. If a board of education shall not have made rules and regulations as aforesaid, then no contract between such board of education and a teacher shall be valid unless the same be in writing, or partly written and partly printed, in triplicate, signed by the president and district clerk or secretary of the board of education and by the teacher. One copy thereof shall be filed with the board of education, one copy with the teacher, and one copy with the county or city superintendent. Such contract shall specify the date when such teacher shall begin teaching, the kind and grade of certificate held by said teacher and the date when said certifi¬ cate will expire, the salary, and such other matter as maj" be necessary to a full and complete understanding of the same. In every such contract, unless other¬ wise specified, a month shall be construed and taken to be twenty school days, or four weeks of five school days each. The salary specified in every such contract DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW JERSEY. 417 shall be paid in equal monthly installments, not later than five days after the close of each month while the school shall be in session. Teachers employed in any graded school supported in whole or in part by State moneys shall receive salaries proportioned to their experience and success in the school district where they may be employed, the minimum salary ranging from .$408 per annum for assistant teachers in primary and grammar schools and kindergartens, with less than two years’ experience, to a minimum of $3,000 per annum for principals of high schools, with five years’ experience and upward. Any contract or engage¬ ment between a board of education and a teacher shall cease and determine and be of no effect against said board whenever said board shall ascertain by notice in writing received from the county or city superintendent or otherwise, that said teacher is not in possession of a proper teacher’s certificate in full force and effect, .notwithstanding the term or engagement for which such contract shall have been made may not then have expired. Duties. — Every teacher in a public school shall keep a school register in the manner provided therefor, and no salary shall be paid to such teacher until the district clerk or other officer or person autliorized to deliver the check, order, or warrant for such salary shall ascertain that such register has been properly kept for the time for which salary is demanded, and shall enter upon said regis- tei- a certificate to that effect. A teacher shall hold every pupil accountable in school for disorderly conduct on the way to or from school, or on the play¬ grounds of the school, or during recess, and shall suspend from school any pupil for good cause. No principal, teacher, or other person employed or engaged in any capacity in any school or educational institution, whether public or private, shall inflict or cause to be inflicted corporal punishment upon any pupil attend¬ ing such school or institution. No religious service or exercise, e.xcept the reading of the Bible and the repeating of the Lord’s Prayer, shall be held in any school receiving any por¬ tion of the moneys appropriated for the support of public schools. No teacher shall be required to serve on any jury in this State while his school shall be in session. Preliminary training.- — State normal schools shall be maintained for the pur¬ pose of training and educating persons in the science of education and art of teaching. The name and title of each such school shall be designated by the State board of education. Tuition in said schools shall be free. The State board of education shall have the control and care of the buildings and grounds owned and used by the State for normal schools and of the funds for the support thereof; shall appoint and remove principals, teachers, and other employees, and shall fix their salaries; shall purchase and furnish text-books, apparatus, and supplies for the use of the pupils; shall prescribe courses of study for such schools ; shall make rules for their management, and shall grant diplomas. Each county shall be entitled to at least six times as many pupils in such schools as it shall have representatives in the legislature. In case any county shall not have the full number of pupils to which it shall be entitled, pupils may be admitted from other counties. Pupils when admitted shall sign a decla¬ ration that they intend to teach in the public schools of this State for at least two years immediately after being graduated unless excused teuqwrarily by the State board of education, and that if they do not so teach tliey will refund to the State the cost of their education. The State board of education may maintain model schools under regular teachers, in which pupils of the normal schools shall have the opportunity to observe and practice approved methods of instruction and discipline. Teachers' institutes. — The State superintendent of public instruction shall procure instructors and lecturers for teachers’ institutes. To defray the ex¬ penses incurred in holding said institutes there shall be paid to him annually by the State treasurer, upon the warrant of the State comptroller, a sum not exceed¬ ing $4,000. Said State superintendent of public instruction shall make annually to the State l)oard of education an itemized report of the expenses incurred in holding said teachers’ institutes during the year for which said report shall be made. [An institute is prepared for each county; joint institutes are to be held when practicable. All teachers are required to attend the annual insti¬ tute of their respective counties. (Rules and regulations of the State board of education. ) ] ED 1904 M - 27 418 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. 3. Schools. Attend an ce — Tex i - hooJcs — B uU dings. Computsonj education. — Every parent, guardian, or other person having the legal control of a child between the ages of 7 and 14 years shall, unless such child is being taught at home in the branches usually taught in public schools to children of his or her age, send such child to a clay school each day while such school shall be in session, unless it shall be shown to the satisfaction of the board of education of the school district in which such parent, guardian, or other person shall reside that the bodily or mental condition of such child is such as to prevent his or her attendance at school. Any parent, guardian, or other person having the legal control of any child who shall fail to comply with the provisions of this act shall be deemed to be a disorderly person, anci upon sworn complaint made by the truant officer or other person designated to any justice of the peace, police justice, or city or town recorder acting as such within the municipality wherein such school district shall be situate shall be apprehended upon warrant issued to any constable of the county, and upon conviction shall bo punishable as a disorderly person. Truant officer. — The board of education of each school district may appoint, and may remove at pleasure, one or more persons to be designated as truant officers, and may fix their compensation, prescribe their duties, not inconsistent with the provisions of this article, and shall make rules and regulations for the performance of such duties. The police authorities in any municipality having an organized police force shall, upon the written request of the board of education of the school district situate in such municipality, detail one or more members of said police force to act as truant officers. Truant disorderly person. — Every child between the ages of 7 and 14 jmars who shall be repeatedly absent from school, or found away from home during school hours, or whose parent, guardian, or other person having legal control of such child, is unable to cause him to attend school, or who shall be habitually a truant from school, or who shall habitually wander about the streets and pub¬ lic places of any municipality during school hours having no lawful business or occupation, or any pupil who shall be incorrigible, actually vagrant, vicious, or immoral in conduct shall be deemed and adjudged to be a disorderly person and proceeded against as [such]. Every truant officer or other person designated by a board of education, who shall find any child between 7 and 14 years of age away froin home during school hours, who shall then be a truant from school, shall take such child and deliver him to his parent, guardian, or other person having legal control of such child, or to the teacher of the school which said child is lawfully required to attend. [The truant officer shall examine into cases of truancy, when requested to do so by the inspector of factories and workshops or the district board of edu¬ cation, and warn the pupil, or the parent or guardian, in writing, and request that the truant attend school within five days therefrom. In case of noncom¬ pliance the parent, etc., is to be regarded as a disorderly person.] Parental school. — The board of education of any school district may establish and maintain a school or schools, or may set apart separate rooms in a public school building for the use, restraint, and instruction of children between the ages of 7 and 14 years who shall be habitual truants from school, or who shall be habitually insubordinate or incorrigible and disorderly during their attend¬ ance at school. Such school or room shall be known as a pa, rental school. Said hoard of education may compel any such child to attend such parental school and, with the consent, in writing, of the pa, rent, guardian, or other per¬ son having legal control of such child, may cause such child to be restrained and instructed therein for such a period and under such imles and regulations as said board of education may prescribe. Free schools.— PuhVic schools shall be free to ail persons over 5 and under 20 years of age who shall be residents of the school district. Nonresidents of a school district, if otherwise competent, may be admitted to the schools o^aid district with the consent of the board of education, upon such terms as said board may prescribe ; Provided. That the authority to charge tuition for non¬ resident pupils conferred by this section shall not apply to nonresident pupils transferred to any district by an order of the county superintendent of schools. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - HEW JERSEY. 419 Whenever in any district there shall be children living remote from the schoolhonse, the board of education of such district may make rules and con¬ tracts for the transportation of such children to and from school. Any child living remote from any public school in the district in which he or she shall reside shall be allowed to attend a public school in an adjoining dis¬ trict, with the consent of the county superintendent of schools. No child between the ages of 4 and 20 years shall be excluded from any public school on account of his or her religion, nationality, or color. Text-J)ooJcs. — Text-books and school supplies shall be furnished free of cost for use by all pupils in the public schools. Every school district shall raise and appropriate annually in the same manner as other school moneys shall be raised and appropriated in such district an amount sufficient to pay for such text-books and supplies. Every board of education shall make rules for the safe-keeping and proper care of text-books, and shall keep an account of all moneys expended by it for such text-books and supplies, and shall report the same in its annual financial statement. It shall be unlawful for any county superintendent of schools, member of a board of education, teacher, or any person officially con¬ nected with the public schools to be agent for or to be in any way pecuniarily or beneficially interested in the sale of any text-books, maps, charts, school appa¬ ratus, or supplies of any kind, or to receive compensation or reward of any kind for any such sale or for unlawfully promoting or favoring the same. A viola¬ tion of the provisions of this section shall be punishable by removal from office or by revocation of certificate to teach. Buildings. — Each school district shall provide suitable school facilities and accommodations for all children residing in the district and desiring to attend the public schools therein. [Each schoolhonse is to have two suitable and convenient outhouses or water- closets, entirely separate from each other and having separate means of access, with a substantial closed fence between the buildings when detached from the schoolhonse. Noncompliance punished by withholding school funds.] The State superintendent of public instruction shall procure architects’ plans and specifications for school buildings and full detail wmrking plans therefor. In the preparation of such plans due regard shall be given to proper heating, lighting, ventilating, and other hygienic requirements. Said plans and specifi- calions shall be approved by the State board of education and shall be loaned to any district desiring to erect a new school building. In any schoolhonse of twm or more stories in height the doors leading from the class rooms to the corridors and from said corridors to the street or to the ground surrounding such schoolhonse shall open outwmrdly. All swung doors shall have plate glass wundow'S of suitable dimensions. In order that the health, sight, and comfort of the pupils may be properly pro¬ tected, all schoolhouses hereafter erected shall comply wuth the following condi¬ tions : Light shall be admitted from the left or from the left and rear of class rooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened by the use of reflecting lenses, equal at least 20 per cent of floor space. Schoolhouses shall have in each class room at least 18 square feet of floor space and not less than 200 cubic feet of air space per pupil. All school buildings shall have an approved system of ventilation, by means of wmich each class room shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less than SO cubic feet per minute for each pupil. All ceil¬ ings shall be at least 12 feet in height. All stairs, except cellar stairs, shall be not less than 4 feet in wudth and shall have intermediate landings. The several flights of stairs shall be inclosed by brick wmlls or by partitions of slow-burning construction and without open wmll holes. The risers of stairs shall not exceed 71 inches in height, and the treads shall be at least 10 inches in width, exclusive of the projecting nosings. Every schoolhonse having eight rooms shall have twm flights of stairs of not less than 4 feet in width, or, in lieu thereof, one flight of stairs situated near the center of the building, not less than 6 feet in wudth. Every school building having more than eight and less than sixteen rooms shall have tw’o flights of stairs not less than 5 feet in wudth. Every schoolhonse hav¬ ing sixteen or more rooms shall have three flights of stairs not less than 4 feet in wudth, or, in lieu thereof, twm complete flights of stairs not less than G feet in width. Every building more than one story in lieight shall have metal ceilings, wmoden ceilings painted w'hite, or some light tint or plastered ceilings on metal lath. 420 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxation. School fund. — The governor, the attorney -general, the secretary of state, the State comptroller, and the State treasurer are hereby constituted a board of trustees of the fund for the support of public schools arising from appropria¬ tions heretofore made or which may be hereafter made by law, or which may arise from gift, grant, bequest, or devise, which board shall be known as “ the trustees for the support of public schools.” All lands belonging to this State now or formerly lying under water are appropriated for the support of public schools, and all moneys hereafter received from the sales of such lands shall be paid to “ the trustees for the support of public schools,” and shall be invested by said board, and shall constitute a part of the permanent school fund of the State. All leases which have been heretofore made, or which shall be hereafter made, of such lands shall be held by “ the trustees for the support of public schools,” as a part of the principal of the school fund, and the income arising from said leases shall be a part of the income of said school fund. Moneys belonging to the school fund shall be invested by said board in the bonds of the several school districts of this State, or in the bonds of the United States, or of this State, or in the bonds of any county, city, incorporated town, township, or borough of this State, the total indebtedness of which shall not exceed in the aggregate 15 per cent of the total assessable valuation of all tax¬ able property therein, and the interest thereof shall be a part of the income of said school fund. The income of said school fund shall be used for the sup¬ port of public schools, the payment of the salaries of the county superintendents of schools, the payment of premiums and accrued interest on bonds purchased by “ the trustees for the support of the public schools,” and for no other use or purpose whatsoever. An account of the management of said fund shall be laid before the legislature with the annual statements of the State treasurer’s accounts. No compensation shall be paid to said trustees or treasurer for any services performed in pursuance of this article. There shall be annually apportioned and paid from the income of the school fund for the support of public schools $200,000. If the income of said fund shall have not been received in full, or shall be insufheient for such appropria¬ tion, the sum necessary to make up the deficiency shall be drawn from the State treasury on the warrant of the State comptroller, which sum so drawn as aforesaid shall be replaced from the income of said school fund as soon as the same shall have been received. The State superintendent of public instruction shall equitably apportion to the several counties the amount appropriated for the support of public schools from the State school fund on the basis of the aggregate number of days’ attendance of all pupils attending the public schools during the year preceding that for which said a[)portionment shall be made, and shall furnish to the State comptroller and to the several county superintendents of schools and county collectors an abstract of such apportionment, and of the apportionment of the moneys due to the several counties from the State school tax and from the reserve fund, and shall draw his orders on the State comptroller and in favor of the county collector of each county for the amount to which such county shall be entitled. Taxation. — For the purpose of maintaining free public schools there shall be appropriated each year from any moneys in the State treasury not otherwise ai)propriated such sum, not less than $100,000, as may be determined by the leg¬ islature in the annual appropriation act; which sum shall be apportioned among and paid to the several counties in the proportion that the ratables of each of said counties shall bear to the total ratables of the State as exhibited by the lat¬ est abstract of ratables filed in the office of the State comptroller. In addition to the amount so determined and appropriated, a State school tax shall be annually assessed, levied, and collected upon the taxable real and personal property in the State, as exhibited by the latest abstract of ratables from the several counties made out by the several boards of assessors and filed in the office of the State comptroller. Said tax shall be such an amount as will make, when added to the amount determined and appropriated as aforesaid, a sum equal to 2f mills on each dollar of valuation of the taxable real and personal ])roperty in the State as exhibited by the last abstract of ratables from the several counties made out DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW YORK. 421 by the several boards of assessors and filed in the office of the State comptroller, which tax shall he assessed, levied, and collected at the same time and in the same manner as other taxes shall be assessed, levied, and collected. The State comptroller shall apportion said tax and appropriation amonj^ the several comi¬ ties in proportion to the ainomit of taxable real and personal estate of said coun¬ ties, respectively. The legal voters of each township, incorporated town, or borough school dis¬ trict may, at any annual or special meeting of said legal voters, by the vote of a majority of those present, raise by special district tax such snm or sums as a majority of said legal voters present at such meeting may agree upon for any or all of the following purposes : To enable the board of education to purchase or take and condemn land for school purposes ; to build, enlarge, repair, or furnish a schoolhonse, or to pay a debt incurred therefor ; for industrial schools, for manual training, and for the current expenses of the schools, in which term shall be included principals’, teacliers’, janitors’, and medical inspectors’ sal¬ aries, fuel, text-books, school supplies, flags, transportation of pupils, tuition of pupils attending schools in other districts with the consent of the board of edu¬ cation, school libraries, compensation of the district clerk, of the custodian of the school moneys, and of truant officers ; truant schools, insurance, and the incidental expenses of the schools. NEW YORK. [Mr. Edwin M. Holbrook, counsel to the department of education of New York, informs the Bureau that the present digest of the school law of that State will need another revis¬ ion very soon. He says : “ It is probable that the legislature of 1905 will adopt a revision of all laws relating to schools, and also of the university law.”] 1. Oeganization of the System. Commissioner of education — School commissioners — District trustees and hoard of education — Superiniendcnt — A ttendance ( truant ) officers. The office of superintendent of public instruction and the office of secretary of the board of regents shall be abolished from and after April 1, 1904, and the powers and duties of said offices shall be exercised and performed by the com¬ missioner of education. All the powers and duties of the board of regents in relation to the supervision of elementary and secondary schools, including all schools except colleges and technical and professional schools are hereby devolved upon the commissioner of education. The said commissioner of education shall also act as the executive officer of the board of regents. He shall have power to create such departments as in his judgment shall be necessary, lie shall also have power to appoint deputies and heads of such departments, subject to the approval of the State board of regents. Within ten days after the passage of this act the legislature shall elect a com¬ missioner of education in the same manner as members of the board of regents are now elected, who either may or may not be a resident of the State of New York. The commissioner shall receive an annual salary of $7,500, payable monthly, and shall also be paid $1,500 in lieu and in full for his traveling and other expenses, also payable monthly. The commissioner of education first elected shall serve for the term of six years, unless sooner removed for cause by the board of regents, and the legislature shall fill any vacancy that may occur during such period of six years for the balance of the term, and all successors in office after such term of six years shall serve during the pleasure of the board of regents, and all vacancies in the office of commissioner of education after such six years shall be filled by appointment by the board of regents. On and after the 1st day of April, 1904, the corporation designated by the con¬ stitution as “ the University of the State of New York ” shall be governed and its corporate powers exercised by eleven regents. There shall be no “ ex officio ” members of the board of regents. Within ten days after the passage of this act the legislature shall proceed to the election of eleven regents of the University of the State of New York in the manner now prescribed by the law for the election of a regent. Such regents shall be elected for the term of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, and eleven years, respectively, from the 1st day of April, 1904, and, so far as may be, one shall be chosen from each judicial district. 422 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Tlie commissioner shall be ex officio a trustee of Cornell University and of the New York State Asylum for Idiots, and a regent of the University of the State of New York. He shall also have general supervision over the State normal schools ; and he shall provide for the education of the Indian children of the State, as required by this act. Beginning October, 1895, he shall, in cities of 10,000 or more, biennially have taken a census of persons 4-10, of illiterates 12-21, and of nonattendants at public schools because attending private schools or forced to work. So often as he can, he shall visit such of the common schools of the State as he shall see fit and inquire into their course of instruction, management, and discipline, and advise and encourage the pupils, teachers, and officers thereof. He may appoint persons to perform this duty witliout remuneration. He shall annually submit to the legislature a report containing a statement of the condition of the common schools of the State and of all other schools and institutions under his supervision and subject to his visitation as commissioner, estimates and accounts of expenditures of the school moneys, and a statement of the apportionment of school moneys made by him, all such matters relating to his office, and all such plans and suggestions for the improvement of the schools and the advancement of public instruction as he may deem expedient. He may grant on examination a certificate of qualification to teach, and may revoke the same. While unrevoked, such certificate shall be conclusive evidence that the person to whom it was granted is qualified by moral character, learn¬ ing, and ability to teach any common school in the State, and shall be con¬ sidered a legal license to teach without further examination. He may issue a certificate, without examination, to any graduate of a college or university who has had three years’ experience as a teacher, and may revoke the same for cause ; he may indorse a diploma issued by a State normal school or a certifi¬ cate issued by a State superintendent or State board of education in any other State, which indorsement shall confer upon the holder thereof the same privi¬ leges conferred by law upon the holders of diplomas or certificates issued by State normal schools or by the State superintendent in this State ; and he may issue temporary licenses to teach, limited to any school commissioner district or school district, for a iieriod not exceeding six months. Upon cause shown, he may annul any certificate of qualification granted to a teacher by a school com¬ missioner or diploma issued by a State normal school, and he may reconsider and reverse his action in any such matter. He shall prepare and keep in his office alphabetical lists of all persons who have received, or shall receive, cer¬ tificates of qualification from himself, or diplomas of the State normal schools, with the dates thereof, and shall note any action regarding certificates or diplomas held by them thereon. He may remove a school commissioner or with¬ hold any State money from a district for violation or neglect of duty. He shall prepare suitable registers, blanks, forms, instructions, etc., and transmit them to the persons for whom they ai'e intended. School commissioner. — xV school commissioner for each school district shall be elected by the electors of the school commissioner districts every three years, a resident of the county of either sex being eligible. In case of vacancy, the office is filled by the county judge or, if there be no judge, by the commissioner of education. His salary shall be $1,000, payable from the free school fund, but the board of supervisors of the county may increase his salary by a majority vote, the increase to be raised by local taxation. He shall be allowed $200 for his expenses, to be also raised by taxation. He is removable by the State super¬ intendent. His duties are : 1. To ascertain whether the boundaries of the school districts within his district are definitely and plainly described in the records of the proper town clerks, and when found defective, indefinite, or disputed, to cause the same to be amended at the expense of the district or districts affected. 2. To examine all the schools and school districts within his district as often in each year as shall be practicable ; to inquire into all matters relating to tlie management, the course of study and mode of instruction, and the text-books and discipline of such schools, and the condition of the schoolhouses, sites, out¬ buildings and appendages, and of the district generally; to examine the district libraries ; to advise with and counsel the trustees and other officers of the dis¬ trict in relation to their duties, and particularly in respect to the construction, warming, and ventilation of schoolhouses and the improving and adorning of the school grounds connected therewith, and to recommend to the trustees and teachers the proper studies, discipline, and management of the schools and the course of instruction to be pursued. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - HEW YORK. 423 3. Upon such examination, to direct the trustees to make any alteration or repairs on the schoolhouse or outbuildings necessary for the health or comfort of the pupils, not to exceed the sum of $200, unless an additional sum shall be voted by the district. He may also direct the trustee to make any alterations or repairs to school furniture when it is unfit for use or to be repaired and to provide sufficient furniture, not to exceed the sum of $100. He may also direct the trustees to abate any nuisance in or upon the premises, provided the same can be done at an expense not exceeding $25. 4. By an order under his hand, reciting the reason or reasons, to condemn a schoolhouse if he deems it wholly unfit for use and not worth repairing, and to deliver the order to the trustees, or one of them, and transmit a copy to the superintendent of public instruction. Such order, if no time for its taking effect be stated in it, shall take effect immediately. He shall also state what sum, not exceeding $800, will, in his opinion, be necessary to erect a schoolhouse capable of accommodating the children of the district. Immediately upon the receipt of said order the trustee or trustees of such district shall call a special meeting of the inhabitants of said district for the purpose of considering the question of building a schoolhouse therein. Such meeting shall have power to determine the size of said schoolhouse, the material to be used in its erection, and to vote a tax to build the same ; but such meeting shall have no power to reduce the estimate made by the commissioner aforesaid by more than 25 per cent of such estimate. And where no tax for building such house shall have been voted by such district within thirty days from the time of holding the first meeting to consider the question, then it shall be the duty of the trustee or trustees of such district to contract for the building of a schoolhouse capable of accom\modating the children of the district, and to levy a tax to pay for the same, not to exceed the sum estimated as necessary by the commissioner, and which shall not be less than such estimated sum by more than 25 per cent thereof. But such estimated sum may be increased by a vote of the inhabitants at any school meeting subse¬ quently called and held according to law. 5. To examine, under such rules and regulations as have been ,or may be pre¬ scribed hj the State commissioner of education, persons proposing to teach com¬ mon schools within his district and not possessing the commissioner’s certificate of qualification or a diploma of the State normal school, and to inquire into their moral fitness and capacity, and, if he find them qualified, to grant them certifi¬ cates of qualification in the forms which are or may be prescribed by the super¬ intendent. (3. To examine any charge affecting the moral character of any teacher within his district, first giving such teacher reasonable notice of the charge, and an opportunity to defend himself therefrom ; and if he find the charge sustained, to annul the teacher’s certificate, by whomsoever granted, and to declare him unfit to teach ; and if the teacher held a certificate of the commissioner of education or a diploma of the State normal school, to notify the commissioner forthwith of such annulment and declaration. 7. And, generally, to use his utmost influence and most strenuous exertions to promote sound education, elevate the character and qualifications of teachers, improve the means of instruction, and advance the interest of the schools under his supervision. The commissioner may administer oaths relating to the public school affairs, and by direction of the State commissioner may subpmna witnesses. An appeal from his action may be carried to the State commissioner. District trustees and hoard of education. — Each school commissioner subdi¬ vides the territory of his district into school districts, and the inhabitants of each subdivision entitled to vote shall elect by ballot one or three trustees — one retiring annually — a district clerk, and a district collector, and, if the district so determine, a treasurer. The trustee or trustees of a district compose a board, vacancies to be filled at a special meeting of the district.^ They call special meetings of the inhabitants ; make out a tax list of every district tax voted by the district ; purchase or lease sites for schooihouses, and build and furnish them and hire rooms or buildings for school purposes and supply fuel and other incidentals, but the expense for furnishing and incidental running expenses shall not exceed $50 in any one year, unless authorized by the district ; insure the buildings and furniture ; employ teachers and fix their compensation and term of service, but not for fewer than ten weeks unless to fill a vacancy ; establish ® Not more than one member of a family shall he a member of the same hoard of edu¬ cation in any school district. 424 EDUCATIOK REPOKT, 1904. rules for the government and discipline of the schools and the course of study to be pursued therein ; see that the conditions of the school buildings are good hygienically ; report to the district annually and to the school commissioner as follows : The duration of the term of schools, their expenditures for teachers’ wages and for books and school apparatus, the number of children in the district schools and the sum of the days attendance ; the number of children 5 to 21 residing in the district, and the names of the parents or persons with whom they reside ; the number of vaccinated children of school age ; the amount of money paid for teachers’ wages in addition to the public money paid therefor; the amount of taxes levied in said district for purchasing schoolhouse sites, for building, .hiring, purchasing, repairing, and insuring such schoolhouses, for fuel, for school libraries, or for any other purpose allowed by law, and such other information as the superintendent may require. Whenever 15 legal voters of one or more school districts shall sign a call, a meeting shall be held for the formation of a union free-school district. Such union district shall elect not fewer than three iior more than nine trustees, one- third of whom shall retire annually, called, collectively, the board of education. This board shall have in all respects the su])erintendence, management, and con¬ trol of said union free schools, and power to establish in the same an academ¬ ical department whenever, in their judgment, it is warranted, and shall possess all the powers and privileges and be subject to all the duties in respect to the common schools which the trustees of common (district) schools possess or are subject, to. Whenever any district shall have contracted with the S(jhool authorities of any city, village, or other school district for the education therein of the pupils residing in such school district, or whenever in any school district children of school age shall reside so remote from the schoolhouse therein that they are practically deprived of school advantages during any portion of the school year, the inhabitants thereof entitled to vote are authorized to provide, by tax or otherwise, for the conveyance of any or all pupils residing therein to the schools of such city, village, or district with which such contract shall have been made, or to the school maintained in said district. Superintendent of cities and union free-school districts. — In an incorporated village having a population of 5,000 and upward, or in any union free-school district having a like population, the board of education may appoint a superin¬ tendent of schools having such powers and duties as the board may prescribe. Attendance (truant) officers. — City and union free-school districts shall ap¬ point and remove at pleasure one or more attendance officers, fix their compen¬ sation, and may make regular times, in conformity with the compulsorj'-educa- tion law, for the performance of their duties under the supervision of the local superintendent, if there be one. 2. Teacheks. Appointment and qualifications — Duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment and qualifications. — No teacher is a qualified one, within the meaning of this act, unless he possesses an unannulled diploma granted to him by the State normal school, or an unrevoked and unaimulled certificate of qualification given to him by the commissioner of education, or an unexpired certificate of qualification given to him by the school commissioner within whose district he is employed. No person shall be qualified to teach who is under the age of 18 years, nor shall a person related to a trustee by blood or marriage be employed except by the approval of two-thirds of the voters at a district meeting, nor shall the trustees contract with a teacher for more than one year in advance. No part of the school moneys apportioned to a distifict can be applied or permitted to be applied to the payment of the wages of an unqualified teacher, nor can they or any part of them be collected by a. district tax. Any trustee who applies, or directs, or consents to the application of any such money to the payment of an unqualified teacher’s wages commits a misdemeanor. Teachers shall keep, pre¬ pare, and enter in the books provided for that purpose the school lists and accounts of attendance hereinafter mentioned, and shall be responsible for their safe-keeping and delivery to the clerk of the district at the close of their engage¬ ments or terms. Willful failure to attend an institute shall be sufficient cause for the revocation of the delinquent’s license. Preliminary training. — There shall be annually appropriated out of the income DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW YOEK. 425 of the United States deposit fund the sum of $30,000, and out of the free-school fund the sum of $30,000, for the instruetion of competent persons in academies and union schools in the science and practice of common school teaching under a course to be prescribed by the State commissioner of education, the academies and union schools to be designated by him with reference to the school districts in each. Every academy or union school so designated shall instruct a class of not fewer than 10 nor more than 25 scholars, each of whom shall continue under instruction not fewer than sixteen weeks, unless excused for cause by the State commissioner, who shall prescribe the conditions of admission to the classes, the course of instruction, and the rules and regulations under which said instruction shall be given, and the number of classes which may be formed in any one year, and the length of time exceeding sixteen weeks, during which such instruction may be given. Instruction is free, and the trustees of the school are allowed $i for each week’s instruction of a scholar. The classes are subject to the visitation of the school commissioner. [The 11 State normal schools of New York appear to have been organized by special acts under the general provisions of the act of April 7, 1800, the material features of which are as follo\vs : The governor, the lieutenant-governor, the secretary of state, the comptroller, the State treasurer, the attorney-general, and the commissioner of education shall constitute a commission to receive proposals in writing in regard to the establishment of normal and training schools for the education and discipline of teachers in the common schools of this State from the board of supervisors of any county, from the corporate authority of any village or city, from the board of trustees of any college or academy, and from one or more individuals ; but the number of proposals accepted shall not be more than four. Such pro¬ posals shall contain specifications for the purchase of lands and the erection thereon of suitable buildings for such schools, or for the appropriation of land and buildings for such use, also the furnishing of such schools and everything necessary to their support. The proposals may have in view either the grant and conveyance of such land and premises to the State or the use of the same for a limited time, and for the gift to the State of furniture, apparatus, etc., necessary to conduct such school. If the proposals made by any board of supervisors, or by the corporate author¬ ities of any city or village shall be accepted, said board or corporate authorities shall have the power to raise by tax and expend the money necessary to carry the same into effect; and if in their judgment it shall be deemed expedient, they shall have power to borrow money for such purpose for any time not exceeding ten years, and at a rate of interest not exceeding 7 per cent, and issue the corporate bonds of said county, city, or village therefor. When the said commission shall have accepted proposals it shall certify the same in writing, and then their povrer under this act in relation to such school shall cease, and thereupon the commissioner of education shall appoint a local board, consisting of not less than 3 persons nor more than 13 persons, who shall, respectively, hold their offices until removed by the concurrent action of the chancellor of the university and the commissioner of education, and who shall have the immediate supervision and management of such school, subject, how¬ ever, to his general supervision and to his direction in all things pertaining to the school. It shall be the duty of such board to make rules and regulations for the government of such schools, subject to the approval of the commissioner of education. They shall also severally transmit through him, and subject to his approval, a report to the legislature on the 1st of January in each year, showing the condition of the school under their charge during the year next pre¬ ceding, and which report shall be in such form and contain such an account of their acts and doings as the commissioner shall direct, including especially an account in detail of their receipts and expenditures, which shall be duly veri¬ fied by the oath or affirmation of their chairman and secretary. The sum of $12,000 shall be annually appropriated for the support of each normal school, payable out of the common school fund.] Meetings. — The State commissioner shall annually appoint a teachers’ insti¬ tute once in each year in each school commissioner’s district for the benefit and instruction of the teachers in the public schools and intending teachers, with special reference to the presentation of subjects relating to the principles of education and methods of instruction in the various brances of study pursued in the schools. He shall also fix the duration of the institute and the number and compensation of its instructors. The school commissioner shall notify all school officers, teachers, and candidates for teacher’s certificate of the time 426 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. and place of the institute and assist the conductor, and he has the right, when appointed, to hold an institute in a,ny school building without expense to the State beyond allowance for janitor’s fees and lights and fuel. During the dura¬ tion of an institute all the schools of a district shall be closed. Union school districts of 5,000, employing a superintendent, may close or not. There shall be annually appropriated out of the free school fund the sum of $30,00 for the maintenance of teachers’ institutes. A town at its annual meeting may pension teachers who have served twenty-five years continuously. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hoolcs — Buildings, Attendance. — Common schools shall be free to all 5 to 21 years of age, but chil¬ dren 4 years of age or more shall be admitted to kindergartens. Cities, incor¬ porated villages, and union and special districts may establish separate schools for the instruction of colored youth 5 to 20 years of age. Every child between 8 and IG years of age in proper physical and mental con¬ dition to attend school shall regularly attend upon instruction at a school in which at least six common school branches of reading, spelling, writing, arith¬ metic, English grammar, and geography are taught, or upon equivalent instruc¬ tion by a competent teacher elsewhere than at a school, as follows : Every such child between 14 and IG years of age, not regularly and lawfully engaged in any useful employment or service, and every such child between 8 and 14 years of age shall so attend upon instruction as many diiys annually during the period between the 1st days of October and the following June as the public school of the district or city in which such child resides shall be in session during the same period. Every boy between 14 and IG years of age who is engaged in any useful employment or service in a city of the first class or a city of the second class and who has not completed such course of study as is required for gradua¬ tion from the elementary public schools of such city and who does not hold either a certificate of graduation from the public elementary school or the pre¬ academic certificate issued by the regents of the University of the State of New York or the certificate of the completion of an elementary school issued by the department of public instruction shall attend the public evening schools of such city or other evening schools offering an equivalent course of instruction for not less than six hours each week for a period of not less than sixteen weeks in each school 3’ear or calendar year. If any such child shall so attend upon instruction elsewhere than at a public school, such instruction shall be at least substantially equivalent to the instruction given to children of like age at the public school of the city or district in which such child resides ; and such attendance shall be for at least as many hours of each day thereof as are required of children of like age at public schools, and no greater total amount of holidays and vacations shall be deducted from such attendance during the period such attendance is required than is allowed in such public school to children of like age. Occa¬ sional absences from such attendance, not amounting to irregular attendance in the fair meaning of the term, shall be allowed upon such excuses only as would be allowed in like cases by the general rules and practice of such public school. The teacher of every school shall keep an accurate record of the attendance of all children between 8 and IG years of age, showing such attendance each day by the year, month, day of the month, and day of the week, and the number of hours in each day thereof ; and each teacher upon whose instruction any such child shall attend elsewhere than at a public school shall keep a like record of such attendance. Such record shall at all times be open to the attendance officers or other per¬ sons duly authorized by the school authorities [this term means the trustees or board of education or corresponding officers, whether one or more, by whatever name knov.’u, of a city union free school district, common school district, or school district created by special law] of the city or district, who may inspect or copy the same ; and every such teacher shall fully answer all pertinent and reasonable inquiries made by such school authorities, inspectors, or other per¬ sons ; and a willful neglect or refusal so to answer any such inquiry shall be a misdemeanor. Duties of persons in parental relation to children. — Every person in parental relation to a child between 8 and IG years of age, in proper physical and mental condition to attend school, shall cause such child to so attend upon instruction, or shall present to the school authorities of his city or district proof by affidavit DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW YOEK. 427 that he is unable to compel such child to so attend. A violation of this section shall be a misdemeanor, punishable for the first offense by a fine not exceeding $5, and for each subsequent offense by a fine not exceeding $50, or by imprison¬ ment not exceeding thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment. ; Courts of special sessions and police magistrates shall, subject to removal as provided in sections 57 and 58 of the code of criminal procedure, have exclusive jurisdiction in the first instance to hear, try, and determine charges of violations of the foregoing provisions within their respective jurisdictions. Persons employing cliUdren unlawfully to lye fined. — It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation to employ any child under 14 years of age, in any business or service whatever, during any part of tlie term during which the public schools of the district in which the child resides are in session ; or to employ any child between 14 and 16 years of age who does not, at the time of such employment, present a certificate signed by the superintendent of schools or by the principal or the principal teacher of the city or district in which the child resides or by the principal or the principal teacher of the school where the child has attended or is attending, or by such other oxfiicer as the school authori¬ ties may designate, certifying that such child during the school year next preced¬ ing his application for such certificate has attended for not less than 130 days in such city or district and that such child can read and write easy English prose and is familiar with the fundamental operations of arithmetic ; or to employ, in a city of the first class or a city of the second class, any child between 14 and 16 years of age who has not completed such course of study as the public elementary schools of such city require for graduation from such schools and who does not hold either a certificate of graduation from the public elementary school or the pre-academic certificate issued by the regents of the University of the State of New York, or the certificate of the completion of an elementary school issued by the department of public instruction, unless the emplo3mr of such child, if a boy, shall keep and shall displaj’ in the place where such child is employed and shall show w^henever so requested by any attendance officer, factory inspector, or representative of the police department, a certifi¬ cate signed by the school authorities or such school officers in said city as said school authorities shall designate, stating that said child has been in attendance upon an evening school for not less than six hours each week for such number of weeks as will, when taken in connection with the number of weeks such evening school will be in session during the remainder of the current or calendar year, make up a total attendance on the part of said child in said evening school of not less than six hours per wmek for a period of not less than sixteen weeks, and anj^ person who shall emplo^y any child contraiy to the provisions of this section or who shall fail to keep and display certificates as to the attendance of employees in evening schools when such attendance is required by law’’ shall, for each offense, forfeit and pay to the treasurer of the city or village, or to the supervisor of the towm in which such child resides a penalty of $50, the same, when paid, to be added to the public school moneys of the city, village, or dis¬ trict in wdiich such child resides. The school authorities of any city or school district maj- establish schools, or set apart separate rooms in public school buildings, for children between 8 and 16 years of age, \vho are habitual truants from instruction upon which thej’ are lawfully required to attend, or who are insubordinate or disorderly during their attendance upon such instruction, or irregular in such attendance. Such school or room shall be known as a truant school ; but no person convicted of crimes or misdemeanors, other than truancy, shall be committed thereto. Such authorities may provide for the confinement, maintenance, and instruction of such children in such schools ; and they, or the superintendent of schools in any city or school district, may, after reasonable notice to such child and the persons in parental relation to such child, and an opportunity for them to be heard, and v/ith the consent in writing of the persons in parental relation to such child, order such child to attend such school, or to be confined and main¬ tained therein, under such rules and regulations as such authorities may pre¬ scribe, for a period not exceeding two years ; but in no case shall a child be so confined after he is 16 years of age. Such authorities may order such a child to be confined and maintained during such period in any private school, orphans’ home or similar institution controlled by persons of the same religious faith as the persons in parental relation to such child, and which is willing and able to receive, confine, and maintain such child, upon such terms as to compensation as may be agreed upon between such authorities and such private school, orphans’ home, or similar institution. If the persons in parental relation to 428 EDUCATIOT^ EEPOKT, 1904. ' such child shall not consent to either such order, such conduct of the child shall be deemed disorderly conduct, and the child may be proceeded against as a disorderly person, and upon conviction thereof, if the child was lawfully required to attend a public school, the child shall be sentenced to be confined and maintained in such truant school for a period not exceeding two years; or if such child was lawfully required to attend upon instruction otherwise than at a iniblic school, the child may be sentenced to be confined and maintained for a period not exceeding two years in such private school, orphans’ home or other similar institution, if there be one, controlled by persons of the same religious faith as the i)ersons in parental relation to such child, which is willing and able to receive, confine, and maintain such child for a reasonable compensa¬ tion. Such confinement shall be conducted with a view to the improvement and to the restoration, as soon as practicable, of such child to the institution else¬ where, upon which he may be lawfully required to attend. The authorities com¬ mitting any such child, and in cities and villages the superintendent of schools therein, shall have authority, in their discretion, to parole at any time any truant so committed by them. Every child suspended from attendance upon instruction by the authorities in charge of furnishing such instruction, for more than one week, shall be required to attend such truant school during the period of such suspension. The school authorities of any city or school district, not having a truant school, may contract with any other city or district having a truant school, for the confinement, maintenance, and instruction therein of children whom such school authorities might require to attend a truant school, if there were one in their own city or district. Industrial training shall be furnished in every such truant school. The expense attending the commitment and cost of maintenance of any truant residing in any city or village employing a sperintendent of schools shall be a charge against such city or village, and in all other cases shall be a county chai-ge. The school authorities of any city or school district not having a truant school may contract with any other city or district or county having a truant school for the confinement, maintenance, and instruction therein of children whom such school authorities might require to attend a truant school if there were one in their own city or district. Industrial training shall be furnished in every such truant school. The commissioner of education has the power to employ assistants. It shall be the duty of such assistants to make investigation and to report to said com¬ missioner under his instructions the extent to which said compulsory-education law is complied with in the cities and school districts, and perform such other duties as may be required. The commissioner of education has the power to withhold one-half of all public school moneys from any city or school district v/hich in his judgment willfully omits and refuses to enforce the i)rovisions of said compulsory-educa¬ tion law, after due notice, so often and so long as such willful omission and refusal shall in his judgment continue; but whenever the provisions of said law have been complied with, all moneys so withheld by the commissioner of education shall be paid over by him to such city or school district. Twelve thousand dollars are appropriated to carry out the foregoing provisions regard¬ ing attendance. ^ Character of instruction. — The course of study is fixed by district trustees and boards of education. The injurious effects of stimulants and narcotics must be taught, and every child, by the compulsory-education act to take effect January I, 1895, shall regularly attend instruction at a school in which at least the common school branches of reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and geography are taught, if attending other than a public school. An academical department may be established in a union free school district. Local boards may establish departments for industrial training and for teach¬ ing and illustrating the manual or industrial arts and the principles underlying the same, and to erect, equip, and officer such shops as shall be necessary. The board of education or other body having supervision of the public schools in any city or union district may establish free evening schools for instruction in industrial drawing whenever the city authorities or qualified electors shall so direct. Vocal music may be introduced in the normal schools, teachers’ insti¬ tutes, and into union districts and cities, and drawing must be. Kindergartens may, in counties having fewer than 1,000,000 inhabitants, be established, the teachers being considered teachers of the public schools. Teopt-hooks. — The boards of education or such bodies as perform the functions of such boards in the several cities, villages, and union free school districts of DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NEW YORK. 429 this State shall have power and it shall be their duty to adopt and designate text-books to be used in the schools under their charge in their respective dis¬ tricts. In the common school districts in the State the text-books to be used in the schools therein shall be designated at the first annual school meeting held after the passage of this act by a two-thirds vote of all the legal voters present and voting at such school meeting. When a text-book shall have been adopted for use in any of the public or common schools, it shall not be lawful to supersede the text-book so adopted by any other book within a period of five years from the time of such adoption, except upon a three-fourths vote of the board of education, or of such body as performs the functions of such board, where such board has made the designa¬ tion, or upon a three-fourths vote of the legal voters present and voting at the annual school meeting in any other school district. Any person or persons violating any of the provisions of this act shall be liable to a penalty of not less than $50 nor more than $100 for every such viola¬ tion, to be sued for by any taxpayer of the school district and recovered before any justice of the peace, said fine, when collected, to be paid to the collector or treasurer for the benefit of said school district. Buildings. — District trustees and boards of education have the custody of school buildings, the sites for which are purchased and the buildings erected by them when they are authorized thereto by the district. (See Organization — • School commissioner. ) The flag of the United States shall be displayed upon or near every school building at the expense of the district. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent and special). — [There is a United States deposit fund which-is the original sum of $4,014,520.17 received in virtue of the act of Con¬ gress approved June 15, 1837. From the beginning $28,000 of the income were given annually to academies, and after 1840 $25,000 were annually added to the “ common school fund,” and at date $30,000 are given to academies for the support of teachers’ training classes. Of the remaining portion of the income from 1838, $55,000 a year have been given to school district libraries, except during sixteen years, when only $50,000 were granted. The principal is loaned through the district commissioners, about one-half being invested in that way, the other portion being invested in bonds of the United States or bonds guar¬ anteed by them. The second fund is the “ common school fund,” which amounted in 1893 to $4,373,140, the income of which is given to aid the ele¬ mentary schools. The “ free school fund ” is the tax levied by the State each year for school purposes. There is also a “ literary fund ” of $284,201, the income of which is given to “ academies.” The United States deposit fund and the literary fund are under the charge of the board of regents of the Uni¬ versity of New York.] Taxation. — There shall be raised by tax in each year upon the real and per¬ sonal estate of each county within the State such sum as the legislature shall annually determine necessary for the support of common schools in the State, and the proceeds of such tax shall be apportioned and distributed as herein provided. The moneys so raised shall be paid into the State treasury. On the first work¬ ing day of each month the treasurer shall make to the commissioner of education a written statement of the condition of the free school fund. No such money shall be paid out of the treasury except upon such warrant of the commissioner, countersigned by the coinptroller, referring to the law under which it is drawn. Until satisfactory evidence shall be furnished the comptroller that all moneys required by law to be raised by taxation upon a county for the support of schools throughout the State have been collected and paid or accounted for to the State treasurer, he may withhold payment; and whenever, after the 1st day of March in any year, in consequence of the failure of any county to pay such moneys on or before that day, there shall be a deficiency of moneys in the treasury appli¬ cable to the payment of such school moneys, to which any other county may be entitled, the treasurer and commissioner of education are hereby authorized to make a temporary loan of the amount so deficient, and such loan and the inter- , est, at the rate of 12 per cent per annum, shall be a charge upon the county in 430 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. default, and shall be added to the amount of State tax and levied upon such | county by the board of supervisors thereof at the next ensuing assessment. f The moneys raised by the State tax or borrowed as aforesaid to supply a defi- | ciency thereof, and such portion of the income of the United States deposit % fund as shall be appropriated, and the income of the common school fund, when | the same is appropriated to the support of common schools, shall constitute the | State school moneys, and shall be divided and apportioned by the commissioner r of education on or before the 20th day of January in each year as hereinafter | provided ; and all moneys so apportioned, except the library moneys, shall be | applied exclusively to the payment of teachers’ wages. He shall apportion and y set apart from the free school fund appropriated therefor the amounts required f to pay the annual salaries of the school commissioners elected or elective under ^ this act, to be drav/n out of the treasury’ and paid to the several commissioners t as hereinafter provided ; and he shall also apportion to each of the cities of the | State, and to each of the incorporated villages of the State having a population I of 5,000 and upward, and to each union free school district having a like popu- I lation, which employs a superintendent of schools, out of the income of the said fund, and if insufficient, the deficiency out of the free school fund so appropri- ated, the sum of S800 ; iuid in case any city is entitled to more than one member ) of assembly, according to the unit of representation adopted by the legislature, t ?500 for each additional member of assembly, to be expended according ta law k for the su])port of the public schools of the city. But the commissioner shall i make no allotment to any city or district for the expenses of a superintendent | unless satisfied that such city, village, or district employs a competent person as superintendent, whose time is exclusively devoted to the general supervision of 1 the public schools of said city, village, or district ; nor shall he make any allot- ; ment to any dictrict in the first instance without first causing an enumeration : of the inhabitants thereof to be made which shall show the population thereof to i be at least 5,000, the expense of which enumeration, as certified by said, commis¬ sioner of education, shall be paid by the dictrict in whose interest it is made. He shall then set apart from the income of the United States deposit fund for and as library moneys such sums as the legislature shall appropriate for that ' purpose. He shall also set apart from the free school fund a sum not exceed¬ ing .^4,000 for a contingent fund. He shall then set apart and apportion, for and i on account of the Indian schools under his supervision, a sum which will be I equitably equivalent to their proportion of the State school moneys, upon the \ basis of distribution established by this act, such sum to be wholly payable out I of the proceeds of the State tax for the support of common schools. After i deducting the said amounts he shall divide the remainder of the State school ! moneys into two parts and shall apportion them as follows : • , He shall apportion such remainder equally among the school districts and cities from which reports shall have been received in accordance with law, as follows : Making the distributive portion of each district quota §100. To entitle a district to a distributive portion or district quota, a qualified teacher, or suc¬ cessive qualified teachers, must have actually taught the common school of the district for at least the term of time hereinafter mentioned during the last pre¬ ceding school year. For every additional qualified teacher and his successors who shall have actually taught in said school during the whole of said term the district shall be entitled to another distributive quota ; but pupils employed as monitors or otherwise shall not be deemed teachers. The aforementioned term shall be during every school year one hundred and sixty daj^s of school, inclusive of legal holidays that may occur during the term of said schools, and exclusive of Saturday. No Saturday shall be counted as part of said one hundred and sixty days of school, and no school shall be in session on a legal holiday. Having so apportioned and distributed the said district quota as specified in section 6 of this act, the commissioner shall apportion the remainder of said State school moneys, and also the library moneys separately, among the counties of the State according to their respective population, excluding Indians residing on their reservations, as the same shall appear from the last preceding State or United States census ; but as to counties in which are situated cities having special school acts, he shall apportion to each city the part to which it shall so appear entitled, and to the residue of the county the part to which it shall appear to be so entitled. If the census according to which the apportionment shall be made does not show the sum of the population of any county or city, the commissioner shall, by the best evidence he can procure, ascertain and determine the population of such county or city at the time the census was • taken and make his apportionment accordingly. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - HOETH OAROLIHA. 431 Whenever any school district shall have been excluded from participation in any apportionment made by the commissioner or by the school commissioners by reason of its having omitted to make any report required by law or to comply with any other provision of law, or with any rule or regulation made by the commissioner under the authority of law, and it shall be ^shown to the commis¬ sioner that such omission was accidental or excusable, he may, upon the appli¬ cation of such district, make to it an equitable allowance, and if the apportion¬ ment was made by himself cause it to be paid out of the contingent fund, and if the apportionment was made by the commissioners direct them to apportion such allowance to it at their next annual apportionment in addition to any apportionment to which it may then be entitled. And the commissioner may, in his discretion, upon the recommendation of the school commissioner having jurisdiction over the district in default, direct that the money so equitably apportioned shall be paid in satisfaction of teachers’ wages earned. The school commissioners of the county shall distribute the sums appropriated from the State treasury and certify to the supervisor (or treasurer of the school district) of each town the amount of money apportioned to it and who disbursed the moue5^ Local taxes are voted by the district in meeting. These taxes are as follows : To purchase sites and build schoolhouses or to hire buildings or rooms, and to repair and furnish and meet the incidental expenses of maintaining same; to purchase maps, globes, blackboards, and other apparatus, and to purchase text¬ books and other supplies, not to exceed |25 in any one year ; to establish a school library, purchase the books to increase it and a case to hold it ; to supply deficiencies from noncoilections and embezzlements ; to insure the buildings ; to pay deficiencies in teachers’ wages after the public (State) money has been exhausted ; to satisfy judgments of record. ( See Organization — School commis¬ sioner. ) NORTH CAROLINA. 1. Organization of the System. State l)oard — State superintendent — County Poard — County superintendent — ■ District committee. State hoard. — The State board of education consists of the governor, lieuten¬ ant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, auditor, superintendent of public instruction, and attorney-general. It apportions the State school money and con¬ stitutes the State text-book commission, with power to adopt text-books to be used in public schools for a term of five years at a predetermined price, and has gen¬ eral power to regulate the public schools of the State. State superintendent. — The State superintendent is- elected quadrennially by the people. He prepares tlie forms and registers used in the schools, and in gen¬ eral shall look after and direct the system of public schools and report biennially to the governor. He shall be furnished with an office at the State capital, and expenses incidental to it. He signs requisitions on the auditor for the payment of money by the State treasurer, and is enjoined to learn and supply the educa¬ tional wants of the State and make himself acquainted with the course of educa¬ tional affairs in other States. For his expenses while counseling with county boards and superintendents, delivering lectures at institutes, etc., and for extra clerical assistance, .$500 is annuaily allovred. He is authorized by law to employ a chief clerk at a salary of $1,000, and an additional clerk at a salary of $1,000 to assist in distributing the loan fund, etc., and a stenographer at a salary of $500. All public schoolhouses have to be built according to plans approved by the State superintendent. He appoints institute conductors. All school officers shall obey his instructions and accept his constructions of the school lavvU County hoard. — The general assembly shall appoint three men in each county, of good business qualifications and known to be in favor of public education, who shall constitute a county board of education. The State board fills vacan¬ cies in county boards arising from failure of the general assembly to appoint, but after qualification vacancies can be filled by remaining members of the county boards. The county auperintendent shall be the secretary and the county treasurer the treasurer of the board. The members shall not receive more than $2 per diem and mileage. The board shall be charged with the general manage- 432 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904, ment of the public schools, shall divide the county into districts, decide all con¬ troversies about the boundaries of districts, location of schoolhouses, etc., and shall see that the law is enforced. It is a corporate body, having authority to purchase and hold real and personal estate, to build schoolhouses, sell school lU'operty, fix time for opening and closing public schools, and make all just and needful rules and regulations governing the conduct of teachers and pupils as to attendance on the schools and for the discipline and general government of the schools. Appeals can be taken from county board to State board. County board has power to pass on the moral character of teachers and to dismiss teachers of bad moral character, and to issue subpoenas to compel attendance of witnesses. The county board shall biennially elect a county superintendent, and appoint township or district committeemen, to serve two years. Three committeemen may be appointed for each township, or three committeemen for each school in the township. Township committeemen may he allowed |1 per day for -not more than four days per annum. County boards fill vacancies in committees. County boards on first Monday in January and July of each year meet to appor¬ tion school fund to various townships per capita. Before apportioning school fund the board shall reserve as a contingent fund an amount necessary to pay the salary of the county superintendent and the expenses of the board ; also shall set aside as much as one-sixth, if necessary, of the total school fund to be used in securing a four-months school term in every school in the county. They may, also, before apportioning the money, reserve as a fund for building and repairing schoolhouses and for equipment in counties with a total school fund of $5,000 or less, not more than 20 per cent thereof ; in counties with a total school fund of over $5,000 and not more than $10,000, not more than 16 per cent thereof ; in counties with a total school fund of over $10,000 and not more than $25,000, not more than 10 per cent thereof ; in counties with a total school fund of over $25,000, not more than per cent thereof. Not more than one-half of the expense of building the schoolhouses can be paid out of the general fund, the other half being paid out of the funds apportioned to the districts. County boards may apportion not to exceed $200 for county institutes ; at stated meetings held in January, April, July, and October, audit and approve treasurer’s accounts, and fix maximum salary of first-grade teachers ; divide the townships into convenient school districts, consulting the convenience and neces¬ sities of each race in setting the boundaries of the school district for each race, and shall establish no new school in any township within less than 3 miles of any other school, nor shall they create any school district with less than 65 children of school age, the school age being from 6 to 21 years. School districts may be formed out of portions of contiguous townships or counties by consent of (‘ounty boards. County boards may receive gifts, or purchase or condemn land for schoolhouse sites ; may form special tax districts, and upon petition of one- fourth of the freeholders, indorsed by the board, the county commissioners are required to call special elections to levy local tax for schools. This special tax can not exceed 30 cents on $100 worth of property and 90 cents on the poll. County superintendent. — The county superintendent of schools shall be elected by the county board of education biennially on the first Monday of July. He shall be at the time of his election a practical teacher, or shall have had at least two years’ experience in teaching school, and shall also be a man of liberal edu¬ cation and shall otherwise be qualified to discharge the duties of his office. He must be of good moral chai’acter and shall hold his office for two years from date of his election. He may be removed from office for cause by the board. He shall hold two exajninations a year for applicants of good moral character for teachers’ certificates, have charge of the teachers’ institute, hold township teach¬ ers’ meetings, and with the concui*rence of the school committee of the district he may suspend any teacher unfit for his place or who is rendering inadequate service for the pay receiA'ed. He is subordinate to the State superintendent and the county board. He shall distribute tiie blank forms received from the State superintendent, and advise with district committees as to the best method of obtaining statistics. He countersigns orders on the treasurer of the county board for payment of teachers’ salaries, provided -the teacher has made tlie reports required, and shall himself report to the State superintendent annually, giving an abstract of the number, grade, race, and sex of teachers examined or approved by him, number of schools taught in the county for each race, enroll¬ ment and average attendance by sex, average length of terms of the school, aver¬ age salary of teachers by race, and, in addition, the county superintendent shall report annually to the State superintendent the number of school children in the DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NOETH CAEOLINA. 433 county by race and sex, public scholhouses and the value of school property for each race, number of institutes held, teachers attending them, and such sugges¬ tions as he may deem proper. The compensation of the county superintendent shall be $3 per diem, or the county board may pay an annual compensation not to exceed 4 per cent of the disbursements for the schools under his supervision ; or the county board of any county v/hose total school fund exceeds $15,000 may employ a superintendent for all of his time at such salary as may be fixed by said board. School committeemen. — The county board of each county shall biennially appoint in each of the townships of the county three intelligent men of good business qualification, who are known to be in favor of public education, who shall serve for two years from the date of their appointment as school commit¬ teemen of their respective townships. Anj township committee may appoint one man in each school district in the township to look after the schoolhouse and property and advise with the committee. The county board in each county may, if they deem best, instead of electing township committeemen elect for each school of the several townships three school committeemen of intelligence and good business qualification, who shall serve for two years, or till their successors are elected and qualified. All the power and duties conferred on township com¬ mitteemen shall vest in the district committee when so appointed. All school committees, whether township or district, shall meet after their qualification, elect from their number a chairman and secretary, and shall keep a record of their proceedings in a book to be kept for that purpose. The school committee shall be intrusted with the care and custody of all schoolhouses and all other public school property in the township or district, with full power to control the same as they may deem best for the interest of the public schools and the cause of education. The school committee of each township shall fur¬ nish annually to the county superintendent a census report of the school chil¬ dren 6 to 21 years of age in their townships or districts by name, age, sex, and race. The school committee shall be allowed a sum not exceeding 2 cents per name for all names reported betwen the ages of 6 and 21. They shall also report by race and sex the number of all persons between the ages of 12 and 21 who can not read and write, and the number of public schoolhouses and the value of all public school property for each race separately, and furnish to the teacher at the opening of the school a complete copy of the census furnished to the county superintendent, which shall be recorded by the teacher in a register con¬ taining the name and age of each pupil of school age in that district. Commit¬ tees have authority to employ and dismiss teachers. No teacher can be em¬ ployed except at an advertised meeting held for that purpose. Committees fix salaries of teachers, but can not pay more than the maximum salaries fixed by the county board for each school. The secretary of the committee shall furnish the county superintendent a copy of the contract with the teacher, and no voucher for the salary of a teacher of any school shall be signed by any county superintendent unless a copy of such teacher’s contract has been filed with him. Committees shall not employ a teacher who does not hold a certificate in date from the county superintendent, nor for a longer term than the amount of money that accrues to the credit of the district for that fiscal year. 2. Teachees. Appointment, qualifieations, and duties — Institutes. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No person shall be employed by a district or township committee to teach who does not produce a certificate from the county superintendent. No certificate can be issued to a person under 18 years of age. Teachers of second grade shall receive not more than $25 per month. Teachers of the first grade may receive such compensation as shall be agreed upon, provided the amount does not exceed, the maximum salary allowed by the county board. Teachers of third grade shall receive not more than $20 per month, and no holder of a third-grade certificate shall be employed except as an assistant teacher. Twenty school days of not less than six hours nor more than seven hours each day shall be a month. The school term shall be continu¬ ous. County superintendents shall examine all applicants of good moral char¬ acter for teachers’ certificates on the second Thursday of July and October of every year, and for the examination of teachers at any other time he shall re- ED 1904 M - 28 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. quire ff fee of $1, which is turned over by the county superintendent to the treas¬ urer of the school fund. A general average of 90 per cent and over shall entitle an applicant to a first-grade certificate, which is valid for two years ; a general average of 80 per cent or more shall entitle the applicant to a second-grade cer¬ tificate, which is valid for one year, and a general average of 70 per cent shall entitle an applicant to a third-grade certificate. The certificates shall be valid only in the county in which they are issued. (Diplomas from colleges are not recognized, and all teachers that teach in the public schools must have certifi¬ cates from the county superintendent.) Teachers must keep a record of the attendance of pupils, and at the end of the term report to the county superintendent the length of term of school, the race for which it is taught, the number, sex, and average daily attendance of pupils, and the number of the district, the number of children on census blank not attend¬ ing school, and the number of children under 17 years of age not attending any school. Teachers shall file with their registers at the end of the school term an accurate record of the promotion, advancement, and classification of every child attending the school just closed. i/tes.— The county board may annually appropriate not more than $200 for the purpose of conducting one or more teachers’ institutes, or two or more counties may hold a joint institute. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — White and colored pupils are to be taught separately. Also separate schools are provided for Croatan Indians. Every school to which aid is given from the public fund shall be a public school, to which all children living in the district between the ages of G and 21 years shall be admitted free of charge for tuition, and shall be taught four months at least. In any district where there may be a private school regularly conducted for at least six months in the year, unless such private school is a sectarian or denominational school, the school committee may contract with the teacher of such private school to give instruction to all pupils living in the district between 6 and 21 years of age without charge, and pay said teacher out of the school fund apportioned to the district. Every teacher of the public school branches in said private school shall obtain a first-grade certificate before beginning his or her work, and shall make such reports as are required of all other public school teachers. The county superintendents and committees have the same authority over these schools as over any other public school. Character of instruction. — The branches taught in the public schools shall be orthography, defining, reading, writing, drawing, arithmetic, geography, gram¬ mar, language lessons, history of North Carolina, history of the United States, physiology, hygiene, nature and effect of alcoholic drinks, elements of civil government, elements of agriculture, and such other branches as the State board may direct. Text-hooks. — The State board of education, acting as a State text-book com¬ mission, adopts books to be used in the public schools, and they shall not be changed for five years. A subcommission of from five to ten teachers or super¬ intendents, appointed by the governor, reports to commission as to merits and demerits of all books submitted for adoption. Books are distributed through agencies or dealers or else delivered carriage prepaid at contract price. Buildings. — The county board has complete control of all schoolhouses and other school property and may sell schoolhouses after due advertisement. To interrupt or disturb any school is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine of not more than $50 or imprisonment not more than thirty days. Any one setting fire to a schoolhouse shall be sent to the penitentiary or the county jail and may be fined at the discretion of the court. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds. — The county board shall, on the first Monday in January and July of each year, apportion the school fund of the county to the various townships in said county per capita. (See also Organization — County board.) The proceeds of all lands granted by the United States not otherwise appro- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NORTH DAKOTA. 435 priatecl, all sums or securities now belonging to any State fund for education, the net proceeds from the sale of swamp lands belonging to the State, and all grants, gifts, and devises shall be paid into the State treasury, and, together with so much of the ordinary revenue of the State as may be set apart for the purpose, shall be faithfully appropriated for establishing and maintaining a system of free public schools. All moneys, securities, and other property belonging to a county school fund, the net proceeds from sales of estrays, the clear profits of all penalties and forfeitures, all fines collected in the several counties for any breach of the penal or military laws, all auctioneers’ licenses and half of all the net proceeds of an5^ tax on licenses to retailers of liquors, wines, cordials, etc., shall belong to and remain in the several counties and shall be faithfully appropriated for establishing and maintaining free public schools in the several counties. Taxation. — In addition to the State and county capitation taxes (both together never to exceed $2 on the poll) there shall be levied and collected every year for the maintenance of the public schools, 18 cents on every ^100 of property and credits in the State. The total poll tax for all purposes must equal the total property tax on $300 valuation of property and 75 per cent of all poll tax goes to the public school fund. If the tax (capitation) levied by the State is insuf¬ ficient to maintain one or more schools in each school district for a period of four months, then the board of county commissioners shall levy a special tax to supply the deficiency (except when the limit of 66f cents on the valuation and of $2 on polls has been reached for State, county, and district purposes). NORTH DAKOTA. 1. Organization of the System. State superintendent — Board of university and school lands — County superin¬ tendent — District hoard — City hoard of education. State superintendent. — There shall be chosen by the qualified electors of the State, at the times and places of choosing members of the legislative assembly, a superintendent of public instruction, who shall have attained the age of 25 years, and shall have the qualifications of a State elector, and be the holder of a State certificate (any State) of the highest grade, or be a graduate of some reputable university, college, or normal school. He shall hold his office at the seat of government for the term of two years from the first Monday in .January following his election and until his successor is elected and qualified. Before entering upon his duties he shall give a bond in the penal sum of $5,000, with not fewer than two sureties. He shall preserve all the matter accumulated by virtue of his office and turn it over to his successor ; shall have the general supervision of the schools, and shall be a member of the board of university and school lands and of the normal-school boards of the State. He shall furnish the necessary blanks and registers and lists of publications approved by him as suitable for district libraries, prepare questions to be used in examinations for teachers’ certificates, prescribe rules for conducting such examinations, mark or cause to be marked all answer papers, and issue certificates ; prescribe a course of study for the State normal schools and the course of study, train¬ ing, and practice of the professional department of schools designated and sup¬ ported wholly or in part by the State ; prescribe rules for the holding of teach¬ ers’ institutes and assist thereat ; print the school laws at least once in two years ; meet the county superintendents of each .ludicial district or of two or more districts combined ; make a biennial report to the governor, showing : (1) The number of school districts, schools, teachers employed, and pupils taught therein, and the attendance of pupils and studies pursued by them; (2) the financial condition of the schools, their receipts and expenditures, value of schoolhoiises and property, cost of tuition and wages of teachers; (3) the con¬ dition, educational and financial, of the normal and higher institutions connected with the school system of the State, and, as far as it can be ascertained, of the private schools, academies, and colleges of the State; (4) such general matters, information, and recommendations relating to the educational interests of the State as he may deem important. Two thousand five hundred copies of his report shall be printed and distrib- 436 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. uted. In addition to his salary he shall receive not more than $1,000 in any year for traveling expenses. Board of university and school lands. — (See Finances — Funds.) County superintendent. — There shall be elected in each county a county super¬ intendent of schools, to serve for two years, who shall give bond with surety to the amount of $500. No one is eligible to the office unless he or she holds a certificate of the highest county grade or its equivalent. The county superintendent shall have the general superintendence of the pub¬ lic schools in his county, except those in cities, which are organized under special law. He shall visit every public school under his supervision within the county at least once each official year, and oftener if necessary to increase its useful¬ ness ; carefully observe the character and methods of instruction and the condi¬ tion of the school, advise the teacher, and note in writing his proficiency ; carry into effect all instructions of the State superintendent given within his author¬ ity ; distribute to the proper officers and to teachers all blanks furnished him by the State superintendent and needed by such officers and teachers. He may arrange for meeting with school officers at designated times and places, due notice of which has been given, for the purpose of inspecting the district records and instructing in the manner of keeping the same and of preparing the reports of district officers. He shall visit the officers of the several school districts as often as may be necessary to secure the correct keeping of the records ; prepare for and furnish to each assessor a correct sectional map showing the boundaries of school districts ; decide cases of controversy, with appeal to State superin¬ tendent, and make an annual report upon such matters as the State superintend¬ ent may require. He may appoint a deputy, and is entitled to an office and postage. The salary of the county superintendent shall be as follows ; In each county having 1 school and not over 5, $150 ; 6 schools and not over 10, $300 ; 11 schools and not over 15, $400 ; 16 schools and not over 20, $500 ; 21 schools and not over 25, $600 ; 26 schools and not over 30, $700 ; 31 schools and not over 35, $800 ; 36 schools and not over 40, $900 ; 41 schools and not over 50, $1,000, and for each additional school $10 additional : Provided, That in computing the salary of the county superintendent no school or separate department in graded schools shall be included unless the same shall have been taught at least four months during the preceding year ; but the compensation shall not exceed $1,500 in any county where the number of schools does not exceed ]30, and in counties where the number of schools does exceed 130 the county superintendent shall be paid $5 for each additional school, but in no -case more than $2,000 per annum. In addi¬ tion thereto he shall receive 10 cents a mile for the distance actually and neces¬ sarily traveled by him in the discharge of his duties ; he shall, at the end of every three months, make and furnish to the county commissioners an itemized statement of the distance so traveled, which shall be audited and ordered paid by the board of county commissioners out of the county general fund monthly, upon the warrant of the county. In every county which shall be organized for school purposes after the passage of this act the county superintendent shall be paid a salary at the rate of $100 a year until the first Monday in January next following his election, after which his salary shall be fixed as provided for in this paragraph. District hoard. — Each civil township in every county not organized for school purposes under the district system is constituted a distinct school cor¬ poration, and when hereafter any civil township shall be organized it shall be a distinct school corporation, except as otherwise provided. There shall be elected at large in each school district three school directors and a school treas¬ urer, the directors to serve for three years, one retiring annually, and the treasurer for two years. The three directors shall constitute the district school board, and shall have general charge and management of the schools and the care, custodj^ and control of school property. They shall establish or discon¬ tinue schools ; employ teachers ; may introduce branches in the schools other than those prescribed by law, subject to the approval of the county superintend¬ ent ; may levy tax, not exceeding 30 mills on the dollar in any year, and may permit the use of the schoolhouse for purposes other than instruction when not occupied for school purposes : shall determine the length of time schools shall be kept beyond the six months required by law, and may establish high schools, if the voters sanction it. The board of school trustees shall cause the clerk to take the school census annually, including all unmarried persons 6 to 20 years of age. All reports and records of school officers and proceedings of school meetings shall be kept in the English language. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - HORTH DAKOTA. 437 City 'board of education. — Any city organized for school purposes under special laws and provided with a board of education may become incorporated as an independent school district by vote of the electors. The board of educa¬ tion of an independent district shall consist of one member from each ward in the city, and when the city is divided into an even number of wards the city shall elect one member of said board at large; members shall hold their office for two years. The electors in each ward in said city shall elect one member of said board, and the electors of the said city shall elect one member of said board at large. The wards having even numbers shall hold their election in each year ending with an even number, and the wards having odd numbers shall hold their election in the years ending with odd numbers. The member at large shall be elected biennially in the even-numbered years. The board shall levy from time to time by tax such sums as may be deter¬ mined by it to be necessary and proper for any of the following purposes : (1) To purchase, exchange, lease, or improve sites for schoolhouses ; (2) to build, purchase, lease, enlarge, alter, improve, and repair schoolhouses and their outhouses and appurtenances; (3) to purchase, exchange, improve, and repair school apparatus, books, furniture, and appendages; (4) to procure fuel and defray the contingent expenses of the board, including the expenses of the secretary ; (5) to pay teachers’ wages after the application of public moneys which may be by law appropriated and provided for that purpose. In cities not organized as independent districts there shall be a board of seven members, whc chall be elected by the electors at large. 2. Teachers. Appointment, qualifications, znd duties — Preliminary training — Institutes. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No person shall be employed as a teacher or permitted to teach in any public school who is not, when so employed, 18 years of age and the holder of a valid teacher’s certificate. Every contract made by the district board with a person who is qualified to teach must be in writing, and the salaries of teachers shall be graded according to the grades of their certificates. The State superintendent shall prepare or cause to be prepared all questions for the examination of applicants for teachers’ certificates, county or State, and shall prescribe rules for conducting all examinations. He shall issue a State certificate to be valid for life, and to be known as a professional certificate. Such certificates shall be issued to those having a good moral character, who have passed a thorough examination in all the branches included in the courses of study prescribed for the common and high schools of the State, and shall entitle the holder to teach in any common or high school. Any person who is a graduate of the four years’ normal course in the University of North Dakota and has had three years’ successful experience as a teacher, may be granted such professional certificate without further examination : Provided, That if the holder of a professional certificate shall at any time cease to teach or to be engaged in other active educational work for the space of three years he shall be liable to a reexamination and to the cancellation of his certificate, subject to the rules to be prescribed by the State superintendent. The State superintendent shall issue a “ normal certificate,” to be valid in any school in the State for a term of five years unless sooner revoked. Such cer¬ tificate shall be issued only to those persons of good moral character who have completed the prescribed course of study in one of the normal schools of the State, or elsewhere in a normal school having an established reputation for thoroughness ; but the State superintendent may examine any such applicant at his discretion. Such certificate shall not be granted unless the applicant shall have taught school successfully not less than two years : Provided, That any person who is a graduate of the four years’ normal course in the University of North Dakota, and who has had one year’s successful experience as a teacher, may be granted such normal certificate without further examination: Provided further. That no State certificate shall hereafter be issued by any normal school in the State. The State superintendent shall require a fee of from each applicant for a professional or normal certificate, which fee shall be used by him to aid in the establishment and maintenance of teachers’ reading circles in the State. He shall revoke at any time any certificate issued in the State for any cause which would have been sufficient ground for refusing to issue the same had the cause existed or been known at the time it was issued. 488 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The county superintendent shall hold public examination of all persons over 18 years of age offering themselves as candidates for teachers’ common schools, at the most suitable places in the county, on the second Friday in January, March, May, July, September, and November of each year, and, when necessary, such examination may be continued on the following day, at which times he shall examine them by a series of written or printed questions, according to the rules prescribed by the State superintendent. If from the percentage of correct answers required by the rules and other evidence disclosed by the examination, including particularly the superintendent’s knowledge and information of the candidate’s successful experience, if any, the applicant is found to be a person of good moral character, to possess a knowledge and understanding, together with aptness to teach and govern, which will enable such applicant to teach in the common schools of the State the various branches required by law, said superintendent shall grant to such applicant a certificate of qualification. Such certificates shall be of three regular grades — the first grade, for a term of three years, renewable ; second grade, for a term of two years, renewable under conditions prescribed by State superintendent ; third grade, for one year, may not be issued more than twice to same person, according to the ratio of correct answers of each applicant and other evidence of qualification appearing from the examination. No certificate shall be granted unless the applicant shall be found proficient in and qualified to teach the following branches of a com¬ mon English education: Reading, writing, orthography, language lessons and English grammar, geography, United States history, arithmetic, and physiology and hygiene, and, for a first or second grade, can pass a satisfactory examina¬ tion in theory and practice of teaching. In addition to the above, applicants for first-grade certificates, who must be 20 years of age and have taught twelve months, shall pass a satisfactory examination in civil government, physical geography, elements of natural philosophy, elements of psychology, elementary geometry, and algebra. The percentage required to pass any branch shall be prescribed by the State superintendent. In addition to these regular grades of certificates, the county superintendent may grant a permission to teach until the next regular examination to any person applying at any other time than at a regular examination who can show satisfactory reasons for failing to attend such examination, subject to rules and regulations to be prescribed by the State superintendent. Such permit shall not be granted more than once to any person. The written answers of all candidates for county certificates, after being duly examined by the county superintendent, shall be kept by him for the space of six months after such examinations, and any candidate think¬ ing an injustice has been done him or her, by paying a fee of $2 into the insti¬ tute fund of the county and notifying both county and State superintendents of the same, shall have his or her papers reexamined by the State superin¬ tendent ; the county superintendent shall, on receipt of such notice from said complaining candidate, notify the State superintendent, who shall reexamine such answers, and, if such answers warrant it, shall issue to such complaining candidate a county certificate of the proper grade. Certificates shall be valid in the county where issued, but first or second grade may be indorsed by the county superintendent of another county. Every applicant for a county certificate shall pay $2 to the county superin¬ tendent, $1 to be used in support of the teachers’ institute and $1 remitted to the State superintendent to be used in employing clerical assistance in marking papers. No teacher shall be entitled to or receive any compensation without a certifi¬ cate in force to at least six weeks of the close of the term. Every teacher shall keep a school register, and at the close of each term make a school report in duplicate, one to be filed with the district clerk and one sent to the county super¬ intendent, and no teacher shall be paid the last month’s wages in any term until such term report shall be filed with and approved by the district clerk. The teacher shall give notice of the opening and probable date of closing school, and may suspend for not more than five days any pupil for cause, notifying the parent and authorities. Preliminary training— normal schools are created for the instruction of persons in the science and art of teaching public schools, one of which is endowed with 30,000 acres of land and the other with 50,000. The schools are each under a board of five trustees, who, together with the governor and State superintendent, form the board of directors of the State normal scbmols. The members of the board shall be appointed by the governor, with the consent DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NOETH DAKOTA. 439 of the senate, for four years. The board of directors/shall adopt a course of study which shall embrace the academic and professional studies usually taught in normal schools. The board of trustees shall have care of the property of its own school, and shall name the instructors to the board of directors, who shall employ them and fix their salaries, but not their duties. Institutes. — ^The State superintendent shall prescribe rules for the holding of teachers’ institutes, and after counseling and advising with county superin¬ tendents shall appoint conductors therefor. He shall also prescribe the course of instruction for institutes and reading circles. Acting under the instructions of the State superintendent, he shall convene the teachers in his county at least one Saturday in each month during which the public schools may be in progress, or, if the distance is too great, he may convene the teachers of two or more districts in each of the several portions of his county in county or district insti¬ tutes or teachers’ circles for normal instruction and the study of methods of teaching, organizing, and governing schools. Each teacher shall attend the full session of such institute or circle or forfeit one day’s wages for each day’s absence, unless distance or sickness prevents. 3. Schools. Attendance — Employment of children — Character of instruction — High schools — Text-hooks — Buildings — Consolidation of rural schools. Attendance. — The district board shall determine and fix the length of time the schools in the district shall be taught in each year and when each term of school shall begin and end. It shall so arrange such terms as to accommodate and furnish school privileges equally and equitably to' pupils of all ages. Every common school shall be kept in session for not less than six months in each school year : Provided, That any school may be discontinued when the average attendance of pupils therein for ten consecutive days shall be less than 4, and all contracts between school boards and teachers shall contain a provision that no compensation shall be received by such teacher from the date of such dis¬ continuance or when with the consent of a majority of the patrons of such school proper and convenient school facilities can be provided for the pupils therein in some other school. If the majority of the patrons of any school averaging for its last term 12 or more pupils in daily attendance shall petition the board to continue such school for an additional time, not exceeding nine months in any school year, the board shall continue such school for that length of time if there be funds in the treasury sufRcient for that purpose. Every parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child between 8 and 14 years of age shall be required to send such child to a public school in the district, city, town, or village in which he resides during the time school is in session ; and every parent, guardian, or other person having control of any deaf child or youth between 7 and 20 years of age shall be required to send such child or youth to the School for the Deaf at the city of Devils Lake for at least eight months in each school year : Provided, That such parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child shall be excused from such duty by the school board of the district or the board of education of the city, town, or village whenever it shall be shown to their satisfaction, subject to appeal as provided by law, (1) that such child is taught for the same length of time in a private school approved by such board (but no school shall be approved by such board unless the branches usually taught in the public schools are taught in such school) ; (2) that such child has already acquired the branches of learning taught in the public schools ; (3) that such child is in such a physical or mental condition (as declared by a competent physician, if required by the board) as to render such attendance inexpedient or impracticable. If no school be taught the requisite length of time within 2+ miles of the residence of such child by the near¬ est road, such attendance shall not be enforced, but this provision shall not apply to deaf children in the State. The common schools shall be at all times equally free, open, and accessible to all children over 6 and under 20 years of age, resi¬ dents of the school districts where they are held, or entitled to attend school under any special provisions of law, subject to such regulations as the several school boards and boards of education may prescribe equitably and justly and not in conflict with the provisions of law. Any such parent, guardian, or other person failing to comply with the require¬ ments of the foregoing shall, upon conviction, be deemed guilty of a misde¬ meanor, and shall be fined not less than $5 nor more than ,$20 for the first 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. offense, nor less than $10 nor more than $50 for the second and every subse¬ quent offense, with costs in each case. It shal} be the duty of the president of the board of education of any city, town, or Village, or the president of the school board of any district, to inquire into all cases of neglect of duty pre¬ scribed in these provisions, and ascertain from the person neglecting to per¬ form such duty the reason, if any, and to secure the prosecution of any offense occurring against the laws regarding compulsory attendance; and any such president neglecting to secure such prosecution for such offense within fifteen days after a written notice has been served by any taxpayer in a city, town, village or district (unless such person so complained of shall be excused by the board of education) shall be liable to a fine of from $5 to $20. Employment of children. — No child between 8 and 14 years of age shall be employed in any mine, factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment, or, except by his parents or guardian, in any other manner, during the hours when the public schools in the city, town, village, or district are in session, unless the person, firm or corporation employing him shall first procure a certificate from the superintendent of the schools of the city, town, or village, if one be employed, otherwise from the clerk of the school board or board of education, stating that such child has attended school for the period of twelve weeks during the year, as required by law, or has been excused from attendance as provided in a foregoing paragraph ; and it shall be the duty of such superintendent or clerk to furnish such certificate upon application of the parent, guardian, or other person having control of such child entitled to the same. Every owner, superintendent, or overseer of any mine, factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment, and any other person who shall employ any child between 8 and 14 years of age contrary to the provisions of this article shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and for every such offense shall, upon con¬ viction, be fined not less than $20 nor more than $50 and costs. Every per¬ son authorized to sign a certificate who certifies to any materially false state¬ ment therein shall be fined not less than $20 nor more than $50 and costs. Character of instruction. — If any money belonging to any district shall be expended in supporting a school in which the English language shall not be taught [used] exclusively, the county superintendent or any taxpayer of the school corporation may recover for the corporation ail such money from the officer or officers so expending it or ordering or voting for its expenditure. Every teacher in the common schools shall teach pupils, as they become sufficiently advanced to pursue the same, the following branches : Orthography, reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, language lessons, English grammar, geog¬ raphy, United States history, physiology and hygiene, giving special instruc¬ tion concerning the nature of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics and their effect upon the human systeni. Physiology and hygiene and the nature of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics and their effects upon the human system shall be taught as thoroughly as any branch is taught, by the use of a text-book to all pupils able to use a text-book who have not thoroughly studied that branch, and orally to all other pupils, and when such oral instruc¬ tion is given as herein required, a sufficient time, not less than fifteen minutes, shall be given to such oral instruction for at least four days in each school week. Every teacher in the schools in special districts and in cities organized for school purposes under special law shall conform to and be governed by this provision. The district board shall have power to determine what branches, if any, in addition to those required by law, shall be taught in any school, sub¬ ject to the approval of the county superintendent. It shall be the duty of the teacher to assign to each pupil such studies as he is qualified to pursue, and to place him in the proper class in any studies ; in a graded school under the charge of a principal or locr.l superintendent, such pT^in- cipal or superintendent shall perform this duty. In case any parent or guardian is dissatisfied with such assignment or classification, the matter shall be decided by the county superintendent. High schools. — In any district containing four or more common schools and having an enumeration of 60 or more persons of school age residing therein, the board may call, and if petitioned so to do by ten or more voters in the district shall call, a meeting of the voters of the district, and if a majority of the voters at such meeting vote in favor of establishing a high school the meeting shall further proceed to select a site therefor and to provide for the erection or pur¬ chase of a building, or for the necessary addition to some school building, there¬ for. Thereupon the board shall erect or purchase a building or make such addi¬ tion for such high school, as voted at such meeting, and shall establish therein DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - NORTH DAKOTA. 441 a district high school containing one or more departments, and employ a teacher or teachers therefor. Such school shall be kept in session for such time each year, not less than three months, as the board may determine. The board shall, subject to the approval of the county superintendent, grade such high school and prescribe the studies to be pursued therein, and shall have the same management and control thereof as of the common schools in the district. Two or more adjacent school districts may join in the establishment and maintenance of such high school, when empowered so to do by a majority of the voters in each district at a meeting. Buildings. — The school board of any school district may take 2 acres or less for the site for a schoolhouse. If a petition signed by the persons charged with the support and having the care and custody of 9 or more children of school age, all of whom reside not less than miles from the nearest school, be presented to the board asking for the organization of a school for such children, the board shall organize such school and employ a teacher therefor if a suitable room can be leased or rented ; and if persons having the care and custody of 12 or more chil¬ dren unite in such petition, and no suitable room can be leased or rented, the board shall call a meeting of the voters for the purpose of providing a suitable schoolhouse. (See also Organization — District board.) Cojisolidation of rural schools. — The school board may call, and if petitioned by one-third of the voters in the district shall call, an election to determine the question of conveying the pupils at the public expense to and from the schools already established, or of consolidating twm or more common schools. If a ma¬ jority are in favor of conveying the pupils to and from school at public expense, or are in favor of consolidating two or more common schools, the board shall make all necessary arrangements to carry out the same. 4. ITinances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxation, Funds {permanent and special). — All proceeds of the public lauds that have heretofore been or may hereafter be granted by the United States for the support of the common schools in this State ; all such per cent as may be granted by the United States on the sale of public lands ; the proceeds of property that shall fall to the State by escheat ; the proceeds of all gifts and donations to the State for common schools, or not otherwise appropriated by the terms of the gift, and all other property otherwise acquired for common schools, shall be and remain a perpetual fund for the maintenance of the common schools of the State. It shall be deemed a trust fund, the principal of which shall forever remain invio¬ late, and may be increased, but never diminished. The State shall make good all losses thereof. The interest and income of this fund, together with the net proceeds of all fines for violation of State laws, and all other sums which may be added thereto by law, shall be faithfully used and applied each year for the benefit of the com¬ mon schools of the State, and shall be for this purpose apportioned among and between all the several common school corporations of the State in the proportion to the number of children in each of school age, as may be fixed by law, and no part of the fund shall ever be diverted even temporarily from this purpose or used for any other purpose than the maintenance of common schools for the equal benefit of all the people of the State. If any portion of the interest or income aforesaid be not expended during any year, said portion shall be added to and become a part of the school fund. The superintendent of public instruction, governor, attorney-general, secretary of state, and State auditor shall constitute the “ bdard of university and school lands,” which, subject to the provisions of law, shall have control of the appraise¬ ment, sale, rental, and disposal of all school and university lands, and shall direct the investment of the funds arising therefrom in the hands of the State treasurer. Taxation. — Every district school board shall levy upon all the property sub¬ ject to taxation in the district a tax for school purposes, all kinds authorized by law not to exceed in the aggregate a rate of 30 mills on the dollar in any one year. Such tax shall be levied by resolution of the board. The clerk shall immediately thereafter notify the county auditor, in writing, of the amount of tax so levied. The county auditor of each county shall, at the time of making the annual as¬ sessment and levy of taxes, levy a tax of $1 on each elector in the county for the 442 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. support of common schools, and a further tax of 2 mills on the dollar upon all the taxable property in the county, to be collected at the same time and in the same manner as other taxes are collected, which shall be apportioned by the county superintendent among the schools of the county, as provided by law, and which shall constitute the county tuition fund. OHIO. 1. Organization of the System. State commissioner — State hoard of examiners — State text-hook commission — County hoard of examiners — School districts — Board of education — City and village examiners — City superintendent — Truant officer. State commissioner. — There shall be elected at the general election for State officers a State commissioner of common schools, who shall hold office for three years, a vacancy to be filled by the governor. He shall give bond to the amount of $5,000, with two or more sureties, and shall keep official books and papers at his office at the capital, where he shall be in attendance not less than ten months except when absent on public business. He shall visit annually each judicial district of the State, superintending and encouraging teachers’ institutes, con¬ ferring with boards of education or other school officers, counseling teachers, visiting schoo’s, and delivering lectures on topics calculated to subserve the inter¬ ests of popular education ; secure the safety and the proper application of State educational funds, and may require all persons having charge of the same to account to him ; prescribe suitable forms and regulations for making all reports and conducting all necessary proceedings under the school laws, and transmit them to the local officers with instructions ; prepare as many copies of the school laws as are necessary, and distribute them ; make an annual report to the general assembly, or when that body is not in session to the governor, and send a copy to the legislature when it convenes. In his report he shall give the condition and amount of all funds and property appropriated to education ; number of com¬ mon schools ; number, by sex, attending them, and the branches taught ; number of private and select schools in the State, and their attendance, by sex, and the branches taught ; number of teachers’ institutes, the attendance thereat, num¬ ber of instructors, and the amount paid to each ; estimated cost of the schools, and the accounts of the expenditures of every description ; plans for the man¬ agement and improvement of common schools, and such other information as he may deem of importance. He shall annually require of the president, manager, or principal of every seminary, academy, and private school a report of such facts, arranged on such form as he shall furnish. State hoard of examiners. — There shall be a State board of examiners, which shall consist of 5 competent persons, residents of the State, to be appointed by the State commissioner for five years, not more than 3 of whom shall belong to the same political party, one member to retire annually. Each member shall receive $5 per diem of actual service and 0 cents per mile each way from his res¬ idence and back. The board is authorized to issue three grades of life cer¬ tificates. State text-hook commission. — (See Schools — Text-books.) County hoard of examiners. — There shall be a county board of examiners, to consist of 3 competent persons, to be appointed for three years by the probate judge. Two members shall have had at least two years’ experience as teachers, and shall have been within five years actual teachers in properly recognized schools. They shall all be residents of the county for which they are appointed, and shall not be connected with or interested in any school for the special edu¬ cation or training of persons for teachers, or any other private school, or be employed as instructors in any institute in their own county, nor be an agent of or interested in any book-publishing or book-selling firm, company, or business ; and violation of these provisions vacates the office held by the offender. A clerk shall be appointed from the members, who shall keep a record of the proceedings, of the certificates issued, and report to the State commissioner annually. Each board shall fix upon the time and place for holding meetings for the examina¬ tion of applicants for certificates. School disU'icts. — ^The State is divided into school districts, to be styled, respectively, city districts of the first grade of the first class, of the second grade DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OHIO. 443 of first class, of the third grade of the first class ; city districts of the first class, city districts of the second class, village districts, special districts, and town¬ ship districts. Bach city having a population of 200,000 or more, including the territory annexed to it for school purposes and excluding that detached from it for school purposes, shall constitute a city district of the first grade of the first class ; each city having a population of 90,000 to 200,000 shall constitute a city district of the second grade of the first class ; each city having a popula¬ tion of 31,500 to 90,000 shall constitute a city district of the third grade of the first class ; and each city having a population of 10,000 to 31,500 shall constitute a city district of the first class ; each city of the second class having a population of less than 10,000 shall constitute a school district to be styled a city district of the second class ; each village shall constitute a school district to be styled a village district ; each organized tOAvnship, exclusive of any of its territory included in a city, village, or special district, shall constitute a school district to be styled a township district. All other legally constituted districts shall be styled special districts. Boards of education. — In city districts of the first grade of the first class (Cincinnati) the board of education shall consist of one member from each ward, who shall be an elector and shall hold for two years. But the members of such board shall not as individuals or as local committees exercise supervisory authority over the schools in the several wards or districts, or have the selection or nomination of teachers. The board shall hold regular meetings once every two weeks. Boards of education in city districts of the second grade of the first class (Cleveland) shall consist of a school council of 7 and a school director, and shall organize by electing one of its members president and a nonmember clerk, whose salary shall not exceed $2,(X)0 per annum. The members shall be elected biennially, one group retiring annually. The council has legislative power and authority in regard to school affairs within its district, but every resolution involving an expenditure of money or the approval of a contract for the pay¬ ment of money or the purchase, sale, lease, or transfer of property, or levying any tax, or for the change or adoption of any text-book, shall before it takes effect be presented, duly certified by the clerk to the school director, who shall sign it or return it to the council at its next meeting, and on his failure to return it as above directed the measure shall become a law ; but he may approve or disapprove any part of a resolut’on appropriating money if the item has no bearing or connection with any other part of such resolution, and the council may override his objections by a two-thirds vote. The council shall have power to provide for the appointment of all necessary teachers and employees, to prescribe their duties, and fix their compensation. The board of education in city districts ojt the third grade of the first class (Toledo) consists of 5 members elected at large on a nonpartisan ticket, the candidates being named by petition, and all the names placed on one ticket arranged alphabetically. The term of the members is five years, one being elected each year. The board is required to api^oint a business manager as well as a superintendent. The business manager is ex ofiieio member of the board, with the privilege of speaking but not voting. He is the chief execu¬ tive officer of the board in all business matters. In city districts of the second class and in village districts the board of education shall consist of 6 members, except in districts organized under a law providing for only 3 members, unless such districts elect to have 6 mem¬ bers ; but the electors of any city district of the second class may vote that the board shall consist of as many members as the city has wards, in which case a member shall biennially be elected in each ward. In other city dis¬ tricts of the second class the members shall be elected to serve for three years, 2 members to retire annually if composed of 6, 1 member to retire annually if composed of 3 members. In village districts members of the board of education shall be elected for a term of three years, 1 to retire annually, but the district may vote to increase the membership to 6, when 2 shall retire annually. The board of education of each township district divided into subdistricts shall consist of the township clerk and one director elected for a term of three years from each subdistrict, the township clerk being ex officio clerk of the board, but having no vote except in case of a tie. The directors thus elected shall be divided into three classes, one class to retire annually. The board shall hold regular sessions on the third Monday of April, June, August, October, December, and February, and may hold special meetings. The board 444 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. may at any regular session increase or diminish the number or change the boundaries of subdistricts, and the school of a subdistrict can be suspended when the enumeration of school youth falls below 15 or when transportation is furnished the pupils of the same to other schools. When a majority of the electors of a township district vote in favor of centralizing the schools of such district all the subdistricts are abolished and a township board consisting of 5 members is elected at large and the pupils are conveyed to one or not to exceed two central schools. In each subdistrict in a township there are two subdirectors elected for a term of three years, either a director or subdirector being elected annually for each subdistrict, said director and subdirectors composing a board of sub¬ directors with the power of recommending teachers to the township board for confirmation, but having no other control of the schools. The board of education of each special district shall consist of 3 resident members having the qualifications of electors, but the electors may vote that the membership be increased to G, one-third of the board to retire annually. When the better accommodation of scholars makes it desirable to form a sub¬ district composed of parts of two or more townships, the boards of education of the townships interested may, by mutual agreement at a joint meeting, or by three special commissioners appointed by the probate court, establish the same, the school being under the control of the board of education of the township in which the school is situated. The boards of education of all districts are bodies politic and corporate, but when a board of education decides to dispose of any property held by it in its corporate capacity, exceeding $300 in value, it shall sell the same at auction after thirty days’ or more notice by advertisement in a newspaper and placard. All property vested in any board of education shall be exempt from tax, sale on execution, or other similar writ. Each board shall organize by choosing one of its members president, and, excepting tovrnship boards, by choosing also a clerk, who may or may not be a member. Vacancies are to be filled by the board. A majority of the board of education shall constitute a quorum. The board shall make such rules as it may deem expedient for its own government and that of its appointees and the pupils, and shall make and enforce rules for the vaccina¬ tion of those attending school. The members of boards of education shall not be interested, either directly or indirectly, in any contract entered into by the boards of which they are members, or receive compensation for services ren¬ dered, except as clerk or treasurer. The board of education of each district shall make a report to the county audi¬ tor containing a statement of the receipts and expenditures of the board, the number of schools sustained, the length of time such schools were sustained, the enrollment of pupils, the average monthly enrollment, the average daily attend¬ ance, the number of teachers employed and their salaries, the number of school- houses and schoolrooms, and such other items as the commissioners of common schools may require, said reports being consolidated by county auditors and forwarded to the State commissioner of common schools. City and village examiners. — There shall be a board of examiners of 3 or G persons for each city district of the first class, to be appointed by the board of education of the district. Two of the persons appointed shall have at least two years’ practical experience in teaching and shall otherwise be competent for the position and residents of the district for which they were appointed. Other city districts and village districts having a school enumeration of not less than 700 are also entitled to separate boards of examiners consisting of 3 members. City snperinterulents.— Finch, board of education shall have the management and control of the public schools of the district with full power to appoint a superintendent and assistant superintendent of the schools, and a superintend¬ ent of buildings, whose salaries may be increased, but shall not be diminished during the term for which the appointment is made. Truant offlcer. — (See Schools — Attendance.) 2. Teachees. Appointments, qualifications, and duties — Institutes. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No person shall be employed as a teacher in a common school who has not obtained from a board of examiners having competent jurisdiction a certificate of good moral character, stating that the holder is qualified to teach orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OHIO. 445 raphy, English grammar, history of the United States, civil government, physi¬ ology and hygiene, and possesses an adequate knowedge of the theory and practice of teaching, and, if required to teach other branches, that the requisite quali¬ fications are possessed; but persons who desire or are expected to teach only special studies, such as music, drawing, painting, penmanship, gymnastics, Ger¬ man, or French, or any one of them, or the primary department in any graded school, may be examined in regard to such study or studies, or their special qualifications to teach in a primary department only. The State board of examiners may issue three grades of life certificates to such as are found to possess the requisite scholarship and who exhibit satis¬ factory evidence of good moral character and professional experience and ability. The certificates shall be for different grades of schools, according to branches taught, and shall be valid in schools specified therein. Each applicant for a certificate shall pay to the board of examiners a fee of $5. The boards of county examiners may grant certificates for one, two, and three years, valid in the county wherein they are issued, except in city and village districts that have boards of examiners. The examiners may grant certificates for five years to such applicants as, in addition to the necessary qualifications, have been for three years next preceding their application engaged in teaching, twelve months of which experience shall have been in one place, and such certificate shall be renewable upon the same conditions, but without examination, at the discretion of the examining board. They may also grant certificates for eight years to applicants who hold or have held a five-year certificate and have been engaged in teaching the preceding three years, eighteen months of which experience shall have been in one place ; said applicant shall be examined in botany, algebra, natural philosophy, and English literature, and such certificate shall be renew¬ able without examination, at the discretion of tlie board. The boards of city and village examiners may grant certificates for one, two, three, and five years under conditions similar to those governing the issuing of certificates by county boards. Each board of education shall have full power to appoint teachers, janitors, and other employees and fix their salaries, which may be increased but not diminished during the term for which the appointment is made, but no person shall be appointed for a longer time than that for which a member of the board is elected nor dismissed except for cause. It shall be the duty of all principals and teachers of all schools, public, pri¬ vate, or parochial, to report to the clerk of the board of education the name, age, and residence of every pupil in attendance at their schools, together with such other facts as the clerk may require to facilitate the enforcement of the compulsory-attendance law. Principals and teachers shall report to the truant officer, the superintendent of schools, or the clerk of the board all cases of tru¬ ancy or incorrigibility. No clerk of a board of education shall draw an order on the treasurer for the payment of a teacher for services until the teacher files with him such reports as are required by the State commissioner and the board of education. All teachers of common schools within any county in which a county institute is held, except those employed in city districts of the first class, may dismiss their schools for the purpose of attending during the week it is held ; and boards of education of city districts of the first class within counties having an institute may, by resolution, permit teachers to attend, but no union or graded school shall be dismissed for such purpose unless a majority of its teachers assent. Teachers may suspend pupils until the meeting of the board. Institutes. — A teachers’ institute may be organized in any county by the association of not less than 30 practical teachers of common schools residing therein who shall declare their intention in writing to attend such institute, the purpose of which shall be the improvement of such teachers in their profes¬ sional qualifications. Each institute shall elect annually by ballot a president, secretary, and an executive committee to manage the affairs of the institute, the president and secretary being ex officio members and officers of the commit¬ tee. Said committee shall enter into a bond with sufficient surety, of double the amount of the institute fund in the county treasury, conditioned on the proper employment of the money and on reporting to the State commissioner within five days after the adjournment of the institute the number of teachers in attendance, the names of the instructors and lecturers, the amount of money received and disbursed by the committee, and such other information relating to the institute as the commissioner may require. The secretary is required to make the report, and on failure to do so forfeits to the State the sum of $50. When a teachers’ institute has not been held for two years in any county, the 446 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. State commissioner may cause an institute to be held. The board of education of each city district of the first class may provide for holding an institute yearly for the improvement of their teachers, and general meetings of the teachers of any such city district held not less than four days in any year, whether consecutive or not, for the purposes of instruction, shall be deemed to constitute a teachers’ institute, and shall be sustained out of the institute fund ; and if the board of any district does not provide for such institute in any year it shall cause the institute fund to be paid to the treasurer of the county, who shall place it to the credit of the county institute fund ; and under such circum¬ stances the teachers in the schools of such district shall be entitled to the ad¬ vantages of the county institute. An association of teachers of several adjacent counties may organize an institute for the specific purpose of providing for the professional instruction of the teachers of the graded schools in such counties, and the boards of all city, village, and special districts within such counties may contribute from the institute and contingent funds under their control to defray the expenses, and may permit teachers employed by them to attend the institute one week. All other institutes shall continue at least four days. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of insC'uction — Text-hoolcs — Buildings. Attendance. — The schools of each district shall be free to all youth between 6 and 21 years of age who are children, wards, or apprentices of actual residents of the district. All parents, guardians, and other persons who have care of children shall instruct them, or cause them to be instructed, in reading, spelling, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic. Every parent, guardian, or other person having charge of any child between the ages of 8 and 14 years shall send such child to a public, private, or parochial school for the full time the school attended is in session, which in no case shall be for less than 24 weeks, and said attendance shall begin within the first week of the school term unless the child is excused from such attendance by the superintendent of the public schools in city or other districts having such superintendent, or by the clerk of the board of education in districts having no superintendent or by the principal of the private or parochial school, upon a satisfactory show¬ ing either that the bodily or mental condition of the child does not permit of its attendance at school or that the child is being instructed at home by a person qualified to teach the required branches, but in case of refusal to excuse attend¬ ance an appeal may be made to the probate judge of the county upon giving a bond within ten days after such refusal. All children between the ages of 14 and 16 years not engaged in some regular employment shall attend school for the full term of the schools of the district in which they reside that are in session during the school year. For a violation of any of the foregoing pro¬ visions a parent or guardian is liable to a fine of not less than $5 nor more than $20, and upon failure to pay the same may be imprisoned not less than ten nor more than thirty days. No child under 14 years of age shall be employed while the public schools are in session unless he present to the person employing him a certificate of his age and that he has successfully completed the studies of reading, spelling, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic, or, if between the ages of 14 and 16 years, that he can read and write legibly the English language. Every person, company, or corporation employing any child under 16 years of age shall exact such certificate as a condition of employment, and shall permit a truant officer to examine same upon request ; and anyone employing a minor contrary to these provisions shall be fined from $25 to $50. All minors between 14 and 16 who can not read and write the English language shall attend school for the full time it is in session, or until they can secure a certificate from the superintendent or clerk that they can read and write said language. Every child between the ages of 8 and 14 years, and every child between the ages of 14 and 16 years unable to read and write the English language or not engaged in some regular employment, who is a habitual truant from school, or who while in attendance at any public, private, or parochial school is incorri¬ gible, vicious, or immoral in conduct, or who habitually wanders about the streets and puDlic places during school hours, having no business or lav/ful occupation, shaii be deemed a juvenile disorderly person and be subject to the provisions of this act ror enforced attendance. To aid in the enforcement of the law in regard to attendance, truant officers DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OHIO. 447 shall be appointed and employed as follows : In city districts the board of edu¬ cation shall appoint and employ one or jnore truant officers; in special, village, and township districts the boards of education shall appoint a constable or other person as truant officer. The compensation of the truant officer shall be fixed by the board appointing him. The truant officer shall be vested with police powers and shall have authority to enter workshops, factories, stores, and all other places where children may be employed, and do whatever may be necessary in the way of investigation or otherwise to enforce this law. He is authorized to take into custody the person of any youth who violates the provi¬ sions of the compulsory-attendance act, and shall conduct said youth to the school he has been attending or which he should rightfully attend. The truant officer shall institute proceedings against any officer, parent, guardian, person, or corporation violating the law regarding attendance at school, and shall otherwise discharge the duties prescribed in this law and perform such other services as the superintendent of schools or the board of education may deem necessary to preserve the morals and secure the good conduct of school children and to enforce the law. The truant officer shall keep a record of his transac¬ tions for the inspection and infoianation of the superintendent of schools and the board of education, and shall make daily reports to the superintendent of schools during the school term in cities and to the clerk of the board of educa¬ tion as often as required by him in special, village, and township districts, suitable blanks being furnished him. It shall be the duty of all principals and teachers of all schools — public, pri¬ vate, and parochial — to report to the clerk of the board of education of the city, special, village, or township district in which the schools are situated, the name, age, and residence of every pupil in attendance, together with such other facts as the clerk may require in order to facilitate the execution of the law regarding attendance, and the clerk shall furnish blanks for such purpose, and such report shall be made during the last week of each month from September to June, inclusive, of each year. It shall be the further duty of such principals and teachers to report to the truant officer, the superintendent of public schools, or the clerk of the board of education all cases of truancy or incorrigibility in their respective schools as soon as practicable after the offense has been com¬ mitted. On the request of the superintendent of schools or the board of education, or when it otherwise comes to his notice, the truant officer shall examine into any case of truancy within his district and warn the truant and its parents, guard¬ ian, or other person in charge, in writing, of the final consequences of truancy if persisted in. When any child between the ages of 8 and 14 years, or 14 and IC years, who can not read and write the English language or is not engaged in some regular employment, is not attending school, in violation of the law, the truant officer shall notify the parent, guardian, or other person in charge of such child of that fact, and require such parent, guardian, or other person in charge to cause the child to attend some recognizecl school within two days from the date of the notice; and it shall be the duty of the parent, guardian, or other person in charge of the child so to cause its attendance at some recognized school. Upon failure to do so the truant officer shall make complaint against the parent, guard¬ ian, or other person in charge of the child in any court of competent jurisdic¬ tion in the city, special, village, or township district in which the offense occurs. For such failure and upon conviction the parent, guardian, or other person in charge shall be fined not less than $5 nor more than $20, or the court may, in its discretion, require the person so convicted to give a bond in the penal sum of $100, with sureties, to the approval of the court, conditioned that he or she will cause the child under his or her charge to attend some recognized school within two days thereafter, and to remain at such school during the term prescribed by law ; and upon the failure or refusal of any such parent, guardian, or other person to pay said fine or furnish said bond according to the order of the court, then said Itarent, guardian, or other person shall be imprisoned in the county jail not less than ten nor more than thirty days. If the parent, guardian, or other person in charge of any child shall, upon the complaint under the provision immediately preceding, for failure to cause the child to attend a recognized school, prove inability to do so, then he or she shall be discharged, and thereupon the truant officer shall make complaint that the child is a juvenile disorderly person. If such complaint be made before any mayor, justice of the peace, or police judge it shall be certified by such magis¬ trate to the probate judge. The probate judge shall hear such complaint, and if he determine that the child is a juvenile disorderly person within the mean- 448 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. ing of the provision regarding habitual truants or incorrigible, vicious, and immoral children, he shall commit the child, if under 10 years of age and if eligible for admission, to a children’s home, or, if not eligible, then to a house of refuge, if there be one in the county, or the boys’ industrial school or the girls’ industrial home, or some other juvenile reformatory. No child over 10 years of age shall be committed to a county children’s home, and any child com¬ mitted to a children’s home may on the request of trustees of such home, and on its being shown that it is vicious and incorrigible, be transferred by the probate judge to the boys’ industrial school or the girls’ industrial home. A child committed to any juvenile reformatory under the law requiring attend¬ ance shall not be retained there beyond the age of 16 years, and may not be dis¬ charged sooner by the trustees under the restrictions applicable toother inmates, .ti-iiy order of commitment to a juvenile reformatory may be suspended in the discretion of the probate judge for such time as the child may regularly attend school and properly conduct itself. The expense incurred in the transportation of a child to a juvenile reformatory and the costs in the case in which the order of commitment is made shall be paid by the county from which the child is committed after the manner provided in section 759 of the revised statutes : Provided, That if for any cause the parent, guardian, or other person in charge of any juvenile disorderly person shall fail to cause such person to attend school, then complaint against such juvenile disorderly person shall be made, heard, and determined in like manner as provided in each case the parent proves inability to cause such juvenile disorderly person to attend school. When any truant officer is satisfied that any child compelled to attend school is unable to because absolutely required to work at home or elsewhere in order to support itself or help support or care for others legally entitled to its services who are unable to support or care for themselves, the truant officer shall report the case to the authorities charged with the relief of the poor, who shall there¬ upon afford such relief as will enable the child to attend school the time each year required under this act. Such child shall not be considered or declared a pauper by reason of the acceptance of the relief herein provided for. In case the child or its parents or guardian refuse or neglect to take advantage of pro¬ visions thus made for its instruction, such child may be committed to a chil¬ dren’s home or juvenile reformatory. Boards of education, in all cases where relief is necessary, shall furnish text-books free of charge, and said boards may furnish any other relief they may deem necessary. The provisions of this act shall apply to children entitled, under existing statutes, to attend school at the institution for the deaf and for the blind, so far as the same are properly enforceable. Any officer, principal, teacher, or person mentioned in the act for enforced attendance neglecting to perform any duty imposed upon him shall be fined not less than $25 nor more than $50 for each offense. Any officer or agent of any corporation violating any provision of this act, who participates or acquiesces in or is cognizant of such violation, shall be fined not less than $25 nor more than $50. Any person who violates any provision of the act for enforced attend¬ ance, for which a penalty is not elsewhere provided, shall be fined not more than $50. Mayors, justices of the peace, police judges, and probate judges shall have jurisdiction to try the offenses described in this act, and their judgment shall be final. When complaint is made, information filed, or indictment found against any corporation for violating any provision of che law for enforced attendance, summons shall be served, appearance made, or plea entered, as provided in section 7231, revised statutes, except that in complaints before magistrates service shall be made by the constable. In all other cases process shall be served and proceedings had as in cases of misdemeanor. In every case of complaint against a child involving commitment to any children’s home or juvenile reformatory, the board of county visitors shall be notified and must attend and protect the interests of the child on the hearing, as provided in the revised statutes of the State ; and the order of the commitment of the child to a State reformatory must show that the county visitors were so notified and attended the hearing. All fines shall be paid into the school funds of the district, and boards of education are authorized to employ legal counsel for the prosecution of compulsory attendance cases. Every person who after being once convicted for violating any of the pro¬ visions of the law for enforced attendance shall be convicted of again violating them or any of them, in addition to the punishment by way of a fine else¬ where provided for, shall be ’mprisoned not less than ten days nor more than DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OHIO. 449^ thirty days. On complaint before a mayor, justice of tlie peace, or police judge of a second violation of this act, involving the punishment of imprisonment, if a. trial by jury be not waived, a jury shall be chosen and the case tried after the- manner provided in section 3718a, revised statutes. It is hereby made the duty of every board of education to provide sufficient accommodations in the public schools for all children in their district compelled, to attend the public schools under the provisions of this act. Authority to levy the tax and raise the money necessary tor such purpose is hereby given the proper officers charged with such duty under the law. No person or oflicer instituting proceedings under this act shall be required to advance or give security for costs ; and if a defendant is acquitted or dis¬ charged, or if convicted and committed to jail in default of payment of fine and costs, the justice, mayor, police judge, or probate judge before whom such case was brought shall certify such costs to the county auditor, who shall examine- and, if necessary, correct the account, and issue his warrant to the countjr treasurer in favor of the respective persons to whom such costs are due for the amount due to each. No pupil shall be suspended from school by a superintendent or teacher except for such time as may be necessary to convene the board of education, and no pupil shall be expelled except by a vote of two-thirds of such board, and not until the parent or guardian has been notified and has been given opportunity to be heard. But no pupils shall be expelled or suspended from any school beyond the current term thereof. Character of instruction. — Each board of education shall establish a sufficient number of elementary schools to provide for the free education of the youtE of school age within the district under its control, at such places as will be most convenient for the attendance of the largest number of such youth, and. shall continue each and every elementary day school so established not les!^. than twenty-four nor more than forty weeks in each school year ; and each- township board of education shall establish and maintain at least one elementary school in each subdistrict under its control, unless other provision is made by the board, as authorized by law. An elementary school is defined as a school in which instruction and training are given in spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar and com¬ position, geography, history of the United States (including civil government) and physiology ; but boards of education may cause instruction and training to- be given in vocal music, drawing and other branches which they may deem advisable for the best interests of the schools under their charge. A high school is hereby defined as a school of higher grade than an elementarjr school, in which instruction and training are given in approved courses in tho history of the L^nited States and other countries, composition, rhetoric, English and American literature, algebra, geometry, natural science, political or mental science, ancient or modern foreign languages, or both, commercial and indus¬ trial branches, or such of the above-named branches as the length of its curricu¬ lum may make possible, and such other branches of higher grade than those to be taught in the elementary schools and such advanced studies and advanced reviews of the common branches as the board of education may direct. A college is hereby defined as a school of a higher grade than a high school, in which instruction in the high school branches is carried beyond the scope- of the high school and other advanced studies are pursued, or a school in which special, technical, or professional studies are pursued, and which may, when legally organized, have the right to confer degrees in agreement with the terms of the law regulating its practices or its character, or, in the want of legislative direction, in agreement with the practices of the better institutions of learning of their respective kinds in the United States. The high schools of the State of Ohio shall be classified into schools of the first, second, and third grades. A high school of the first grade shall be a school in which the courses offered shall cover a period of not less than four years of not less than thirty-two weeks each, in which not less than 16 courses shall be required for graduation ; a high school of the second grade shall cover a period of not less than three years of not less than thirty-two weeks each, in which not less than 12 courses of study shall be required for graduation ; a high school of the third grade shall cover a period of not less than two years of not less than twenty-eight weeks each, in which not less than 8 courses of study shall be required for graduation, and all public schools of a less grade ED 1904 M - 29 450 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. shall be denominated as elementary schools. A course of study shall consist of not less than 4 recitations a week continued throughout the school year, A diploma shall be granted by the board of education to anyone completing the curriculum in any high school, which diploma shall state the grade of the high school issuing the same, as certified by the State commissioner of common schools, and shall be signed bj^ the president and clerk of the board of education, the superintendent and the principal of the high school, if such there be, and shall bear the date of its issue. A certificate shall also be issued to the holder of each diploma, in which shall be stated the grade of the high school, the names and extent of the studies pursued, and the length of time given to each, to be certified to in the same manner as set forth for a diploma. And any holder of a diploma from a high school of the first grade shall be entitled to a certificate of admission, without examination, to any college of law, medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy in the State of Ohio, when rhe holder thereof shall have completed such courses in science and language as shall be prescribed by the legally constituted authorities regulating the entrance requirements of said college, except such privately endowed institutions as may require a higher standard for entrance examinations than herein provided. And any holder of a diploma from any grade of high school, or of a teacher’s certificate from a county or city board of teachers’ examiners, when such holder has pursued his studies under private tutorage or in an office, shall be eligible to take the examination for admission to the practice of law or to take the examination prescribed to enter a college of law, medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy, except such privately endowed institutions as may require a higher standard for entrance examinations than herein provided. The clerk of the board of education of each district maintaining a high school is re(iuired to report such information in regard to the same as may be required by the State commissioner of common schools, and said commissioner shall classify the high schools of the State into first, second, and third grades, upon the information so filed or from personal inspection. Any board of education may establish one or more high schools, whenever it deems the establishment of such school or schools proper or necessary for the convenience or progress of the pupils attending the same, or for the conduct and welfare of the educational interests of the district, and such school or schools, when so established, shall not be discontinued under three years from the time of the establishment thereof, except by a vote of three-fourths of all the members of the board of education of the district, and at a regular meeting. Township boards of education shall have full control of township high schools in respect to the employment and dismissal df teachers, providing the neces¬ sary schooihouses or rooms, furnishing the same, and making any other neces¬ sary provisions. Said board shall also regulate the admission of pupils to such schools according to age and attainments, and shall continue said schools not less than twenty-eight nor more than forty weeks in any school year. Two or more adjoining townshi])s, or a township and a special or village district situated within the boundaries of said township, may be united for high school purposes by a vote of the electors thereof. In any school district or part thereof parents or guardians of youth of school age may petition the b<<»ard of education to organize an evening school. The petition shall contain the names of not less than 25 persons of school age who will attend such school, and who, for reasons satisfactory to the board, are pre¬ vented from attending day school. The board may discontinue the school when the average attendance falls below 12. The board of any city, special, or village school district may establish a public kindergarten in connection with the public schools for children 4 to (3 years of age, and may make a special tax levy of one mill for such purpose. Text-l)ooks. — Any publisher or publishers of school books in the United States desiring to offer school books for use by pupils in the common schools of Ohio as hereinafter provided shall,, before such books may be lawfully adopted and purchased by any school board in this State, file in the office of the State com¬ missioner of common schools a copy of each book proposed to be so offered, together with the published list wholesale price thereof ; and no revised edtion of any such book shall be used in the common ^schools until a copy of such revised edition shall have been filed in the office of the said commissioners, together with the published list wholesale price thereof. The said commissioner shall carefully preserve in his office all such copies of books and the prices thereof so filed. Whenever any book and the price thereof shall be so filed in the com¬ missioner’s office, a commission consisting of the governor, the secretary of DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OHIO. 451 State, and the State commissioner of common schools shall immediately fix the maximum price at which such books may be sold to or purchased by boards of education as hereinafter provided, which maximum price so fixed on any book shall not exceed 75 per cent of the published list wholesale price thereof, and the State commissioner of common schools shall immediately notify the pub¬ lisher of such books so filed of the maximum price so fixed. If the publisher so notified shall notify the commissioner in writing that he accepts the price so fixed, and shall agree in writing to furnish such book during a period of five years at the price so fixed, such written acceptance and agreement shall entitle said publisher to offer said book so filed for sale to said board of education for use by the pupil under the terms of this act The said commissioner shall, dur¬ ing the first half of the month of June in each year, furnish to each board of education the names and addresses of all publishers who during the year shall have agreed in writing to furnish their pu!)lications upon the terms provided. And it shall not be lawful for any board of education to adopt or cause to be used in the common schools any book whose publisher shall not have complied as to said book with the provisions of this act. If any publisher who shall have agreed in writing to furnish books shall fail or refuse to furnish such books adopted as herein provided to any board of education, it shall be the duty of said board at once to notify the said com¬ mission of such failure or refusal ; the commission shall at once cause an investigation of such charge to be made, and if the same is found to be true the commission shall at once notify said publisher and each board of education in the State that said book shall not hereafter be adopted and purchased by boards of education, and said publisher shall forfeit and pay to the State of Ohio $500 for each failure, and the amount when collected shall be paid into the State treasury to the credit of the common-school fund of the State. Each board of education, on receiving the statements above mentioned from said commissioner, shall, on the third Monday in August thereafter, meet and determine by a majority vote the studies to be pursued, and which of said text-books so filed shall be used in the schools under its control ; but no text¬ books so adopted shall be changed, altered, or revised, nor shall any other text-book be substituted therefor for five years after the date of the selection and adoption thereof without the consent of three-fourths of all the members elected given at a regular meeting ; and each board of education shall cause it to be ascertained and at regular meetings in April and August shall deter¬ mine which and the number of each of said books the schools under its charge shall require until the next regular meetings in April and August ; and shall cause an order to be drawn for the amount in favor of the clerk of the board of education, pajmble out of the contingent fund ; and said clerk shall at once order of the publisher said books so agreed upon by the board, and the pub¬ lisher on the receipt of such order shall ship such books to said clerk without delay, and the clerk shall forthwith examine such books, and if found right and in accordance with said order remit the amount to said publisher, and the board of education shall pay all charges for the transportation of such books out of the school contingent fund ; but if said boards of education can at any time secure of the publishers books at a price less than said maxi¬ mum price it shall be its duty so to do, and may without unnecessary delay make effort to secure such lower price before adopting any particular text¬ book. Each board of education shall make all necessary provisions and arrangements to place the books so purchased within easy reach of all pupils in their district, and for that purpose may make such contracts and take such security as they may deem necessary for the custody, care, and sale of such books and accounting for the proceeds ; but not to exceed 10 per cent of the cost price shall be paid therefor, and said books shall be sold to the pupils of school age in the district at the price paid the publisher with not to exceed 10 per cent added, and the proceeds of such sale shall be paid into the contingent fund of such district: and whoever receives said books from the board of education for sale as aforesaid to the pupils and fails to account honestly and fully for the same, or for the proceeds, to the board of education when required, shall be guilty of embezzlement and punished accordingly: Provided, however, Boards of education may contract with local retail dealers to furnish said books at prices above specified, the said board being still responsible to the publishers for all books purchased by the said board of education. And when pupils remove from any district, and have text-books of the kind adopted in such dis¬ trict, and not being of the kind adopted in the district to which they remove, and wish to dispose of the same, the board of the district from which they 452 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. remove, when requested, sliall purchase the same at the fair value thereof and resell the same as other books ; and nothing in this act shall prevent the board of education from furnishing free books to pupils as provided by law. Each board of education may furnish the necessary school books free of charge to enable the parent or guardian, without expense therefor, to comply with the re(iuirements of the compulsory education laAv, the same to be paid for out of the contingent fund ; but such pupils as are already wholly or in part supplied with necessary school books shall be supplied free of charge only as other or new books are needed, and all school books furnished as herein pro¬ vided shall be considered and be the proiierty of the district and loaned to the pupils on such terms and conditions as each board may prescribe. Buildings. — The board of education of any district is empowered to build, enlarge, repair, and furnish the necessary schoolhouses, purchase or lease sites therefor or rights of way thereto. When in the judgment of any board of edu¬ cation it would be for the advantage of the children to have meetings of literary societies, school exhibitions, singing schools, religious exercises, select or normal schools, the board of education shall authorize the opening of such schoolhouses for such purpose, and it may authorize their use for any other lawful purpose, but not to interfere with the public school vcork. When the board of education determines to build, repair, enlarge, or furnish a schoolhouse the cost of which will exceed, in city districts of the first and second class, .$1 ,500, and in other districts 5p500, except in cases of urgent necessity, or for the security and protec¬ tion of school property, it shall proceed as follows ; The board shall advertise for bids for four weeks in two newspapers of gen¬ eral circulation in the district, or, if there be no newspaper of general circula¬ tion, then by posting such advertisements in three public places. The bids, duly sealed, shall be filed with the clerk and shall be opened at the meeting of the board immediately succeeding the last day for filing them, and they shall then be publicly read by the clerk and entered on the records of the board. Each bid shall contain the name of every person interested in the same, and shall l)e accompanied by a sufficient guaranty from some disinterested person that if the bid be accepted a contract will be entered into and the performance of it properly secured. When both labor and materials are embraced in the work bid for, each must be separately stated in the bid, with the price thereof. None but the lowest responsible bid shall be accepted, but the board may in its discretion reject all the bids, or accept any bid for both labor and material which is the lowest in the aggregate. Any part of a bid which is lower than the same part of any other bid shall be accepted whether the residue of the bid is higher or not, but in case the lowest bid is made by two bidders the work shall not be divided between them. Whoever maliciously injures or defaces any schoolhouse, its fixtures, or appur¬ tenances, or commits any nuisance therein, or maliciously trespasses its inclosed grounds or fixtures, shall be fined not more than Whoever maliciously burns or attempts to burn any schoolhouse shall be imprisoned in the peniten¬ tiary for not more than twenty years. Whoever in the night maliciously and forcibly breaks and enters any schoolhouse with intent to commit felony or to steal shall be imi^risoned not less than one nor more than ten years. AVhoever maliciously in the daytime breaks and enters any schoolhouse with intent to steal shall be fined not more than JfidOO and imprisoned not more than six months. Vvhoever willfully interrupts or disturbs any assembly of persons met for a law¬ ful purjwse, or any ])erson while he is at or about the place where such assembly is to be held or is and has been held, shall be fined not more than $50 or impris¬ oned not more than ten days, or both. A member of the board of education is liable as other ])ersons, his liability being limited to the extent that mere errors of judgment with good intent exonerate him. 4. Finances. Funds {pcnnanent and special) — Taxation. Funds {pennanent and special). — The money which has been and may here¬ after be paid into the State treasury on account of sales of lands granted by Congress for the sui)i>ort of public schools in any original survey township or other district of country shall constitute the “ common school fund,” of which the auditor of State shall be superintendent, and the income of which shall be applied exclusively to the support of common schools. This common school DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OHIO. 453 fund shall constitute an irreducible debt of the State, on which the State shall pay interest annually at the rate of G per cent per annuni. When any grant or devise of land or any donation or bequest of money or other personal property is made to the State of Ohio, or to any person, or otherwise, in trust for the com¬ mon school fund, the saine shall become vested in tliat fund, and when the money arising therefrom is paid into the State treasury proper accounts thereof shall be kept by the auditor of the State, and the interest accruing therefrom shall be applied according to the intent of tiie grantor, donor, or devisor. The auditor shall keep an account of the fund and the interest which accrues thereon, credit¬ ing eacli county with its share and the amount disbursed to each. The State shall pay interest annually at the rate of G per cent per annum upon all money which has been paid into the State treasury on account of sales of lands commonly called salt lands, and ui)on all money hitherto paid, or which may be hereafter paid, into the State treasury on account of sales of swamp lands granted to the State by Congress. The money received from such sales shall constitute an irreducible debt of the State, and the interest shall be appor¬ tioned annually on the same basis as the State common school fund. (The man¬ ner of distributing the interest arising from the salt-lands fund is the same as for the State common school fund. ) Taxation. — For the purpose of affording the advantages of a free education to all the youths of the State, there shall be levied annually a tax on the grand list of taxable property of the St:ite, which shall be collected in the same manner as other State taxes, and the proceeds of which shall constitute the State common school fund ; and for the purpose of higher agricultural and industrial education, including manual training, there shall be levied and collected in the same man¬ ner a tax on the grand list of the taxable property of the State, which shall con¬ stitute the “ Ohio State University fund.” The rate of such tax in each case shall be designated by the general assembly at least once in two years, and if the general assembly shall fail to designate the rate for any year, the same shall be, for the State common school fund, 1 mill, and for the Ohio State University fund, one-tenth of 1 mill, upon each dollar of valuation of such taxable prop¬ erty. The auditor shall apportion the State common school fund to the several counties semiannually, upon the basis of enumeration of the youths therein, as shown by the latest abstract he has received from the State commissioner of common schools. . Each board of education shall annually, at a regular or special meeting, deter¬ mine as nearly as possible the entire amount of money necessary to be levied as a contingent fund for the continuance of the school or schools of the district after the State funds are exhausted, to purchase sites for schoolhouses, to erect, enlarge, purchase, lease, repair, and furnish schoolhouses, and for other school expenses ; and any city, special, or village school district may levy 1 mill to sup¬ port a kindergarten in connection with the public schools. Such levy shall not exceed in cities of the first grade of the first class 3.25 mills and 1 mill additional for every 5,0(X) pupils over and above 25,000 enrolled in the public schools of said cities, but such additional le’i y shall not exceed 4.1 mills. In all other city districts the levy shall not exceed 7 mills, to which may be added 1 mill additional by a three-fourths vote of the board of education, for the purchase of sites and the erection of buildings, or for the payment of indebt¬ edness created for such purposes. In village, special, and township districts the levy shall not exceed 10 mills. But a greater tax than is authorized above, except in city districts of the first class, may be levied if a majority of the electors so vote. The amount to be so levied the board shall certify in writing to the auditor of the county, who shall assess the entire amount upon all property of the district, and the county treas¬ urer shall collect the same as other taxes are collected. Each county auditor shall annually apportion the school funds of the county. The State common school fund shall be apportioned in proportion to the enumeration of youth to districts, subdistricts, joint subdistricts, and fractions of districts and joint sub¬ districts within the county. The common school fund shall be apportioned to the school districts and parts thereof in proportion to the enumeration of youth therein, and all other monej^ not otherwise appropriated by law shall be appor¬ tioned annually in the same manner as the State common school fund. The local tax levy shall be paid to the several districts from which it was collected. The auditor shall collect or cause to be collected all fines and other money for the support of common schools in his county and pay the same to the county treasurer. 454 EDUCATICJS" KEPOET, 1904. OKLAHOMA. 1. Organization of the System. Territorial Superintendent-Territorial hoard — County superintendents— District hoard — Cities. Territorial superintendent. — The governor shall appoint, with the advice and consent of the Territorial council, a Territorial superintendent of public instruc¬ tion, for a term of two years, at a salary of $1,200 a year. He shall maintain an office at the seat of government, where shall be kept all hooks, papers, appa¬ ratus, and other property belonging to the office, including reports from county superintendents and other school officers. He shall make two bonds of $5,000 each, with securities approved l)y the Territorial governor and secretary, for the faithful performance of his duties (1) as superintendent and (2) as ex officio Territorial auditor. He shall have general supervision and management of edu¬ cational interests in the Territory ; shall apportion between the 15th and 31st days of January and July each year, to those counties ‘from which proper reports have been received the annual school taxes and income from the Territorial school fund in proportion to population between C and 21 years ; print, not oftener than biennially, and distribute the school laws, interpret the same and decide controversies arising thereunder, having first submitted the statement of facts to the attorney-general for his suggestions ; prepare, print, and distribute all blanks and forms necessary for teachers and school officers and secure their uniform use ; visit each county at least once a year ; gather information relating to school systems in other States. On December 1 preceding each regular session of the legislature the superintendent shall make and deliver to the governor a report containing; (1) Number of public schools in the Territory, number of pupils in attendance (boys and girls) and branches taught, same data regarding private schools as far as can be ascertained, similar data (except branches taught) regarding normal schools, academies, and colleges, and such other mat¬ ters as he may deem exi»edient deducted from reports of county superintendents and other school officers touching educational conditions in the Territory; (2) statement of the condition of public school funds, including moneys, lands, or other property held in trust by the Territory for school purposes, giving the school-land account fully by counties; (3) statement of receipts and expendi¬ tures; (4) plans for the management and improvement of public schools and such other information relating to educational interests as he may deem important. Territorial hoard. — The Territorial superintendent, principal of the normal school at Edmond, president of the University of Oklahoma, one city and one county superintendent, appointed by the governor for two years, shall constitute the Territorial board of education. They shall have power to grant certificates and diplomas to teachers, certificates to conductors and instructors of normal institutes, shall prepare questions for county and city examinations, shall consti¬ tute an advisory board on all matters pertaining to education in the Territory, receiving no compensation beyond necessary expenses incurred in the discharge of duty. Upon application of any college, university, or other educational insti¬ tution the board may examine courses of study and work done therein, and if the same be found equal to the Territorial normal schools the board may accept cer¬ tificates of graduation from such institutions in lieu of examinations on the same subjects required for Territorial certificates. County superintendent. — Elected for two years, v:omen eligible; must hold diploma or first-grade certificate ; vacancies filled by county commissioners ; salary from $480 to $1,200, according to scholastic population of the county; must furnish $1,000 bond. It shall be his duty to visit each school in his county at least once in each six-months’ term, noting government of school, classification of pupils, methods of instruction, and making proper suggestions in private to the teacher, also noting character and condition of schoolhouse, furniture,- apparatus and grounds, and report in writing to district board, vcith suggestions as to improvements ; examine accounts and record books of district officers, and see that they are kept and reports made as required by law ; encourage the formation of teachers’ associations and institutes, attending and participating in the same ; hold a public meeting in each school district at least once a year for the purpose of discussing school questions and elevating the standard of education ; keep his office at the county seat open at least on Saturdays ; keep a complete record of his official acts, of school funds, of the name, age, post-office DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OKLAHOMA. 455 address, and other data concerning each candidate for teacher’s certificate and each teacher employed in the county. On the last Monday in March, June, Sep¬ tember, and December each year he shall report to the Territorial superintendent (per forms furnished by him) detailed statistics of his official acts, prior to which his salary voucher shall not be issued, and by October 15 he shall report to the Territorial superintendent per forms furnished the statistics in detail of all educational matters in the county. He shall divide the county into conven¬ ient districts, may change same when interests require, and shall furnish the county clerk by July 4 each year a definition of their several boundaries. He shall apportion school funds among the several districts according to popula¬ tion between the ages of 6 and 21 (but see Finances, Territorial school fund; see also Teachers, Certificates). District hoard. — The officers of each school district shall be a director, clerk, and treasurer, elected one each year for terms of three years, who shall consti¬ tute the district board. They shall hold a meeting at least five days previous to the annual meeting (see County superintendent) each year for the purpose of preparing report of clerk and treasurer to be submitted to the legal voters of the district at such annual meeting, which report shall show the school statistics of the district and shall be transmitted to the county superintendent for his annual report. For a clerk wilfully to sign a false report is a felony, punishable by from one to three years in the penitentiary. Clerk shall report to county superintendent names of district officers-elect within two weeks after election and the date of beginning of each term of school within two weeks after such beginning. (See also Schools, Buildings; Finances.) The board are the cus¬ todians of school property and the corporate representatives of the district. They employ teachers and may, in conjunction with county superintendent, dis¬ miss them for cause. They shall furnish each teacher with a proper school register and see that it is properly kopt ; visit each school at least twice each term. Vacancies in board are filled by county superintendent. Cities. — Each city having 2,500 inhabitants shall constitute a separate school district; territory outside but contiguous thereto may be attached to a city for school purposes,* upon application of a majority of the electors in such territory. There shall be elected annually a board of education, consisting of one mem¬ ber from each ward, to hold office two years. No member of said board shall be a member of the city council, and vice versa. The board may fill vacancies in their membership pending elections, elect their own officers except treasurer, which shall be a president, vice-president, and clerk. The clerk shall give $1,000 bond and receive such compensation as board may determine. The board shall meet the first Monday of each month, and at such other times as circumstances demand. Other powers and duties are : To exercise sole control over schools and school property in the district ; establish and maintain a system of graded schools, aiid a high school whenever the educational interests of the city so demand ; elect a superintendent, not of their number, who shall have general supervision of schools, under such regulations as board may see fit, and shall receive such compensation as board may determine; levy a tax (by June 15) for support of schools, not to exceed 15 mills on the $1 of taxable property, to be collected by the county treasurer as other taxes, and board shall not have power to contract obligations in excess of 80 per cent of the tax so levied ; issue bonds for building schoolhouses when city so elects, and levy taxes to pay interest and sinking fund. The city boards shall make (between January 1 and 15) an enumeration of children from 6 to 21 years of age, and forward result to county clerk ; print an amiiiai report of the condition of schools under their charge, containing statistics in detail. 2. Teachers. Cert ifl ca tes — ICorm a I insti t utes — M iscelJa n eo us. Certificates. — The board of county examiners shall be composed of the county superintendent as ex officio chairman and two competent persons appointed by him, which two shall hold diplomas or Territorial or first-grade certificates, and shall receive $3 a day for not exceeding five days in any quarter. Public exam¬ inations shall be held at tlie close of each county normal institute, and on the last Friday and Saturday of January, October, and April, at such places as the chairman may designate by ten days’ notice. Successful candidates who shall have satisfied the board of their good moral character and ability to teach and govern schools shall receive certificates, which shall continue in force, unless 456 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. revoked for cause, first-grade for three years, second for two, and third for one year. Applicants for first-grade certificates must be not less .than 20 years of age ; must have taught successfully twelve school months ; make a general average of 90 per cent, and in no case less than 70 per cent, in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, composition, geography, arithmetic. United States history, bookkeeping, physiology and hygiene,® theory and practice of teaching, civil government, and the elements of natural philosophy. For second- grade, applicants shall he examined in the foregoing subjects, except book¬ keeping and natural philosophy, shall have taught three school months, be 18 years of age, attain an average of 80 and not less than GO in any branch. For third-grade, minimum age, IG ; omit civil government ; general average, 70, with a minimum of 50 in any branch ; third-grade certificate shall be issued not more than twice to same person. Certificates are good only in county where issued, except that other county superintendents may indorse (fee, $1) first- grade certificates and validate them in their counties. Upon request of a dis¬ trict board, county superintendents may, after satisfactory examination of applicant, issue a temporary certificate valid only in such district until next county examination ; no such certificate to be issued to any person who shall have failed in a regular examination, nor to anyone more than once. Violation by county board or superintendent of any provision of law relating to issuance of certificates is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine of $100 to $500. (See also Organization — Territorial board. ) Normal institutes. — County superintendents shall hold in their respective counties a.nnually for not less than two weeks a noi-mal institute for the instruc¬ tion of teachers and those desiring to teach. With the advice of the Terri¬ torial superintendent, the county su])erintendent shall select time and place, and shall also select a conductor and instructors for the same, ea.ch of whom shall hold a certificate from the Territorial board as to his special qualifications for such work. Each candidate for a teacher’s certificate shall i»ay $1, and each l)erson attending shall pay a registration fee of $1, to defray expenses of such institute, of which fund the county treasurer shall be custodian. Two or more sparsely settled counties may unite in holding one institute, the several super¬ intendents designating one of their number to act for the whole, as per above provisions, and the treasurer of the county in which such institute shall be held being custodian of the normal-institute fund. [There are also normal schools at Edmond, Alva, and Weatherford, at which tuition, including music and elo¬ cution, is free to those signifying their purpose of becoming teachers in the common schools of the Territory.] (See also Organization — County superin¬ tendents. ) Miscellaneous. — Contracts for teaching school shall be in writing, with dis¬ trict board, shall specify wages per week or month agreed upon, and be filed in district clerk’s office. Teachers may suspend any pupil guilty of immorality, of persistent violation of school regulations, which suspension shall not extend beyond the current quarter, and pupil shall have the right to appeal to district board of directors, whose decision shall be final. Teachers shall keep an accu¬ rate register of daily attendance in a blank book furnished by the board. 3. Schools. Miscellaneous provisions — ^Studies — Buildings and grounds — Union graded schools — Separate schools — High schools. Miscellaneous provisions. — The length of time that school shall be taught may be determined by th.e voters of each district at the annual or any special meeting, or, if they Uiil so to determine, then the district board shall fix the length of term. No district in which school has been taught less than three months in the year preceding shall be entitled to any allotment of school funds. Six hours make a school day, five days a week, four weeks a month. If there be not sufficient school money to support a school for the length of time deter¬ mined upon, the district l)oard may assess a tuition fee upon each pupil in pro¬ portion to the number of days of actual attendance during the term ; district boards may admit pupils from without the district upon payment of a tuition a T’^nited States statute approved May 20, 1386 ; “ No certificate shall be granted to any person to teach in the public schools of the District of Columbia or Territories * * * who has not passed a satisfactory examination in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics upon the human system,” DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OKLAHOMA. 457 fee determined by board (see also Separate schools), otherwise tuition is free to pupils from 6 to 21 years of age. Exercises shall be held in all schools on Arbor Day. (Friday following second Monday in March) such as to encourage the planting, protection, and preservation of trees. Studies. — In every school district shall be taught (in the English language) orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, and such other branches as may be determined by the district board. No sectarian or religious doctrine shall be taught, but this shall not be construed to prohibit the reading of the Holy Scripture. Physiology and hygiene, with special refer¬ ence to the effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, shall be included in the branches taught lU. S. Statute!. (See also Teachers — Certificates.) Buildings and grounds. — District boards shall purchase, lease, build, or sell houses, sites, or other school property when so directed by the voters of a dis¬ trict (see also Finances — Bonds) ; the board shall Inive the keeping of school property ; may appoint some suitable person to take care of school apparatus, maps, fharts, etc. ; may open schoolhouses for business or public meetings of religious, political, literary, scientific, mechanical, or agricultural societies. Lands selected for location or enlargement of school sites, which can not be purchased by agreement with owners at reasonable price, may be condemned, such sites not to exceed a total area of acres. When a schoolhouse has been located upon the claim of any settler upon public or Indian lands to which said settler had no title, district board may remove same within one year after his acquirement of title; or, if said house has been built of stone, brick, or lumber costing .$500, and settler will not convey same to school board, 1 acre may be acquired by condemnation. A school site having thereon a house worth not less than $500 shall not be moved except by a three-fifths vote of the district. A person who shall willfully destroy, injure, deface, mar, or disfigure any school building, furniture, fixture, or a])i)aratus shall be fined $10 to $50. School prop¬ erty is exempt from taxation and shall not be taken for debt. Union graded schools. — Two or more districts may unite in establishing a graded school for instruction in the higher branches, such action to be deter¬ mined by a majority of the legal voters of such districts, who also shall elect a board of directors to control said school in like relation as district boards toward district schools. Such school shall be entitled to a share of the school fund in proportion to the number of pupils in attendance from each district so uniting, and the union district may levy taxes for providing a school building. No expenditure of more than $200 shall be made except by written contract, and no contract involving more than $500 shall be made except by award to the lowest res]3onsible bidder after inviting sealed proposals. Any single district may establish a graded school on similar terms. Separate schools. — Separate schools for white and colored children shall be maintained in all counties, and no white child shall attend nor white teacher teach a colored school, and vice versa. Districts having less than 10 children of school age of either color are not required to maintain a school for such chil¬ dren, if they can be transferred to schools in adjoining districts. Children may be transfe]-red to another district school without consent of parents, unless they should have to go more than 2-1 miles to reach such school. High schools. — Any county having 0,000 population may establish a high school by vote of a majority at any general or special election. The county commissioners shall appoint six resident freeholders of the county, not more than three of whom shall be residents of same township or city or members of same political party, who shall, with the county superintendent, constitute the board of trustees for such high school. The county superintendent shall be ex officio president of board ; otlier members shall serve each one year, and give such bond as county commissioners may require; shall receive no compensation, except that secretary and treasurer of board may receive each not exceeding $50 a year. Prior to June 15 each year the trustees shall present to county commissioners a certified estimate of the rate of tax (not to exceed 3 mills on $1 of taxable proi)erty) required to raise the amount needed for payment of teachers’ wages and contingent expenses, which the commissioners shall cause to be collected as other taxes. The trustees shall select the best site that can be procured without expense to the county for location of said school, shall erect building by contract, and jmrchase furniture, etc., if need be issuing war¬ rants for payment of same in from five to twenty annual installments, so that no annual tax levy for i)aymeut of an installment shall exceed 3 mills on $1 of taxable property in the county. Total cost of said building and equipment shall not exceed li per cent of the assessed valuation of the county, and said war- 458 EDUCATION EEPOET, 190E rants shall not be sold at less than par. Trustees may rent suitable buildings until new ones are provided. No inember of said board of trustees or the wife, son, or daughter of a member shall be employed as teacher in such school. Tui¬ tion shall be free to all eligible pupils residing in the county ; if more can be accommodated, pupils from other counties may be admitted upon payment of tuition determined by trustees. Pupils graduating from the normal course in such high school shall be entitled to a second grade teacher’s certificate and be admitted to the Q'erritorial normal schools without examination ; those com¬ pleting the collegiate course may be admitted to the University of Oklahoma or the agricultural and mechanical college without examination. On July 1 annu¬ ally the trustees shall make a complete report to county commissioners, cover¬ ing all statistics regarding operations of such school for the year, which report shall be published in at least one paper in the county and a copj' sent to the Territorial superintendent. Kindergartens. — The school board of any city or district having 2,500 popula¬ tion may establish kindergartens for children between 4 and 6 years of age. By kindergarten shall be understood the application of the methods of Froebel, or some American developinent tliereof, and not merely subprimary grades for children under G years of age. The Territorial normal schools shall establish and maintain a department for training kindergarten teachers. All teachers in kindergartens shall be graduates of an accredited kindergarten normal school, and all applications for positions as such teachers shall be subject to an exam¬ ination instituted by the Territorial superintendent. An enumeration of chil¬ dren from 4 to G years of age shall he made in districts establishing kinder¬ gartens, in like manner as the enumeration of children from 6 to 21 years of age, and reported to the Territorial superintendent, who shall apportion to such districts a corresixniding amount of school funds therefor. 4. Finances. Territorial school fund — Countij ta.xes — Bonds. Territorial school fund. — The Territorial superintendent shall apportion the income of the Territorial school fund and the annual taxes collected by the Territory for the support of public schools to those counties from which proper reports liave been received from county superintendents, as follows : All such moneys remaining in tlie Territorial treasury on January 15 shall be apportioned between January 15 and 31, and all remaining July 15, between .July 15 and 31, to each countj’- in proportion to the number of children between G and 21 years of age resident therein, as shown by the last annual report of the county superin¬ tendent. Within five days after receiving the certificate of the Territorial superintendent informing him of the amount of such school fund which has been apportioned to his county, the county superintendent shall apportion the same (together with any unapportioned county school fund in the treasury) among the school districts and parts of districts in his county according to scholastic population as shown by the last annual reports of the respective dis¬ trict clerks, drawing his order on the county treasurer in favor of the i-espective district treasurers: Provided, That no district which has not maintained a com¬ mon school for at least three months in the year last preceding shall be entitled to receive any portion of said funds. County taxes. — The district clerk shall within five days report to the county clerk the amount of tax levied at the annual meeting, and for what purpose same was levied. By May 25 he shall certify to county clerk a list of all persons residing witiiin the district liable to pay taxes. By August 25 he shall certify to the county clerk the aggregate percentage levied by the dis¬ trict school board on the real and personal property in the district as returned on the assessment roll of the county ; and the county clerk shall place the same on the tax roll of the county, designating purpose for which said taxes were levied ; and said taxes shall be collected as other taxes by the county treasurer and paid over to the treasurers of the respective school districts in the county. The board of county commissioners of each county shall levy annually upon all the taxable property in each district a tax sufficient to pay the interest accruing upon the bonds (vdiich see) issued by such district and to provide a sinking fund for the redemption of such bonds. No fund in the hnnds of the county treasurer belonging to a school district shall be diverted from the object for vffiich such fund was raised. All fines collected for viola- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OREOOH. 459 tions of school laws shall be paid to the treasurer of the coiiiit3' wherein the suit is brought for the support of the common schools. Bonds. — For the purpose of providing school sites and houses, the boards of directors shall have power to issue the bonds of the district in an amount not to exceed, with all outstanding indebtedness, 4 per cent of its taxable property as shown by the last assessment ; and for the purpose of extending the time of payment of the school district indebtedness, thej^ shall have power to issue bonds in a sum not to exceed its outstanding indebtedness, including bonded indebtedness ; but no bonds shall be issued until, at an election called for that purpose, two-thirds of the qualified electors (women may vote) shall have so declared by ballot ; and such election shall not be called except upon petition of at least one-third of such electors in the district. Bonded indebtedness shall not be created in any district wherein reside less than 8 children between 6 and 21 jmars of age. Bonds shall be issued in denominations of not less than ^100 nor more than $500, bearing interest not to exceed 7 per cent, pajmble semi¬ annually. OREGON. 1. Organization of the System. Btate superintendent — State Ijoard of edueation — State and county boards of examiners — County superintendents — School districts — District boards — School clerks — District boundary board. State superintendent . — A superintendent of public instruction shall be elected every four years, entering upon his duties the second Monday in January fol¬ lowing his election; shall receive a salary of $3,000 a year (and not exceeding $900 traveling expenses), and be provided with an office at the State capitol. He shall exercise a general superintendence over the county and district school officers and the public schools of the State; visit, as far as practicable, every county annually in the interest of education ; visit as often as practicable the principal schools of the State for the purpose of inspection and supervision ; gather statistics relative to the conditions of schools, buildings, grounds, appur¬ tenances, apparatus, libraries, conduct and standing of pupils, methods of in¬ struction and discipline, number of pupils, teachers, salaries, courses of study, and such other data as he may deem advisable for the advancement of education and for the information of the legislature ; assist in the organization and devel¬ opment of institute work in each countjq attending county institutes within the State and educational meetings out of the State when practicable ; prepare and distribute to county superintendents a uniform series of blanks, registers, forms, rules, and regulations, such as he may deem necessary for the administration of the school laws, and the secretary of state shall cause the same to be printed ; act as secretary of the State board of education ; annotate and compile all school laws ordered published by State board ; decide questions or appeals aris¬ ing under the State school laws or the rules and regulations of the State board, but he may submit the same to State board for decision or to the attorne.v-gen- eral for his opinion ; cause to be held once a year a State teachers’ association, at such time and place as will best promote the interests of education. When¬ ever he may deem it expedient he may issue printed letters to school officers on any subject relative to the duties of teachers, directors, pupils, parents, or guardians, the management of schools, or any other question of general or spe¬ cial educational interest. Biennially he shall report to the legislature, cover¬ ing the following items: (1) General condition of the public schools; (2) amount of school mone^- apportioned among. the counties, and sources whence such was derived; (3) amounts raised bj^ county and district taxes, and amounts paid for teachers’ salaries, buildings, furniture, etc. ; (4) text-books authorized in accordance with hiAv ; (5) rules and regulations of State board; (6) number and grade of schools in each county; (7) the number of persons in the State bebveen the ages of 4 and 20, number attending public schools, number attending private schools, and number not attending any school ; (8) miy other relevant information that he may think of use to the public. State board of education. — The governor, secretary of state, and superintend¬ ent of public instruction shall constitute the State board of education, which shall meet at the capitol on the first Monday in January and Julj- of each year. 460 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. They shall authorize such series of text-books as shall be adopted by the text¬ book commission ; i^repare a course of study for schools in districts of the second and third classes, which shall be printed by the secretary of state and distrib¬ uted by the State superintendent ; order other necessary printing done by State printer ; prescribe rules and regulations for the government of schools ; grant State certificates and diplomas to candidates passing examinations before the State board. ( See Teachers — State certificates. ) The proceedings of each ses¬ sion of the State board shall be printed for general distribution, including the names of applicants receiving certificates. ^tate and county hoards of examiners. — (See Teachers — County and State certificates.) County superintendents. — Elected for four yeai’S, vacancies filled by county court ; must have taught nine school months in the State and hold a first-grade or State certificate or State diploina.' Salary of superintendent is specified for each county, from ^300 to .^U,500 a year. Must furnish bond in such sum as county court may direct. He shall be ex officio secretary of the district boundary board (consisting of the county court, or commissioners where the latter are a separate lx)dy), which board may make changes in district boundaries when petitioned to do so. On the first Monday in Octobei-, and at such other times during the year as he may deem advisable, he shall apportion the entire school fund in the county treasury. (See Finances— -Apportionment.) He shall visit each school in his county at least once a year and seek to aid teachers toward the best meth¬ ods of teaching and government, and shall secure the proper classification of impils, enforcement of course of study, and the care and protection of school property; study to awaken among parents and children a deeper interest in the public schools ; notify board of directors of any defect in schoolhouses or sur¬ roundings ; and by the fourth Monday in July shall report to the State superin¬ tendent an abstract of the reports received from the several districts, adding thereto such suggestions as he may deem important, and shall make special report concerning important matters relative to the schools of his county when¬ ever necessary or when required by the State superintendent. He shall keep a record of all persons under contract to teach in his county, with data relating to such contracts ; advise and consult with boards with reference to the construc¬ tion of schoolhouses and improvement of grounds ; organize and hold at least three local institutes and educational meetings at such times and places in the county as he may deem most expedient, securing as far as practicable the attend¬ ance and cooperation of teachers, school officers, and parents ; hold annually a county teachers' institute three days or longer for the instruction of teachers and those desiring to teach (at which attendance of teachers is compulsory) ; exam¬ ine into correctness of re])0]-ts of district clerks, (which see) and correct same when necessary ; report to State superintendent the post-office address of every deaf-mute or blind person in the county between the ages of 5 and 2.5 ; examine and decide appeals from district officers and teachers, subject to appeal to State superintendent. School districts. — Each county sliall be divided into convenient school districts, classified as follows: Districts having 1,000 or more children of school age (0 to 21) shall be known as districts of the first class; more than 200 and less than 1,000, second class ; less than 200, third class. Boundaries may be changed by the boundary board (see County Superintendent) and new districts established on petition of three legal voters of proposed new district ; but no district shall be organized unless it contains at least 10 children of school age, and none shall continue unless it has at least G of school age. The legal school voters of every district shall meet on the third Monday in June every year, which shall be known as the annual school meeting, and shall hold special meetings whenever required ; the director oldest in service shall be chairman, and the meeting shall have power to levy a tax upon all real and personal property in the district, and make all necessary appropriations for the support and benefit of j^ublic schools. Women may vote on school questions and be elected to all educational offices within the {^tate. Districts shall maintain a school at least three months a year or else forfeit their share of the next annual apportionment of school funds, (i^ee Finances — Apportionment.) District Z>o«rd.s.— Districts of the first class shall elect five directors, other dis¬ tricts three. One director shall be elected ea^ffi year on the day of the annual school meeting, to serve five years in first-class districts, three years in other districts. Of the directors present at a meeting, the one oldest in service shall be chairman. Vacancies in the office of director shall be filled by the remain¬ ing directors. It shall be the duty of the board to visit and inspect their DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OKEGOH'. 461 schools; to furnish fuel (ready for nse), janitor, blackboards, chalk, erasers, brooms, stoves, windoAV curtains, reference and library books, and other appa¬ ratus, not to exceed 15 per cent of the county school-tax fund and the irre¬ ducible school fund apportioned to the district; to audit all the claims against the district. They may exclude any refi-actory pupil from school for the cur¬ rent term. When authorized by a majority vote of the school meeting, they shall purchase, lease, or build schoolhouses, buy or lease land for school pur¬ poses, furnish schoolhouses with furniture, lights, and apparatus, and, when so authorized for such pui-pose, may levy and collect a tax or contract a debt not exceeding 5 per cent of the taxable values of the district, or may issue or sell bonds (see Finances — Bonds) ; also, inay sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of property belonging to the district. The board shall employ teachers, and make such rules and regulalions for the government of teacb.ers and pupils as are required and consistent with those of State board ; shall require parents or guardians to provide pupils with books prescribed by law, but shall loan text¬ books to indigent pupils when so directed by vote of the district. The board shall have entire control of i)ublic schools in their district. Any duty imposed upon them must be performed at a regular or special meeting and l)e made a matter of record. Consent to a measure by individual membei-s when not in session is not an act of the board and is not binding upon the district. District school clerics. — At the regular annual meeting each school district shall elect a school clerk, who sliall give such bond and receive such compensa¬ tion as the board may determine, provided that clerks of third-class districts shall not receive exceeding .$25. The clerk shall act as secretary of board and district meetings, keep records and accounts of the board, send list of district officers to county superintendent after annual school meeting, giving length of term and post-office address of each director. During the last week in February the district school clerk shall make an enumeration of children in his district between 4 and 20 years old, make an annual report to his district and forward certified copy of same to county superintendent by July 10, including scholastic census, daily attendance at all schools in district, and a list of children deaf or blind to such degree as to be unable to acquire an education in the common schools. Clerks of districts which lie in two or more counties shall report to each county superintendent data pertaining to his county. District hounclary hoard. — -(See County superintendent — School districts.) 2. Teachers. Certificates, county — State certificates and diplomas — Duties — Contracts — Insti¬ tutes. Certificates, county. — Beginning the second Wednesday of February and August and continuing three days the county board of examiners (superintend¬ ent and two others appointed by him) shall hold public examinations of appli¬ cants for teachers’ county certificates, using questions prepared by State board, place to be designated by county superintendent. Every ai)plicant shall furnish evidence of good moral character and be examined in orthography, reading, writ¬ ing, mental and written arithmetic, English grammar, geography. United States history, theory of teaching, physiology and hygiene, civil government, and Oregon school law. (1) First-grade certificates, which are good in the county for three years, shall be granted to those who are LS years of age and have taught twelve school months with success, whose general average on examination is not less than 90 per cent and not less than 70 per cent in any branch. Whenever an applicant receives on two successive examinations 90 per cent on any subject, at the next examination he shall be excused on such subjects and credited with the standing so earned. Superintendents of other counties may indorse first-grade certificates and register the same, and thus validate the same for their counties. (2) For second-grade certificates applicant must be 18 years old, have three months’ successful experience teaching, and make a general average grade of 80 per cent (in no branch less than 00), certificate valid two years. No person shall receive more than one second-grade certificate in any one county unless he be ineligible to a first-grade for want of twelve months’ teaching experience. (3) For a third-grade certHlcate applicants shall have attained the age of 18 and an average of 75 on elimination ; not less than 00 in any branch. Certifi¬ cate is valid for one year and is not issued twice to the same person unless he lack the three months’ experience in teaching requisite for a second-grade certifi¬ cate. (4) A primary certificate, authorizing the holder to teach in the innmary- 462 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. grades not beyond third, or in a graded school as assistant, good for three years, may be issued to applicants over. 18 who shall make an average of 85 (not less than 70 in any branch) upon examination in reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, physiology, art of questioning, theory and practice of teaching, and methods. (5) A temporary permit may be issued by the county superintendent when necessary, valid only in county where issued until the next regular exami¬ nation. No applicant having failed at the last regular examination shall receive a temporary permit, and no one shall receive such permit more than twice. Fees for certilicates (county certificate, any grade, $2; temporary permit, $2.50; indorsement and register of first grade in another county, $1) become part of the county institute fund. Certificates may be revoked for immorality, incompe¬ tency, or gross neglect of duty after the accused has been heard. State certificates and diplomas. — The State board of education shall appoint not less than four nor more than nine professional teachers to assist in State examinations, who shall be known as the State board of examiners and shall receive $5 a day while employed in such capacity. State examinations shall be conducted under rules and regulations prescribed by State board of education. A State certificate is valid for five years, applicants for which must have had thirty months of approved experience in teaching, nine of which in the schools of Oregon, and shall make a general average of 85, not less than 70 in any branch, upon examination in the subjects required for county certificates (which see), with the addition of algebra, bookkeeping, composition, physical geography, physics, and psychology. For a State diploma, which is good for life, an applicant shall have had sixty months of successful teaching, fifteen of which in Oregon, and shall pass examination at the same grades as for State certificate, and same subjects, with the addition of botany, plane geometry, gen¬ eral history, and English literature. If an applicant for a State certificate or diploma fail on one or more subjects, he need not be reexamined in those sub¬ jects wherein he was successful, provided he shall satisfactorily pass the remaining subjects at the two foilowing examinations. Examination fee for State certificate, $4 ; diploma, $0. State t'oard of education may grant State certificates or diplomas without examination to persons presenting authenticated papers from other States which \vere secured by passing equivalent examina¬ tions, and said board may grant a permit for one year to persons who hold papers of the required gr.ade but lack the necessary teaching experience in Oregon for a State certificate. The following may be accepted in lieu of the thirty months’ teaching experience required for a State certificate; (1) Diplomas from the regular State normal schools, or (2) from any normal school in the State, or (3) from any chartered institution of collegiate or university grade in the State, where the courses of (2) and (3) shall be approved by the State board of education as equivalent to those of (1) : Provided, That the required examination shall not be waived, and no State certificate shall be issued to any¬ one under 21 years of age. Holders of certificates granted under these pro¬ visions may become candidates for State diplomas after they shall have taught thirty months with approved success. (See also Schools, High, Normal.) Duties. — To maintain order in school and conduct himself before his pupils so as to command their respect ; labor during school hours to advance them in their studies, to create in their minds a desire for knowledge, principle, morality, politeness, cleanliness, and the preservation of health ; give all pupils suitable instruction in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics ; keeji a school register showing name, sex, daily attendance, and classification of i)ui)ils, the point in State course of study where each class began and closed, and other data required by State^ board of educa¬ tion ; require pupils to take proper exercise, encouraging healthful play at recess, and shall give vigilant attention to the temperature and ventilation of schoolroom, seeing to it that doors and windows are open at each intermission for the purpose of changing the air of the room ; may allow pupils under 8 such recesses as that the time in school shall not exceed three and a half hours a day ; shall give two exercises in free gymnastics and suitable voice and breathing exercises daily. Contracts. — The school board shall hire teachers and shall make contracts specifying wages, number of mouths to be taught, and the time of beginning, as agreetl upon, and shall file such contracts in the ofi^e of the district clerk and send a copy to the county clerk. No teacher shall be employed who is related by blood or marriage within the third degree to any member of the board with¬ out the concurrence of all members of board and such vote duly recorded by the clerk. Board shall dismiss teachers only for good cause shown, Avhich shall be DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OEEGOH. 463 recorded by the clerk, and teacher shall have the right of appeal to county superintendent and thence to State superintendent. Institutes. — The State superintendent shall cause to be held once a year a State teachers’ association, at such time and place as in his judgment will best promote the general interests of education. Each county superintendent shall hold a teachers’ institute not less than three days each year for the instruction of teachers and those desiring to teach ; may revoke the certificate, reduce the grade, or refuse to grant a certificate to any teacher refusing to attend same v/ithout cause ; shall give each teacher a certificate showing what sessions he attended, by virtue of which certificate teacher shall be entitled to pay for not more than three days during which his school was closed that he might attend institute. (See also Certificates, county.) Training. — (See Schools, normal.) 3. Schools. Scholastic day and month— Attendance — Employment of children — Transporta¬ tion of pupils — Courses of study — Text-hooks — Buildings and grounds — Kin¬ dergartens— High schools — Manual training — Normal schools. Scholastic day and month. — School shall commence at 9 a. m. and close at 4 p. m., with one hour for recreation at noon, but the school board may order a less number of school hours. Twenty school days make a school month. Attendance. — Schools are free to all within the district under 21 and over 6 years of age or over 4 where there are kindergartens. Attendance shall be com¬ pulsory upon those under 14 during the whole of the school term in the city or town where they reside, unless they be prevented by bodily or mental disability, or unless taught in a private school or at home in. similar branches, or have already acquired knowledge of the branches in question ; and attendance shall be compulsory upon anyone under 15 who is not employed in any lawful work. Deaf-mutes between 8 and 16 are required to attend a suitable institution six months each :vear for five years. School boards may require vaccination of pupils as a condition precedent to attendance and shall decide how far revacci- nation sTiall be required if a case of smallpox has occurred in the vicinity, and may prohibit the attendance of any teacher or pupil for such time as they may determine to prevent the spread of contagious disease. Employment of children. — No child under 14 shall be employed in any factory, store, workshop, in or about any mine, or in the telegraph, telephone, or public messenger service ; nor in any work whatever for compensation during school hours. No child under 16 shall be employed at any work before 6 a. m. nor after 7 p. m., nor longer than ten hours in any day, nor more than six klays in any week, and every such child under 16 shall be entitled to not less than thirty minutes for mealtime at noon. No person shall employ, while a school is maintained in the town or city, any minor under 16 who can not read at sight and write legibly simple English sentences, and no parent, guardian, or custo¬ dian shall permit any such minor under his control to be so employed. Any parent or guardian violating the provisions of this law shall be liable to a fine of from $5 to $25, and any person or corporation who as employer shall violate the same shall be liable to a fine of from $10 to $25 for the first offense, $25 to $50 for the second, and for the third and each succeeding offense shall be liable to imprisonment from ten to thirty days. The board of inspectors of child labor in the State of Oregon shall consist of five persons, at least three of v/hom shall be women, appointed by the governor, one member to retire each year. It shall be unlawful for anyone to employ a child under 16 without first securing from parent or guardian an affidavit stating name, date and place of birth, and the school attended by such child. Employers shall keep a register containing such data, and the said affidavits shall, upon demand, be shown to the said board of inspection. If any such child may seem physically unable to perform the labor at which he is employed, said inspectors may demand a certificate of physical fitness from some regularly licensed physician,' in default of which he shall not be so employed. 'I Transportation of pupils. — When authorized by a majority vote at an;/ legally called school meeting, the school board shall furnish transportation to and from school for all pupils living more than 2 miles therefrom, and may at their dis¬ cretion provide for transportation of pupils living nearer than 2 miles, or, instead, may pay the board of any pupil at a suitable place near the school. When authorized by the school meeting, the said board may suspend the district 464 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. school aivJ arrange with other districts for the instruction of pupils residing within their district, and may arrange for the transportation of such pupils to and from, or for their hoard at a suitable place near, such schools. Transpor¬ tation or board herein referred to may he paid for out of the common school fund, or, when so authorized by the school meeting, a tax may be levied for such purpose. Courses of studu. — In first-class districts the course of study is prescribed by the district school board, who may include therein one modern language upon petition of 100 qualitied electors of the district. Districts of the second and third class shall use the course prescribed by the State board of education. In every school shall be given suitable instruction in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the eifects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics. (For other branches of study specitied by law see Teachers — Certificates. See also High schools. ) Te.Tt-hooJiS. — In .Ta, unary every four years c the governor shall appoint, from different sections of the State, a board of five text-book commissioners, who shall meet at the State capitol the second Monday in July every six years « (and other times at the call of the chairman or the governor), continue in session not more than fifteen days, and adopt text-books covering all branches specified in the courses of study prepared by the State board of education, which books shall be used in the public schools of the State for six years. Four members shall constitute a quorum; at least three votes shall be necessary for the choice of any text-book ; sessions shall be public, all votes viva voce, and the vote of each member shall be recorded in the board minutes. Commissioners shall receive $100 for attendance at each meeting, with 10 cents for each mile trav¬ eled going and coming. In February every six years « the State superintendent shall mail circulars to all the leading text-book publishers containing data, necessary to the sub¬ mittal of bids. When text-books have been adopted by said commissioners, they shall report the same, giving title of each book, date of copyright, and prices (ex¬ change, introductory, and retail) to the State board of education, who shall exe¬ cute a contract in triplicate, requiring each publisher whose book or books shall have been adopted to maintain at least one depository in each county (at places designated by State board of education), where books shall be sold or exchanged at prices named in bids, and contracts shall be secured by bond in such sum and with two such sureties as may be approved by said State board of education. In August every six years « the State superintendent shall issue a circular giving data concerning books adopted by said text-book board, and send same to each county superintendent in sufficient quantities that every school officer shall have a copy. In any district where a high school is maintained, the board of school direct¬ ors shall, in July every six years,® adopt text-books for any branch of study added by them to the branches specified in the State high school course, but no book shall be substituted, directly or indirectly, for one specified in said State course. The same pro^'isions regarding voting, contracts, etc., specified in con¬ nection with the State l>oard apply similarly to said district boards. Buildings and grounds.— ^\heneYQl‘ in the judgment of the district school board it is desirable or necessary, or whenever petitioned so to do by one-third of the voters of the district, said board shall call a meeting of the district to vote upon the question of the selection, purchase, exchange, or sale of a school- house site, or the erection, removal, or sale of a schoolhouse. If a majority of the voters present at such meeting shall select a site, or shall be in favor of the purchase, exchange, or sale of the schoolhouse, as the case may be, the board shall take action accordingly; but it shall require a concurrence of two-thirds of those present and voting at such meeting to order the removal of a schoolhouse, and such house so removed can not again be removed within three years. It shall be the duty of the school board to clear the school grounds of brush or other obstructions to a good view of the premises ; provide suitable and con¬ venient water-closets, at least two for each school, and keep same in a clean and wholesome condition ; and failure to comply with these provisions shall be sufficient ground for removal from office and for withholding from such district any part of the county school-tax fund, and the said board have power, with¬ out a vote of the district, to levy a tax to cover any expense incurred for such purposes. Beginning 1901. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - OKEGOTQ. 465 The board shall prosecute any person who shall willfully write, make marks, or draw obscene pictures on any schoolhouse or outbuilding:, or otherwise deface or damage any school building or furniture ; and such offense shall be punished by a fine of from $5 to $20. WTien authorized by the district the board may permit a schoolhouse, when not occupied for school purposes, to be used under careful restrictions for any other proper purpose, giving equal privileges to all religious denominations or political parties, provided that stationary furniture shall not be moved, nor shall the district be put to any expense for fuel or other¬ wise because of such use. No dancing shall be permitted in any schoolroom. In order that the children may assist in adorning the school grounds with trees, and to encourage the planting and protection of trees and shi'ubs and the preservation of forests, the afternoon of the second Friday in April each year ’shall be observed as Arbor Day, for which the State superintendent shall pre¬ pare and prescribe a course of exercises and instruction. Kindergartens. — School boards of first or second class districts, when author¬ ized by such districts, may establish and maintain kindergartens as part of the common school system, which shall be free to children over 4 years of age. High schools. — There are two kinds of high schools — district high schools and county high schools. Upon petition of one-third of the voters of any district, or whenever the school board think proper, the question shall be submitted to the voters of the district whether a high school shall be established and at the place specified ; and if a majority of all votes cast shall be in favor of same, it shall be the duty of said board to establish such high school, provide for its maintenance, and select suitable teachers for its various grades. The board, may use any part of the county or State school funds, or any funds raised by taxation of the district, for such purpose; Provided, That none of the funds of any district shall be so used unless said district shall also maintain at least eight months’ instruction each year in the lower grades. High schools shall be free to all pupils v/ho shall have passed the eighth-grade final examination. The county court, upon petition of 100 or more qualified electors, taxpayers of the county, must submit the question, at a general or special election, of establishing a county high school ; and if said vote shall be .affirmative, the court shall within thirty days locate such school in some suitable and convenient place in the county. WTien said court shall have provided a lot and building, they shall cause same to be deeded to the county high school board, which shall consist of the county judge, the two commissioners, treasurer, and superin¬ tendent. Said court or board may rent suitable rooms for said school, or said board may contract with the board of directors of any school district in the county which may maintain a high school grade to teach all county high school pupils at such charge for tuition as may be agreed upon. The county court shall levy a tax to cover cost of establishment and maintenance of said high school or to pay said tuition. More than one high school may be established by the high school board if so ordered by the voters. The course of study for high schools shall embrace four j^ears, two of which shall be given to required work ; it shall be uniform throughout the State, the course being prescribed by the State superintendent. The course of study for the two years of optional work shall be prescribed by the board controlling the district or county high school, after consultation with the State superintendent; all or part of such two years may be devoted to industrial training. Where industrial training is made a part of the course, it may be interspersed with the required studies throughout the four-year course. All teachers in high schools shall be graduates of one of the State normal schools, or of some institution of collegiate or university grade, or shall hold a State certificate or diploma. Manual training. — (See High schools.) Normal schools. — The following-named are designated as State normal schools : The Oregon Normal School, at Monmouth, Polk County ; the Southern Oregon State Normal School, at Ashland, Jackson County ; the Eastern Normal School, at Weston, Umatilla County ; the Wasco Independent Academy, at The Dalles, Wasco County ; and the Central Oregon Normal School, at Drain, Douglas County. The schools at Monmouth, Ashland, and Drain are each under the control of a board of twelve regents, consisting of the State board of educa¬ tion ex officio and nine members appointed by the governor for six years. The school at Weston is under the control of seven regents appointed by the governor for six years, and that at The Dalles is controlled by a board of trus¬ tees. Boards arrange courses of study in conjunction with State superintend- ED 1904 M - 30 466 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. ent, and confer diplomas upon persons recommended for graduation by the faculty. (See also Teachers — State certificates and diplomas.) In connection with normal schools may be established model schools for practice in teaching, and all students may have the privilege of training in the same. 4. Finances. Common school fund — County tax — District tax — Apportionment and dishursc- ment — Bonds. Common school f und. — The proceeds of all the lands which have been or here¬ after may be granted to this State for educational purposes (excepting the lands heretofore granted to aid in the establishment of a university) ; all the moneys and clear proceeds of all property which may accrue,, to the State by escheat or forfeiture ; all moneys which may be paid as exemption from military duty ; all the proceeds of all gifts, devises, and bequests made by any person to the State for common school purposes ; the proceeds of all property granted to the State when the purposes of such grant shall not be stated ; all the proceeds of the 500,000 acres of land to which the State is entitled by the provisions of an act of Congress entitled “An act to appropriate the proceeds of the sales of the public lands, and to grant preemption rights,” approved September 4, 1841 ; and also the 5 per cent of the net proceeds of the sales of the public lands to which this State shall become entitled on her admission into the Union (if Congress shall consent to such appropriation of the grants last mentioned) shall be set apart as a separate and irreducible fund, to be called the common school fund, the interest of which, together with all revenues derived from the school land mentioned in this section, shall be exclusively applied to the support and main¬ tenance of common schools in each school district, and the purchase of suitable libraries and apparatus therefor. * * * The governor, secretary of state, and State treasurer shall constitute a board of commissioners for the sale of school and university lands and for the investment of funds arising therefrom. [State constitution.] (See also Bonds.) County school tax. — The county courts of the several counties are required to levy, at the same time they levy other taxes, a tax upon all taxable property in their respective counties for school purposes, which shall aggregate not less than $G per capita for the children in each county from 4 to 20 years of age, as shown by the last preceding school census. Fines collected for violations of school law shall be applied to the support of the common schools. District school tea*.— District meetings shall have power to levy a tax upon all real and personal property in their district, not to exceed 5 per cent of the taxable values of the district, and make any necessary appropriation for the support and benefit of schools ; but no tax shall be levied at any special meeting unless the call for such meeting stated such purpose. Apportionment and dishursement. — The county superintendent shall, on the first Monday in October, and at such other times as he may deem advisable, make an apportionment of the entire school fund then in the county treasury. The county tax fund shall be apportioned in the following manner : In Octo¬ ber he shall apportion 850 to each district that has reported to him as required by law (see Organization — District school clerks) and 85 for each teacher employed by such district who during the year preceding attended a county insti¬ tute or State teachers’ association not less than sixteen hours. The remainder of such fund (and any amount to be apportioned at any time other than in Octo¬ ber) shall be apportioned according to the number of children resident in each district between the ages of 4 and 20 years as shown by the clerk’s last annual report. On the first Monday in October annually he shall apportion the common or irreducible school fund among the several districts according to population between the ages of 4 and 20 years. * Districts shall not be entitled to their proportion of the school fund unless they shall report to the county superintendent by the second Monday in July each year and shall have had a school taught in their district at least three months. Every member of a school board or district clerk vrho shall willfully sign a false report with the intent of causing the county superintendent to appor¬ tion a larger share than the district’s just proportion of school money shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and such district shall also forfeit for each such offense the sum of 825 of its proportion of the school fund. In all districts at DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - PEHHS YLVAHIA. 467 least 85 per cent of the amount received from the county and the irreducible school fund shall be applied on teachers’ salaries. (See also Organization — Dis¬ trict boards, regarding* fuel, furniture, etc.) Bonds. — Upon petition of 10 voters of any school district the school board shall order an election, giving twenty days’ notice, to determine whether a bonded debt shall be incurred. If a majority of the votes cast shall be favorable thereto, the board shall issue coupon bonds of the district, interest not to exceed legal rate, payable semiannually, such bonds redeemable at the pleasure of the district after ten years but due and payable twenty years from date. In no case shall the aggregate bonded debt exceed 5 per cent of the taxable values of the school district. The county treasurer shall sell such bonds at the best price obtainable, not less than par, and hold the proceeds subject to the order of the said district board. But before otfering for sale notice of such issue shall be given the State land board (see Common school fund), who shall have the preferential right to purchase same, and any surplus of the irreducible school fund or any other fund held by said State land board shall be invested as far as possible in the bonds and warrants issued by the various school districts within the State. The directors of such district must levy annually a tax sufficient to pay the interest accruing on said bonds as it becomes due, and after ten years shall also levy an amount not less than one-tenth of such unpaid bonds for a sinking fund to meet the payment of such bonds at maturity. PENNSYLVANIA. 1. Organization of the System. State superintendent and deputy — Count y superintendent — Directors and con¬ trollers — Local superintendents. State superintendent. — A superintendent of public instruction shall be ap¬ pointed bj;^ the governor every fourth year, bj^ and with the advice and con¬ sent of two-thirds of all the senate, and shall be removed by the governor for mis¬ behavior. He shall decide without appeal or costs all controversies or disputes that may arise or exist among the directors or controllers of any district, or between collectors or treasurers ; give advice, explanations, construction, or information to the district officers and citizens relative to the common school law, the duties of common school officers, the rights and duties of parents, guardians, and pupils, and the management of the schools, and all other ques¬ tions calculated to promote the cause of education ; sign orders on the State treasurer for payment of State money to the school districts ; prepare blank forms for the annual district reports, with suitable instructions, and foinvard them ; prepare an annual report containing a full account of the condition of the public schools, the expenditures for them, estimates for the year ensuing, the number of pupils, the cost of teaching each, the number of districts, plans for the improvement of the system, and all such matters relating to the common schools and to the duties of his office as he may deem expedient to communicate ; provide a seal for the authentication of official documents. He shall appoint one of his clerks general deputy, who may perform ail his duties in his absence, and remove any county superintendent for neglect of duty. ^ County superintendents. — The school directors of the several districts in each county shall meet in convention at the county seat every three years and select one person of literary and scientific attainments (college diploma. State or local certificate), and of three years’ experience in the art of teaching, and of good moral character, as county superintendent for three succeeding school years. His salary shall be $10 for each of the first 100 schools within his jurisdiction, $5 for each school above 100 and not over 200, and $2 each for each school above 200, but in no case to be less than $1,000 nor more than $2,000. School directors may increase the county superintendent’s salary from the .school fund of the county, and in counties having over 290 schools or 1,200 -square miles of territory or a school term exceeding seven and one-half months the salary paid shall not be less than $1,500. The county superintendent m.ay not teach in the public schools unless he does so without compensation. He shall take oath toper- form his duties to the best of his ability ; visit as often as practicable the several schools of his county, noting the character of instruction and the 468 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. methods, and giving directions upon these subjects in order to bring the teach¬ ing up to the grade intended and the grades into ordination and the schools into uniformity ; see that the branches required by law are taught by legally com¬ petent teachers, examine all candidates for teaching, grant certificates to quali¬ fied persons and revoke the same for cause ; annually report to the State super¬ intendent in exteiiso upon the educational condition of his county, forward the reports of the several school districts thereof, and hold teachers’ institutes annually. Directors and controllers. — Every township, borough, and city of this Com¬ monwealth, or which shall hereafter be erected, shall be a school district. School districts which are composed of cities and boroughs divided into wards for school purposes shall be constituted as follows : Each ward shall retain its school property and elect a separate board of directors, who shall have the erection and repair of schoolhouses, the purchase of sites, and the levying, assessing, collecting, and disbursing of all taxes laid for the above purposes ; but other powers and duties which are exercised by district school directors shall be in the hands of a board of controllers, composed of the directors of the several wards ; provided that whenever the ward boards of directors shall voluntarily grant the property of their wards to the board of controllers the city or borough shall constitute a single school district, but the number of directors shall thereafter be three for each ward. School directors shall be elected annually in other districts as follo\vs : At the same time and place that elections are held for supervisors in wards, cities, or boroughs, two qualified citizens shall be elected school directors in each dis¬ trict, whose term of office shall be three years, vacancies to be filled by the board. No school director may be also a constable, pathmaster, commissioner of roads, or auditor. Failure on the part of a member to attend two consecu¬ tive meetings and the failure of all the members of the board of directors or controllers to levy a tax to keep the schools in operation or to provide school- houses, vacates the delinquent member’s seat in the first case, and vacates the seats of every member in the second. The board elects a lu’esident, secretary, and treasurer, and holds a meeting at least once in every three months. Directors of a township, or of two or more townships jointly, may establish high schools, which, maintaining the course prescribed by the State superin¬ tendent, shall be entitled to an appropriation from the State of $400 for a two- years’ course beyond the common branches, $000 for a three-years’ course, and $800 for a four-years’ course. The district board of directors and the municipal board of controllers have the following duties and powers : To establish a sufficient number of schools, employ teachers, direct what branches shall be taught and books used, expel all incorrigible children, purchase and issue text-books, and other necessary sup¬ plies, and report the amount expended for such supplies, grade the schools, pay expenses of the schools by drafts on the district treasurer, and report and pub¬ lish annually a statement of the financial operations of the district in not less than ten written or printed handbills posted in tlie most public places of the district, and also to make a statement to the auditor. The board of controllers of school districts which are composed of cities or boroughs divided into wards for school purposes, or boroughs not so divided, but having a population of 5,000 or more, shall possess the following additional powers and have the following duties : They may establish high schools, and shall admit to them all under 21 years of age properly prepared to enter upon the course of study, and, in general, shall exercise supervision over them, appoint¬ ing the teachers and establishing the course of study, purchasing land and erect¬ ing buildings, and maintaining them for not less than ten months in the year. Cities of under 100,000 inhabitants are constituted one school district, each ward to elect two members of the board of controllers for four-year terms,- one going out biennially. The county superintendent shall annually call all the directors together, at some time when the county teachers’ institute is not in session, for the consid¬ eration of questions pertaining to school administration. Each director attend¬ ing receives-3 cents per mfle for traveling expenses, and to defray the expenses of the convention the county pays a dollar for each director in attendance, the maximum amount being $100. City, l)oroH(/Ji, and totcnship superintendents. — School directors in any city, borough or township having a population of over 5,000 may elect one person of literary and scientific acquirements, and skill and experience in the art of teaching, as city or borough superintendent for the three succeeding school DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - PENNSYLVANIA. 469 years ; and, they shall determine his compensation. After the certification of the election of the superintendent to the State superintendent, the schools of the city, borough, or township shall not be subject to the authority of the county superintendent. The municipal superintendent is to perform the duties of the county superintendent iflid such as may be imposed by his board of directors, report monthly to the State superintendent, and attend meetings of superin¬ tendents called by him. 2. Teach ESS. Aj)poinfinent, qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment , qualifications, and duties. — No district employing a teacher who has not a valid certificate from the county or local superintendent shall receive money from the State treasury. No teacher shall be employed in teaching any branch of learning other than those enumerated in his or her certificate. No teacher shall be employed or dismissed except by a majority vote of the whole number of the directors or controllers of any common-school district. No person shall receive a certificate from a county, city, borough, or township superintend¬ ent who has not a fair knowledge of orthography, reading, writing, geography, English grammar, mental and written arithmetic, history of the United States, the theory of teaching, physiology and hygiene, civil government and elementary algebra. No person using intoxicating drinks as a beverage shall be granted a certificate. The certificate shall state the proficiency of the holder in each branch. The teacher must report monthly to the local school board the number and sex of pupils in attendance, the books used, and branches taught, or forfeit pay. After June 1, 1904, the minimum salary of teachers shall be $35 a month. Any district failing to comply with this provision shall forfeit its State appro¬ priation during the whole time it is violated. Preliminary training. — The State is divided at present into 13 normal school districts. When 13 or more citizens shall, as contributors or stockholders, erect and establish a school for the professional training of young men and women as teachers for the public schools of the State, all students in that school over 17 years of age who sign an agreement to teach two years in the public schools of the State after graduation receive $1.50 per week, which pays their tuition in full. The affairs of each school are to be managed by a board of 18 trustees, 12 elected by the contributors and 6 appointed by the State superin¬ tendent, and it shall require a three-fourths vote to pass a motion for the sale or purchase of real estate. The governor, superintendent, and attorney- general are a commisioii to distribute the State money to the schools. The trustees report annually to the superintendent, and are always subject to his in.spection. To obtain State aid the following requirements must be met : Suit¬ able building, surrounded by an area of 10 acres ; a hall to seat 1,000 persons, with class rooms, etc., to accommodate 300 or more students, properly supplied with heating apparatus, adequately lighted and ventilated, and provided with a place for physical exercise in inclement weather, a library, 6 professors or more, one each in orthography, in reading and elocution, in VvU-iting, drawing and bookkeeping, in arithmetic and higher mathematics, in geography and history, in grammar and English histor3g and in theoiT and practice of teaching, together with such professors of natural, mental, and moral sciences, languages, and literature as the condition of the school and the number of students may require. The principal shall be a professor of one of the required branches. There shail be a model school of not less than 100 children. The principals shall fix the requisites for admission and the course and duration of study. The examination of the graduating class shall be conducted by a board com¬ posed of two principals, one of whom shall be the principal of the school whose pupils are under examination, the State superintendent or his deputy and two county or local superintendents of the normal school district being present, and no person shail graduate unless by a vote of 4 out of the said 5-'members. Graduates are given a certificate of their scholastic qualifications valid through¬ out the State, but after two years of teaching a certificate of competency in teaching (teachers’ State certificate) shall be given. Actual teachers in good standing, having taught three full annual terms, may also take the examination. Institutes. — Annually the county superintendent shall hold an institute, at which all the teachers of the county are required to be present, without loss of pay. The duration of the institute is five days, one-half day being allowed to come from and another to return home. The county superintendent shall draw from the county treasury for every three days’ attendance of a teacher the sum 470 EDUCATIOI^f EEPORT, 1904. of $1 to defray the expenses of lecturers and instructors. It shall be law¬ ful, however, for the board of directors or controllers which has elected a superintendent and employs not less than 75 teachers to hold a separate annual teachers’ institute and to draw upon the county treasury in the manner laid down for the county superintendent. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — The board of directors or controllers shall provide a sufficient number of schools for the education of every individual above 6 and under 21 years of age for four to ten months, without regard to race or color. All children between 8 and 13 years of age must attend school continuously during the term, unless the board at its meeting in June shall reduce the period of compulsory attendance, but the period shall not be reduced to less than 70 per cent of the term. Pupils may be excused on account of mental or physical ailments, or if there is no schoolhouse within 2 miles of their residence, or on l)resentation of a certificate that they are being taught in a proper private school. For neglect of anyone in parental relation to send a child to school, or of the principal or teacher to report the nonattendance of pupils, the penalty for the first offense is •‘^2, each subsequent offense $5. Boards of directors or school controllers in cities shall, and in all other districts may, appoint a truant officer, with police power, to be paid out of the school fund, to enforce the com¬ pulsory-attendance law. Boards of directors may establish special schools for habitual truants or those who are insubordinate or disorderly while in attend¬ ance upon the public schools. No child under 13 years of age shall be employed in any manufncturing or mercantile industry; nor anyone under IG who can not read and v\uute English, unless he presents a certificate of having attended during the preceding jmar an evening or day school for a period of sixteen weeks, such certificate to be signed by the teacher of the school so attended. Character of instruction. — It shall be the duty of each county superintendent to see .that there be taught orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, and physiology in reference to stimulants, as well as such other branches as the board of directors or controllers may require, all to be taught by qualified teachers. Failure of a local board in these respects works forfeiture of State money. District boards have power to grade schools, and boards in cities and boroughs having a i^opulation of 5,000 or more may estab¬ lish a high school, fix its course of study, appoint its teachers, and maintain it for ten months in the year. Upon the application of the parents of 20 or more children above G years of age, the school board shall open an evening school, giving instruction in read¬ ing, writing, arithmetic, and such other studies as may be prescribed by the board. The term of such school is to be not less than four months of 20 even¬ ings of two hours each, but if the average attendance falls below 15 the school may be closed. In certain cities central boards of education are provided, to establish and maintain schools for instruction in the mechanic arts and kin¬ dred subjects ; instruction in such schools may be given in the day or even¬ ing, and may include chemistry, mathematics, natural philosophy, and other branches pertaining to the mechanic arts. Text-hooks. — No series of text-books shall be adopted in any school district unless by vote of a majority of the whole number of the directors or controllers, and .their votes shall be recorded by name ; nor shall any text-books be changed until three years after their adoption. The board shall purchase text-books and other necessary supplies for the schools as the occasion demands, and such books and supplies shall be furnished free of cost to the pupils, subject to regulations. Buildings. — Suitable buildings and outhouses must be supplied by the board of directors for all children of school age. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent and special). — Any person found intoxicated in a public thoroughfare or place shall be fined $2, to be paid to the school district. This •fund is distributed to the districts on the basis of resident taxables. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - EHODE ISLAND. 471 Taxation. — There are three kinds of tax for school purposes according to their subjects, each separate and distinct, but all may be due from one person. They are : Tiie rate tax on real and personal property ; a minimum occupation tax of $1 on all resident males’ taxabies over 21 .years of age; the districts may tax themselves for su])port of schools in general, up to 13 mills, and may raise a sum for establishing schoolhouses not greater than the sum raised for support of schools in the same y(‘ar. RHODE ISLAND. 1, OegaxiZxItion of ti-ie System. State hoard — Commissioner of puhlic 'schools — Toicn school committee — Town superintendent — District trustees — -Truant officers. State hoard. — The general supervision and control of the public schools of the State and the enforcement of all rules and regulations necessary for carrying into effect the laws in relation thereto, with such high schools, normal schools, and normal institutes as are or may be established and maintained wholly or in part by the State, shall be vested in a State board of education, which shall con¬ sist of the governor and lieutenant-governor ex officio, and of six other members, one from each of the counties of the State with the exception of Providence County, which shall have two members. Two members of the board shall be elected annually at the January session of the general assembly from each county the term of whose member has expired, who shall hold office three years. Vacancies are filled in the same manner. The goveamor shall be president and the commissioner of public schools secretary of the board, which shall hold quar¬ terly meetings, but special meetings may be convoked by its president* or secre¬ tary. The board maj^ grant for the purchase of books in any free public library the sum of $50 for the first 500 volumes it obtains, and $25 for every additional 500 volumes ther-ein, provided that the annual payment shall not exceed the sum of $500. It shall prescribe the character of books which constitute such library and regulate its management so as to secure the free use of the same to the peo¬ ple of the town and neighborhood. The board shall hold or cause to be held, in such places in different parts of the State and at such times as they may determine, examinations for the posi¬ tion of teacher in the public schools of this State ; and said board is hereby au¬ thorized to issue certificates of qualification which shall be valid throughout the State for the grade and time specified therein. The board shall make an annual report to the general assembly. The mem¬ bers shall receive no compensation, but the expenses necessitated by the per¬ formance of their duties shall be paid after approval by the general assembly. Commissioner of puhlic schools. — The State board shall annually elect a com¬ missioner of public schools, who shall devote his time exclusively to the duties of his office, and while unable to perform them, the governor shall appoint a person to act as commissioner during the continuance of the disability. He may appoint a clerk to assist in the duties of his office. He shall visit, as often as practicable, every school district in the State for the purpose of inspecting schools and of diffusing as widely as possible by public addresses and personal communication to school officers, teachers, and parents a knowledge of the defects and of any advisable improvements in the adminis¬ tration of the system and the government and instruction of the schools. ' He shall endeavor to secure uniformity in text-books and promote the establish¬ ment of school libraries, and shall report annually to the board of education upon the condition of education in the State schools, with suggestions for their improvement. Town school committee. — The school committee of each town shall consist of three residents of the town, or of the same number as constituted the qpmmittee in 1896, divided as nearly as may be into three groups, one group retiring from office annually. In a town abolishing all the school districts within its limits, the town school committee may, by vote of the town, be increased to seven persons. Vacancies are filled by the town council until the next annual election. The school committee shall meet at least four times in every year. The committee may alter and discontinue districts, shall locate all school- 472 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. houses ; one or more of its number shall visit every public school in the town at least twice during each term, once within two weeks of its opening and once within two weeks of its close, examining the register, schoolhouse, library, studies, books, discipline, modes, of teaching and of improving the school. They shall make rules and regulations for the attendance and classification of the pupils, for the introduction and use of text-books and works of reference, and for the instruction, government, and discipline of the public schools, and shall prescribe the studies to be pursued therein, under the direction of the commis¬ sioner of public schools, and they may suspend incorrigible children. They may consolidate two or more ungraded schools in order to make a graded school of two or more departments, and they may unite an ungraded school with a graded school. A bonus of |!100 is granted for each department of a graded school formed as above, and the same sum is granted for each ungraded school united with a graded school. Authority to provide transportation of pupils in such cases is granted. No town's proportion of the annual State appropriation of $120,000 shall be reduced on account of any such consolidation. Where a town is not divided into districts,® or shall vote to provide schools without reference to such division, the school committee shall manage and regu¬ late such schools and draw orders for the payment of their expenses. When¬ ever the public schools are maintained by district organization, the committee shall apportion among the districts the town’s proportion of the sum of $120,000 received from the State, and in addition at least one-fourth as much more from the town appropriation for the support of public schools ; the re¬ mainder of the town appropriation and the moneys received from registry and dog taxes, from school funds, and other sources, shall be divided into two equal parts, one to be apportioned to the several districts according to the average attendance at the schools during the preceding year, the other to be apportioned at the discretion of the committee: Provided alwaysprhtit the total apportion^ient shall not be less than $180, and the district shall have reported in legal nianner and form that one or more schools have been taught by a com¬ petent teacher in an approved Imilding, that the “teachers’ money” of the pre¬ ceding year has been wholly used in paying teachers, and that the register has been properly kept and deposited. The committee shall make a, ’report annually to the State commissioner and may reserve not more than $40 to defray the exi)enses of printing it. SuiJerintendeut of schools. — The school committee of each tovvui shall elect a superintendent of the public schools of the town, to perform such duties and to exercise such powers as the committee shall assign him, and to receive such compensation as the committee may vote. Any two or more towns the aggregate number of schools in all of which shall not be more than 60, may, by vote of the qualified electors of said several towns, unite for the purpose of the employment of a superintendent of schools. District school trustees. — Each district® shall annually elect a moderator, a clerk, a treasurer, a collector, and either one or three trustees. The trustees shall provide and have the custody of the schoolhouse and other property and shall employ one or more qualified teachers for every 50 scholars in average daily attendance ; shall see that the pupils are supi)lied with books, and shall provide the same at the expense of the district on failure of parent or guardian to furnish them. Whatever compensation is received by the trustees must be paid by tax levied on the district, and may not be taken out of State or town appropriations. Truant officers. — The school committee of each city or town shall annually appoint and fix the compensation of one or more persons as truant officers, who shall be clothed with the power of special constables, and who shall, under the direction of the school committee, inquire into all cases arising under the provi¬ sions of the compulsory-attendance act, and shall alone be authorized, in case of violation of any of the provisions of said act, to make complaint therefor ; they shall also serve all legal processes issued in pursuance of said act, but shall not be entitled to receive any fees for such service: Provided, however. That in case of tJae commitment of any person under the provisions of any section of said act, or for default of i:)ayment of amy fine and costs imposed thereunder, such officer shall be entitled to the regular fees allowed by law for similar service. (See also Schools — Attendance.) “All districts abolished January 1, 1904. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - RHODE ISLAND. 473 2. Teachers. Qualifications and duties — Freliniinary training — Institutes. Appointment and qualifications. — No person shall be employed to teach as principal or assistant in any school supported wholly or in part by imblic money unless such person shall have a certilicate of qualihcation issued by or under the authority of the State board of education. No school committeeman or trustee may teach in the schools of his own town. The teacher must be of good moral character and aim to implant in the minds of children committed to his care the principles of morality and virtue. lie shall keep a register of the scholars, their names, sex, names of parents or guardians, time of entry and withdrawal, daily attendance, and note by date the visits of a school officer. He shall also prepare the return of the district to the school committee of the town. Preliminary training. — The normal school shall be under the management of the board of education and commissioner of public schools as a board of trustees. Tuition is free to State pupils having passed the required examination and given satisfactory assurances of their intention to teach in the State public schools at least one year after leaving the school. Graduates in the regular course shall, on recommendation of the principal, receive a diploma. Pupils having attended regularly one term, but living more than 5 miles distant from the school, may be allowed a sum not exceeding $25 for each quarter year for traveling expenses. The fund for such purpose, however, shall be limited to $4,000. Institutes. — A sum not exceeding $500 shall be annually allowed to defray the necessary expenses and charges for teachers and lecturers and for teachers’ institutes ; and a sum not exceeding $.300 shall be annually allowed, under the direction of the board of education, for publishing and distributing among the several towns educational publications, providing lectures on educational topics, and otherwise promoting the interests of education in the State. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — Schools must be taught for at least six months by a qualified teacher in an approved schoolhouse. Every child from 7 to 15 years of age, unless he has completed in the public schools the elementary studies taught in the first eight years of school attend¬ ance exclusive of kindergarten instruction provided for in the course of study adopted by the school committee of the city or town wherein such child resides, 01* unless he shall have reached 13 years of age and shall be lawfully employed at labor or at service or engaged in business, shall regularly attend some public day school during all the days and hours that the public schools are in session in the city, town, or district wherein he resides ; and every ])erson having under his control a child as above described shall cause such child to attend school as required above, and for every neglect of such duty the person having control of such child shall be fined not exceeding $20 : Provided, That if the person so charged shall prove that the child has attended for the required period of time an approved private day school or that the physical or mental condition of the child was such as to render his attendance at school inexpedient or impracticable, or that the child is over 12 years of age and has been excused in order to be employed by authority of the school committee upon the written recommenda¬ tion of the truant officers and of the overseer of the poor, stating that the child’s wages are necessary for the sujiport of the family, or that the child was destitute of clothing suitable for attending school and that the person having control of said child was unable to provide suitable clothing, then such attendance shall not be obligatory, nor shall such penalty be incurred. For these purposes the school committee shall approve a private school only when they are satisfied that the period of attendance of the pupils in such school is substantially equal to that required by law of a child attending a public school in the same city or town ; that the teaching in such school in all studies except foreign languages and any studies not taught in the public schools is in the English language; that such teaching or instruction is thorough and efficient ; and that registers are kept and returns to the school committee and truant officers in relation to the attend¬ ance of pupils are made the same as by the public schools. 474 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. No child under 13 years of age shall be employed to labor or engage in busi¬ ness, except during the vacations of the public schools of the city or town wherein such child resides, or as provided for above. No one under 15 years of age shall be employed unless he shall present to his employer a certificate made by or under the direction of the school committee of the city or town wherein such child resides, stating the name, place, and date of birth of said child and the name and residence of the person having control of said child. Every person who shall employ any minor child above described who has not complied with the provisions above recited shall for every such offense be fined not exceeding $20. The truant officers may visit any places or establishments where such minor children as have been described are employed to ascertain whether the provisions of this law are dulj" complied with, and may, as often as twice in every year, demand from all employers of such children a report containing the names of all children under 14 that are employed by them, such report to give the names, ages, and residences of all such children ; and for any refusal .to make such reports as are above provided for, or for any refusal to produce the above- mentioned certificates, any employer of such children shall be fined not exceed¬ ing $10. Every habitual truant — that is, every child who is required under this law to attend school and who willfully and habitually absents himself therefrom — and every habitual school offender — that is, every child who is required to attend school, but who persistently violates the rules and regulations of the school which he attends or otherwise persistently misbehaves therein, so as to render himself a fit subject for exclusion therefrom, may be complained of by the tru¬ ant ofiicer and be cojiimitted to the Sockanosset School for Boys or to the Oak- lawn School for Girls for a period not exceeding his minority : Provided, That any court or magistrate by whom a child has been convicted of such offense may, in his discretion, defer sentence and place such child on probation in the custody and control of a truant or probation officer of the city or town wherein such child resides for such period of time and upon such conditions as said court or magistrate may deem best, and whenever within such period the child violate?} the conditions of his probation he shall be brought into court and said court or magistrate may, in his discretion, place such child on further probation in the custody and control of the State board of charities and corrections for such period of time and upon such conditions as said court or magistrate may deem best; and whenever within such period the child violates the condition of his further probation, he shall be brought into court and receive sentence for the offense of which he was convicted when he was placed on probation, but the child may at any time demand that sentence be passed upon him, and the court or magistrate, whenever convinced that the child has reformed, may discontinue the complaint without sentence. Character of instruction. — ^The school committee shall prescribe the studies to be pursued in the public schools, and shall include instruction in the injurious effects of stimulants and narcotics upon the human system. Evening schools may be maintained by the towns under the general supervision of the State board. Any town maintaining a high school having a course of study approved by the State board of education shall be entitled to receive annually from the State $20 for each pupil in average attendance for the first 25 pupils and $10 each for the second 25. Any town not maintaining a high school which shall make pro¬ vision for the free attendance of its children at some approved high school shall receive aid upon the same basis as above. Text-hooks. — The school committee of every city and town shall purchase, at the expense of such city or town, text-books and other school supplies used in the puijlic schools, and said text-books and supplies shall be loaned to the pupils free of charge, subject to rules and regulations prescribed by the committee. A change may be made in the schoolbooks in the public schools of any town by a vote of two-thirds of the whole committee, provided that no change be made in any text-book in a town oftener than once in three years, unless by the consent of the State board of education. The sum of $4,000 shall be annually appropriated for the purchase of diction¬ aries, encyclopedias, and other works of reference, maps, globes, and other appa¬ ratus, to be distributed to towns or districts making an appropriation for the same purjwse, each town to receive not more than $200 if not divided into dis¬ tricts, districts to receive not more than $20, provided they have raised at least an equal sum. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - SOUTH OAROLINA. 475 Buildings. — All scboolhouses shall be located by the town school committee and plans approved by them. No one shall maintain a nuisance, as swine in a pen, within 100 feet of the inclosure of a schoolhouse. 4. Finances. Permanent school funds — Taxation. Permanent school fund. — The general treasurer, with the advice of the gov¬ ernor, shall have power to regulate the custody and safe-keeping of the fund for the support of public schools, and shall keep the same securely invested in the capital of some safe and responsible bank or banks or in bonds of towns or cities within this State. The money that shall be paid into the State treasury by auctioneers for duties accruing to the use of the State is appropriated annually to the permanent increase of the school fund. All money for the support of public schools appropriated to towns and by them forfeited shall be added to the permanent fund. All tines under the compulsory-attendance law and all poll taxes shall be applied to the support of the public schools in the town or city where collected, and all dog taxes, after the payment of damages done by dogs, shall be applied in a similar way unless retained by vote of the town. Taxation. — The sum of $120,000, to be denominated “ teachers’ money,” shall be annually paid, out of the income of the permanent school fund and from other money in the treasury, for the support of the public schools, to be apportioned among the several tov/ns by the commissioner of public schools as follows : The sum of $100 shall be apportioned for each school not to exceed 15 in number in any one tov/n, the remainder to be apportioned in proportion to the number ot children from 5 to 15 years of age, inclusive, in the several to\yns according to the school census then last preceding. No town shall receive any part of this appropriation unless it raise by tax for the support of public schools a sum equal to the amount it may receive from the State treasury, and neglect or refusal to levy this tax by the 1st day of July forfeits the delinquent town’s share of the State appropriation. There is an annual appropriation for the State aid to high schools and for the promotion of the consolidation of schools. A further sum is appropriated in aid of skilled supervision, either by single towns or jointly. There shall be an annual appropriation for the support and maintenance of evening schools in the several towns under the general supervi¬ sion of the State board of education, who shall apportion said appropriation among them. Every town shall establish and maintain a sufBcient number of public schools, and towns may at any legal meeting grant and vote such sums of money as they shall judge necessary for the support of schools, purchase of sites for and the erection and repair of schoolhouses, and for the establishment and maintenance of school libraries. SOUTH CAROLINA. 1. Oeganization or the System. State superintendent — State hoard — County superintendent — County hoard — ■ School districts — Trustees. State superintendent. — The State superintendent of education shall be elected at each general election, to serve two jmars ; vacancies filled by governor ; shall give bond of $5,000, with sureties approved by the governor, and shall receive $1,900 a year as compensation, with not to exceed $300 for traveling expenses and .$900 for clerk hire. He shall have general supervision over all the schools of the State supported in whole or in part by public funds ; visit every county as often as practicable for the purpose of inspecting the schools, awakening an interest in education, and diffusing as far as possible, by public addresses and personal communication with school officers, teachers, and parents, a knowledge of existing defects and desirable improvements in the same ; secure, with the advice of the State board, uniformity of text-books throughout the State ; pre¬ pare and transmit to the several county superintendents school registers, blank certificates, reports, and other forms and printed instructions necessary for school officers and teachers to make their reports and perform their other lawful duties ; cause the school laws to be printed, with rules, regulations, forms, and 476 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. instructions, and shall send copies of the same to county superintendents for distribution. He shall make a report through the governor to the general assembly at each regular session, showing; (1) The whole number of pupils registered and enrolled in the common schools of the State during the preceding year (ended June 30), by counties; (2) number of white and colored, respec¬ tively, of each sex in attendance; (3) number of free schools in the State; (4) number of pupils studying each of the branches taught; (5) average wages paid to teachers of each sex, and to principals of schools and departments; (6) num¬ ber of schoolhouses erected during the year, and location, material, and cost of same; (7) number previously erected, material of which constructed, condition and value, and the number with grounds inclosed; (8) counties in which teachers’ institutes were held, and the number attending in each county; (9) such other statistical information as he may deem important, with such plans as he may have matured and the State board may have recommended for the improvement of the public school system; such statistics shall include those per¬ taining to all State institutions of higher learning, which institutions for this purpose shall make a report to the State superintendent by September 1 each year. t^tate Ijoard. — The governor, superintendent of education, and seven persons to be appointed by the governor, one from each Congressional district, who shall hold office four years unless sooner removed by the governor, shall constitute the State board of education. The governor shall be chairman and the State superintendent secretary, who shall also be custodian of records, papers, and effects of the board, and shall keep minutes of its proceedings, all of which records, etc., shall be open to inspection by the public. Members appointed by the governor shall receive the same mileage and per diem as members of general assembly, not to exceed twenty days in any year. The board shall constitute an advisory body, with whom the State superintendent shall have the right to consult when in doubt as to his official duty, and shall have power to review on appeal all decisions of county boards. Other powers and duties are ; To adopt rules and regulations not inconsistent with law for their own government and the government of the public schools; prescribe and enforce rules for the examination of teachers ; prescribe standards of proficiency which will entitle persons examined by county boards to certificates as teachers; prescribe and enforce courses of study and uniform series of text-books (which see) ; grant State teachers’ certificates, and revoke same for cause; award scholarships created by the general assembly in State institutions. Couiitij superintendent. — In each county there shall be elected a county super¬ intendent of education, to serve two years ; vacancies filled by State board. He shall give $1,000 bond (.$5,000 in Saluda County). [Statute specifies salary for each county, ranging from $300 to $1,200 a year], with traveling expenses (not exceeding $100) necessarily incurred in attending meetings called for the purpose of advancing educational interests, and in visiting schools in other counties in order to become familiar with their management and mode of teach¬ ing. He shall visit the schools in his county once each year, oftener if prac¬ ticable, note the course and method of instruction and branches taught, and give such recommendation in each school as may be necessary so that uni¬ formity in courses and methods may be secured as far as practicable ; acquaint himself as far as practicable with the character and condition of each school, noting any deficiencies in government, or classification of pupils, or method of instruction, and make such suggestions in private to the teacher as to him shall appear necessary ; note character and condition of schoolhouses and furniture, and make such suggestions to trustees as in his opinion may be needful ; aid teachers in all proper efforts to improve themselves in their profession, and for this purpose shall comiuct teachers’ institutes and encourage the formation of teachers’ associations, attending the meetings of such associations and giving advice and instruction regarding their conduct and management. He shall make an annual report to the grand jury, through the judge of the court of general sessions (third term), showing all claims filed, audited, allowed, and ordered paid by him during the year ; by July 15 each year he shall rei)ort to the county treasurer all school claims, by districts, approved by him for the year preceding ; and shall furnish trustees of his county copies of reports made by him to county auditor and treasurer as to persons listed and paying poll tax, and shall aid trustees in making all proper corrections. (See also County board.) County hoard. — There shall be a county board of education in each county, composed of three members, one of whom shall be the county superintendent DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS— SOUTH CAEOLINA. 477 and the other two shall he a])poiiited by the State board every two years. Comity commissioners shall furnish said comity board with a suitable office and supply the same with furniture, fuel, lights, stationery, postage, and other incidentals necessary to the proper transaction of official business. The two members of said county hoard appointed by the State hoard shall receive as compensation $3 per day when employed (not to exceed seven days) and 5 cents per mile traveled in such public service, except that in counties having more than 50,000 population, per census of 1900, said members shall be com¬ pensated for not less than seven nor more than twenty days. The county board shall constitute an advisory body with whom the county superintendent may consult when in doulit as to his official duty, and shall decide local controversies relating to school law ; but either party may appeal to the State board. The county board shall meet at least twice a year, times and places to be appointed by State board. Other duties and powers are: To examine applicants for teachers’ certificates ; divide their counties into school districts, and appoint three trustees for each district; levy an annual tax of 3 mills on the dollar, and apportion same, when collected, among the several school districts of their respective counties. School districts. — County boards of education shall divide their counties into convenient school districts, in area from 9 to 49 square miies, and shall alter lines and create new districts from time to time as school interests may demand; but no new district shall be formed except upon petition of at least one-tliird of the qualified voters within such new territory, and no districts shall be consolidated except upon petition of at least one-third of the qualified voters of same. Territory lying within two or more counties may be united in one school district by joint action of the several county boards. Every such school district is a body politic and corporate for scliool purposes. Tnistees. — The county board, on the first Tuesday in Julj^ of each even year, shall appoint for each school district in their county three trustees from the quali¬ fied electors and taxpayers residing therein, to hold office two years. The trustees shall have the management and control of local public school interests, subject to the supervision of the county board, and shall visit each school in their dis¬ trict at least once in every school term. They shall hold a regular session at least two weeks before the commencement of any or every school term, and a special session upon call of the chairman or any two members. They are empowered to sell any school property, real or personal, within their district whenever they deem it expedient to do so, and apply proceeds to the district’s school fund ; but they shall first secure the consent of the county board, and within thirty days after such sale they shall report to county board terms and amount of same. All claims against a school district chargeable to the public school fund must be signed by at least a majority of the trustees. Other ])owers and duties of trustees are : To provide suitable schoolhouses, and make same comfortable ; employ teachers from among those having certificates from their county board, fix their salaries, discharge them for sufficient cause, and may impose any additional examinations or qualifications they deem proper before or after employing teachers ; suspend or dismiss pupils when necessary ; call meetings of voters for consultation in regard to school interests ; care for and control school property ; may cross all bridges or ferries free of charge when on official business. It shall be unlawful for any school trustee to be pecun¬ iarily interested in any contract with the school district of which he is a trustee, and no teacher shall be employed by a board of trustees who is related to a member of said board by consanguinity or affinity within the second degree, without the written approval of the county board and the v/ritten request of a majority of the parents or guardians of the children attending such school. 2. Teachers. Certificates — Employment and duties — Institutes. Certificates. — The county board shall examine all candidates for the position of teacher, and give to each person found qualified a certificate setting forth the branches such teacher is capable of teaching and the percentage attained in each branch, said certificate to be valid for two years unless sooner revoked, and may be renewed with or without examination, at the discretion of the county board. The county superintendent shall keep a register of the name, age, sex. 478 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. color, residence, and date of certificate of eacli person to whom a certificate is issued, and in case a certificate shall be canceled shall make a proper entry of same. The county board may revoke any certificate granted by them, for immoral or improper conduct or evident unfitness for teaching. The trustees of any school may impose any additional examinations and qualifications they may deem proper before or after employing a teacher. No examination as to qualification shall be made in the case of any applicant who produces a full diploma from any chartered college or university of the State, or Memminger Normal School, of Charleston, and furnishes satisfactory evidence of good moral character. The State board may grant State teachers’ certificates and revoke same for cause. Employment and duties.— The trustees employ teachers from among those having certificates from their county board, fix their salaries, and may discharge them for sufficient cause. The teacher or principal of every school shall keep and furnish annually to the trustees a list of all pupils that have attended school during the preceding scholastic year, showing name and residence of each pupil and number of days each attended. At the expiration of each school month each teacher shall make out and file with the clerk of the board of trus¬ tees a complete report of the whole number of pupils admitted to the school dur¬ ing the month (distinguishing between male and female), average attendance, branches taught, number studying each branch, and such other statistics as may be required by the county board of education. (See also Organization — Trus¬ tees, last sentence.) Institutes. — Out of the surplus remaining of the net income accruing from the sale of liquors under the dispensary law, after equalizing deficiencies existing in the several counties and districts (see Finances — Revenue from sale of liquors), ^5,0C0 a year shall be appropriated for the purpose of maintaining institutes for the better instruction of the teachers of the public schools, same to be paid on the warrant of the governor and the State supertiitendent of edu¬ cation. (See also Organization — State superintendent; County superintendent.) 3. Schools. Attendance — Studies — Text-hooks — Buildings and grounds. Attendance. — It shall not be lawful for any person who is less than G nor more than 21 years of age to attend the public free schools of this State, nor for pupils of one race to attend schools provided by trustees for pupils of another race. The school year begins July 1 and ends June 30, and each school shall be kept open for a period of at least three months in each and every year. When pupils are so situated as to be better accommodated at the school of an adjoining district, the board of trustees of the district where they reside may transfer them to the more convenient district. Transfers shall not bo made from one county into another without the consent of both county boards, but anyone pay¬ ing taxes in two or more counties may send his children to school in either county. Studies. — The county board of education and boards of trustees shall see that in every school under their care tliere shall be taught, as far as practicable, orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, the elements of agriculture, history of the United States and of vSouth Carolina, principles of the Constitution of the United States and of South Carolina, morals and good behavior, algebra, English literature, physiology and hygiene with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and such other branches as the State board may from time to time direct. Text-hooks. — It shall be the duty of the State board of education to prescribe and to enforce as far as practicable the use of a uniform series of text-books in the free public schools of the State, to enter into an agreement with the pub¬ lishers of the books prescribed, fixing the period of prescription, the price above which the books shall not be retailed during said period, and a rate of discount at not less than which the books shall be furnished to the retail dealers. Board may require contracting publishers to establish one or more depositories in each county, at places to be designated by board; publishers shall give bond in a sum of not more tlian .$-5,000, with a penalty of $25 for each viola¬ tion of the agreement, such bond to be approved by the attorney-general. State board shall not have power to change a book within five years of the date of its DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - SOUTH CAHOLIHA. 479 adoption without permission of the general assembly, except for violation of agreement by the publisher. No teacher shall be allowed to use any hook not so prescribed except by written consent of the State board. Whenever it shall appear to trustees that any patron of their school is unable by reason of poverty to purchase the necessary books for his or her children, said trustees may pur¬ chase such books and loan same to such children under such regulations as trus¬ tees may prescribe, the sum thus expended not to exceed 5 per cent of the school fund of the district for any year. Buildings and grounds. — (See Organization — Trustees.) The third Friday in November shall be duly observed as arbor day. 4. Finances. Revenue from, sale of liquors — County tax- — District tax. Revenue from sale of liquors. — All net income derived from the sale of liquors under the dispensary law shall be apportioned among the various counties of the State for the benefit of the common schools, in jmoportion to the deficiencies existing after the application of the 3-milI tax and the poll tax ; and if there shall be a surplus remaining of such net income after such deficiencies shall have been equalized, it shall be devoted to public school purposes and be appor¬ tioned among the counties in proportion to enrollment in the public schools as shall appear by the report of the State superintendent for the next preceding scholastic year, and be distributed among the school districts and disbursed as other school funds (but see Teachers — Institutes). In determining whether any deficiency exists in any district for the purpose of distributing the said fund, the comptroller-general shall make his estimate upon the basis of an allowance out of the 3-mill tax and poll tax to each school in every district the sujn of $75 for the expense of a term of three months. County tax. — The county board of education of each county shall levy an annual tax of 3 mills on tiie dollar upon all taxable property in the county, to be collected as other taxes, and on the 1st day of July each year, or as soon as practicable thereafter, the said fund shall be apportioned by the county board among the several school districts of their county in proportion to the number of pupils enrolled in the public schools therein ; and the county board shall ascertain the amount of poll taxes collected in and for each school district, and notify the county treasurer and the trustees of each school district of the amount of poll taxes, as well as the amount of the aforesaid fund apportioned by them. For the purpose of said apportionment pupils shall not be deemed enrolled until after an attendance of at least ten school days duL‘ing the preced¬ ing scholastic year. The school fluids of each district shall be expended by the board of trustees for the best interests of the district, on their warrant approved by the county sujierintendent. District tax. — The school districts of the several counties are the divisions for taxation for all school purposes. The voters of anj^ scliool district who return property for taxation are authorized to levy and collect an annual sup¬ plemental school tax not to exceed 4- mills on the dollar, determined as follows : Upon petition of at least one-third of the resident voters and a like proportion of the resident freeholders of the age of 21 years being filed with the county board of education asking for such levy and stating the rate of tax proposed, said county board shall order the board of trustees of such school district to hold an election, at which only such electors as return real or personal property for taxation maj^ vote ; and if a majority shall vote for such levy, the said trustees shall furnish the county auditor with a statement of the amount so levied, and the auditor shall enter the same in the tax duplicates, and the county treasurer shall collect the same as other county and State taxes. Such levy shall be a lien on the property in such school district. Each taxpayer when he pays such tax may designate to which school in said district the money paid by him shall go, but when no designation is made by the taxpayer at the time of payment the money shall be expended as other school funds. Poll tax shall be expended for school purposes in the district from which it is collected. 480 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. SOUTH DAKOTA. 1. Organization or the System. State superintendent — County hoard — County supey'mtendent — District school hoard — City hoard of education. * State superintendent. — There shall be elected biennially a superintendent of public instruction, who shall be charged with the general supervision of all the county schools and the high schools and of a, 11 the city and county superintend¬ ents of the State. He shall meet the county superintendents at least once a year, prescribe rules for, attend, and assist at teachers’ institutes, as far as con¬ sistent with his other duties, render a written opinion to any county superin¬ tendent asking it touching the administration of school law, and determine cases appealed to him from the county superintendents. He shall be provided with an office at the seat of government, where the records and other accumula¬ tions of his department shall be kept open to the governor or committees of either branch of the legislature. All books presented to his office or purchased therefor shall be catalogued and preserved for use of teachers of the State. He shall print and distribute blank forms, make a biennial report to the gov¬ ernor, prepare examination questions, may appoint a deputy, at $1,500 per annum, shall appoint the institute conductors and convene them in annual session, and may grant life diplomas and State first-grade and second-grade cer¬ tificates after holding examinations. His compensation shall be fixed by law, and in addition he shall receive $500 for traveling expenses. County hoard of education. — (See Schools — Text-books.) County superintendent. — There sha.ll be elected biennially a county superin¬ tendent of schools, who shall have the general supervision of the schools of his county. He shall visit each school in the county at least once annually, rectifying the government, instruction, and- classification of the schools; at least once each year examine the records and accounts of the district school officers ; encourage county normal institutes and district institutes, holding a county institute an¬ nually ; require the district school officers to assemble annua, lly for the purpose of discussing questions relative to their powers and duties ; examine persons applying for positions in the schools and grant special first, second, and third grade certificates and regular third-grade certificates to those qualified; report the school census to the commissioner of school and public lands; annually re¬ port to the superintendent of public instruction a full abstract of the reports made to himself by the district officers ; apportion school money ; and he shall hold no other office. He shall give bond, with two sureties, in the sum of $500 ; may provide and furnish at county’s expense an office at the county seat, where the accumu¬ lations of his department shall be kept, and shall receive a salary ranging be¬ tween $200 and $1,500, to be determined on a, basis of property valuation and population. Vacancy in the office is to be filled by the county commissioners. Failure to report to the State superintendent sulqects the county superintendent to a fine of $100 and liability to damages caused by his neglect. District school hoard. — In all counties organized for school purposes under the district system each school district shall be and remain a district school corpora¬ tion, and each civil township in every county in the State not organized for school purposes under the district system is constituted a district school corpora¬ tion. Any township district may be subdivided by vote. In every district a majority of the electors shall have authority to instruct the district school board concerning the management of the school and to levy taxes for the maintenance of the same. There shall be elected annually one member of a district school board of three persons, who are to be styled, respectively, chairman, clerk, a,nd treasurer. Boards shall hold regular meetings annually, though special meetings may be called. The board shall ha.ve the general charge, direction, and management of the school or schools of the district, which they shall organize, maintain, and con¬ veniently locate, and for which they shall employ teachers. Township -high schools may be established. City hoards of education. — When any city or town is divided into wards, there shall be elected annually a board of education consisting of two members from each ward and one at large, each to serve two years, one-half the board retiring DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - SOUTH DAKOTA. 481 annually. In cities and towns and all corporations not organized as such not divided into wards there shall be as many members of the board of education as there are members of the council or board of trustees. The board shall levy a tax to support the schools, elect a superintendent of schools not a member of their body, who shall supervise the schools at such salary and during such time as the board may determine. All records must be kept and reports made in the English language. 2. Teacheks. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Freliminanj training — Institutes. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — Teachers may be employed by the district board when holding a teacher’s certificate valid in the county or city. The agreement shall be in the form of a written contract. The State diploma shall be valid for life and authorize to teach in any school of the State. It is granted under the following conditions : The presentations of a diploma of an institution, with its course of study, or passage of an exami¬ nation, ample proof of ten years’ successful experience as a teacher, a satisfac¬ tory examination in the science and art of teaching, an examination in two branches of the following : Geometry, trigonometry, astronomy, chemistry, zool¬ ogy, geology ; and two from the following : English literature, rhetoric, general his¬ tory, political economy, psychology. The applicant must also present a thesis on a topic selected by the State superintendent, must show a correct and inti¬ mate knowledge of English, must be recommended by persons of liberal educa¬ tion, and must have a good moral character.^ All recipients of State diplomas^ except graduates of accredited South Dakota institutions, pay a fee of $10. A State certificate shall be valid for five years and authorize to teach in any school of the State. A resident graduate of any of the normal schools or resi¬ dent graduate of the State university who has taken the course in pedagogy as- given in that institution shall, upon presentation of a certified copy of his or her diploma, be entitled to receive a State certificate free of charge. An applicant for a State certificate a resident graduate of any college in this State, other than the State normal schools and the State university, having taken a course of study equivalent to the advanced course of study prescribed in any of the State normal schools or equivalent to the course of study prescribed in the collegiate depart¬ ment of the State university and to the pedagogical instruction in said State university required shall, upon filing a copy of his or her diploma, a copy of the course of study pursued specifically showing the amount of class work and a copy of the standings in each branch pursued, all duly certified or proved by the institution of which applicant is a graduate, be exempt from examination,, and shall receive a State certificate free of charge. Other applicants shall present evidence of twenty-four months’ successful experience and pass a satisfactory examination in algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, physiology, hygiene,, drawing, civil government, didactics, general history, American literature, English grammar, orthography, and penmanship. The character of the papers submitted shall determine the candidate’s knowledge of English grammar, or¬ thography, and penmanship. The possession of a good moral character shall be deemed a necessary requisite. Graduates of accredited South Dakota institu¬ tions receive State certificates free of charge ; all others pay a fee of $5. The State superintendent shall cause to be held at least two examinations each year in every county of the State, at such convenient places as may be designated by the county superintendent. The time for such examinations shall be uniform throughout the State, and the examinations shall be conducted by the county superintendent of the county in which the examinations are held, or by persons appointed by him, strictly according to regulations prescribed by the department of public instruction designed to secure uniformity and fairness. Upon these examinations, the superintendent of public instruction is authorized to issue first grade certificates valid for three years and second grade certificates valid for two years, and any county superintendent may issue third grade cer¬ tificates valid for one year to those not eligible for first and second grade cer¬ tificates who pass satisfactory examination in second grade subjects. A county superintendent may also, on his own examination, issue a certificate of the first, second, or third grade to applicants who present satisfactory proof that they were unable to be present at the public examination, such certificate EB 1904 M - 31 482 EDUCATIOI^ EEPORT, im. to be valid only in a district specified on its face and until the time of the next snc-ceediiig public examination. A first-grade certificate shall be valid in any county in the State. Applicants for certificates of this grade shall pass an examination in orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, physical geography, English grammar, physiology and hygiene, history of the United States, civil government, current events, American literature, bookkeeping, drawing, and didactics. A second-grade certificate shall be valid in the county in which the examination is held, and may be made valid in any county by the indorsement of the county superintendent of said county. Applicants for certificates of this grade shall pass examinations in orthography, reading, writ¬ ing, arithmetic, physiology and hygiene, geography, English grammar, history of the United States, civil government, and didactics. Not more than two third-grade certificates may be issued to the same party in any county. No teacher shall be entitled to receive a certificate of any grade who fails to give lu-oper evidence of possessing a good moral character. The county superintend¬ ent shall require a fee of $2 from every applicant for a certificate ; said fee so collected to be deposited at the close of each examination with the county treasurer, one-half to the credit of the county institute fund and one-half to the credit of the general fund of the State, to be turned into the State treasury. The board of education in cities of the first class shall appoint two competent persons, who, with the city superintendent, shall examine all persons who apply for i>ositions as teachers, and no one who does not hold a State certificate or diploma shall be employed unless holding a certificate from the examining committee. Teachers shall give definite instruction in morals, temperance, and humane treatment of animals ; shall keep tye register and malce the reports required on penalty of loss of one-tenth of their annual pay. In cities and other independent districts persons exclusively engaged in teach¬ ing music, drawing, penmanship, bookkeeping, foreign languages, or kinder¬ garten methods shall not be required to hold a county certificate. I}istitutcs. — The county superintendent shall annually hold a normal institute between April 1 and September 15, of not less than five days’ duration, for the instruction of teachers and of those desiring to teach, the conductor of which shall be appointed by the State superintendent. City teachers must attend county institutes. It is the duty of the county superintendent to hold two district institutes during the year, either in a district or group of districts. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of 'instruction — Text-boolcs — Libraries — Bnihlinps. Attendance. — If any district fails to levy a sufficient tax to support a school for the six months, the board of county commissioners shall levy a tax on the property, of the district that will be sufficient for the purpose, not to exceed 2 per cent of the taxable property in the district. Any school may be discontinued by its district board for the purpose of combining two or more schools into one and making arrangements for the transportation of the pupils to said school or schools if, in the judgment of the board, it is to the best interest of the pupils and the district. Schools shall be free to all pupils from G to 20 years of age. Every person having under his control a child l>etween the ages of 8 and 14 years shall cause such child to attend for at least twelve weeks annually, at least eight of which shall be consecutive, in some public day school in the district in which he resides, which time shall commence with the beginning of the first term of the school year or as soon thereafter as due notice siiall be served upon the person having such control of liis duty under this act. For eveiy neglect of such duty the person offending shall forfeit to the use of the public schools of his school corporation a sum not less than $10 nor more than $20, and shall stand committed until such fine and costs of suit are paid. But if the person so neglecting shall show to the board of education or district school board, as the case may be, that such child has attended for a like period of time a private day school or that instruction has otherwise been given for a like period of time to such child in the branches commonly taught in a public school, that such child has already acquired the branches of learning taught in the public schools, or that his physical or mental condition as declared by a competent physician is such as to render such attendance inexpedient and impracticable, then such penalty shall not be incurred. Such fine shall be paid, when collected, to the county treasurer or the treasurer of such city or indei>endent district DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - ^^SOUTH DAKOTA. 48'd in which such child and parents reside, to he credited by him as other money raised for school purposes to the district from which it came. It shall be the duty of the president of the board of education in every city or other independent district and the chairman of every district school board carefully to inquire concerning all supposed violations of this article and to enter complaint against all persons who shall appear to be guilty of such viola¬ tion. It shall also be the duty of said officers to arrest children of a school- going age who habitually haunt public places and have no lawful occupation, and also truant children who absent themselves from school without leave, and to place them in charge of the teacher having charge of the public schools which said children are by law entitled to attend. And it shall be the duty of said teacher to assign such children to the proper classes and to instruct them in such studies as they are fitted to pursue. Any school officer failing or neglecting to perform the duty required of him by this article shall be liable to a fine of not less than $10 nor more than $20 for every such offense. No child between 8 and 14 years of age shall be employed in any mine, fac¬ tory, workshop, or mercantile establishment, or, except by his parent or guard¬ ian, in any other manner during the hours when the public schools in the city, town, village, or district are in session, unless the person, firm, or corporation employing him shall first procure a certificate from the snperiutendent of the schools of the city, town, or village, if one be emploj^ed, otherwise from the clerk of the sc-hool board or board of education, stating that such child has attended school for the period of twelve weeks during the year, as required by law, or has been excused from attendance ; and it shall be the duty of such superintendent or clerk to furnish such certificate upon application to those entitled to demand it. Every owner, superintendent, or overseer of any mine, factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment, and any other person who shall employ any child between 8 and 14 years contrary to these provisions shall be fined for every offense from $10 to $20 and costs. And any person having con¬ trol of a child, who, with intent to evade these provisions, shall willfully make a false statement concerning the age of the child or the time the child has attended school shall be fined for each offense from $10 to $20. Any pupil who shall successfully complete the work of the eighth grade as established in the State course of study is privileged to continue his school work up to and including the twelfth grade by attending any neighboring graded school furnishing a higher course of study ; and the tuition charges therefor shall be paid by the board of his home district, provided his home district does not offer instruction in such higher grades. Character of instruction. — Teachers shall classify the work in their schools in accordance with the suggestions, grades, and outlines as prescribed in the course of study recommended by a majority of the county superintendents of the State and the State superintendent, and shall hold examinations. Instruc¬ tion shall be given in reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, history of the United States, temperance, physiology and. hygiene, and civil government. It shall be the duty of the district board to provide for sucli extra branches of study as may be desired by the electors. Text-hooJcs. — The county superintendent, the president of the board of educa¬ tion of all cities or towns, the county auditor, the county attorney, the board of county commissioners, their successors in office, and one person from each com¬ missioner's district who shall be selected by the members of the school boards of such commissioner's district present at a meeting to be called by the county superintendent, shall constitute the county board of education of each county in this State for the purpose of selecting and adopting all the text-books needed for use in the public schools in the county. The county superintendent shall in all cases be chairman of the county board of education, and the county auditor, secretary, and a majority of said board shall constitute a quorum for the trans¬ action of business. The county board of education shall meet at the office of the county superin¬ tendent of each county of the State on the second Tuesday of June, 1907, and every five jmars thereafter, and select and adopt a complete series of text-books to be used in the schools of the county : Provided, That the boards of education in cities and towns may adopt additional books for higher classes in their schools. The county board of education shall advertise for twenty days in a newspaper published in each county that at a time and place named hi said notice said board will receive sealed bids for furnishing school books to the pupils of all public schools in the county for a term of five years. 484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Lihrarles. — The county treasurer shall withhold from the apportionment received from the interest and income fund or other income for the schools of his county annually an amount equal to 10 cents per capita for each person of school age, Avhich money shall constitute a library fund and shall be used for the purchase of library books. Annually, between the 1st day of July and the 1st day of September, the county library board shall meet at the call of the county superintendent and expend the money thus provided in the purchase of books selected from the list prepared by the State superintendent. Buildings. — The district board shall purchase or lease a site designated by voters, and build, hire, or purchase a schoolhouse, as directed by them. Every person, pupil or other, who willfully molests or disturbs a public school when in session shall be fined .$25 or less, or be imprisoned in the county jail for not more than ten days, or both. Any pupil who cuts, defaces, or other¬ wise injures any schoolhouse or its appurtenances is liable to suspension or expulsion, and the parents are liable for damages. 1. Finances. Funds { permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds (permanent or special). — All proceeds of the sale of pubWe lands that have heretofore been or may hereafter be given by the United States for the use of public schools in the State, all such per centum as may be granted by the United States on the sale of public lands, the proceeds of all property that shall fall to the State by escheat, the proceeds of all gifts or donations to the State for public schools or not otherwise approjiriated by the terms of the gift, and all property otherwise acquired for public schools shall be and remain a perpetual fund for the maintenance of public schools in the State. It shall be deemed a trust fund held by the State. The principal shall forever remain inviolate, and may be increased, but shall never be diminished, and the State shall make good all losses thereof which may in any manner occur. The interest and income of this fund, together with the net proceeds of all fines for violation of State laws and all other sums which may be added thereto by law, shall be faithfully used and applied each year for the benefit of the public schools of the State, and shall be for this purpose apportioned among all the public school corporations of the State in proportion to the number of children in each of school age, as may be fixed by law ; and no part of the fund, either principal or interest, shall ever be diverted, even temporarily, from this purpose or used for any other purpose whatever than the maintenance of public schools for the equal benefit of all the people of the State. Taxation. — The county commissioners shall, at the time of making the annual assessment and levy of taxes, levy a tax of $1 on each elector in the county for the support of common schools, and may levy a further general tax of 2 mills on the dollar upon all taxable property in the county to be applied to the same purpose, which shall, with the money received from the State, constitute and be known as “the county general school fund;” and thej^ shall levy such further tax upon the taxable property of each school district as the board thereof shall certify is required for the support of the schools, and when collected shall be credited to the district to which it belongs. But the electors in every district shall have authority to levy taxes for the same, the tax not to exceed 2 per cent of the taxable property in the district, and in case of failure of any district to levy a sufficient tax to support school for six months, the board of county com¬ missioners sliall levy an amount not to exceed 2 per cent of the tnxable property. TENNESSEE. 1. Organization of the System. Btate hoard of education — State superintendent — County superintendent — Dis¬ trict directors — City hoards of education. State hoard of education. — The governor of the State shall appoint a State board of education, to consist of himself, the SMte superintendent, and six mem¬ bers. Two of the ai)i)ointed members shall retire every two years. The board shall locate and make arrangements for opening first-class schools in every DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - TENNESSEE. 485 respect for the training of teacliors. The board may receive contributions of money from the trustees of the Peabody Educational Ennd or property or funds from any other source for the beneht of the schools it establishes, and the trustees of colleges, universities, or educational institutions shall have power to give the use of their property to the State board for the benefit of such schools. The State superintendent shall be secretary and treasurer of the State board of education. State superintemlent. — The State superintendent shall be a person of literary and scientific attainments and of skill and experience in the art of teaching, and shall be nominated by the governor, and confirmed by the senate for a term of two years, at an annual salary of $2,000, to be paid from the school money in the State treasury. He shall devote his entire time to the duties of his office; shall be a member of the State board of education and of all other State educational bodies and associations ; shall have an office in the State capitol, and is liable to removal for misconduct. His duties shall be to collect and disseminate statistical and other information relating to the public schools ; to make tears of inspection among the public schools throughout the State; to see that the school laws and regulations are faithfully executed ; to prepare and distribute blank forms for all returns to be made by school officers ; to have printed and distributed to county superintendents and other school officers as many copies of the school laws as may be necessary, with appropriate forms and instructions for carrying said laws into execution; to appoint, at his discre¬ tion, persons in each county to visit, without compensation, and examine all or any of the public schools therein and to report to him touching all such matters as he may indicate respecting their condition, management, and improvement ; to appoint a person to make the report required from the county superintendent when that officer neglects his duty ; to prescribe the mode of examining and licensing school teachers, and their necessary ciualifications ; to preserve in his office all documents and matters relative to educational subjects that may come to it ; to report to the comptroller the school population of each county ; to annually submit to the governor a detailed report of his official proceedings for the year eliding June oO preceding, exhibiting a plain statistical account of receipts and expenditures for public schools and of their condition and prog¬ ress, showing the number of children, by sex and race, between G and 21 jmars of age; the enrollment, the average number belonging, and the per cent of attendance; the average salary paid to teachers, by sex, the amount of each branch of school expenditures, severally; the cost of education per scholar, and whatever else may tend to show the degree of success and usefulness of the system. . County superintendent. — The county superintendent shall be elected by the county court biennially, but no member of the county court shall be eligible. He shall be a person of literary and scientiffc attainments, and of skill in the theory and art of teaching, and shall, before each election, ffle a certificate of qualification, given by the State board of education, in pursuance of the result of a public examination before a commission composed of three residents of the county (appointed by the county court) competent to conduct such an examination. Women of 21 years of age or more are eligible. The county court fixes the salary of the commissioner. The duties of the county superintendent shall be as follows : To supervise the public schools; to visit the schools of the several districts from time to time; to confer with teachers and officers ; to ascertain the merits of text-books, and to suggest changes tending to bring about uniformity in the course of study, when it can be done without increased expense to the parent ; to see that the district directors make their reports, or to have them made should the directors fail ; to perform such duties in relation to the examination of teachers and issuing to them certificates of qualification as may be required of him by the State supei'intendent ; to report to the county trustees, as soon as ascertained, the scholastic population of each district on the last day of June ; to observe such directions a^id regulations as the State superintendent may prescribe ; to make an annual report, and such other special reports as the State superin¬ tendent may call for, and to keej) a record of his official acts, and of the boundaries of the districts of the county. The county superintendent in counties having a population of .30,000 or more is prohibited from teaching in any public school and from taking any contract for building or repairing school property, and from becoming the owner of a school warrant other than that received for his own services as county commissioner. In addition to the punishment prescribed hj statute for misdemeanors in office, a sui^erin- 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. tendeiit in counties of 30,000 or more who teaches in any public school shall be fined not less than .$25 nor more than $50, to go to the benefit of the public school fund. District school directors. — Three district school directors are elected biennially, and any person shall be eligible to the ollice of director who can read intelli¬ gently and write legibly, perform the duties required, and who resides in the district. If a director moves from the district his office is vacated. If from any cause directors shall not be elected, or when vacancies occur, the county superintendent shall fill such vacancies. No director shall he a teacher in the public schools of his district, nor take any contract for building a schoolhouse, nor any contract which his board is competent to make, nor become the owner of a school warrant. The duties of school directors shall be as follows: To explnin and enforce the school la.ws and regulations ; to visit the public schools within the district from time to time and see that they are legally and efficiently conducted ; to subdi¬ vide their districts ; to employ and pay teachers, and to dismiss them for cause ; to suspend or dismiss pupils when the prosperity or efficiency of the school makes it necessary ; to use the school fund apportioned to their district, whether derived from donations or other sources, in such manner as will promote the interest of public schools ; to see that the school census is taken in the proper manner on the required date; to hold meetings at the times they shall prescribe; to call meetings of the people for consultation in regard to school matters ; to care for and control public school property ; to report any special matter required by the county superintendent, and to report to him annually on all subjects indicated in the blank forms supplied for the purpose, and until such report shall have been made the member of the board acting as clerk shall not draw his pay. They shall keep separate and apart schools for the white and colored children and employ teachers of like race, respectively, for such schools, under penalty of $50 fine and thirty days’ to six months’ imprisonment. City hoards of education. — The several incorporated cities and towns within this State may, through their boards of mayor and aldermen, establish and main¬ tain within their respective corporate limits a system of high graded common schools, and have power to appoint a board of education consisting of not exceed¬ ing six qualified citizens residing within their corporate limits. The board of education shall have full power as trustees or directors to manage and control such schools, to elect or to employ well-qualified teachers, and to prescribe all needful rules and regulations. Two members of the board shall retire annually. 2. d’EACIIERS.' Appointment, Qualifications, and duties — Preliminary education— Meetings. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No teacher of public schools shall be employed or receive any pay from the public funds unless having a certificate of qualification from the county superintendent, and any officer sanctioning the payment for services rendered by an illegally employed person shall be subject to a ])enalty of not less than $5 nor more than $.j0, and for like services women shall be paid the same as men. The county superintendent shall perform such duties in relation to the examination of teachers and issuing to them certificates cf qualification as may be required of him by the State superintendent. M’'ritten contracts shall be made ^vith all public school teachers, at fixed rates by the month, the contract to be signed in duplicate. Every public school teacher shall keep a daily register of facts pertaining to his or her school in proper form and must deliver it to the clerk of the district hoard before warrant may be issued for the amount of his or her salary. Any teacher may for cause suspend pupils from attendance on the school until the case is decided by the board of school directors, and the teacher has power to punish for offenses committed on the way to and from school. Preliminary training. — The establishment of a normal school or schools is authorized to he effected Ity the board of education. The said normal school or schools shall be made in every respect first-class institutions for the professional education of teachers ; the most approved methods of instruction shall be adopted, and none hut teachers experienced and skilled shall be employed to take charge of them. In the location of such school or schools the State board shall give preference to such locality accessible to all parts of the State as shall offer gratuitously the most suitable grounds and buildings for the establishment of the same. No pupil shall be admitted into said schools who is under lb or over 30 DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - TENNESSEE. 487 years of age, and yvIio sliall not have aiidergoiie satisfactorily such examination as may be prescribed by the State board of education. Those already engaged in teaching may enter said normal school or schools as pupils upon conditions fixed by the State board. Pupils of the public schools may be recommended for admission into said normal school or schools by the county siiperinteudent on consultation with the directors of the school districts of his county, and in cities by the superintendent of public schools, and such pupils so recommended and who pass a satisfactory examination shall have precedence over all other appli¬ cants. Diplomas shall be granted to those honoraldy completing the course of study exempting the holder from examination as a condition precedent to em¬ ployment in the public schools of the State. The salaries of principals, teachers, and other officers of said normal schools sliall be determined by the State board of education, and the board is authorized to expend annually for the support' of the normal college at Nashville, exclusively, $20,000 out of any funds in the State treasury not otherwise appropriated, .provided that the Peabody board of trustees shall allow to the State 33 scholarships of $100 each and traveling ex¬ penses, one scholarship to be allowed each senatorial district in the State, and to be given after a competitve examination as prescribed by the State board. Three thousand three hundred dollai*s, or so much thereof as may be deemed necessary, shall be intrusted to the State board of education for the higher and normal education of the children of Tennessee of African descent, and upon the order of the board the comptroller shall issue his warrant for the same to the president or financial manager of approved institutions of learning for scholar¬ ships for the benefit of such of the aforesaid children as may apply therefor, under such regulations a,s may be prescribed by the board of education. The amount thus appropriated shall be a separate fund, over and above the $20,000 annually granted to the State normal college, and shall be used to defray the expenses of two colored pupils from each senatorial district of the State in approved institutions of learning. The State superintendent, as secretary and treasurer of the State board, shall disburse all moneys appropriated for normal school work, and shall keep a correct record of all official acts performed by him. The State board of education may authorize normal schools to issue diplomas which license the holder to teach in any public school in the State. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-Tjoolcs — Buildings. Attendance. — The public schools shall be free to all persons between the ages of G and 21 years residing in the district, but white persons and colored persons shall not be taught in the same school. The director of each school district shall establish and maintain therein as many primary schools as may be neces¬ sary to teach the children of the district, but they shall have due regard to increasing the length of the school term for the benefit of the district by limit¬ ing the number of schools. (See also Finances — Taxation.) Character of instruction. — There shall be two classes of district public schools, designated, respectively, primary and secondary. The directors of each school district shall establish and maintain therein as many primary schools as may be necessarj', in which shall be taught orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, history of Tennessee and of the United States, the Fed¬ eral Constitution, physiology and hygiene, with especial reference to the injurious effec-ts of narcotics and alcoholic stimulants; vocal music and elocution or the art of public speaking may be taught, but no other branches shall be introduced. The course of study in the public schools of each county shall be graded and the system of promoting pupils shall be fixed by the county superintendent in accordance vrith the general regulations of the State superintendent. The course of study in the primary schools shall consist of five grades, and in the secondary schools shall consist of eight grades, the first five grades in each being identical. Pupils completing the first five grades and attaining proficiency therein shall rec-eive a certificate from the State superintendent, certifying that the holder has completed the primary school course, which shall be" counter¬ signed by the county superintendent, district directors, and the teacher or teach¬ ers of the school, and shall entitle the holder to enter the sixth grade of the secondary school of any school district or of the high school of any high school district in which the holder resides. Pupils completing the eighth grade in the course of the secondary schools and obtaining proficiency therein shall receive a diploma from the State superintendent, which shall be countersigned by the 488 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. county su])eriiiteiKlent and by the district directors and by the teachers of the school, which shall entitle the holder to enter the ninth grade of the high school of any high school district in which the holder resides. The directors of each school district, whenever the interests of the district shall require it, may establish and maintain therein one or more secondary schools. Every secondary school shall consist of a principal, and, when neces¬ sary, an assistant or assistants may be employed. In every secondary school shall be taught orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, history and constitution of Tennessee and of the United States, elementary geology of Tennessee, elementary principles of agriculture, of algebra, of plane geometry, of natural philosophy, bookkeeping, elementary physiology and hygi¬ ene (with especial reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, narcotics, and cigarette smoking), elements of civil government, and rhetoric or higher Eng¬ lish. Practice shall be given in elocution or in the art of public speaking. Vocal music may be taught, but no other branches shall be introduced. District directors shall have power to make contracts of consolidation with the trustees or other authorities of academies, seminaries, colleges, or private schools, hy which the public schools may he taught in such institutions, pro¬ vided that the branches of study designated in the preceding paragraphs shall be taught free of any charge in such consolidated schools, and that the authority of the county superintendent, district directors, and other school officers over those studying such branches shall be as full and ample as in the ordinary pub¬ lic schools. ' Text-hooks. — The governor and State superintendent, together with three members of the State board of education, to be named by the governor, consti¬ tute a text-book commission, whose duty it is to adopt books for use in all the imblic schools of the State for a period of five years. Such hooks shall be used to the exclusion of all others, violation of which is punishable by fine of not less than J)^10 nor more than Jj^5d. Buildings. — The care and management of public school property of the dis¬ trict is in the hands of the directors. 4. Eixaxces. Funds { pcrmanoit or special) — Taxation. Funds {permanent or special). — The permanent school fund of the State shall be the .^1, 500,000 ascertained and declared by the code and recognized by, the State to be the permanejit school fund. To this shall be added the interest which has accrued on the same and not been paid by the State, amounting on' January 1. 1873, to .81,012.500, making the entire permanent State school fund 82,512,500, for which a certificate of indebtedness shall [1873] fee issued, signed by the governor under the great seal of the State, and deposited with the comp-! troller of the treasury, uliicli shall show on its face the purpose for which it was issued and shall provide for the i>ayment of the interest thereon at the rate of G per cent, payable semiannually on the 1st day of July and January in each year, commencing July 1, 1873. To the permanent State fund may be added from time to time the proceeds of all escheated property, of all property forfeited to the State, of all lands sold and bought in for taxes, of the personal effects of intestates having no kin¬ dred entitled thereto by the laws of distribution, and donations made to the State for the support of the public schools, unless otherwise directed by the donors. The principal of said fund shall always remain unimpaired and entiTe, and the annual income arising therefrom shall be dedicated to the support and maintenance of the public schools of the State. [To this has been ’added the surplus in the State treasury at the end of each year.] The State school fund for the annual su]:>port of public schools shall be the annual proceeds of the permanent State school fund, any money that may cojne into the State treasury for the purpose under the present or future laws of the State, and any money that jnay come into the State treasury for the purpose from any source whatever, and the annual fund shall be apportioned semiannu¬ ally by the comptroller among the several counties according to their scholastic population as reported to him l)y the State superintendent, issuing his warrant to the county trustee. Taxation. — Every male inhabitant in the State subject thereto shall pay a poll tax of 87 foi* tfie support of the jmblic schools, which shall be collected as other taxes are, and paid over to the county trustee in the county where col- DIGEST OE SCHOOL LAWS - TEXAS. 489 lected, and distributed therein to each school district according to scholastic population. A tax of mills on shall be annually assessed upon all property subject to taxation for the support of the public schools, which shall be collected as other taxes are, and paid over to the county trustee in the county where col¬ lected, and distributed therein to each school district according to scholastic population. In case there is an insufficient sum to maintain the school for five months, it is the duty of the county court to levy an additional tax sufficient for that pur¬ pose, or to submit the proposition to a vote of the people, and they may levy a tax to prolong the school beyond the five months, the tax to be levied on all ])rop- erty, polls, and privileges liable to taxation, but shall not exceed the entire State tax. All school money coming into the hands of the State or county treasurer shall be kept separate and apart from any State or county funds in their hands. All unexpended sums for school purposes in the district treasury shall not be returned to county trustee for redistribution, but shall be credited to such district and added to its share of the next apportionment. Cities and incorporated towns in which have been established higher graded schools are authorized to supplement the school fund derived from State and county taxes by an additional municipal tax or levy for their sui»port, provided the town or municipality does not exceed its lawful limit of taxation in making such additional levy, TEXAS. 1. Organization of the System. fitate hoard — State superintendent — State hoard of e.ramincrs — County superin¬ tendent — County hoard of examiners — School district committee — City hoard of examiners. State hoard. — The governor, secretary of state, and comptroller shall consti¬ tute a State board of education, of which the State superintendent shall be sec¬ retary. The board shall make an apportionment of the available school fund among the several counties of the State and the cities and towns having separate school organizations, according to the population of each. Appeals from the rul- Tfflgs of the State superintendent shall be to this board. It is the duty of the board to invest the permanent school fund in accordance with law. State hoard of examiners. — The State superintendent may appoint a State board of examiners, consisting of three or more competent teachers, to serve at his pleasure. State superintendent. — There shall be elected at each general election for State and county officers a State superintendent of public instruction, who shall hold his office for two years and receive a salary of $2, .500, and may employ such cler¬ ical assistance as may be allowed by the State board. Be shall be charged v.dth the administration of the school law and a general superintendency of the busi¬ ness relating to the public schools of the State, shall hear all appeals from the decisions of subordinate school officers, prescribe and furnish suitable forms for records and reports, issue circulars of instruction to school officers, and examine and approve all accounts of whatsoever kind against the school fund. County hoard of examiners. — There shall be a county board of examiners of tliree members, appointed by the county superintendent, or by the county judge if there be no superintendent, each of whom must hold a first or higher grade certificate of the county. They serve during the pleasure of the county superin¬ tendent. County superintendent. — The commissioners’ court of any county may provide for the election of a county superintendent of public schools, who shall hold for two years, be a person of educational attainments, good moral character and executive ability, a qualified voter of said county, and the holder of a first-grade teacher’s certificate. Be shall have the immediate supervision of all matters pertaining to public education, shall confer with teachers, deliver lectures^ hold institutes, approve all vouchers drawn against the school fund, examine con¬ tracts made by trustees with teachers and, if proper, approve them, distribute blank books and forms, and appoint the county board of examiners and census trustees. In counties having a school population of 2,000 and not exceeding 490 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 3,000 the county superintendent shall receive ^800 per annum, in counties of 3,000 to 4,000 he shall receive $000, in counties of 4,000 to 5,000 he shall receive S1,000, in counties of 5,000 or more he shall receive $1,200. In counties having no county superintendent the county ludge shall act, and shall receive such sal¬ ary as ex otlicio county superintendent as may be provided by the commission¬ ers’ court, not to exceed $000 per annum. District school trustees. — It is the duty of the county commissioners’ court to subdivide their county into school districts as convenient as possible for the at¬ tendance of the children at the school or schools to be established therein. The voters of the district shall elect three trustees, whose terms of office shall be for two years, one trustee to be elected one year and tvro the next. They shall de¬ termine the number of schools and their location, and when they shall be opened and when closed, contract with teachers,, and manage and supervise the schools. They shall approve all teachers’ vouchers and all other claims against the school fund of their district, and shall have the power to admit pupils over and under scholastic age. A town or village having 200 inhabitants or over may incorporate as an inde¬ pendent district for free school purposes only, and may include within its bounds territory not exceeding an area of 25 square miles. For such incor¬ porated town or village there shall be elected 7 trustees, for terms of two years, 3 retiring one year and 4 the next, who shall in general l)e vested with ail powers, rights and duties in regard to establishing and maintaining free schools, including the power of taxation, as is vested in a council or board of aldermen of incorporated cities and towns. The trustees have authority to levy a special tax not exceeding one-fourth of 1 per cent per annum for bond or building pur¬ poses, and an additional special tax not exceeding one-half of 1 per cent for maintenance and support of the free schools: Proviilcd, No such tax be levied or no bonds be issued until an election shall have been held for the purpose of determining the question. Cities and towns in the State are authorized to assume exclusive control of all the public schools within their limits and to govern them in any way not incon¬ sistent with law ; to elect, or the council may appoint, the board of trustees, consisting of 7 members to serve for two years, 3 members retiring one year and 4 the next. No compensation is allowed them. Citi/ hoards of exaniiuers. — A city or town which has 500 scholastic popula¬ tion or more, and has become an independent school district, and which levies a local tax for educational purposes, or maintains a system of free schools for nine months in each year, and which has employed a superintendent of city scho<3ls, may have a city board of examiners. Said board of examiners shall m all cases consist of the superintendent of the city schools, together with two other persons apr>ointed by him. who shall be teachers, and the superintendent shall not be sub.1ect to examination. 2. Teachers. Appointment, qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Institutes. Appointment, qualifirations, and duties. — Any teacher desiring to teach in any city, town, or district in the State shall, before contracting with any board of trustees or school board, exhibit a teacher's certificate. Anyone who teaches in any public school of this State without a valid certificate shall not be paid from the free-school funds, and forgery of a certificate shall be punished by confine¬ ment in the penitentiary for a term of not less than two nor more than seven years. Applicants for examination must apply to the county superintendent, stating class of certificate desired, and by him are sent to the board of county examiners, the a])plicants having been satisfactory to the county superintendent and having each deposited $2 as an examination fee. The applicants must speak the English language fluently, and l>e of good moral character. Certificates granted are of three kinds : A county certificate, valid only within the county; a city certificate, valid only within the city; a State certificate, valid anywhere within the State. County certificates shall he of fo'ur classes — first, second, and third grades, and permanent- — and are issued by the county superintendents on recommendation of the county boards of examiners, who shall hold an examination on the first Friday and following Saturday in the months of IMay, September, and December. The questions are furnished by the State superintendent, and the rules and regulations are prescribed by him and the county superintendent. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - TEXAS. 491 An applicant for a tliird-graGle certificate sball be examined in spelling, read¬ ing, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, Texas history, physiology and hygiene with special reference to narcotics, and school management and methods of teaching, and must, in order to obtain a certificate, average not less than TO nor make less than 50 on any subject. An applicant for a second-grade c-ertificate shall be examined on the nine subjects mentioned, and in addition United States history, elementary principles of civil government, English com¬ position, and physical geography. The second-grade certificate is good for three years, and the applicant must make an average of 75 on all and not less than 50 on any one subject; but if he make 85 instead of 75, the eertificate is good for five years. An applicant for the first-grade certificate shall be examined in the subjects prescribed for the second grade, and also in physics, algebra, elements of geometi-y, and general history. The first-grade certificate is valid for four or six years, upon the same conditions as a certificate of the second grade. An applicant for a permanent certificate shall be examined on the subjects required for a first-grade certificate, and in addition on the history of education, general history, psychology, English and American literatnre, chemistry, solid geometry, plane " trigonometry, and elementary double-entry bookkeeping. 'The general average required to pass for a permanent certificate is 85 and not less than 50 in any subject. The certificate lapses if the holder withdraws three continuous years from teaching. 9n application of a candidate for a first or second grade "state or a permanent certificate, the county superintendent shall forward the papers to the State superintendent, who shall lay them before the State board of examiners, together with the fee of $1 furnished by the canditlate, and if they find the papers rightly graded they shall recommend that the candidate be given a new certificate in lieu of his county certificate, which shall entitle him to teach in any county. City boards of examiners maj’ issue certificates of two kinds, a temporary and a permanent certificate, and of three classes for each kind: Primary, intermediate, and high school teachers’ certificates. A temporary certificate is good for four years, and a peimanent certificate during good behavior. (The forc-e of the normal school certificate is given belowx) it shall be the duty of every teacher to use the English language exclusively in the free public schools, though any other language may be taught as a blanch of study; to attend summer normals and county institutes as far as possible ; to keep daily registers in which the names, ages, and studies of the pupils and their attendance shall be recorded, and such other matters as may be prescribed by the State superintendent ; to make monthly reports upon such subjects as may be designated by the State or county superintendent, which are to be approved by the trustees. They shall also make such reports at the end of the term as may be prescribed by the State superintendent, and until made their last month’s salary shall not be paid. PrcJiminanj training. — Normal instruction for white persons shall be given in the Sam Houston Normal Institute, the North Texas State Normal College, and the Southwest Texas Normal School, and for colored persons in the Prairie View Normal School. Each of the white schools under the supervision of the State board of education offers 2 scholarships for every member of the legislature, Q to the lieutenant-governor, 9 to each of the three members of the State board of education and to the State superintendent, for persons IG years of age or over who sign a written statement that it is their intention to teach at least one year after leaving the school ; the normal school for colored persons, 1 scholarship for each member of the legislature, which school is under the immediate authority of the board of directors of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Diplomas given bj^ the University of Texas to students completing the degree course in pedagogy or some other course shall have the force of permanent State certificates. Those showing completion of the special professional course shall have the force of first-grade State certificates; those showing completion of the course in elementary pedagogy shall have the force of State certificates of the first grade for a period of two years. Any teacher of three years’ stand¬ ing in Texas who holds a degree from a university or college of the first class, to be determined by the State board of examiners, may receive a permanent State certificate. Those holding a diploma from a Texas State normal school, or from the Peabody Normal School, may teach in the public schools as being entitled to a permanent State certificate without examination. Normal institutes. — The State superintendent shall prescribe regulations for holding summer normal institutes and prescribe rules for granting summer 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. normal certificates, wliicli shall he State certificates good for four or six years, according to whether the general average he 75 or 85. The county superin¬ tendent shall, with such assistance as may be necessary, organize and hold at least three institutes of two days each during the year, and failure to conform to this will he cause for his removal. It is the duty of all teachers in the public schools in the State to attend the summer normals and county institutes as far as possible. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instraction — Buildings. Attendance. — The children of the white and colored races shall be taught in separate schools, and in no case shall any school consisting partly of white and partly of colored or mixed blood receive any aid from the public school fund. All children over 7 years of age and under 17 at the beginning of any scholastic year shall he entitled to the benefit of the public free schools. Character of instruction. — There shall he taught in the public schools orthog¬ raphy, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, modern geography, composition, physiology and hygiene, including the effects of alco¬ holic stimulants and narcotics on the human system, mental arithmetic, Texas history. United States history, civil government, and other branches, as may be agreed upon by the trustees or directed by the State superintendent. Suitable instruction shall be given the primary grades once each week regarding kind¬ ness to animals and the protection of birds and their nests and eggs. Buildings. — The law limits the use of the State and county available school fund for the payment of teachers’ and superintendents’ salaries, fees for scho¬ lastic census, and commission to the county treasurer for receiving and disburs¬ ing the school funds, provided that when the "State available school fund in any city or county is sutticient to maintain the schools in any year for at least eight months and leave a surplus, such surplus may be expended for purchasing appliances and supplies, payment of insurance premiums, janitors, and other employees, for buying school sites, buying, building, repairing, and renting schoolhouses, and for other purposes necessary in the conduct of the public schools. The peo])le of any common school district may, upon proper petition to the commissioners’ court, vote upon themselves a special tax not to exceed in any year 20 cents on the $100 valuation of taxable property for the building of schoolhouses or for supplementing the school fund apportioned to said district. Tuition fees of pupils not entitled to free tuition, and funds from other local sources may also be used for building or maintenance purposes. Property belonging to a school district can not be sold without an order from the commis¬ sioners’ court. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxation. Funds (permanent and special). — All funds, lands, and other property hereto¬ fore set apart and appropriated for the support of the public schools, all the alternate sections of lands reserved by the State out of grants heretofore made, or that hereafter may be made to railroads or other corporations of any nature whatsoever, one-half of the public domain of the State, and all sums of money that may come to the State from the sale of any portion of the same, shall constitute a perpetual public school fund. The interest arising from the fund and the State taxes shall be the available school fund. The available school fund shall be distributed to the several counties according to the scholastic population. Taxation. — One-fourth of the revenue derived from the State occupation taxes and a poll tax of $1 on every male inhabitant 21 to 60 years of age shall be set apart annually for the benefit of public free schools; and in addition thereto there shall be levied and collected an annual ad valorem State tax of such an amount, not to exceed 20 cents on the $100, as with the available school-fund income will be sutticient to maintain and support the public free schools for a period of not less than six months in each year; and the legisla¬ ture may authorize the school districts to raise an additional ad valorem tax, to be levied and collected within such districts, for the further maintenance of the public schools in the erection of school buildings therein : Provided, That two-thirds of the taxpayers shall vote such tax, not to exceed in any one year 20 cents on the $100; but this limitation does not apply to incorporated cities or towns constituting separate or independent school districts. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - VERMONT. 493 VERMONT, a 1. Organization of the System. State supcrintcndoit — Exaiuincr of teachei's — School directors — Town superin¬ tendent — Truant officers. State superintendent. — The general assembly shall elect at each biennial ses¬ sion a superintendent of education, who shall have general supervision of the public schools of the State, and shall devote his whole time to the duties of his office, which, in case of vacancy, shall he filled by the governor. His annual sal¬ ary shall be $2,000, with traveling expenses not to exceed $600. Ilis office shall be at the statehouse, and he may employ clerical assistance at an annual compen¬ sation of $800. He is allowed $400 a year for publishing educational circulars, besides necessary disbursements for postage, expressage, printing, stationery, etc. He shall hold at least one but not more than two teachers’ institutes or sum¬ mer schools in each county during each biennial term, each such institute to con¬ tinue not longer than four days, and each such teachers’ summer school not longer than ten days. He may direct the examiner of teachers of a county to conduct the institute. In addition to the occasion of holding an institute, he shall visit annually each county and as many towns as possible, deliver lectures upon educational subjects, confer with and advise school officers and teachers. He shall prepare all questions for the examination of teachers, direct such exam¬ inations, and fix the standards of same ; issue courses of study, circulars of I'ducational information and prepare school registers, statistical blanks, etc. He shall file quarterly a sworn itemized statement of his expenses, and pre¬ sent to the general assembly on the first day of each biennial session a report covering the two years last past, containing an account of his official doings, the condition of the schools, the expenditure of school money, and suggestions. Not more than 3,000 copies of such report shall be printed, 5 copies of which shall be sent to each examiner of teachers, and 1 copy each to members of the general assembly, town and district clerks, and principals of graded union and high schools. Examiner of teachers. — At each biennial session of the legislature, or as soon as possible thereafter, the State superintendent and the governor shall appoint one resident of each county as examiner of teachers, who shall, under the direc¬ tion of the State superintendent, make all necessary arrangements for holding teachers’ institutes, assist in such institutes and also at summer schools, take measures to secure the attendance of teachers, and furnish statistical informa¬ tion. He shall hold public examinations of applicants for teachers’ certificates, at such times and places as shall best accommodate the teachers of the county, and shall keep a complete record of the same. He shall receive $4 a day while actually employed in official duty, together with not to exceed $2 a day to cover necessary expenses, besides postage and stationery, and shall file an itemized and sworn statement of same every six months. He shall make a biennial report to the State superintendent, who, with the governor, may remove' him for unfitness and fill any vacancy arising in the office. School directors. — Three citizens of each town shall constitute a board of school directors, one of whom shall be elected at each annual meeting of the town for a terih of three years ; vacancies shall be filled temporarily by the selectmen. The compensation of school directors shall be fixed annually by the town. School directors shall have the care of the town's school property and the man¬ agement of its school ; may purchase or sell sites and erect buildings, determin¬ ing their number and location ; shall keep schoolhouses suitably repaired and insured ; employ teachers and fix their compensation by a majority vote ; examine and allow claims arising therefrom, and draw orders upon the town treasurer for the payment of same ; shall have authority to designate the schools which shall be attended by the various pupils, may provide for the instruction of advanced pupils, and make regulations not inconsistent with law for carrying the powers granted them into effect. They shall report fully to the annual town meeting. Town superintendenit. — The board of school directors shall, on or before the 1st day of April of each year, appoint a town superintendent of schools, whose “ “ The special provisions relating to incorporated school districts and school districts in unorganized towns and gores ” are not included in this digest. 494 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. compensation they shall fix. His duty shall be to visit the schools of the town at least once each term, and oftener if the school board so directs. He shall observe, when visiting a school, the condition of the buildings and grounds, the number of the scholastic appliances, maps, text-books, etc., and make sug¬ gestions to the board. He may dismiss any incompetent teacher. In towns having a graded school district under special act, the town and the special dis¬ trict may unite in the election of a town superintendent. Any two or more towns the aggregate number of schools in all of which is not more than 60 nor fewer than 20, may, by vote of the school directors of the several towns, unite for the purpose of employing a superintendent of schools, the directors of the several towns forming a joint committee for the election of the superintendent and determining the proportion of his salary to be paid by each town. Truant officers. — The selectmen of each town and the mayor of each city shall annually appoint two truant officers, or, in case of failure to appoint, the con¬ stables, sheriffs, deputy sheriffs, or policemen shall act as traant officers. The truant officer, or a member of the board of school directors, or other authorized person, may arrest, and upon the written application of three voters in the town shall arrest, a child who is illegally absent from school. Any person charged with the duty of arresting truants who shall refuse or neglect to perform the duty imposed by law shall be fined not exceeding ^100. All persons acting as truant officers shall be paid ^2 a day for time actually spent, unless otherwise provided. On complaint of a teacher to a school director the truant officer shall inquire into the cause of a pupil's absence, and if he have reason to believe that the pupil’s parent, guardian, or master has violated the laws regarding attend¬ ance, the truant officer shall immediately make complaint to a justice of the peace or judge of the municipal court, who shall issue a warrent to have the parent, guardian, or master brought before him. 2. Teaciiees. Ccrtifica tes — D 1 i cs — Prel ini in a ry trai n i ng — I n silt utcs. Certificates. — No person shall teach a public school without having a certifi¬ cate or a permit, and a contract for teaching shall be void if the teacher does not obtain a certificate before opening school. No certificate will be granted to a person under 17 years of age. A certificate of graduation from the lower course of a normal school in the State shall be a license to teach in the public schools of the State for five years ; from the higher course, ten years. A grad¬ uate of the lower course may, after one hundred weeks of successful teaching, present himself for examination in the studies of the higher course. A person who has held first-grade certificates tor ten years and has taught two hundred weeks thereunder may, by concurrent action of the State superintendent and the county examiner, be grante«I, without examination, a certificate to teach in the public schools until same be revoked. A first-grade certificate, or a second- grade certificate granted on examination, held by a teacher who is employed continuously in the same school, shall remain in force during such continuous employment. A graduate of a normal school in another State approved by the State super¬ intendent may, upon presentation of a diploma or certificate, of graduation, receive without examination from an examiner of teachers a first-grade certifi¬ cate valid for five years from date of graduation, subject to the same provisions as certificates of graduation from a normal school in this State. A graduate of a college approved by the State superintendent may, uiwn presentation of a diploma or certificate of graduation to an examiner of teachers, receive without examination a certificate of the first grade; and after having taught success¬ fully forty weeks such graduate may receive without examination a second first-grade certificate after the expiration of the first. A person who has held a first or second grade certificate or its equivalent in other States, and presents evidence of recent and successful exi>erience in teaching, may, under the approval of the State superintendent, without examination, receive a special second-grade certificate which shall be valid until the next public examination, or for a term not exceeding one year, when in the judgment of the examiner the exigencies of the case require. The examination shall be oral and written, and shall be conducted by the examiner or some competent person appointed by him from printed questions prepared by the State superintendent. Certificates, issued by the examiner on blanks furnished by State superintendent, are of three grades. A first-grade cer- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS— VERMONT. 495 tificate sliall be given only to one who has taught forty weeks successfully, whose examination papers show the applicant to have reached the standard required by the State superintendent, whose oral examination has been satisfactory, and who gives evidence of good moral character and ability to govern a school. Such certificate shall be a license to teach for five years in any town in the State. A second-grade certificate shall be granted to a candidate having taught twelve weeks, passed an examination in all the branches required by law to be tauglit in the common schools, proved by his papers that he has filled the require¬ ments of the standard set by the State superintendent, and that he is of good moral character and capable of controlling a school. Such a certificate shall be a license to teach two years. A third-grade certificate shall be a license to teach for a specified time, not to exceed one year, and may, at the discretion of the examiner, be limited to the teaching of a particular school. One having twice taken a third-grade certificate, and who has taught at least twenty-four weeks, shall not afterwards be given a certificate of that grade. An examiner may give an applicant a private examination when the exigencies of the case require. Teachers shall notify the clerk of the school board of the date, grade, and name of the grantor of their certificates before commencing school, and upon request shall submit same to his inspection. The contract of any teacher neg¬ lecting to comply with this provision shall be considered void. Other di/G'es.— Before commencing school the teacher shall secure a register from the clerk of the school board, keep therein in the prescribed form a record of the daily attendance of each pupil, enter therein correct answers to all inter¬ rogatories addressed to teachers, and return sucli register to said clerk at the end of each term, the final return to be on or before April 1. Teachers shall promptly notify school directors of any cases of truancy in their respective schools. Preliminary training. — The normal schools at Randolph, Johnson, and Castle- ton are continued until August, A. D. 1920. The board of control for the three State normal schools consists of the State superintendent of education ; a com¬ mission of three persons, one appointed each year by the governor for a term of three years ; and a resident commissioner for each of the schools, appointed biennially by the governor. Members of the commission appointed by the gov¬ ernor, except the resident commissioner, shall receive $4 a day each and their traveling expenses for the time spent in the perfoiinance of their duties. Resi¬ dent commissioners receive compensation for their traveling expenses when in discharge of their duties. The board of control have the care of the three normal and training schools ; they establish courses of study and revise the same when necessary ; deter¬ mine the conditions for admission to and for graduation from the normal schools ; provide for the issue of certificates to teach to all persons of good moral char¬ acter who may pass the examinations required for graduation, and may revoke the same for good and sufficient reasons ; select and employ all teachers for the normal and training schools, and dismiss them when the interests of the school demand it. The board, by their treasurer, receive all moneys appropriated from the State treasury for the support of the schools, and all moneys accruing to the schools from other sources, and apply the same in their discretion for the benefit of the schools. Eighteen thousand dollars is annually appropriated, in three equal parts, for the use of the schools. A graduate of an academy, seminary, or high school in a four years’ course, following an elementary course of nine years, approved in writing by the board of normal school commissioners, and having included at least thirty weeks of daily study and recitation in the principles and methods of education, definitely outlined by the State superintendent of education, may receive, after success¬ fully passing an examination in the educational course herein described, under the direction of the normal school commissioners, a certificate of the second grade from the examiner of the county in which he intends to teach, upon the presentation of both a certificate of graduation and a certificate of the completion of the educational course from the board of normal school commissioners. Institutes. — The State superintendent shall hold a teachers’ institute in each county during each biennial term except as hereinafter provided, and may hold additional institutes if in his judgment advisable ; but not more than two insti¬ tutes shall be held in any county during a biennial term, nor shall an institute continue more than four days. Provided no institute is held in a county dur- 496 ^EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. ing any year, the superintendent of education and examiners of teachers may arrange for and conduct a summer school for teachers, the expense of which to the State shall not exceed $25 per day for not more than ten days, and the examiner may receive from the State compensation for not more than ten days for his services in connection with such summer school. Provided no institute or summer school is held in a county during any year, he may hold educational meetings in different towns in such county and employ competent assistance, hut the expense per day shall not exceed the present allowance per day for institutes or summer schools; and the entire expense of such series of meetings in a county for any year shall not exceed the present allowance for institutes or summer schools, wdiich shall be paid by the superintendent of education and be allowed in the settlement of his account In every teachers’ institute especial attention shall be given to the training of teachers in methods of instruction ; and the superintendent of education may employ persons specially skilled in such work to aid at an institute when advis¬ able to do so. The entire expense of a teachers’ institute shall not exceed $30 for each day’s session, which shall be paid by the superintendent of education and be allowed in the settlement of his account. The time, not exceeding four days, actually spent by the teacher of a common school ill attendance upon a teachers’ institute or State teachers’ association during the time such teacher is engaged to teach shall be considered as spent in teaching, nor shall legal holidays be considered as days lost. 3. Sc H oofs. Attendance — Character of instruetioji — Text-hool'S — Buildings. Attendance. — The term “legal pupils” shall include all persons between the ages of 5 and 18 years. No child under 5 years of age shall be received as a pupil, though school directors may establish a public kindergarten for such. Every person having under his control a child of good health and sound mind between 8 and 15 years of age shall cause it to attend a public school at least twenty-eight weeks in the year, unless such child has been otherwise furnished with the means of education for a like period or has already acquired the branches of study required by law to be taught in the public schools. No child under 15 years of age shall be employed in a mill or factory unless such child shall have attended a public school twenty-eight weeks during the preceding year, and shall deposit with the owner or person in charge of such mill ol¬ factory a certificate showing such attendance, signed by the teacher. No person shall employ children under 15 years of age who can not read and write, though capable of receiving instruction in those arts, during the time when the school such person should attend is in session. The penalty for violation of these provisions is not less than $5 nor more than $25, to be adjudged by any justice of the peace. The board of school directors may use a portion of the school money for the purpose of conveying pupils to and from school. Character of instruction. — In every town there shall be kept for at least tw-enty-eight weeks in each year, at the expense of the town, by a competent teacher or teachers of good morals, a sufficient number of schools for the instruc¬ tion of all the children who may legally attend the public schools therein, and all pupils shall be thoroughly instructed in good behavior, reading, writing, spell¬ ing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, free-hand drawing, the history and the Constitution of the United States, and in elementary physiology and hygiene, and shall receive special instruction in the geography, history, consti¬ tution, and principles of the government of Vermont. Said school shall be within the limits of the town supporting it, and may be established at such places and held at such times as in the judgment of the board of directors will best subserve the interests of education and give all the children of the town as nearly equal advantages as may be practicable. Directors shall provide for the instruction of advanced pupils in the higher branches of study, in high schools maintained by the town or in high schools or academies of other towns or districts. Vocal music may be taught if allowed by vote of the town. Boards of directors may also establish evening schools and kindergartens. Text-hooks. — The school board of each town, city, or graded school district shall furnish at public expense all appliances, supplies, and text-books used in DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - VERMONT. 497 the studies enumerated in the preceding paragraph (Character of instruction), and may furnish text-books on secondary school subjects. Buildings. — Towns shall provide and maintain suitable schoolhouses, and the location, construction, and sale of the same sliall be under the control of the board of school directors. Local boards of health shall make, under the direction of the State board, a sanitary survey of each schoolhouse and report the same to the State board. The said local boards shall report at each March meeting to the voters of their towns the sanitary conditions of the schoolhouses. All schoolhouses shall be con¬ structed, in respect to lighting, heating, ventilation, and other sanitary arrange¬ ments, according to regulations furnished by the State board of health. A person who willfully and maliciously injures or defaces a dwelling house or other building shall be fined not more than $20 and be liable to the owner in action at law. A person who carelessly and without malice injures or defaces any part of a building belonging to a town or county or the appurtenances thereof of any kind, including trees and shrubbery, or fastens a horse or other animal to any such appurtenance, or posts bills, etc., whereby any defacement results, shall forfeit $2 to the State. No barbed-wire fence shall be used to inclose school grounds. 4. Finances. Funds (permanent or special) — Taxation. United States deposit nioneij. — The treasurer of the State shall receive moneys belonging to the United States to be deposited with this State. Such moneys shall be apportioned to the several towns, organized or unorganized, and to the gores in proportion to the number of inhabitants in each, according to the last State or national census. The town trustees of the public money may loan the same for one year to the town or to private individuals at an annual interest of 6 per cent. When there are no town trustees of public funds the State treas¬ urer acts. The treasurer of each town shall give credit in his account of the school fund for all sums received by him as income from the town share of the deposit money, and this income shall be annually appropriated to the support of schools in the town ; but if a town has other school funds the income of which is sufficient to support schools in such town for six months of the year, such town may appropriate the income received from its share of such money to any purpose. Failure to comply with the foregoing provisions makes the town liable to the county in a sum not exceeding double the interest on such moneys, and the grand jury shall inquire into the management and disposition of this fund. Huntington fund. — The State treasurer shall annually apportion the interest, at 6 per cent, on the amount of the Huntington fund ($211,131.40) to the sev¬ eral towns in proportion to the number of inhabitants. Tonm school fund. — The selectmen of a town shall have charge of the real and personal estate in such town appropriated as a fund to the use of schools unless otherwise provided by law or the donor. They shall lease lands and loan moneys on annual or semiannual interest secured by real estate. State tax. — A tax of 8 cents on the dollar shall be annually assessed on the list a of polls and ratable estate of the inhabitants of this State for the sup¬ port of common schools. The treasurer shall annually apportion to the several towns and cities and unorganized districts the proceeds of such tax, according to the number of legal schools maintained during the preceding school year. Local tax. — The school directors of each town shall annually, in writing, recommend to the selectmen of their town the amount of money necessary for the use of schools, and said selectmen shall annually appropriate for such pur¬ pose a sum not exceeding one-half nor less than one-fifth of the grand list of such town, and shall assess a tax annually to defray such appropriations. Any town by special vote may raise a larger sum for school purposes. a This “ grand list ” of Vermont is made up of the polls and 1 per cent of the assessed value of real and personal property. Eight per cent of this “ grand list ” is taken, as related in the text. ED 1904 M - 32 498 EDUCATION BEPORT, 1904. VIRGINIA. 1. Organization of the System. State hoard — State superinteudeni — County sehooJ hoard — County superintend¬ ent — Distriet seliool hoard — City seJiooI hoard — City superintendent. State hoard. — The State board of education shall be a corporation consisting of the governor, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction, and three experienced educators elected quadrennially by tlie senate from a list con¬ sisting of one from each of the faculties ami nominated by the respective boards of visitors or trustees of the State university, the military institute, the poly¬ technic institute, the State female normal college, the school for the deaf and the blind, and the College of William and Mary (State male normal school), together with two division superintendents (one from a county and one from a city), selected every two years by the six members named above. [The last two members have all the powers of other members except participation in the aiipointment of public school officers.] They shall divide the State into appropriate school divisions comprising not less than one county or city each, and appoint (for four years), subject to con¬ firmation by the senate, one superintendent of schools for each division ; discii)line and remove superintendents; prescribe the duties of the State super¬ intendent; apjirove employees for the oiiice of the State superintendent and nominated by him, the first clerk to serve as secretary of the board at an extra compensation ; make rules for their own government and for the management and conduct of the schools ; i>rovide for examining teachers by the appointment of a State board of examiners or by such other plan as may be deemed expe¬ dient ; select text-books and educational appliances ; guard against the multiply¬ ing of schools to the detriment of the grade of instruction ; approve ])lans of the State superintendent for the organization and conduct of summer normal schools and audit the accounts of expenses thereof ; encourage teachers’ meet¬ ings ; decide appeals from decisions of State superintendent ; order a vote in counties or districts on matters so referable by law ; invest the capital and sur¬ plus income of the literary fund, recover any money belonging thereto, and audit claims to be paid therefrom ; approve schemes of the State superintendent for apportioning State school money ; determine contingent expenses of the State superintendent’s office; appoint board of directors to manage State library; observe operations of school system and regulate matters in administration thereof not provided for ; suggest to the general assembly improvements in sys¬ tem, and make report to said assembly, including the report of the State super¬ intendent. State superintendent. — A superintendent of public instruction, who shall be an experienced educator, shall be elected by the qualified voters of the State every four years. He shall be the chief executive of the public free school sys¬ tem and ex officio president of State board, and shall see that the laws relating thereto are enforced, explain them to public school officers, prepare suitable registers, blank books, and forms for the transacting of the school business, and by circulars and otherwise give instruction to those who have educational duties to perform. He may require special reports from any officer, and may appoint persons (without compensation) to examine the schools of the county in which such iier.son resides. He shall inspect the public schools as often as is consistent with his other duties ; decide all appeals from decisions of county superintend¬ ents ; select the time and place of holding summer normal schools ; prescribe the course of instruction therein and select instructors therefor ; issue State cer¬ tificates ; preserve all books, apparatus, maps, et-^., received by him ; preiiare a schmne for apportioning the money appropriated by the State for the schools among the several counties and cities on a basis of the number of children from 7 to 20 years ; provide a seal, and annually report to the board concerning his official acts, including a plain statistical account of receipts and expenditures, and other duties required of him by law. County seliool hoards. — The county superintendent of schools, together with the district school trustees in each county, shall constitute a body corporate. It shall hold a regular annual meeting, make and record rules for its own govern¬ ment, may appoint a clerk at $2 a day of actual service, prepare an estimate of the amount of money needed for the public schools and (after careful revision of the estimates of the district boards) separately prepare estimates of the expenses of schools in each school district ; make annual settlements of school DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - VIRGINIA. 499 funds with county treasurer ; manage or examine into the management of all property belonging to the county schools, and report annually to the State super¬ intendent. Countij superintendent 0 — The county superintendent of schools shall be ap¬ pointed by the State board for four years, at a compensation of $30 for every 1,000 of population for the first 10,000, $20 for every 1,000 in excess of 10,000, up to and including 30,000, and $10 for every 1,000 in excess of 30,000, rejecting in each case fractions less than 500 : Provided, The compensation shall not be less than $200 a year, to be paid out of the bulk of the State school funds as distinguished from the appropriations from the same to the several counties. His duties shall be as follows : To explain the school system upon all suitable occasions and promote a desire for education ; prepare a scheme for apportion¬ ing the State and county school funds among the school districts; examine per¬ sons desiring to teach ; issue licenses, and promote the efficiency of the teaching force ; assist in the organization of the district school trustees at their sessions (without the right to vote) ; examine all the schools as to their management, course of study, methods, discipline, and text-books, the condition of the school- houses, and the records and official papers of the school districts ; decide finally all complaints or appeals concerning the acts of persons connected with the school system ; administer oaths and take testimony whenever required in cases coming before himself or the State superintendent ; keep a record of his official acts ; make special reports to the State superintendent vrhen required to do so, obey his instructions, and make an annual report to him, on penalty of forfeit¬ ing the last quarter of his annual pay. District hoard of school trustees. — School districts shall correspond with the magisterial districts except that towns of 500 or more may elect to form a sep¬ arate district. Subdistricts may also be formed or abolished. The judge,^ Commonwealth’s attornejq and school superintendent of each county shall be a board to be known as the school trustee electoral board, which shall "have povrer (except in case of municipal councils which appoint their own boards) to apiwint district boards of school trustees of 3 each for terms of three years, 1 retiring annually, each of whom shall be a resident of the school dis¬ trict, and shall continue so during his term or relinquish his place, and no super¬ visor or county treasurer is qualified. The duties of the board of trustees are as follows ; To explain and enforce the school laws ; employ and dismiss teach¬ ers ; suspend or dismiss pupils; decide what children shall, by reason of pov¬ erty, be furnished text-books free; see that the school census (persons 7 to 20 years) is taken properly every five years; the district board shall call meetings of the people of the district ; prepare and present to the county school board an estimate of the money needed for maintaining the public schools, including build¬ ings and text-books for the children of indigent persons ; care for, add to, and manage the school property of the district, and permit the use of an unoccupied public schoolhouse (vacant from lack of funds to maintain it) by a person not employed by the board but who desires to teach; report annually to the county superintendent ; visit the schools within the district, and see that they are car¬ ried on in accordance with law. The clerk of the district school board shall every five years take a census of the persons (7 to 20 years) residing in the district, receiving compensation at the rate of $3 for every 100 persons enumerated, and perform other duties as may be required by the board, for which he shall be paid $2 per day of actual service. Citi/ school hoard. — All the school trustees in a city shall constitute a single corporation, which shall have the same officers, powers, and duties as ordinary boards of district school trustees except as otherwise provided. This board shall have power, subject to the common council, to prescribe the number and bound¬ aries of school districts and the number of trustees (not exceeding three from each district) ; but until such arrangement is made every city not divided into wards shall be one school district, and cities divided into wards shall have as many districts as there are wards. Each trustee is appointed for three years, 1 in each district retiring annually. The city board may establish high and nor¬ mal schools. City superintendent. — In every city of 10,000 or more inhabitants there shall “After July 1, 1905, the State board will divide the State into school divisions by com¬ bining counties, etc. Local superintendents will thereafter be known as division super¬ intendents. ^The office of county judge has been abolished — effective February 1, 1904. 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. be a superintendent of schools, appointed by the board of education of the city and paid by the State, though the amount thus paid may be increased by munici¬ pal action. Whenever the population of a county in which a city of less than 10,000 inhabitants is located contains 15,000, exclusive of the population of the city, that city may have a superintendent separate from the county, under the conditions obtaining in the case of cities of 10,000 or more. The city superin¬ tendent may teach ex otiicio when requested by the board, may suspend or dis¬ miss pupils, with appeal to city school board, and shall participate in the ses¬ sions of the board, but shall have no vote. (See also County superintendent.) 2. Teachers. Appointmeni, qualifications, and duties — Preliminanj training — Meetings-^ Huinnier norm at s. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No teacher of a free public school shall be employed or paid from public funds unless holding a certificate of qualification in full force from the county or State superintendent. If payment is made for the services of a person unqualified, the payment shall be disal¬ lowed, and the officer who sanctioned it shall be fined not less than $5 nor more than .$50. Written contracts must l)e made in duplicate before installment. The county superintendent shall examine persons applying for license to teach in the free public schools, and, if satisfied as to their capacity, acquire¬ ments, morals, and general fitness, he shall grant them certificates of limited duration subject to revocation, all under the supervision of the State superin¬ tendent. He shall also hold examinations for those desiring to teach in his county for the school year, at such time and place as may be required by a district board. Examinations will be held in orthograi>hy, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, physiology, and hygiene, and, for a first or second grade certificate, in the theory and practice of teaching. Applicants to teach school in which the higher branches have been introduced must be examined upon those branches also. The first-grade certificate entitles to teach three years, and may be- renewed for two years or shorter period; the second grade is good for two years, and the third grade for one. Holders of first-grade certificates may receive from comity superintendents professional certificates good for seven years, and renewable by passing the prescribed examination. The State superintendent shall issue two grades of State certificates — one valid for seven years (the “professional certificate”) and the other for life (the “life diploma”). To obtain either of these the applicant must pass in the subjects required for a first-class county certificate and such other subjects as the State superintendent may demand, and have taught school two years or more, and satisfy the superintendent of his ability to teach and manage a school. The State superintendent issues State normal certificate to graduates of the State normal schools, also issues State certificates to graduates of col¬ leges and universities who have taught in this State three years on first-grade certificates. Every teacher shall keep a daily register of facts pertaining to his school and be responsible for it until delivered to the clerk of the school district, may suspend pui)ils until the case is decided by the board, is exempted from working on roads, nor shall the salary received be governed by the daily average attend¬ ance, if more than 10. Preliminarg training. — There are four normal schools — one for white men, one for white women, and two for colored persons. The object of the Hampton Normal School, as set forth in the charter, is to “ instruct youth in the various common school, academic, and collegiate branches, the best methods of teaching the same, and the best mode of practical industry in its application to agri¬ culture and the mechanic arts.” The other school for colored persons is known as the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, having a normal department, and an industrial department, and such other departments as may be expedient. It is managed by a board of four qualified persons (appointed by the governor) and the State superintendent. The State female normal school is expressly for the training and education of white wmmen for teachers in the public schools. It is under a board of trustees, of whom the State superintendent is one. The trustees may grant diplomas and certificates of proficiency to its graduates and pui)ils. Each city and county is entitled to send one pupil and one additional for each repre- DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - VIEGINIA. 501 sentative in the house of delegates above one. Each pupil is required to give satisfactory evidence of an intention to teach in the schools of the State for at least two years. The college of William and Mary is authorized to establish, in connection with its collegiate course, a system of normal instruction and training for the pur¬ pose of educating and training white men for teaching for the public schools. It is governed by a board of 21 visitors, 10 of whom are appointed by the gov¬ ernor, with the State su])erintendent an ex officio member, who prescribe rules for the examination of those applying for normal instruction, and require satis¬ factory assurance from each pupil that it is his intention to teach at least two years in the public schools, and each pupil shall have the privilege of the college course without charge. Each county and city in the State shall be entitled to one pupil, who shall be nominated by the county superintendent, and one addi¬ tional pupil for each additional representative in the house of delegates. Fifty young men, between IG and 25 years of age, residents of the State, are admitted to the Virginia Military Institute as State cadets, board and tuition free of charge, in consideration of which they are required to teach in some school in the State for two years. Bond is required to cover board and tuition until the fulfillment of this obligation. For the purpose of establishing an intermediate grade of instruction between that of the common school and that of the college, any district school board, with the consent of the county school board, may admit branches necessary to qualify pupils to become teachers. Meetinf/s. — The State board of education shall have po\ver at its discretion to invite and encourage meetings of teachers at convenient places, and to procure addresses to be made touching the processes of school organization, discipline, and instruction ; provided that no public money shall be expended for the i)ur- pose, and that no meeting shall be held during the time the schools should be open, nor shall any teacher be paid for attendance or be compelled to attend. Summer normals. — The sum of $2,500 is annually appropriated for the support and maintenance of summer normal schools, to be conducted, under the manage¬ ment of the State board, at such times and places as the State superintendent may select. The purpose of such schools is to familiarize teachers with more advanced methods of teaching and to furnish such additional academic train¬ ing as will tend to promote the usefulness of the public schools. Summer schools for colored teachers are provided from this appropriation, and the faculty of the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute conduct a summer school four weeks annually for colored teachers. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of instruction — Text-hoolcs — Buildings. Attendance. — White and colored children must be taught in different schools. The school age is 7 to 20, but persons 20 to 25 may be admitted on payment of tuition fees. Pupils must be vaccinated. An enrollment of at least 20 pupils, with a reasonable assurance of an average attendance of that number, shall be required to constitute a free public school, but in cases where this would work hardship the county superintendent may allow 15, and in case of a factious spirit on the part of one or a few persons which tends to reduce the attendance below the minimum the school may be kept open. Character of instruction. — In every public free school shall be taught orthogra¬ phy, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, history of the United States and of Virginia, physiology and hygiene, and the State superintendent may introduce civil government and drawing. (But see below in regard to intermediary instruction.) In schools having not less than 40 pupils, with an average attendance of 30, at least two teachers shall be employed the whole time, one of whom shall be devoted to instruction in elementary branches ; and in all localities where the number of children is sufficient preference shall be given to graded schools — schools in which the pupils are taught in different rooms by different teachers, according to advancement in the studies of the one- teacher school. To encourage an intermediate grade of instruction school boards of districts, when the county board has consented, may admit instruction in any branches necessary to qualify pupils for teaching in the public schools or to enter any of the colleges or higher institutions of the State ; but a fee may be required, not exceeding $2.50 a month, for each pupil, and schools having but 502 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. one teacher and a daily session of five hours shall be confined to the elementary branches. Text -hooks. — The State board shall select text-books, exercising its discretion as to books suitable for cities and counties, respectively. No book (except United States histories) may be changed inside four years. District boards shall decide what pupils shall be entitled to receive text-books free of charge owing to the poverty of their parents. Buildings. — The board of school trustees shall provide suitable schoolhonses, with proper furniture and appliances, in every district, and may hire, erect, or purchase such houses, observing the utmost economy consistent with health and decency, after consultation with the county or city superintendent as to the style of architecture and the arrangements of the buildings and grounds. Un¬ sanitary buildings may be condemned by county superintendents. An unused building may be occupied by a person who desires to open a school, except when school funds are at hand to keep it open as a public school. To disturb any exercise of a school is a misdemeanor, subject to a fine of not less than $10 or more than $50, and, in the discretion of the court, confinement in jail for not more than thirty days. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent or special) — Ta.ration. The funds applicable annually to the establishment, support, and maintenance of free public schools shall be as follows : State funds, embracing the annual interest on the literary fund (arising from the sale of public lands, forfeited property, and fines for offenses against the State), a capitation tax not exceeding $1 per annum on every male citizen of age, and such tax on property, not less than 1 mill nor more than 5 mills on the dollar, as the general assembly shall order. County funds, embracing such taxes as shall be levied by the board of super¬ visors, fines imposed upon school officers, and donations. District funds, embracing such taxes as shall be levied by the board of super¬ visors of the county, not to exceed 10 cents on the hundred dollars, for the purposes of the school district, and donations. [The county and district tax together shall not exceed 20 cents on the liundred dollars.] Municipal funds, embracing such taxes, property, and capitation as may be levied by the city or town councils, or such appropriations as they may make, not exceeding 3 mills on the dollar in any year. WASHINGTON. 1, Organization. ^tate hoard — ^tate superintendent — County superintendent — District hoard — • City hoard. Btate hoard.-~The governor shall appoint, by and with the advice and con¬ sent of the senate, four suitable persons holding life diplomas, at least two of whom shall be selected from those actually engaged in teaching in the common schools of the State, who, together with the superintendent of public instruction, shall constitute the State board of education. The persons appointed shall hold their office for two years. The lioard shall hold an annual session at the capi¬ tal and necessary special jueetings. The members shall be paid for their serv¬ ices at the rate of $5 per diem of actual service, and shall be reimbursed for necessary traveling expenses ; but the expenses of the board shall not exceed $1,000 in any one year. (See also Teachers — Appointment, qualifications, and duties; Schools — Character of instruction. Text-books.) State superintendent. — There shall be elected by the qualified electors in the State, for a term of four years, a State superintendent of public instruction. His salary shall be $2,.500. He shall have supervision over all matters pertain¬ ing to the common schools, shall report to the governor biennially, said report, of which 4,000 copies shall be printed, to contain a statement of the general condition of the common schools of the State, with full statistical tables, by counties, showing the number of schools and the attendance ; the State and DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - WASHINGTON. 503 county school fund apportioned; amount received from special tax or other sources, amount expended for salaries of teachers, the salaries paid by the sev¬ eral counties to the superintendent of schools, the amount they are paid for visiting schools, and their mileage; tlie amount expended for building and pro¬ viding schoolhouses ; the amount of l>onded or other school indebtedness, with rate of interest paid ; the reports of all State educational institutions, or such portions of them as he may think advisable, together with such other facts as he may deem of general interest Lie shall also include in his report a statement of plans for the management and improvement of the schools. He shall prepare Tind superintend the printing and .distribution to eountj^ superintendents of such blanks, forms, registers, blank books, and copies of the school law as may be necessary to the proper discharge of the duties of county superintendents, teachers, and all other school officers charged with the administration of the laws relating to common schools ; also the rules and regulations for the use and government of the common schools, and the questions prepared for the examina¬ tion of teachers. He shall, as far as possible, travel in the different counties of the State where common schools are taught, without neglecting his other official duties, for^the purpose of visiting schools, consulting the county superintendents, and addressing public assemblages on subjects pertaining to common schools ; also to oi>en such correspoiideuce as maj^ enable him to obtain all necessary information relating to the system of common schools in other States. His traveling expenses and the actual amount expended for loostage, stationery, and other expenses of his office at the capitol (in which he shall preserve the records of his office) shall be. paid as are the incidental expenses of other State officers. He shall be ex officio president of the board of education. He shall, annually, on or before the 1st day of October, call a convention of county superintendents of this State, at such time and place as he may deem most convenient, for the discussion of questions pertaining to the supervision and administration of the school laws, and such other subjects affecting the welfare and interests of the c-ommon schools as may be properly brought before ‘ it. He shall, quarterly, apportion the State common school funds subject to apportionment among the several counties of the State, in proportion to the total days’ attendance (pro¬ vided that each school district shall be credited with 2,000 days’ attendance), according to the last annual reports of the several county superintendents on file in his office at the time of making the apportionment. The attendance of a pupil in a school outside the resident district shall be credited to the resident district unless otherwise arranged between the districts or schools. He shall certify said apportionment to the State auditor, and upon said certification the State auditor shall draw his warrant on the State treasurer in favor of the county treasurer of eacli county for the amount apportioned to said county, and transmit the same to the several county treasurers. The superintendent of public instruction shall also certify to the county superintendent of schools of each county the amount apportioned to that county. It shall be the duty of the State auditor to notify the superintendent of public instruction of the amount of the State common school fund subject to apportionment. He shall, annually, on or before the 15th day of xiugust, require of the president, manager, or principal of every seminary, academy, and private school, and of the presi¬ dent, principal, or manager of every State educational institution in this State, a report of such facts, arranged in such forms as he may prescribe ; and he shall furnish blanks for such reports, and it is made the duty of every such president, manager, or principal to fill up and return such blanks within such time as the State superintendent may require. He shall keep a directory of the boards of regents and trustees of State educational institutions, of the faculties of said institutions, and of all teachers receiving certificates to teach in the common schools of the State. He may appoint a stenographer, a deputy superintendent, and such other assistants as the needs of his office may require (about .$4,000 a yeiir allowed for this purpose). County superintendent. — A county superintendent of common schools shall be elected in each county every two years, and shall give bond. Yacancies snail be filled by the county commissioners. The supej’intendent may appoint a deputy and other necessary clerical assistants, but in counties having less than 100 dis¬ tricts such shall be at superintendent's own expense. He shall exercise a care¬ ful supervision over the common schools, visiting each at least once a year; distribute promptly all reports, laws, forms, circulars, and instructions received from the State superintendent ; enforce the course of study adopted by the State board; preserve all reports inade to him, and keep a record of the teach¬ ers, with all personal and pedagogical data ; make an annual report to the State 504 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. superintendent, containing abstracts of the reports made to him by district clerks, and such other matters as the State superintendent may require ; keep an accurate description of the boundaries of the several districts ; appoint dis¬ trict directors to fill vacancies and form new districts ; apportion the county school funds (amount received from the State, county taxes, fines, etc.) to each district according to the number of days’ attendance : Provided, That each district shall be credited with at least two thousand days’ attendance. He shall report to the county commissioners the number and names of defective youth in his county, and the county commissioners shall not allow his salary for July until the State superintendent shall certify that his annual report has been made. Any decision made by the county superintendent may be appealed to the State superintendent. The county superintendent, in addition to the salary fixed by law, shall be allowed mileage at the rate of 10 cents for each mile necessarily traveled in visiting schools and in attending conventions of county superitend- onts, but he shall be allowed no other emoluiiient. Board of district directors, — The term “ school district ” means the territory under the jurisdiction of a single school board. To organize a new district a petition in writing shall be made to the county superintendent signed by at least five heads of families residing in the district, but for the purpose of transferring territory from one district to another it is necessary that a majority of the heads of the families residing in the territory to be transferred should petition. Directors of school districts shall be elected at the regular annual school elec¬ tion. At the first annual election in all new districts three directors shall be elected for one, two, and three years, respectively. The ballots shall specify the term for which each is to be elected. In all districts in which elections have been previously held, one director shall be elected for the term of three years, and if any vacancies are to be filled, a sufficient number to fill them for the unex- l)ired term or terms*; and the ballots shall specify the respective term for which each director is to be elected. Every board of directors, unless otherwise specially provided by law, shall employ, and for sufficient canse discharge, teachers, mechanics, or laborers, and fix, alter, allow, and order paid their salaries and compensation ; enforce the rules and regulations prescribed by the superintendent of public instruction and the State board of education for the government of the schools, pupils, and teachers, and enforce the course of study prescribed by the State board of educa¬ tion ; provide and pay for' school furniture and apparatus, and such other arti¬ cles, materials, and supplies as may be necessary for the use of schools; rent, repair, furnish, and insure schoolhouses ; build or remove schoolhouses ; purchase or sell lots or other real estate, when directed by a vote of the district to do so ; purchase personal property in the name of the district, and receive, lease, and hold for their district any real or personal property, and have custody of all school property ; suspend or expel pupils from school who refuse to obey the rules thereof, and may exclude from school all children under G years of age ; pro¬ vide free text-books and supplies, to be loaned to the pupils of the schools, when in their judgment the best interests of their districts will be subserved thereby ; require all pupils to be furnished witli such books as may have been adopted by the State board of education, as a condition to membership in the schools ; exclude from school and school libraries ail books, tracts, papers, and other publications of an immoral or pernicious tendency, or of a sectarian or partisan character; provide and pay for transportation of children to and from school when deemed necessary ; authorize the schoolroom to be used for summer and night schools, literary, scientific, religious, political, mechanical, or agricultural societies, under proper regulations ; require teachers to conform to the provisions of the school law. Any board of directors shall be liable as directors in the name of the district for any judgment against the district, for any salary due any teacher, and for any debts legally due, contracted under the provisions of this act, and they shall pay such judgment or liability out of the school funds to the credit of the district. The directors shall annually elect one of their number clerk and as such clerk he shall annually take an exact census of all children and youth between the ages of 5 and 21 years, and shall designate the number of weeks each child be¬ tween the ages of 6 anel 21 years has attended school during the school year, the names and sex of all children subject to enumeration, noting defects of sight or hearing, and the names of their parents or guardians. He shall report the enumeration, and such information as the State superintendent shall require as to duration of schools, character of instruction, attendance, buildings, and DIGEST OE SCHOOL LAWS - WASHINGTON. 505 tbe salaries of teachers. He shall receive $3 per diem for taking the census and making his report, and such other allowances as the board of directors may deem reasonable, but he shall receive no compensation until he shall have made his reports. Each incorporated city or town shall comprise one school district, and shall elect, vrhen there is more than one school, a town school superintendent, who may be a teacher. Citi) hoard of education. — Whenever any incorporated city shall have a popula¬ tion of 10,000 or more inhabitants, together with any adjacent or contiguous ter¬ ritory that now is or may be hereafter attached to said city for school purposes, it shall constitute one scliool district, and the board of directors shall constitute the city board of education. The board of directors shall consist of five mem¬ bers, who shall be elected by ballot by the qualified electors of the district, and shall hold their offices for "the term of three years, and until their successors are elected and qualified. The regular district election for the election of mem¬ bers of the board of education shall be held annually in each district. The board shall elect a secretary, who shall not be a member of the board, but shall act as its purchasing agent and in addition as superintendent of buildings, giving bond of $5,000 or more. The board shall employ a city superintendent of schools of the district, and for cause dismiss him, and fix his duties and com¬ pensation ; enforce the rules and general regulations of the State superintendent and the State board of education ; prescribe the course of study, the exercises, and the kind of text-books to be used, in addition to the text-books prescribed by the State board of education, for use of the common schools of this State ; pro¬ vide free text-books and supplies for ail children attending school when so ordered by a vote of the electors ; or, if free text-books are not provided, provide books for indigent children, on the written statement of the superintendent that the parents of such children are not able to purchase them ; require successful vaccination as a condition of school membership, and provide free vaccination for all who are unable to pay for the same ; provide for school furniture and for everything needed in the schoolhouses ; make necessary by-lavrs for more effectively carrying out the provisions of this act and for facilitating the work of the board, as required by law ; adopt and enforce such rules and regulations as may be deemed essential to the well-being of the schools, and establish and maintain such grades and departments, including night schools, as shall, in the judgment of the board, best promote the interests of education in the district ; suspend or expel pupils from school who refuse to obey the rules ; employ, and for cause dismiss, teachers ; determine the length of time over and above eight months that school shall be maintained; fix the time for the annual opening and closing of schools and for the daily dismissal of primary pupils before the regular time for closing schools. They shall make an annual printed report to the taxpayers of the district, showing in detail the receipts and dis¬ bursements of the school funds. The board shall annually cause the school census to be taken by the secretary and census marshals selected by him, at such compensation as the board shall fix, and shall annually report to the county commissioners the amount of funds necessary to carry on the schools. 2. Teachers. Certificates — Duties — Prciiniinary training — Institutes. Certificates. — No person shall be accounted a qualified teacher who has not first received a certificate issued by the State superintendent, or a State certifi¬ cate or life diploma from the State board of education, or a temporary or special certificate granted by the county superintendent. Life diplomas, valid during the life of the holder, and State certificates, for five yejirs, shall be issued by the State superintendent on authority of the State board. State certificates may, upon application and without examination, be renewed, or a life diploma be authorized in lieu tliereof by the State board. First-grade common school certificates are valid for five years ; second grade, for two years; third grade, for one year. Said certificates shall be issued by the State superintendent. Temporary certificates may be issued by any county superintendent, entitling the holder to teach in any comn?bn school of the county wherein the same is issued until the next regular examination of teachers. Special certificates may be issued without examination by the county superintendent to teachers of music, languages other than English, drawing and painting, manual training, and 506 EDUCATIOIf EEPORT, 1904. penmanship, upon api)lication of any board of directors, if the eounty superin¬ tendent shall have received satisfactory evidenc-e of the applicant’s fitness to teach the subject named, which certificate shall entitle the holder to teach the subject therein named in any school of the district under the control of said board of directors, until revoked for cause. The State board of education shall sit as a board of examination at their annual or special meetings and grant State certificates or life diplomas. State certificates shall be granted to such applicants only as shall file with the board satisfactory evidence of having taught successfully twenty-seven months, at least nine of which shall have been in the public schools of this State. The applicant must pass a satisfactory examination in all the branches required for first-grade common school certificates, also plane geometry, geology, botany, ^ioology, civil government, psychology, history of education, bookkeeping, com¬ position, and general history, or shall file with the board a certified copy of a diploma from some State normal school or a State or Territorial certificate, the requirements to obtain which shall not have been less than those of this State. Life diplomas shall be granted to such applicants only as shall file with the board satisfactory evidence that they have taught successfully for ninety months, not less than fifteen of which shall have been in the public schools of this State ; in other respects the requirements shall be the same as those for State certificates. But no State certificate or life diploma shall ever be granted without examination to the holder of a diploma from any State normal school unless said school shall first have been placed on the accredited list by the State board, nor shall a State certificate or a life diploma be granted with¬ out examination to the holder of a State certificate or life diploma unless the name of said State shall be found on the accredited list of States. The fee for State certificates shall be ^3 and for life diplomas |5. The State board shall also have power to grant State certificates without examination to all applicants who are graduates of a regular four-year collegiate course of the University of Washington, the xigricultural College and School of Science, or of other reputable institutions of learning whose requirements for graduation are equal to the requirements of the University of Washington, The applicant shall file with the board a certified copy of his diploma and the course of study for the year in which he graduated, and shall pass a satisfactory exami¬ nation before the State board in theory and practice of teaching, psychology, and history of education, and shall file with the board satisfactory evidence of hav¬ ing taught successfully for twenty-seven months, at least nine of which shall have bc'en in the public schools of this State, unless the name of the institution by which it was granted shall appear uix)n the accredited list of schools. There shall be held at each county seat on the second Thursday of May, August, and November each year an examination of applicants for teachers’ certificates, conducted by the county superintendent according to the rules and regulations of the State board. Applicants shall be at least 17 years of age, and shall be examined in reading, penmanship, orthography, written and mental arith¬ metic, geography, English grammar, physiology and hygiene, history and Consti¬ tution of the United States, school law and the constitution of the State of Wash¬ ington, and the theory and art of teaching: and for a first-grade certificate in the additional branches of physics, English literature, and algebra, and the ai)pli- cant must present satisfactory written evidence of having taught successfully nine months ; but the State board may adopt two other subjects in lieu of algebra and physics for teachers who have taught exclusively in primary schools for not less than fifty months, and the certificates granted to such primary teachers shall be known as first-grade primary certificates, and shall entitle the holder to teach only in the primary grades of city and village schools. The State sui>erintend- ent shall also have power to grant common school certificates without exami¬ nation to all applicants who are graduates of a regular four-year collegiate course of the University of Washington, the Agricultural College and School of Science, State normal schools equal in requirements^ to the State normal schools of Washington, or of other reputable institutions of learning vchose requirements for graduation are equal to the requirements of the University of Washington ; also to all applicants who hold State certificates or diplomas equal in require¬ ments to those of the State of Washington ; but the applicant shall pass an ex¬ amination in State school law and constitution with a standing required for a first-grade certificate. Fee for examination or temporary certificate or renewal, $1. The county superintendent shall, within three da7vs of the close of said examination, for¬ ward to the State superintendent all the papers written at said examination DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - WASHINGTOI'T. 507 and relating thereto, inel tiding a complete list of all applicants, with their post- office addresses, and also a receipt from the county treasurer for the fees col¬ lected at the examination. The holder of a first-grade certificate who shall present to the State superin¬ tendent evidence of having taught successfully twenty-four school months dur¬ ing the time said certificate lias been in force, may have same renewed without further examination, and such renewal and succeeding renewals shall he for terms of five years; hut such renewal certificates shall lapse upon the failure cf the holder to teach for a period of two consecutive school j’ears. A teacher holding a second-grade certificate, who has taught in the primary grades of the public schools of the State for not less than thirty-six months immediately pre¬ ceding the expiration of said certificate, and who has taken at least one subject of the teacher’s reading circle work ea€*h year, may have said certificate re¬ newed once for two years as a primary teacher. All applicants for certificates above third grade who shall attain the required percentage in eight of the desig¬ nated subjects shall be credited for those subjects in which they shall have passed, and upon passing the required percentages in the remaining subjects at the next subsequent examination shall receive a certificate in accordance with the result of both examinations. Any teacher to whom a certificate has been granted by any county board of examiners in this State, or by lawful exam¬ iners in any other State or Territory the requirements to obtain which were not less than in this State, or any teacher holding a diploma or certificate of graduation from any State or Territorial normal school, or from the normal department of the University of the State of Washington, may present the same to a county superintendent, who shall grant to said person a tejnporary certifi¬ cate ; Provided, That such teacher was not a resident of the county at the time of the last examination, or else was not able by reason of sickness or other unavoidable cause to attend said examination. Any certificate may be revoked by the authority entitled to grant the same upon the determination of sufficient cause, after the holder shall have been given an opportunity of being heard. Duties. — Every teacher employed in any common school shall make a report to the county superintendent at the time he contracts to teach such school, the number of the district in which he is to teach, the grade of his certificate, the date it expires, and the proposed length of term, and at the close of any school shall report to the county superintendent on the blanks prescribed by the {State superintendent. Any teacher who shall be teaching at the close of the school year, or who shall teach the last term of any school year in any school district, shall make a report to the county superintendent immediately upon the close of such school year or term, for the entire time taught in said school district since the beginning of the school year. Copies of all reports made by teachers shall be furnished to the clerk of the district, to be filed in his office. No board of directors shall draw any order or warrant for the salary of any teacher for the last month of his service until the reports herein required shall have been made and received : Provided, That in all schools under the direction of a city superintendent the report of such superintendent shall be accepted by the county superintendent and the directors in lieu of a teacher’s report, and that when there is no city superintendent the report of the principal sha.ll be accepted in lieu of the teacher’s report. Every teacher shall keep a school register in the manner provided for, and no board of directors shall draw any warrant for the salary of any teacher for the last month of his service in the school, at the end of any term or year, until they shall have received a certificate from the district clerk that the said register has been properly kept, the summaries made, and the statistics entered, or until by personal examination they shall have satisfied themselves that it has been done. Teachers shall faithfully enforce in the school the course of study and regulations prescribed, and if any teachers shall willfully refuse or neglect to comply with such regulations their salaries may be withheld. Teachers mal¬ treating or abusing any pupil by administering undue or severe punishment, or inflicting punishment on the head or face, shall be deemed guilty of a misde¬ meanor and shall be fined in a sum not to exceed $100. i PreJiminary training. — There are established three State normal schools for the training and education of teachers in the art of instructing and governing the schools of the State. The schools are under a board of 5 trustees who man¬ age the affairs of the schools. Institutes. — Whenever the number of school districts in any county is 25 or more, the county superintendent shall hold a teachers’ institute each year, and 508 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. every teaelier employed in a common school in the comity must attend such institute during its whole time. In any county where there are less than 25 school districts the county superintendent may, in his discretion, hold an insti¬ tute. Each session of the institute must continue not less than three days. When the institute is held during the time the teachers are employed in teach¬ ing, their pay shall not be diminished by reason of their attendance when certi¬ fied to by the county superintendent. The county superintendent must keep an accurate account of the actual expenses of the institute, with vouchers for the same, and present the bill to the county commissioner, who will allow the same, but not to moi^e than $200 in any one year. Any teacher who willfully neglects to attend an institute shall be deprived of his certificate. 3. Schools. Attendance — Chayacter of hist met ion — Text-hooks — Buildings. Attendance. — Every common school shall be open to all children from G to 21 years of age ; and all parents, guardians, and others having immediate charge of any child or children between the ages of 8 and 15 years shall send the same to school at least four months each year, and in graded school districts in incor¬ porated cities and towns such children shall be sent to school at least six months each year. All school districts in this State shall maintain school at least five months each year, and in incorporated cities and towns the minimum length of term for each year shall be six months, and in cities of 10,000 or more inhab¬ itants, 8 months. The school day shall be six hours in length, inclusive of a noon intermission, but the time may be reduced by the board of directors, except that for primary pupils it must not be less than four hours. Character of instruction. — In every school shall be taught, in the English lan¬ guage, the following subjects ; Eeading, penmanship, orthography, written and mental arithmetic, geography, English grammar, physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic stin^ulants and narcotics, history of the United States, and such other studies as may be prescribed by the board of education. Attention must be given during the entire course to the cultivation of manners, to the laws of health, physical exercise, and ventilation and tempera¬ ture of the schoolroom. The high schools (also normal schools. State univer¬ sity, and other State educational institutions) are a part of the public school system. The work is divided into twelve grades. The first eight cover the work of the common school, and the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and tv/elfth grades constitute the high school work. Two or more common school districts may unite to form a union high school. The State gives, aside from the regular apportionment for attendance, $100 a year for each grade maintained by such union high school district. Text-hooks. — In each district of the first class (i. e., one maintaining a high school with not less than a two years’ course of study) there shall be a text-book commission composed of five persons, namely, the city superintendent (or, if there be none, the principal of the high school) as ex officio chairman, and two members of the city board of education or district board of directors, and two teachers teaching in the district, to be designated by such city or district board for a term of five years. Text-books shall be selected by said commission cover¬ ing the course of study issued by the State superintendent for such schools, together with any books supplementary or additional thereto which may be deemed necessary, and sucli books when adopted shall continue in use for three years and until displaced by order of the commission. In each county containing any school district of the second class (i. e., one not maintaining a high school) there shall be a county board of education composed of five members, namely, the county superintendent as ex officio president, and two teachers and two citizen taxpayers of the county, to be designated by the county commissioners for a term of four years. The State superintendent shall prescribe a uniform course of study for all schools of the second class, and each county board shall adopt books covering the same and may adopt any books additional or supplementai’y thereto when deemed necessary, which books shall continue in use for five years and until displaced by order of the said county board. A second-class district lying in two or more counties shall be under the jurisdiction of the oldest county. Each member of the text-book commission of a first-class district shall receive $3 a day as compensation while so employed, and each member of a county board 10 cents per mile traveled in attending meetings of the board. The commission DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - WASHINGTON. 509 and board shall advertise by newspaper for proposals to furnish books, which proposals shall state an exchange, a wholesale, and a retail price at which such books will be furnished. A sample copy of each book contracted for shall be deposited by the publisher with the State superintendent. Buildings. — The control of school property is vested in the board of directors, and such property may be acquired or sold by the board when authorized by the district meeting. Any pupil who shall in any way cut, deface, or otherwise injure any schoolhouse, furniture, fence, or outbuilding thereof, or any book belonging to another pupil or to the district library shall be liable to suspension and punishment, and the parent or guardian of such pupil shall be liable for damage on complaint of the teacher or any director and proof of the same. 4. Finances. Funds {permanent and special) — Taxaiion. Funds {permanent and special). — The principal of the common school fund shall remain permanent and irreducible. The said fund shall be derived from the following-named sources : Appropriations and donations by the State to this fund ; donations and bequests by individuals to the State or public for common schools ; proceeds of lands and other pj*operty which revert to the State by escheat and forfeiture ; proceeds of all property granted to the State, when the purpose of the grant is not specified or is uncertain ; funds accumulated in the treasury of the State for the disbursement of which provision has not been made by law ; proceeds of the sale of timber, stone, minerals, or other property from school and State lands other than those granted for specific purposes ; all moneys received from persons appropriating timber, stone, minerals, or other property from school and State lands other than those granted for specific purposes, and all moneys other than rentals received from persons trespassing on said lands ; 5 per cent of the proceeds of the sale of public lands lying within the State which shall be sold by the United States subsequent to the admission of the State into the Union, as approved by section 13 of the act of Congress enabling the admission of the State into the Union; the principal of all funds arising from the sale of lands and other property which have been or hereafter may be granted to the State for the support of common schools. The legislature may make further provisions for enlarging said fund. The interest accruing on said fund, together with all rentals and other revenues derived therefrom, and from lands and other property devoted to the common school fund, shall be exclusively applied to the current use of the common schools. All schools maintained or supported wholly or in part by the public funds shall be forever free from sectarian control or influence. All losses to the per¬ manent common school fund which shall be occasioned by defalcation, misman¬ agement, or fraud of the agent or officers controlling or managing the same shall be audited by the proper authorities of the State. The amount so audited shall be a permanent funded debt against the State in favor of the particular fund sustaining such loss, upon which not less than 0 per cent annual interest shall be paid. Taxation. — In addition to the provisions for the support of common schools here¬ inbefore provided, it shall be the duty of the State board of equalization annually, at the time of levying tax for State purposes, to levy a tax that shall be sufficient to produce a sum which, when added to the estimated amount of money to be derived from the interest on the State permanent school fund for the current fiscal year, shall equal $10 for each child of school age residing within the State, as shown by the last report of the several county superintendents to the State superintendent, provided said tax shall not exceed 5 mills on the dollar. Said tax levy shall be certified to the several county auditors in the same manner as other State taxes are required to be certified, and shall be collected and trans¬ mitted to the State treasurer at the same time and in the same manner as other State taxes are required to be collected and transmitted ; and it shall be the duty of the State auditor, within thirty days after the elate at which county treasurers are required to transmit State funds to the State treasurer, to certify to the State superintendent the amount of all State annual school funds in the hands of the State treasurer subject to apportionment. For the support of the common schools there shall also be set apart by the county treasurer all moneys arising from fines for breach of any penal law of the State, and it is hereby made the duty of all county clerks, justices of the peace, or other officers receiving any moneys arising from such fines or licenses. 510 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. or any other moneys belonging to the school fiiiid as above provided, to turn the same over to the county treasurer within thirty days after the date of its col¬ lection, taking his receipt therefor ; and all such officers shall make a report to the county superintendent quarterly. The board of directors may, for the purpose of furnishing additional school facilities for the district, the payment of .teachers’ wages, or for the building of one or more schoolhouses, or for the repairing of any school house or houses, or for the building of additions thereto, or for the purchase of fuel, supplies, globes, maps, charts, books of reference, or other appliances for teaching, levy a special tax not to exceed 10 mills on the dollar : Provided, That no tax exceed¬ ing 5 mills shall be levied until such levy shall have been ordered by a majority vote of the legal voters of the district at an election called for the purpose. In cities of 10,000 or more inhabitants the board of education shall annually report to the county commissioners an estimate of the amount of funds required for the school system, in addition to the estimated receipts from the State, which sum the county commissioners are required to levy and collect ; but the aggregate school tax shall never exceed 1 per cent upon all the taxable property of the district. No county tax for school purposes shall be levied upon the property situate within the limits of any school district provided for in this act, nor shall any such district be entitled to or receive any portion of the common school fund raised by county tax. In case the purchase of sites and erection of buildings shall require more than ^50,000 in any one year, the matter shall be submitted to the voters. The board of directors of any school district may borrow money and issue negotiable coupon bonds therefor to an amount not to exceed 5 per cent of the taxable property in such district, as shown by the last assessment roll for county and State purposes : Provided, That in incorporated cities the assessment shall be taken from the last assessment for city purposes, for the purpose of funding outstanding indebtedness on bonds, or for the purchase of schoolhouse sites, or^ for building schoolhouses and providing the same with all necessary furniture and apparatus, when authorized by vote of the district so to do, but the bonds so issued shall bear a rate of interest not to exceed G per cent per annum, pay-j able and redeemable at such time as may be designated in the bonds, but not to exceed twenty years from the date of issue. The county commissioners must ascertain and levy annually the tax necessary to pay the interest upon such bonds as it becomes due ; and at the expiration of one-half of the time for which said bonds are to run, and annually thereafter until full payment of said bonds is made, they may, if deemed advisable, levy, in addition to the tax required to pay the interest, such amount for sinking fund to meet the payment of said bonds at maturity, to be determined by dividing the amount of bonds outstanding by the remaining number of years to run, and the fund arising from such levy shall be kept as the bond-redemption fund of said district, and each of said tax levies shall be a lien upon the property in said district, and must be collected in the same manner as taxes for other school puri>oses. WEST VIRGINIA. 1. Organization of the System. ^tate superintendent — State hoard of examiners — Board of the school fund — County superintendent— Distriet hoard — Snhdistrict trustees. State superintendent. — There shall be elected a State superintendent of free schools, whose term of office shall be the same as that of the governor. He shall be a person of good moral character, temperate habits, of literary acquirements and skill and experience in the art of teaching, and shall be paid ^3,000 annually, and necessary expenses not to exceed $500 per year. He shall have his office and residence at the capital, have an official seal, sign all requisitions on the auditor for the payment of State money for school purposes, supervise all county superintendents and free schools of the State, see tliat the law is executed, pre¬ pare and forward all blanks required, correspond with educators and school offi¬ cers abroad, collate the result of his investigations, make himself acquainted with peculiar wants of each section of the State, and annually report to the governor. He shall have general control of all matters relating to the examina¬ tion of applicants for teachers’ certificates and the issuance of the same. DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - WEST VIRGINIA. 511 State hoard of examiners.— shall he a State hoard of examiners, con¬ sisting of fixe competent persons, one from each Congressional district, to he appointed hy the State superintendent, to servo for four yoars. ( See also Teach¬ ers — Appointment and qualifications.) Each memher roceives a per diem of So for time actuallj- spent in discharge of duty and G cents a mile for distance traveied. State Jjoard of the school fund. — (See Finances.) County superintendent. — A county superintendent of free schools shall he elected every four ye^rs hy the county electors. He shall visit each school within his county at least once during the school year and note its scholastic character and physical surroundings, and shall labor steadily to procure uniformity of instruction throughout the county and promote the efficiency of the teaching force, reporting concerning these facts annually to the State sui>erintendent. He sliail make up a report to the State superintendent from the district reports to him concerning the condition of schoolhouses, the value of apparatus, and the volumes in and value of school libraries, and, further, to report the districts failing to make a return of the number, etc., of youth within them, and those that have failed to make the annual district levy for support of primary schools. Comity hoard of cxamiivers. — There shall he in every county a board of exam¬ iners, composed of the county superintendent and two experienced teachers, wlio shall he nominated hy the county superintendent and appointed by the presidents of the district boards of education for a period of two years, one retiring annually. They shall each receive pay at the rate of $3 per day of actual service, to he paid out of the fees collected from applicants for certifi¬ cates. The county hoard of examiners are under the government and control of the State superintendent, who shall designate the time of examinations, to he held simultaneously in all counties of the State, not exceeding, five in any one year, for which the State superintendent shall prepare questions and send them under seal to the county superintendent, who, with the other examiners, shall open them in the presence of the applicants assembled for the examination. The examiners shall collect the manuscripts and send them under seal to the State superintendent who shall grade them and issue the certificates. All applicants pay an examination fee of |2, District hoard. — The district hoard of education shall he composed of a presi¬ dent and two commissioners, elected by. the voters of each school district (coex¬ tensive with each magisterial distiict of the countj’) for terms of four years, the two commissioners to retire at biennial intervals. They shall appoint for each siihdistrict three iiiteliigent trustees, each to hold for three shears, one to retire annually. The hoard of education shall fix the salary of the teachers and elect a secretary, who shall not he a memher. The board shall have general control and supervision of the schools and school interests, determining the num¬ ber and location of its schools, provided that every village of 50 or more inhabit¬ ants shall be included in one suhdistrict. The district board shall cause a suf¬ ficient number of primary schools to be kept, require every teacher to enumerate the youth (6 to 21), and report the following facts : Youth 6 to IG years of age, youth IG to 21 years of age, distinguishing sex and race, determine the rate of taxation necessary for teachers’ and building funds, and furnish record books and blanks to teachers. The members receive $1.50 per diem, not exceeding $10.50 a year, one day of which shall be spent in attending a teachers’ institute. Suhdistrict trustees. — I’he trustees of the subdistificts are three in number, appointed for three years by the board of education, one retiring annually. They shall have charge of the schools in their district and appoint teachers, making a written contract ; visit every school under their charge, once within two weeks after the opening and again within two weeks before its close, thor¬ oughly inspecting the premises, the character of instruction, and the proficiency of the pupils ^ may purchase fuel, brooms, and other things incidental to school¬ room use, and make repairs, rendering an account to the secretaiy of the board of education. 2. Teachees. Appointment., qualifications, and duties — Preliminary training — Meetings. Appointment, qualifications, and duties. — No teacher shall be employed with¬ out having a certificate of qualification to teach and govern a school. Exam¬ inations ai-e conducted by the county board of examiners under the direction and control of the State superintendent, who issues the certificates. No college 512 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. diploma or certificate of recommendation shall supersede the necessity of an examination. The certificates shall be graded as follows : The first-grade certifi¬ cate shall be issued for five years to all applicants who obtain an average of 90 per cent (not less than 75 in any subject) on examination in all the branches required to be taught in the primary schools, the theory and art of teaching, gen¬ eral history, civil government, and bookkeeping. The second-grade certificate shall be issued to all applicants who obtain an average of 80 per cent (not lower that 70 in any branch) on the same branches as required for first-grade certifi¬ cates, and is good for three years. The third-grade certificate shall be issued to those who obtain an average of 70 per cent (not lower than 60 per cent in any one branch) on the same branches as required for first-grade certificates; it is valid for one year and may be reissued once only. Failure to attend a county institute without good excuse disqualifies for teaching that year. The State board of examiners issue two grades of certificates — first class, valid for twelve years ; second class, for six years. First-class certificates are issued to persons who possess the requisite scholarship and professional experi¬ ence ; second class, to applicants who, in addition to the branches required for the county certificate, pass in four other branches. Second-class certificates are granted to the graduates of the State nornmJ school, the State university, the Peabody Normal College of Tennessee, and of other schools in the State approved by the board, when such graduates have taught successfully three years in the State under a No. 1 county certificate, two of which shall imme¬ diately precede the date of the application for certificate. Persons teaching successfully four years under a second-class certificate shall be entitled to a first-class certificate at the expiration of the second class. Each applicant shall pay a fee of $5. Every teacher shall keep a register, in which he shall enter the date of the beginning and close of the term, the name, sex, age, and studies of each pupil, and other particulars specified by authority. Failure to properly keep and deposit the register forfeits the balance due to tlie teacher. Teachers are required to take the school census. Preluninanj training. — The West Virginia Normal School (Marshall College), with its five branches, is under the control of a board of regents of the State normal school, appointed by the governor. There are two State institutions for the education of colored youths, and the State superintendent is authorized to arrange with some other institution within the State for the training of a number of colored teachers. Institutes. — Teachers’ institutes are held in each county of the State annu¬ ally, continuing five days, under the direction of the county superintendent and instructors appointed by the State superintendent. Teachers pay an enrollment fee of $1, and are allowed pay at the rate of $1.50 per day for attendance, and failing to attend they are not allowed to teach unless excused from attendance by the county board of examiners. Members of boards of education are allowed pay for one day’s attendance. District institutes, one or more annually in each district, are conducted by county superintendents, and teachers are allowed pay for one day's attendance. 3. Schools. Attendance — Character of Instruction — Text-hooJos — Buildings. Attendance. — MTiite and colored children are to be taught in separate schools. Every youth between the age of G and 21 years shall have a right to receive instruction at the free primary schools. Subdistrict trustees shall provide one or more primary schools for the colored children when they number more than 10, or the board of education shall provide other equal educational facilities. Schools must be kept at least five months. I Character of instruction. — In the primary schools there shall be taught orthog¬ raphy, reading, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, physiology, general history, history of the United States and of West Virginia, geography, single¬ entry bookkeeping, civil government, and the theory and art of teaching. It shall be the duty of the State superintendent to prescribe a manual and graded course of primary instruction to be followed in the country and village schools, and for the graduation of those completing the course. I Text-hooks. — For the purpose of selecting text-books for use in the free schools of the State there is established in every county a school-book board, composed of the county superintendent, who is ex officio secretary, and eight DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - WISCONSIN. 513^ other respectable citizens, at least four of whom shall he freeholders and not school teachers, and at least three of whom shall be teachers holding a No. 1 certificate and engaged in teaching. The said eight persons are appointed bjr the county court, and not more than five shall belong to the same political party. They hold office for four years, and all contracts are made for a period of five years. Boards of education are authorized, at their option, to purchase and supply to the pupils of their district all necessary text-books free of charge. Buildings. — ^The board of education of every district shall provide suitable schoolhouses and grounds, but in erecting buildings they must submit the plan, to the county superintendent, whose duty it is to ])e acquainted with the princi¬ ples of schoolhouse architecture, and in all his plans he shall study economy;^ convenience, health, and durability. To provide sites, schoolhouses, and furni¬ ture a district tax must be levied, not to exceed 40 cents on the $100 of property, except that for the support of district high schools an additional levy not exceeding- 30 cents on the $100 valuation may be laid. 4. Finances. Funds (permanent or special) — Taxation. Funds (permanent or special). — The money accruing to this State from for¬ feited, delinquent, waste, and unappropriated lands and lands sold for taxes,, the State’s share of the literary fund of Virginia, or other claims of an educa¬ tional nature upon her, estates of intestates, escheated lands, the taxes levied upon the revenues of corporations and exemptions from military duty, consti¬ tute the school fund, now limited by the constitution to $1,000,000. For the- management of the fund a board of the school fund is created, composed of the- governor. State superintendent, auditor, and treasurer. The interest of the- fund is applied annually to the support of free schools. Taxation. — The legislature shall levy for support of free schools an annual capitation tax of $1 on every male inhabitant of 21 years or more. For the support of free schools there shall be a State tax of 10 cents on the $100, which, together with the interest of the school fund, forfeitures, fines, and confiscations, the annual capitation tax, dividends on bank stock held by the board of the school fund, shall be called the general school fund, and shall be annually distributed to the several counties in proportion to the youth therein,, less the salary and expenses of the State superintendent ; but no district is te receive its share unless it has annually raised enough money in connection with the State apportionment to keep the schools open for at least five months, or as many as have been settled upon by the voters : Provided, That the local tax shall not exceed 80 cents on the $100, the levy and the State money to be called the teachers’ fund. To provide buildings, sites, furniture and appliances, and’ repair them, the board of education shall annually levy a tax on the property in the district not to exceed 40 cents on the $100. WISCONSIN. [Although the following digest of the school law of Wisconsin does not formally com¬ ply with the scheme prepared hy the Bureau, yet, as much of the information called for hy that scheme can be found in the digest, it has been deemed advisable to print it as it stands.] The statute provides for the organization of school districts, which shall con¬ sist of contiguous territory, but must not contain more than 36 square miles. It also provides for the organization of towns under the township system of school government. Under this system the number of square miles which majr be organized as a township district is not limited. Under the independent sys¬ tem of school government the electors at the annual school meetings, held the first Monday in July of each year, are authorized to elect a school district board of three members — clerk, director, and treasurer. The term of office iS' three years. If vacancies occur they may be filled by appointment by the other members of the board if made within ten days. If not made within ten days they are filled by an appointment made by the town, city, or village clerk. Under the township system of school government the town is, for convenience, divided into subdistricts, the annual meeting of which is held the first Monday ED 1904 M - 33 514 EDUOATIOi^ EEPOET, 1904. in June. The subdistrict clerk becomes a member of tbe town board of school directors. This board has two regular meetings in each year, the first for the purpose of organization occurs on the second Monday in June, and the semi¬ annual meeting on the third Monday in March. At the first meeting an exec¬ utive committee, consisting of a president, vice-president, and secretary, is chosen. The secretary is not of necessity a subdistrict clerk. This executive committee is made responsible for the transaction of all business relating to school matters. Incorporated cities have, as a rule, a board of education, the members of which are appointed by the mayor. This board transacts all the business relating to the school affairs of the city, subject to review of the common council. Any city under the district system of school government having a high school within its boundaries and expending a sum annually for maintenance of the school exceeding $4,000 may elect a school board of seven members. The laws of 1901 granted State aid to rural districts that established graded schools. These schools are divided into first class (those having three or more departments) and second class (those having but two departments). Special aid is granted to such schools when maintained according to law in the sum of $300 to first class and $100 to second-class schools. Two inspectors are appointed by the State superintendent. It is their duty to visit these schools each year and make report upon the condition of the grounds, outbuildings, building, and the organ¬ ization of the school and the adoption and pursuit of the courses of study. These courses are recommended by the State superintendent The inspectors receive an annual salary of $1,600 a year and their traveling expenses. The principal of a State graded school of the first class must hold some form of State certificate. One assistant, holding a third-grade certificate, may he em¬ ployed. Such person must, however, have had one year's successful experience as an additional qualification. One other teacher may be employed, having at least a second-grade certificate, and all other assistants must hold at least first- grade county certificates. The principal of a graded school of the second class must hold at least a first-grade county certificate, and the assistant may be qualified with a third-grade county certificate. One year’s successful experience as a teacher is also required in this case. The electors of a school district may authorize the board to susi>end the school and provide for free transportation and tuition, or for tuition only, in some adjoining district or districts. Under the township system of school govern¬ ment the secretary of the town board of directors is required to inspect each school in his town at least twice during each term, and he must keep the records of the board. His compensation for his services must not exceed $75 in any one school year. If the electors at the annual town meeting vote a compensa¬ tion to the president and vice-president bf the executive committee of the town board of directors, the amount may be $2 a day for not to exceed fifteen days in any one year. Any school district or subdistrict under the township sys¬ tem of school government may maintain several schools in separate school- houses located in different parts of the district. A course of study for common or rural schools printed and commented upon in a pamphlet of some 150 pages is published and distributed under the direction of the State superintendent. The branches which the statute requires shall be taught in the public schools are : Orthography, orthoepy, reading, writing, grammar, geography, arithmetic, history of the United States, Constitutions of the United States and Wisconsin, and piij-siology and hygiene, with special reference to the effect of stimulants and narcotics upon the human system. All instruction shall be in the English language, except that the board may cause any foreign language to be taught by a competent teacher in each school not to exceed one hour each day. Every teacher in a public school must hold some form of a certificate, otherwise no money can be lawfully paid from the public treasury for services rendered. Kindergartens. — District boards, town boards of school directors, and boards of education may provide for kindergarten departments in connection with the public schools. In districts under the district system the electors must provide for the levy of a tax for the maintenance of kindergarten departments before they can be established by the board, and but 40 pupils are permitted to each kindergarten department. The school year begins July 1, and all persons between the ages of 4 and 20 years are privileged to attend the public schools in the district in which they reside free of tuition. These schools must be main¬ tained for at least seven months in each year before the district is entitled to share in the annual apiwrtionment made by the State superintendent from the school-fund income, or the apportionment made by the county board of super- DIGEST OE SCHOOL LAWS - WISCONSIN. 515 visors, which is raised by a tax upon the property of the town. Attendance on some private or parochial school is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14, or if the child is not employed until the age of 10, unless such child shall reside more than 2 miles from the public school by nearest traveled highway. Tlie child is required to attend in country or village districts for at least twenty weeks in each year and in cities for at least thirty-two weeks of each year. If a child is not employed the compulsory age is extended until he is^ 10 years of age. When a school district is newly organized the board may make the first selec¬ tion of ,, text-books. No second selection can, however, be made by the board unless first authorized by a majority vote of the electors at an annual meeting, unless the district has voted to furnish text-books free. In such cases the dis¬ trict board is empowered to adopt new text-books at any time. Under other cir¬ cumstances no change of text-books can be made until at least three years have expired after adoption. The total amount of tax which may be levied and raised for school purposes in ordinary school districts shall not exceed in any one year 2 per cent of the total assessed valuation of taxable property in the district, and in districts under the township system of school government the tax shall not exceed 1 per cent for school purposes. The power of contracting with teachers and fixing the wages per month, term, or year is vested in the board and is limited only by the amount of money which may be used for teachers’ wages. The electors may determine whether the teacher shall be a male or female, and the board in making a contract is bound by the vote of the electors. Every school district board is i)resumed to purchase a United States flag for every schoolhouse and such apparatus as may be nec¬ essary for its display or preservation. The district board has the care and keeping of the schoolhouse, books, apparatus, and other property of the district. They also have power to make all rules needful for the government of the school and to suspend and expel pupils for noncompliance witli such rules when the interest of the school demands. Free high schools were provided for by an act of the legislature of 1875. Spe¬ cial State aid to the amount of $100,000 is now apportioned each year. Courses of study for these high schools are formulated by the State superintendent, and must be followed and adopted by the free high school boards. Two hundred and six of these schools have adopted a four-year course of study, retiuiring four years for its completion and 32 a course of study requiring three 5"ears for its completion. The statute also provides for town high schools, in which the entire town is considered the high school district, and all persons residing in the town prepared to take up the course of study for such schools are permitted to attend free of tuition. The legislature provides that any person of school age prepared to enter a free high school and who may reside in any town or incorporated village, but not within a free high school district, and who shall have completed the course of study in the district in which he resides, or one equivalent thereto, may be admitted to a free high school, his tuition not to exceed $2 per month, to be paid by a tax levied upon the town or village where he resides. A high school inspector is appointed by the State superintendent with an annual salary of $1,800 and traveling expenses. It is his duty to visit the high schools and to inspect the courses of study as carried on in them. The statute also requires that the principal of a free high school shall hold some form of a State certificate and that the qualifications of the free high school assistants be approved by the State superintendent. It is rare that any qualifications not earned by an examination before the State board of examiners or by graduation from some State normal school, some college of high standing or some State university, are accepted. The annual apportionment to district high schools is made pro rata, while that to the town free schools is always one-half of the amount actually expended for instruction in said schools. The apportionment for the year ending June 30, 1903, was $434.50 to each district free high school expending $1,000 or more in its instructional force. High schools are, upon application to the State university, inspected with a view to being placed upon the university accredited list. When so placed graduates from these high schools are admitted to the courses of study in the State university with¬ out further examination. Day schools for the deaf may be established in cities and villages on approval of the State superintendent. Eighteen such schools were maintained in this State for the year 1904, with an enrollment of 221. A special appropriation of 516 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. $150 per capita for each 180 days of attendance is provided by the State. In¬ struction is by the oral method. These schools, as well as the State school at Delavan, are under the supervision of an inspector, appointed by the State super¬ intendent at a salary of $1,500 a year, with traveling expenses. County training school -for teachers. — The statute provides for county train¬ ing schools for teachers. The county board of any county in which no State normal school is located is authorized to appropriate money for the organiza¬ tion, equipment, and maintenance of such a school. The State superintendent shall prescribe the courses of study to be pursued and shall determine the qualifications of all teachers employed in such schools. Any school established and whose courses of study and the qualifications of whose teachers have been approved by the State superintendent, may receive special aid from the State of the sum of oiie-half the amount actually expended for maintaining each school during the year, provided that the total amount apportioned to any one school shall not exceed $2,500 in any year. The chief objects of these schools are to instruct the teachers in methods of organization, teaching, and manage¬ ment of public schools. Academic instruction is also given, and any person who coinpletes in a satis¬ factory manner the course of study prescribed for any county training school shall receive a certificate signed by the principal of the school and by the mem¬ bers of the training school board to the effect that such person has satisfactorily completed the course of study prescribed for the school and is of good moral character. This certificate shall have the force and effect of a third-grade county certificate for the period of three years after graduation. Joint training schools may be established between counties if necessary, and tuition may be charged to persons who may attend and who live outside the county bound¬ aries. Seven such scdiools have been established in this State, and the reports shown that these institutions are strong fa.ctors in educational work and that the statute making provision for them was unquestionably wise. 'Normal schools. — Seven State normal schools are in active operation in vari¬ ous parts of the State. The first one was established in 1865. These scliools are incorporated under a board of seven local regents and three at large, at least one of whom shall be a woman. These regents are ai)pointed by the gover¬ nor for a term of five years. The State superintendent is a member ex officio. This board of regents of normal schools has the government and control of all the normal schools. The board shall hold an annual meeting at the capitol on the second Wednesday of July in each year. This meeting is for the purpose of closing up the business for the year just closed and of arranging for the work of the current year. A semiannual meeting is held during the month of Febru¬ ary in each year. An executive committee of three members selected by the board meets the last Wednesday in each month for the purpose of auditing accounts. The State superintendent annually appoints a board of three visitors to each normal school. It is the duty of these visitors to examine into the con¬ ditions, organization, and management of the school and make a report to the State superintendent. The traveling expenses of these committees are paid from a normal school fund. More than 2,000 persons have graduated from the elementary courses of study and 4,000 from the advanced or four-year courses. It is probable that more than 95 per cent of these graduates have taught a greater or less period in the public schools of this State. The courses of study provided for these schools, while giving due attention to academic and domestic branches, consist of large instruction along lines of pedagogy, school organization, and management. Institutes. — Institutes for the instruction of teachers shall be held in each year in such counties as may be designated by the State superintendent, with the advice and concurrence of the institute committee of the board of regents of normal schools. The work is outlined uniformly each year by the State superin¬ tendent ; systematic records of work done are kept by each institute conductor and are sent to the State superintendent at the close of every institute. One and sometimes two institutes are usually provided for each county during the year. Several conductors are usually appointed, and the work is sectioned in order that the best results may be obtained. A school of instruction for insti¬ tute conductors is held in the latter part of March each year. The number of persons usually attending this school is more than 200. Fourteen thousand dol¬ lars are appropriated from the normal school fund for the maintenance of county institutes, and a fee of $1, collected by each county superintendent from each applicant for a county certificate, is also made a part of the fund. Agriculture. — Schools of agriculture and domestic economy are provided for DIGEST OF SCHOOL LAWS - WISCOHSIH. 517 by an act of the legislature of 1901. This act was amended by the legislature of 1903, providing for at least four such schools and providing that the amount of State aid received by each shall equal two-thirds the amount actually expended for maintaining the school during the year, provided that no more than $4,000 shall be apportioned to any one school in any one year. The course of study covers two years, and includes the elements of agriculture, domestic science, political and domestic economy, with the work in composition, litera¬ ture, United States history, and civics and commercial arithmetic, with farm accounts. Before these schools are entitled to State aid their work must be approved by the State sui)erintendent and the dean of the agricultural college maintained in connection with the State university. Two schools of this class have been organized and maintained under the law. Their creation seems to be fully justified. The instructors of the school improve every opportunity to talk to the citizens of the county on all suitable occasions. An increased inter¬ est in agriculture has arisen as a result. A few acres of land for farming imr- poses is appropriated for the use of each agricultural school, Vniversity of Wisconsin. — The government of the State university is vested in a board of regents, consisting of one member of each Congressional district and two from the State at large (thirteen in all). At least one of these regents shall be a woman, and all are appointed by the governor for a term of three years. The State superintendent and president of the State university are ex officio members of this board. The faculty consists of 228 professors and instructors for the year ending .Tune 30, 1904, and the enrollment of students in each depart¬ ment was over 3,000. The school buildings are of the most f^ommodious char¬ acter and are constantly being added to. The establishment of the short course for agricultural and dairy students has been of incalculable benefit to the State. Two years of fourteen weeks each are required in order to complete these short courses, and they are open to those who have completed the course of study in the common schools or an equivalent course. Administration, State superintendent. — Wisconsin has no State board of education with gen¬ eral power. The State superintendent has general supervision of ail public schools. The law until 1903 vras to the effect that the term of office should be two years and that he should be nominated at convention and elected at the general election, as other State officers are elected. For many years an effort has been made to have the election of the State superintendent removed as far as possible from politics. For this purpose various amendments to the constitution have been attempted, but not until the fall of 1902 was one passed by a majority vote of the electors of the State. Under an amendment to the constitution women as well as men were authorized to vote on this amendment, which proposes that the State superintendent shall possess educational qualifi¬ cations as high at least as any required by any certificate which he is author¬ ized to grant, that he must have taught at least five years, and that his term of office shall hereafter be four years. He is to be elected the first Tuesday in April, at the same time the supreme court, circuit, and county judges are elected. The salary is fixed at $5,000 per year. He has general supervision over the common schools of the State, over establishment and management of county schools of agriculture and domestic science, manual training schools, county training schools for teachers, and day schools for the deaf. He must formulate courses of study for schools of all grades and appoint one high school inspector, an inspector of day schools for the deaf, and two graded school inspectors, whose duties are to visit the different schools, examine into their management, organization, courses of study, and equipment, and report to the State superintendent. He also apportions school funds, decides appeals, holds at least one convention of county superintendents each year, and is required by law to make a report to the governor in each even-numbered year containing a statement of the condition of all schools, including the normal schools and the State university. He is also required to appoint a State board of examiners on the last Wednesday in August of each year. This board conducts the examina¬ tions for State teachers’ certificates. These certificates are of two classes, limited and unlimited. The limited certificate is good for five years, and the unlimited for life, unless revoked by competent authority. County superintendents. — Each county is under the supervision of a county superintendent. Two counties in the State are divided into two superintendent districts each. The county superintendent will hereafter be elected at the 518 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. same time and jii the same manner as tlie State superintendent is elected. He must hold some form of State certificate as an educational qualification and must have had at least eight months experience in a public school. It is his duty to examine and license teachers, visit all schools annually or oftener and report their condition to the board of supervisors of his county and also the State superintendent. Women as well as men may hold this office. The county superintendent may grant certificates of the first, second, and third grade. The branches required for a certificate of the third grade are: Orthoepy, orthog¬ raphy, reading, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, history of the United States, Constitution of the United States, constitution of the State of Wisconsin, physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effect of stimulants and narcotics on the human system, the theory and art of teaching, manual of the elementary course of study for the common schools of Wiscon¬ sin, and the elements of agriculture. This certificate legally qualifies the holder for one year. For the second-grade certificate the a])plicant must pass an exami¬ nation in all the foregoing branches and also in algebra, physical geography, American literature, and English composition. This certificate is good for three years. For the first-grade certificate tlie applicant must pass an examination in all the branches above named and also in physics, plane geometry, English literature, and English history. A certificate of the first grade is a legal quali¬ fication for five years. The law also provides that certificates may be secured in counties other than the one in which the applicant vms examined by transfer of the papers written at the examination to the superintendent of the county in which a school has been engaged. District Itoard. — The district board consists of three members — a clerk, director, and treasurer — each elected for a term of three years. This board has full power to contract with teachers, select text-books on their own motion when a new district is created, and by a majority vote of the electors in case a change is desired in an old district. The members exercise general super- ^■ision over the schools of the district. In township districts all the subdistricts constitute the township board. City superintendents. — There are 50 cities in the State under city superin¬ tendents. These otticers are chosen by the board of education for one year. The law requires that no persons shall be eligible to the office of city superin¬ tendent who does not possess the legal qualifications required for the principal- ship of a four-year course free high school. CHAPTER V. THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. By John W. Hoyt, A. M., M. D., LL. D. [Author of Official Reports on Education in Connection with the Paris (1867), Vienna, and Philadelphia Universal Expositions, Progress of University Education, Outline His¬ tories of the Universities of Bologna, Oxford, and Cambridge during the Middle Ages, and of a Memorial (to the United States Senate) concerning a National University, etc.] PKEFACE. The University of Paris holds an important place in the history of higher education during the Middle Ages, surpassing in some respects, especially in the early completeness of its organization, that of the University of Bologna. It has accordingly received a careful study, with such consultation of authorities as the libraries at Washington have made possible, though only such have been mentioned as have seemed entitled to first consideration and were made the author’s final dependence. The volume of this account could have been greatly and readily increased by the inclusion of many details under each heading, but the object has been rather to present such leading facts as are most important, forming an historic outline that would be at once readable and easily remembered. And for the same reason the author has not burdened the account with the great number of references that would have been necessary, if footnotes were used at all. The following are the authors that have been chiefly relied on : P. Denifie : Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, Paris, Delelain, 1889-1891. Crevier ; Histoire de I'Universite de Paris, 7 vols., 1761. Bulmus : Historia Universitatis Parisiensis, 4 vols., 16G5-1G73. Jourdain : Histoire de rUniversite de Paris. G vols., 1761, Boudousky : Die Universitiit Paris und die Fremden an derselben im Mittelalter, 1 voL, Berlin, 1875. Thurot : De rorganization de I’enseigne- ment dans I’Universite de Paris an moyen age, 1 voi., Paris, 1850. De Remusat : Abelard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845. Duvernet : Histoire de la Sorbonne, 2 vols., 1790. Rashdall : Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., Oxford, 1895, Compayre : Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities, 1 vol.. New York, 1893. Laurie : Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, 1 vol., liondon, 1886. Matthew Arnold : Schools and Universities of the Continent, Haureau : Histoire de la philosophie scholastique, 2 vols., Paris, 1880. Rawlin- son ; The Five Monarchies of the Eastern World, Lond., 1SG2-18G7. Davidson : History of Education, 1893, 1900. 519 520 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904, CONTENTS. I. Causes of the University - 1. General Causes _ (1) The Moving Spirit of the Oncoming Renaissance. (2) A Long Line of Eminent Forerunners _ (3) Ecclesiastical Needs Were also Causes _ (4) Civil Government Was no Less in Need _ 2. The More Direct Causes _ (1) National Needs and Aspirations _ (2) There Were Municipal Aspirations^ _ (3) The Cradle Was Already There _ (4) Also the Men for the Several Departments _ IL When the University Began _ III. How the LTniversity Began _ 1. The Union of Masters _ 2. The Code Furnished by Courgon _ 3. Attempts at Organization — Faculties, Ollicers _ (1) General Officers _ (2) Subordinates-- _ 4. The Nations and Their Relationships _ (1) Why with Arts Department Only _ (2) Organization of the Four Nations _ IV. General Development of the University Faculties _ 1. The Faculty of Arts _ Methods of Instruction in Arts _ 2. The Faculty of Theology - 3. The Faculty of Law - (1) The Civil Law _ (2) The Canon Law - 4. The Medical Faculty _ (1) Conditions of Admission _ (2) The Lectures both Ordinary and Cursory _ (3) The Books Brescribed _ (4) Spirit of the Faculty Finally Scholastic - V. Helps toward University Development - 1. The Part taken by the Christian Church - 2. Favor Accorded by the Civil I*owers _ 3. The Connected and Cooperating Colleges _ VI. Some of the Hindrances - * - 1. The Opposing Chancellor of Notre Dame _ 2. The Opposing Mendicant Order _ VI L Concluding Words - Page. 520 520 520 521 522 523 523 523 523 523 524 524 525 525 526 527 528 529 530 530 531 531 533 536 538 .543 543 544 .546 546 457 547 547 .548 .548 549 551 554 554 555 557 I.— ORIGIN OP THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS— CAUSES. While it is extremely difRciilt to determine the origin of the University of Paris with the exactness which attaches to modern institutions, nevertheless quite satisfactory conclusions have been reached, and the originating causes of its rise have been found exceedingly interesting. For convenience, they will be presented as causes general and causes more direct. I. - GENERAL CAUSES. 1. Among the general causes which brought about its establishment we may properly consider — (!) THE MOVING SPIRIT OF THE ONCOMING RENAISSANCE. The eighth-century awakening, so ably inaugurated and vigorously led by Charlemagne, brought important results in all departments of Europe’s intel¬ lectual activity. But they were necessarily short-lived, since so soon after his death they were followed by the break-up of the Frankish Empire, with succes- UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 521 slve and sweeping invasions from tlie nortli, and by repeated inroads of conquer¬ ing armies from Arabia. Moreover, in so far as this earliest renaissance is educationally concerned, the great work done by him in the planting of schools of superior rank, in different parts of Europe, was chiefly, though by no means wholly, as some have thought, confined in purpose to the advancement of the church in the world. Finally, under this head, history shows that, besides the famous Palace School established at Charlemagne’s seat of empire and placed under direction of the renowned Alcuin, brought from York in 782, he founded yet others of almost equal importance, giving them into the hands of eminent prelates ; and, while Bulmus, as quoted by Newman, maintains that Charlemagne, having in mind the great schools of Athens, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Berytus, fostered those at Paris, Pavia, and Bologna with the intent to make them equally great, there yet seems no sufiicient warrant for such an assumption other than that furnished by the comprehensive views, high aims, and unbounded, ambition of the man himself. It certainly has not been shown that in the founding of great schools he either planted one at Paris or had direct part in furthering even the preliminary efforts of the school out of which the University of Paris is now known to have sprung. Nevertheless, the great Charles may justly be credited with the furtherance of agencies whose influence, by trans¬ mission from generation to generation, served in some measure to inspire the efforts of noble men in after times. It is manifest that results of such transcendent importance could not have come in a single decade or a single generation, and that the enthusiasm of one or two brilliant revolutionists was not, as some writers have assumed, equal to so great an achievement. (2) A LONG LINE OF EMINENT FORERUN NERS. I mean such men as the great Alfred, most learned sovereign of his time (848-901), who, half a century after the death of Charlemagne, also founded a palace school, with the help of such renowned apostles of learning as Green- bold and Erigena ; such men as Lanfranc, of Pavia (1005-1089), whose abilities and zeal in the cause of education won him the archbishopric of Canterbury at the hands of William the Conqueror; as Anselm (1033-1109), pupil of Lanfranc, whose rare genius and devotion made him originator of the scholastic theology, gave distinction to the school at Bee, made him Lanfranc’s successor as arch¬ bishop, as well as practical reviver of metaphysical studies, and enabled him to profoundly stir the intellect of all Europe; such men as Peter Lombard (1100- 11G4), pupil in turn of x\nselm and author of the Book of Sentences; and as William of Champeaux (1030-1117), also pupil of Anselm, afterwards arch¬ deacon of Notre Dame, founder of that famous scholastic center, the Abbey of St. Victor, Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne, leading realist of his day, and for a short time teacher of the youthful Abelard, who soon became yet more famous than he. Ail these, and others only less distinguished, served to keep the torch which Charlemagne lighted from utter extinguishment during a period of three hun¬ dred years. No one of them became actual founder of the University of Paris ; but who knows that it did not come a whole century, or even centuries, earlier on their account? Indeed, when we come to deal more directly with that spirit of the twelfth century renaissance which we have recognized as one of the general agencies concerned in giving origin to the university, we trace it with confidence to these very masters, but more than all to the one last mentioned — that supreme 522 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. genius, whose breadth of view, coiir)led with an acuteness and subtlety of intel¬ lect unparalleled in his time, a passionate love of truth, familiarity with all past achievements, and power in dialectics made him master in the great fields of scholastic philosophy and scholastic theology, and whose high courage, enthu¬ siasm, and eloquence enabled him to kindle zeal for learning throughout Europe. It was Abelard who, after the defeat of his master, William of Champeaux, in philosophic discussion, and a short period of knight-errantry in philosophy, planted himself on the heights of St. Genevieve, at Paris, and there so dealt with the disturbing questions of the time as to gather about him students from the whole of Europe, even to the number of 5,000 and more. Most important of all in this connection, it was Abelard whose metliod of fearlessly, exhaust¬ ively, and impartially searching every question, and of drawing his pupils into the most faithful service of this sort, that opened the way for a university hi the true sense of that term. This view has able support. Pere Denifle, most exhaustive worker in tnls particular field, as quoted by Compayre, has said ; That Abelard’s method was introduced into the schools and never departed thence can be doubted by none who will compare the works wliich preceded Abelard with those that succeeded him, notably, the Questiones, the Disputationes, the Suimnie, composed by the professors of those times. * * We encounter this method again in the cele¬ brated book which during several centuries has been, as it were, the text of theological instruction, I mean the Sentences, by Peter Lombard, The influence of the same method is felt ei'en in the famous work which has been like the code of the schools of canon law, the Decretals of Gratian.” To tills Compayre adds : “ It is, therefore, permissible to conclude that we are not deceived in attribut¬ ing to Abelard the first place in a study of the origin of the universities and the causes which gave them birth. Abelard was the real founder of the Uni¬ versity of Paris, and by that fact promoter of all the universities created in its image. He was its founder in several ways : At first through his representation, by habituating foreigners to come to Paris for the purpose of studying there, and by assembling vast audiences around him ; afterwards by so popularizing ’ the studies and the methods that they were held in honor for centuries in the Parisian schools. He raised the level of instruction by substituting in the place of the old routine of the trivium and the quadrivium * * * the lofty lessons of reasoned theology and abstract philosophy. He was the first professor of superior instruction, and he did his work with an incomparable eclat.” “ Among his immediate pupils,” says Crevier, ” were 20 cardinals, 50 bishops and archbishops, and Pope Ceiestine II.” In like manner, though with characteristic conservatism, Rashdall says : “ It was the teaching of William’s great pupil and opponent. Abelard, that first attracted students from all parts of Europe and laid the foundation of that uni(iue prestige which the schools of Paris retained throughout the mediaeval period. * " * And it was undoubtedly to the intellectual movement of which Abelard is the most conspicuous representative that the rise of the uni¬ versity must ultimately be ascribed.” (3) ECCLESIASTICAL NEEDS WERE ALSO CAUSES. In the medi:eval period diverse opinions in the great field of theology were a source of disturbance that often jiroved most painful and serious. And this diversity was the result of ignorance on the part of great numbers of the clergy. Paganism, pantheism, materialism, and other “ isms,” bred or imported, were in perpetual conflict. Heresies abounded. Even the sacred orders within the UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 523 church could not always understand the Scriptures exactly alike. There must needs be enlightenment on the one hand or suppression on the other, if the church would avoid the trials and periods of perpetual contlict. To add to the embarrassments of the time the ghosts of those immortal Greeks, Plato and Aristotle, had appeared, and would not down at the bidding, Aristotle especially possessed for many who could read him an irresistible charm. And the coming by way of the Orient and in Arabian dress, while it gave zest to his appearance, yet, on the other hand, increased the difficulty of making his acquaintance. The printing press had not yet come, and the making of manuscript copies Dy the thousand was tedious and unsatisfactory. A com¬ mon center or centers, where the living teacher could in person present, ex])lain, and reenforce or overthrow the resurrected Grecian or any other philosophy whatsoever that had been or might be offered, was a necessity. The means of defense and of propagation were both in high demand, and the church wisely made itself efficient in the work of constituting Paris such a center. (4) CIVIL GOVERNMENT WAS NO LESS IN NEED. Kings and emperors must have for support and furtherance men not only richly endowed intellectually, but also thoroughly disciplined and duly versed in a knowledge of the world, past and present, in political and social science, in statesmanship, and in the great art of diplomacy. If only half conscious of this need, there would be more or less of a craving for some high agency or agencies to which the qualification of coworkers could be safely committed. And herein lies the secret of the readiness v;ith which they were often brought into sympathy with generous plans for the founding and protection of institu¬ tions of learning. II. - MORE DIRECT CAUSES. (1) National needs and aspirations. — Whether the needs were at first realized or not, they existed and were bound to manifest themselves to men of necessity concerned in the welfare of their country — even to men selfish in the perform¬ ance of their functions and desirous of its prosperity on their own account only. In this case there was at the time of which we are speakijig the beginning of a very marked realization of such needs. The few men of genius and learn¬ ing, of whom mention has already been made, had so brought to light the greatness and glory of other lands as to make thinking Frenchmen everywhere feel that they belonged to a nation of barbarians and to kindle in their hearts earnest aspirations for better conditions. It was a new order of patriotism, and was followed by a. new readiness to further agencies that were designed to promote the intellectual development of a people of genius and of great possibilities. (2) Municipal aniPitions ready to he enlisted. — Paris was already recognized as one of the choice spots, if not the choicest, in all Europe. Nature had done her very best and left no desirable element wanting. And to all her endowments the genius of men supremely gifted had made beginnings, suggestive to their successors, which have resulted in a city the most charming in the world.' But there were those who cherished for their beloved capital a loftier ambition than any that limited itself to supremacy in things material, who entertained the hope of making Paris the recognized seat of intellectual culture for all the nations ; and these were ready to join hands as best they could for a beginning that would very surely realize, in course of time, their highest hopes and aspira¬ tions. (3) The '‘‘cradle’’' already there. — Not in the school of Remigius, for which 524 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. claims Iiave already been made, and \Ybo is generally conceded to have been the first master of note who taught at Paris, for the school conducted by him was very certainly connected with a monastery, whei*eas “ the first cradle of the TTniversity of Paris ” was rather in the non-monastic school conducted by the distinguished William of Champeaux, earliest important promoter of the scho¬ lastic philosophy, as before remarked, and wdio contributed so much to rescue Paris from the humiliating role of playing second in the great field of the highest culture to such lesser towns as Tours, Chartres, and Rheims. In an important sense this Cathedral school was waiting to be made, or rather to be adopted, as the nucleus of a great university. It is not known that he had in view even tlie outline of such an institution — so grand in scale and purpose — or that anybody else had ; but there was the germ, and there at length it fulfilled its high mission. (4) Also men for the several departments. — There also, as in few other places in the world at that time, were the men for the different departments of a great institution — not ready, of course, in the sense of to-day, but in the sense of that day; men as familiar as any of their time with what belonged to the general departments of letters, science, and philosophy ; men who perhaps were foremost in the department of medicine, then crude enough in the absence of such modern discoveries as have made it a science ; men up to the average, at least, in the department of jurisprudence, if not rivals of the masters who had already made Bologna the world center in law, and men whose eminence in theology had determined the Holy Father to make Paris a universal center for instruction in theology. And if not already at Paris in sufficient ninnbers to meet every demand, there was no place, as already observed, to which men equal to the high service could more easily be drawn. It is hardly too much to say the learnetl world waa waiting to be called. II.— WHEN THE UNIVERSITY BEGAN. The University of Paris began without formal action and developed so quietly as well as gradually at first that it is quite out of the question to name any par¬ ticular date. What may be assumed as the beginning was not far, however, from the turning point between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Soon after the important work of Champeaux, as master of the cathedral school, and of Abelard, as apostle-general, masters multiplied, until there was one at least for school service in connection with about every church in Paris, and there is evidence that as early as the latter half of the twelfth century there was such informal association of masters for mutual advantage and such ingathering of students as would have constituted a university in effect had they been brought into cooperation at a common center. Even without such evidence it is safe to say that the closing years of the twelfth century saw the birth of the University of Paris. I In my judgment, after the most careful consideration of all the evidence within reach, including that offered by those who have written most recently and most fully, there was before the end of the twelfth century neither an organized society or guild of masters, nor any formal association of students, like the “ nations ” at that time formed at Bologna, and which there shaped the destinies of her university. By “ formal” I do not mean provided with written statutes after the fashion of modern times, but simply an association, society, guild or what not, held together most informally by common consent after the manner of mediaeval times; and it does not appear that prior to 1200 there was BO much of an association, whether of masters or of students, as this. The UNIVEKSITY OF PAKIS DUPING THE MIDDLE AGES. 525 antliorities, both ecclesiastical and civil, were blindly reaching toward a univer¬ sity through statutes and decrees in favor of teachers and students as being classes of citizens that should have protection and furtherance. There is evidence, however, that during the latter half of the twelfth century there had been such extraordinary development of the cathedral school that the university working forces concentrated themselves at that center more and more ; so that, before formal and definite action of any sort, there was there, as nowhere else in Paris, the actual beginning of university work. III. HOW THE UNIVERSITY BEGAN. Unlike the University of Bologna, which, although brought about by a few learned men, chief of whom was Irnerius, took its first step in organization among the students whom they had drawn from many quarters, and which thus naturally took the form of a student university, this one at Paris was begun as a union or society of teachers and was practically a master university. The more systematic beginning appears to have been made during the first decade of the thirteenth century, and by the adoption of certain statutes, since lost, but which in substance prescribed the dress to be worn by masters, the observance of the accustomed order in lectures and disputations, and the attend¬ ance of masters upon the funerals of their fellow-members of the union. In explanation of the narrow range and exceeding simplicity of such statutes, it should be said that they were first regulations only, and such as were in com¬ mon use in societies of many kinds — religious, benevolent, social, and industrial. I. - THE UNION OF MASTERS - INTERFERENCES. There was also, at this time or thereabout, a recognition of the society, tantamount to its incorporation as a university, in the form of two bulls by Innocent III, himself once a master at Paris — the one sanctioning the restora¬ tion of an expelled master, and the other authorizing' the society to name a syndic or proctor to represent it at the papal court. Independent of any authorization, the Roman law and common usage would have enabled them, as a social or religious guild only, to hold property and transact necessary business. Nevertheless the bulls were important on account of their putting the corporate rights of the society of masters beyond question ; and it is not improbable that they were issued with special reference to repeated inter¬ ference with their rights by the chancellor of the cathedral church, who appears to have been tyrannically disposed. The conflicts with him had come of too great power on his part, coupled with an inclination to make frequent use of it. He could not only grant or refuse the licentia docendi, so absolutely necessary to a master's use of his powers and attainments, at his own will and pleasure, but also, in his capacity as ecclesiastical judge and head of the schools, strip a master of his license once duly conferred, or a student of his privileges as such. More yet ; he could enforce his judgments by excommunication and even imprisonment; and with the concurrence of his bishop and chapter issue regulations for the government and discipline of masters and scholars in general. The masters appear to have had these two reserved rights, however : They could refuse to receive into their association, society, or union anj'one so licensed who had not complied with its regulations and usages, and could require of a new¬ comer an oath of obedience to their society regulations when admitted, or “ incepted,” as the phrase was — i. e., received with certain prescribed formalities at his cost. 526 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. No doubt, by wjy of retaliation for unjust judgments and privileges rendered and conferred by the chancel lor, the masters sometimes unjustly dealt with his licensed master (“ licentiate as they could, if they liked, by refusing to argue with him, if he would not submit to their rules; they could also reject as appli¬ cant for admission to their guild, although a master, any student who dared to attend the lectures of a master whom the^’ had deprived of membership. In this connection there is an interesting fact illustrative of the common ex¬ perience of mankind, that indulgence in liberal powers tends to an increased de¬ sire for power, viz, that, in a year or two after the Pope's formal recognition of the masters as an institution, the chancellor demanded of the masters an oath of obedience to himself. Naturally, the powers at Rome were appealed to and were promi)t to correct the abuse, relieving such as had taken the oath already, and forbidding the exaction of such oaths in future. Nor this alone; the Pope’s bull of 1212 required the gratuitous granting of licenses deserved, and that they be accorded, not on the chancellor's sole judgment, as theretofore, but on the rec¬ ommendation of a majority of the masters in any of the professional faculties, or bj' six seiecteeriod of six years. In other words, in order to vote for rector they must have made 'proficiency in what was regarded the very high¬ est field of study or have ma.de an honorable record in the work of instruction. Thirdly, it becomes plain enough, after a statement of the foregoing facts, why it was that a master or doctor in one of the professional departments was not associated with the masters of arts and the body of students in the nations ; He had passed through the more purely disciplinary stage. (2) ORGANIZATION OF THE FOUR NATIONS. After much discussion, running through a long period, it may now be consid¬ ered settled that at the head of each nation, when dul3’' organized, there v/as a “ procurator,” and at the head of the several nations, acting in harmonj' for a common need, there was a “ rector.” As already stated, the rector could only be chosen from among and bj" the masters in the arts department. His functions were, of course, those of a pre¬ siding and administrative officer. After a little while he is found also acting as the executive head of the facultj^ of arts, so that orders and general com¬ munications were officiallj" addressed “ To the rector, masters, and scholars.” By 1289 A. D. he had passed the stage of inferiority to the heads of the pro¬ fessional faculties (because of his connection with the faculty of arts), and was mentioned by the cardinal legate as being properly among them and their equal in rank. He had, in fact, come to a virtual precedence, in spite of the opposition of the chancellor of Notre Dame, who still claimed the sole prerog¬ ative of examining bachelors anel issuing the license to teach (the jus ubique docendi) to “licentiates.” And later still, it is not known just when, the departments of jurisprudence and of medicine were brought under his super¬ vision. But it was not until after other years (in ISdl) that he also gained recognition as supreme over the faculty of theology (whose dean up to that time had presided over all general assemblies), and thus became rector and acknowl¬ edged heail of the whole university, entitled, in making university announce¬ ments to use the formula, “ Nos rector et universitas magistrorum et scho- larium.” Quite naturally the faculty of theology had been reluctant to consent to this supremacy, and had succeeded in iiostponiiig it thus long. It onlj’ came at last through a manifestation of overwhelming odds. The nations and the great faculty of arts were the compelling force, and the Pope himself, seeing the inevi¬ table, in 1358 addressed a bull “To the rectors and masters of the university.” I Y.— GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OP THE UNIVERSITY FACULTIES. We have already seen that the several faculties at Paris were near to each other in the time of their inauguration ; that while the faculty of arts and the faculty of theology were practically begun at one and the same time, and were for a v^hile all there was of the institution, the others were not slow in follow¬ ing their example ; and that in the matter of a complete organization these last were earlier than the faculty of theology, which seems to have been without a dean of its own until the end of the thirteenth centuiy. But when all were duty organized, tlie several faculties were similar in their constitution, had officers that were alike in title and function, were under a common general direction, and worked in harmony as one comprehensive institu¬ tion. 532 EDUGATIOT^" KEPORT, 1904. The several faculties were also alike in the constitution of the professorate; having each of them professors and lecturers, and dividing the firsPmentioned class into professors “ ordinary ” and professors “ extraordinary,” though inaug¬ urating the latter as giving lectures ‘‘ cursory ” — whether because outside of the fixed and necessary courses, or because less formal in make-up and delivery, does not appear. In the faculties of law the books used as authorities were also treated as “ ordinary ” and ” cursory ; ” in the faculty of canon law, the ordinary being confined to the Decretum of Gratian, while all others were regarded as cursory ; or, more correctly speaking, lectures based on other text-books were so desig¬ nated. In the other faculties the same books could be made use of in the delivery of lectures both ordinary and cursory ; though a distinction was made in the time of delivery, the rule requiring that the ordinary lectures should be given by masters during the morning and on certain days — in the faculty of arts during the earliest hour — and further providing that in summer the ordinary lectures might continue longer than in winter, even until the horn for dinner. Lectures by masters of theology and of canon law were also given in the morning ; and the former were expected to choose an hour later than that assigned to the masters in the faculty of arts, in order that these last could attend the theolog¬ ical lectures after the delivery of their own, should they desire. At first the ordinary lectures were, as a rule, given by masters and doctors, but after a while by bachelors as well ; in course of time the teaching in the faculty of theology was “ almost entirely abandoned ” to bachelors ; and the lec¬ tures were often, quite contrary to the general rule concerning ordinary lectures, given in the afternoon. Except on particular holidays, cursory lectures could be delivered at any time when ordinary lectures were not in progress, whether by a master or a bachelor. Moreover, in vacation, when the ordinary lectures had been discontinued, as usual, cursory lectures, when not contrary to the usage concerning holidays, could be given at any hour of the day. As relates to place, cursory lectures had the advantage of being deliverable anywhere, whereas ordinary lectures must as a rule be given in the recognized halls of the faculty or nation to which the lecturer or at least the subject belonged. Originally the little island in the very heart of the city, and on which Notre Dame was built, had been the center of school work ; but in course of time, as they multiplied, the schools crossed over the stream and spread themselves over a wide area. At the time now under consideration they were mostly in the Rue du Fouarre, and it will be interesting to take a peep at some of them at the hour of beginning work in the morning. But in order to do this there must be early rising, for, though the dawn has not fully come, the bells of Notre Dame have sounded and the thousands of students from all the countries of Europe have taken warning and are already gathering from river sides and the sur¬ rounding heights. The street has been closed to wagons and whatever else would disturb the coming lecturers. The sturdy gatemen are busy opening and closing the great doors for the eager throng, some plainly and some richly clad, with daggers and poniards in view, and all of them with note-book in hand, besides a manuscript copy of the author to be interpreted, if able to buy or borrow one. Entering the school most conveniently reached, we find the professor already at his rude desk and the throng of students crowded together on the ground, with note-book and pencil in hand, ready for the first word of the lecture after the morning’s thanksgiving. It seems that the lecturer belongs to the faculty of arts, for he wears a black gown reaching down to his heels, and before him UNIVEKSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 533 are several texUboolcs, as is common with members of that faculty. The stu¬ dents are on the ground instead of benches or chairs, first, because it is cheaper ; secondly, because it is wholesome to keep as near as may be to Mother Earth ; and, lastly, “ that they may escape all temptation to pride.” And now the lecture begins, for it is full 0 o’clock, and at 9 the hall will be needed for other lecturers. His reading is from one of Aristotle’s philosophies, and at the mention of that great master’s name every face brightens and every eye kindles with a new light. The reading is slow and with the most distinct utterance, while the pencils are exceedingly active the moment the professor’s interpretations and comments begin, that no word may be lost. The tout ensemhle is deeply interesting, and if we each had a comfortable seat we should be loath to leave until night. But the hour of 9 has struck and we reluctantly go forth. I. - FACULTY OF ARTS. As in most American colleges and so-called universities of to-day, the faculty of arts in the University of Paris was of a mixed character, including so large a proportion of youthful students doing much elementary, as well as those doing secondary or college and university work proper, as we would term it nowadays, that it never attained to a rank bejmnd the secondary, in the view of those who were connected with the professional departments. And this, notwithstanding its supremacy by reason of greater numbers, and its direct association with the “ nations ” in matters of general administration. As relates to the courses of instruction, such a thing as a definite curriculum seems not to have been thought of until some years after the first beginnings of the institution. Each teacher gave himself to instruction in what he assumed to have superior knowledge and drew together pupils as he could, and taught them in his own fashion. But all were careful to present, not their own ideas and results of their own inquiries and original investigations, but simply what some authority had said of the subject. The methods of Irnerius and Abelard involved some originality of powers and a great amount of intellectual labor. The first step in the matter of a gi-ouping of studies other than that of their division into trivium and quadrivium is credited to the Cardinal-Legate Robert de Courqon. Whether he was an Englishman or not is of small consequence, riis plan of studies, examinations, and rewards was a decided innovation upon the time-worn rule of no rule, and entitles him to enduring honors. The revo¬ lution which led to real university work came of the intense interest in dialec¬ tics aroused by Abelard. As a study prominent in the field of the trivium, it rose at once to a new dignity, and did great service in partially rescuing the learned vrorld from the ancient habit of accepting without examination. Of course none of the old-time studies were omitted. The changes were in the proportion of time accorded to them, respectively. Thus, instruction in the Latin language was limited to grammar, and it was to be taught from the text-books of the Priscians — great favorites at that time. In the field of rheto¬ ric, little or no attention was given to the orators, poets, or historians of old Rome, and philosophy was made to include the several fields of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astrology — in other words, the entire quadrivium, though without specification of the authors recognized — besides that vast field which of necessity embraced metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy. Doubtless there were many text-books for some of the branches taught, but ill logic and philosophy Aristotle was regarded as so supreme that there seem to have been no scholars bold enough to make even an effort at competition. There vcere those who offered introductions to his several great works, as well as others who annotated and interpreted them ; and there were competitors 534 EDUCATION -REPORT, 1904. ill the translation of them, from both the Greek and the Arabic, into the Latin as well as into modern tongues. For example, they had his old work on dia¬ lectics (then known as “the new logic”) Latinized by Boethius, with portions of the Organon interpreted by Porphyry ; tiie Categories, translated into Latin by Yictorinus; annotations of the Categories by Boethius. They also used the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, bui: not his Metaphysics, or his Natural Philosophy. Coiirgon was so far controlled by his conservatiye theology that he even forbade their use in the following terms ; “ Let no one read either the Metaphysics or the Natural Philosophy of Aristotle, or the abridgments of those works; nor the writings of David I) inant, tlie heretic Amauri, or the Spaniard Mauricius.” As a matter of course the rejected works were bound to gain acceptance when better understood and universally desired, Even the bull of Gregory IX, in 11231, excluding his works on natural philosophy “until they shall have been examined and expurgated,” could not long hinder their use. Consequently his Physics, the use of which had been prohibited under penalty of excommunication up to 1255 ; they, too, with his de Aiiimalibus and his work on the soul, were officially approved. This made his victory complete. He was now supreme in the world of letters, science, and philosophy, and so remained right through the centuries. The statute which next followed that of Courgon (1215 A. D.) came in 1254, and gives us more definite information, while at the same time furnishing gratifying evidence of a larger liberality. Besides Aristotle’s Logic, prior and posterior, and his Ethics, it expressly names Physica, Metaphysica, de Anima, de Animalibus, de Generatione, de Sensii, de Sensato, de Somno et Vigilia, de Memoria at. lieminiscentia, er of disputations, given a course of “ cursory ” lectures, and reached the age of 20 could he present him¬ self for the licentiate’s examination. This, although at first serious, as con- 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. ducted by the chancellor and four examiners in the studies, and by tests of ability in the giving of lectures and other forms of discourse, gradually lessened in its demands as confidence in the work of the masters increased and the responsibilities of the chancellor diminished. After examination the successful candidates for the licentia docendi were sent to the chancellor in groups of a convenient number, their names being arranged in the order of merit, “ The only approach,” as Rashdall says, ” to a competitive examination which the Parisian University admitted.” He also says of the formalities attending the license: On the day appointed for the conferment of the license the successful candi¬ dates in full academical dress (cappati) proceeded in state from the Mathu- rine Convent to the Episcopal Palace or the Abbey of St. Genevieve, as the case might be, accompanied by tlie rector and proctors and preceded by the bedels of the faculty. They were tlien presented to 'the chancellor, and, after the for¬ mal “collations” (expositions or lectures), * * * received kneeling before him the solemn license, in the name of the Trinity, to incept or begin to teach in the faculty of arts, together v/ith the apostolic benediction. * * * Before the actual ceremony of the birettatio the licentiate had to appear before a con¬ gregation of his nation and obtain its placet for his promotion. This being granted he v/as immediately sworn to obey the rector and his faculty and nation and to do or abstain from doing scores of things which had from time to time been enjoined or forbidden by the university faculty or nation. The evening of the day before the inception he took part in a peculiarly solemn disputation known as his “vespers.” He was then free to give his formal inaugural lecture, or rather disputation, in the presence of the faculty, to receive the magisterial biretta and the book from the hands of the presiding regent, to receive the kiss of fellowship, and to take his seat upon the magisterial cathedra. In the evening a banquet to the masters and others, at the expense of the inceptors, was given, as in the case of bachelors. That there was much laxity in the examinations as time went on, as well as partiality based on the rank and assumed personal iuiportance of candidates for degrees, is very certain. The records of statutes and manifestoes against unrea¬ sonable and grossly unjust practices in these regards would furnish ample proof of the correctness of this judgment if there were none other. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN ARTS. Having informed ourselves upon the subjects taught in the faculty of arts and concerning the authorities followed in the study of them, as well as upon the conditions to bo fulfilled in acquiring academic titles, we naturally turn to the methods employed by those who taught. Before the day of Irnerius and Abel¬ ard the instruction of the schools generally, whether academic or professional, was about as diy, unphilosophical, and ineffectual as could be imagined, resting as it did upon an unvarying confidence in the correctness of the author and teacher followed, and upon unending repetitions by the scholar as a means of fixing the substance, and as far as feasible the very words of the instruction received, in the mind of the student. The reasoning faculty was in a large measure distrusted and the demands made upon it were correspondingly few, and naturally this was more especially the case where the subject considered was concerned with long-established convictions or a blind and determined acceptance of assumed truth, whether historic, scientific, social, political, or religious. The text-book appears to have been blindly accepted as final author¬ ity, just as was the case with the Bible in the theological world. According to Thurot and Mullinger, both of whom gave much time to a study of this general subject, there were two very distinct and different methods, expressed by the terms expositio and questions ; the first consisting in a critical and thorough examination, analysis, or dissection of the text; the second, in UNIVEKSITY OF PAEIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 537 discussing it, up and down, through and through, pro and con. In using the first method the lecturer, according to Thiirot, as translated Iw Mullinger and quoted by Compayrcs “ commenced by discussing a few general questions having reference to the treatise which he was called upon to explain, and in the cus¬ tomary Aristotelian fashion treated of its material, formal, final, and efficient causes. lie pointed out the principal divisions, took the first division and sub¬ divided it, divided again the subdivision, and. repea ted the process until he had subdivided it to the first chapter. He then again divided, until he had reached a subdivision which included only a single sentence or complete idea. He finally took this sentence and expressed it in other terms which might serve to make the conception more clear. He never passed from one part of the work to another, from one chapter to another, or even from one sentence to another, without a minute analysis of the reasons for which each division, chapter, or sentence was placed after that bj^ which it was immediately preceded.” It was by this slow and painful process of systematic analysis of the precise subject in hand that the professor hoped to fasten upon the minds of his hearers a knowledge of it. On the other hand, what may be called the Abelardian method was that of applying to all questions admitting of a possible query the test of sic and non as employed by him. It was the method of the rack. If a portion of the text allowed a double interpretation, the opposing views were represented by oppos¬ ing arguments logically framed and provoked to an exhausting conflict, like two contending armies, and with the least possible sjunpatlij’ or prejudice. Last of all, having covered the ground pro and con, the professor presented his own view, supported and urged by such arguments, syllogistically ordered, as he could muster, though unfortunately without venturing much into the fleld of observation and experience. As was said again by Thurot, “ the distinction characteristic of instruction in the Middle Ages is, that science was not taught directly and in itself, but by the explanation of books which derived their authority solely from their writers.” Criticism of this method of instruction has been so well expressed by Compayre that I quote him freely : But that in the middle ages so many successive generations of laborious and studious men should have consented for centuries to grow pale over a small number of texts, always the same, reread and commented to satiety, gnawing, as it were, at the same bone forever, is a thing that can only be explained by sup¬ posing a special cast of mind, an extraordinary intellectual passivity, a complete absence of initiative and spontaneity. Since there were hardly any books, it seems as if it would have been so simple to turn to another side and study things in themselves ; to open, in flue, the great book of nature. But no ; men pre¬ ferred to keep on repeating, mechanically and laboriously, paraphrases scruti¬ nized a hundred times already ; to close their eyes to the realities of the world, in order to concentrate them * * * on certain pages of marvelously bad I.atin. * * * It would not have been so bad had they clung to the spirit of an author in studying him. But no ; it was the letter, the literal form, which they scrutinized. * * * The other characteristic of the pedagogj’ of the middle ages, its mania, was the taste, or rather passion, for disputation. Really independent researches being forbidden, discussion, by bringing two different and contrary interpretations into opposition, gave both scholars and masters at least the shadow of liberty of thought. Never has there been such an abuse of argumentation. When the sixteenth century brought into the world another spirit and better methods, it found all the educational institutions transformed Into fencing schools of dialectics. ‘‘ They dispute before dinner,” said Vives, in 1531 ; “ they dispute during dinner ; they dispute after dinner ; they dispute in private and in public, at all times and in every place.” * ❖ ❖ They gave their adversary no time to explain himself. If he entered into any develop¬ ments, they cried, ” To the point I To the point ! Reply categorically !” They had 538 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. no concern for truth, but sought merely to defend their opinions. Is a man too hard pressed, he eludes the objection by force of obstinacy ; he denies insolently ; he blindly strikes down all opposition in despite of evidence. Dealing with method on the side of delivery, we find that, too, a matter of peculiar interest, though less important of course. Efforts were made for a long time to regulate delivery by legal enactments. Nevertheless the lecturers, the students, and the public had their own way in the end. The notion of the law¬ makers was that delivery of all the lectures should be extempore instead of by reading from a manuscript. They even ventured to determine the slowness or rapidity of utterance, and were bold to mal^e known their disapproval of a drawl¬ ing delivery and their will that it should be rapid, regardless of the convenience of note takers on the ground or on benches before them. This requirement vcas so opposed by the students that, as might have been expected of the times and circumstances, statutes with severe penalties became necessary to protect the offending lecturer from shoutings, hissings, and the throwing of sticks, and even stones, by students and their sympathizers ; rude practices which had the effect ill time to first soften and finally repeal all such enactments, and of course to modify the manner of the professors and other lecturers. II. - THE FACULTY OF THEOLOGY. Among the special, professional, or “ superior •’ faculties at Paris theology ranked first on several accounts : It was first to form and enter upon its work, first in the plans and purposes of the ruling powers, first in the recognized rank and importance of its subject and object, and, as a matter of fact, first in the attention it received in all quarters and in the patronage it enjoyed. It was the purpose of the church to make it the leading school of theology in the world, and it did not fail. It was accorded the rank of facultas prima et sacra et suprema. Said Jacques de Vi try : Logic is good, for it teaches us to distinguish trutli from falsehood ; grammar is good, for it teaches how to speak and write correctly ; rhetoric is good, for it teaches how to speak elegantly and to persuade. Good, too, are geometry, which teaches how to measure the earth, the domain of our bodies ; arith¬ metic, or the art of computing, which enables us to estimate the fewness of our days ; music, which reminds us of the sweet church of the blessed ; astronomy, which causes us to consider the celestial bodies and the stars shining resplendently before God. But better is theology, which alone can be truly called a liberal art, since it alone delivers from its woes the human soul. All the more attention and effort were given to the Parisian faculty of the¬ ology, because is vras the fixed purpose of the church to make it an ideal faculty — the type to be followed by the other theological schools of Europe, some of which were already half planned in outline, and a considerable number of which were established not many years later. In origin and constitution it was in fact what Thurot styled it, “ a federa¬ tion of religious and secular communities,” and yet with so great a predomi¬ nance of the representatives of the religious orders, after a little time, as to arouse the seculars, both in the theological faculty and in the faculty of arts. By the middle of the first century of the university life a very large majority of both masters and students were members of one or another of the religious orders; the Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustines, and Jacobins predominating. Indeed a great many of the convents had public chairs of theology, whose incumbents were also re])resentatives in the university fac¬ ulty — according to Compayre, 9 out of every 12, as early as 1253. And so with the students who aspired to the license ajid the doctorate, a majority were members of mendicant orders. The Dominicans were especially fortunate in UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURINO THE MIDDLE AGES. 539 filling two chairs of theologj" in tlieir convent with “ tiie universal doctor,” Albertus Magnus, and “ the angel of the schools,” Thomas Aquinas. These and other conventual professors of theology did not go to the university ; the university went to them. As new religious orders were founded from time to time new chairs of theology were founded in their convents, and thus the faculty of theology, with its multiplying numbers in all the convents through¬ out the city, steadily gained in strength. But this faculty had also its secular side, which grew in like manner ; including, as it did, a number of colleges, with chairs of theology free from any control of religious orders, and for this reason known as secular. Two of these colleges became especially distinguished and practicallj" powerful — the College of the Sorbonne and the College of Navarre. The first of these took its name from its founder, Robert de Sorbon, chaplain to Louis IX. Con¬ cerning the date of its founding and organization authors differ. Accepting Diivernet (Histoire de la Sorbonne, 2 vols., 1790), I name 1252; also as date of its charter 12.53, and of its confirmation by Pope Clement IV 12G8. It had provision for IG poor students in theology, to be taught by secular priests, the four nations being equally represented. Foi-mal cession was made of a house in a desirable quarter of the city by the King in 1257. It vras founded in a truly Christian spirit of benevolence for poor students of high promise, under the title ” Congregation of poor masters of the Sorbonne,” and quite soon grew to such importance in the estimation of all parties concerned as to make itself by common consent the center and seat of the faculty of theology. The College of Navarre was of later date, having been founded in 1304 on the heights of St. Genevieve, already made famous by Queen Jeanne of Navarre, wife of Philip the Fair, It was planned for 70 poor students, 20 of them to be theologians. At an early date it took the second rank after the Sorbonne; and, according to Tiiurot, these two ‘‘ were almost a match by themselves alone for the reli¬ gious orders. They gave the facility of theology the greater number and the most distinguished of its secular members.” Fitness for admission to the theological courses implied the title of B. A. already won and the right to claim an examination for the licentia docendi, which meant a term of five or eight yeai-s of uninterrupted study, according to whether the candidate was to give private or public courses of lectures. By a statute of revision enacted in 13GG (an act entitled “The Reform” ), the full coursfe for the degree of doctor of theology was extended to sixteen years — in 14.52 reduced to fifteen. It should be remarked, however, that a distinction was made in the case of the giving of private lectures, for which last a five years’ course sufficed as a qualification. No matter what the attainments of a candidate, the doctorate in theology could not be reached before the end of his thirty-fifth year. Accord¬ ing to Rashdall, “ there were practically three distinct degrees of bachelorship, to the first two of which there ivas a regular admission ciuite as formal as the single admission to read cursory lectures in the other faculties, tlie same being as follows: (1) Biblicus Ordinarins, or Cursor (according as the candidate was regular or secular); (2) Sententiarius ; (3) Baccalaureus Formatus.” The last was accorded to such bachelors only as had completed their course in the Sentences. The text-books were few — so few that the Holy Bible and Peter Lombard’s book of “ Sentences ” leave almost nothing to be added. The Sentences was a full and complete treatise, composed of systematically arranged sentences and maxims, taken from the Bible and the writings of the Fathers, and grouped in four parts, the first treating of the Trinity ; the second, of the creation and of 540 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. the relation between the invisible ami the visible worlds ; the third, of sin and redemption, faith, hope, and the other virtues ; the fourth, of the sacraments. The statutes of 1.3GG required the reading of this book, passage by passage, and the exposition of it in every part, and they who were found to have done this in addition to every other requirement were accordingly designated as sen- tentiarii. Of course there were original expositions without number by bach¬ elors, sententiarii, and doctors. All this indicates the character of the instruction, and that it was not alto¬ gether in form and manner like that in the other faculties. As a matter of fact, it was mostly given by teachers of secondary rank in the form of cursoi-y lec¬ tures, the doctors keeping a general oversight, giving ordinary lectures now and then on the most important subjects, and having special supervision and direc¬ tion of disputations, examinations, and other meetings where members of the faculty were to have the responsible part. The distinction between lectures ordinary and cursory, or extraordinary, gradually disappeared for the most part, so that doctors lectured once or twice annually as a condition of holding on to their regency, and those of lesser rank were allowed or required to keep up the programme of lectures ordinary. Besides the lecture method of instruction, there was also employed a system of questions and answers. Some writers have made it appear the chief means of instruction. They who employed this method sometimes put questions of their own and wrestled with the answering student. But oftener than other¬ wise they arrayed the differing authorities against each other, pushing the argu¬ ment for and against in regular syllogistic fashion. Of course in the last- mentioned case there was less of spirit, since for the most part the whole was read from the manuscript of the speaker, or from some other man’s, for it is said that now and then an exceptionally lazy lecturer would venture to borrow a discourse. Crevier is credited liy Compayre with having made an especially clear state¬ ment of tlie character of the theological instruction of the middle ages in gen¬ eral, which, as said before, was after the Parisian type almost universally. According to him [says Compayre] scholastic theology must have had three principal characteristics : First, it reunited in one body of doctrine or one gen¬ eral system all questions relating to religion; such is, in fact, the essential merit of the book of the Sentences. Second, it treated these questions not by authority alone, but in part by reassuring, on conditions, be it understood, that the ever-docile reason should submit itself to the demonstration of traditional beliefs ; as soon as one departed froin tradition he was denounced as heretical and counted as naught. * * * Finally it employed the “ geometric style,” and proceeded by axioms, theorems, and corollaries. Founded on revealed truth, on dogmas whose authority no one then dreamed of contesting, theology could in fact, like geometry, which rests on self-evident principles, be built up entirely by pure deduction and rest on syllogisms. No ap])eal was made to feeling, * * just as no appeal was made to experience in teaching philos- oi)hy. There being no criterion of truth but the agreement between conse¬ quences and principles admitted as beyond diseussio]), there resulted an appar¬ ently rigorous body of instruction, solid in proportion as the bases of its per¬ petual reasoning were solid, but desperately dry, and as cold as geometry. Not only this, but the instruction so-called occupied itself u ith a inultitude of useless and sometimes senseless questions and vain attempts at their solution, such as these, for example : “ Is it of the divine essence to engender or to be engendered?” “What do the angels do with the bodies of which they have made use to fulfill a mission upon earth? ” ” Vfhat was the color of the Virgin’s skin? ” ” AYhat is the interior structure of Paradise? ” The theological teaching at Paris and elsewhere during tlie period with which we are dealing has by some authors been highly commended, on the other hand. UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 541 for its. recognition of the profonndest philosophies of the ancient times, especially of Aristotle’s. There are two views to be taken of this also. Sincere and earnest philosophic inqiiiiy in the true spirit of philosophy, and hence with really important ends in view, and with the use of the best methods known, even though carried to an extreme, is better than studies and discourses based on sheer curiosity. P>ut in the theological schools of the middle ages there was also a study of philosophy that was not philosophy, and a use of methods that were not philosophic, because of an ungoverned passion totally incompatible Avith the inculcation of such spiritual truths as were taught by Christ and are essential to the welfare and final redemption of mankind. Dissertation on dissertation, commentaries on commentaries, were so piled, heap on heap, that the Sacred Scriptures were almost forgotten. No Avonder that Petrarch on casting about him said : Look at these men who spend their Avhole life in altercations, sophistical subtleties, in incessantly turning their brains upside down in order to soh^e empty little questions ; and accept as true my prophecy concerning their future. Their reputation Avill pass away Avith their existence, and the same sepulcher will suffice to enshrine their names and their bones. And no Avonder that the more spiritual-minded of the Popes bewailed it, and spoke of many as visionaries. Nevertheless there Avere men in those very times and in the faculty of theol¬ ogy Avho Avere not only profoundly learned but deeply moved by the noblest and highest of aims and aspirations, men Avhose lives and labors sufficed to gain for it supreme honors in the theological Avorld of that period. The several stages of the theological student during his rather lengthy term of sixteen years are not Avithout interest. This Avas about the course pursued : For a period of six years he did nothing but read and listen ; the first four being given to attendance upon lectures on the Scriptures, the other tAVO to the Sen¬ tences of Peter Lombard. If at the end of this period he had attained the age of 25, he could appear before the faculty Avith certificates of faithful attendance upon the instruction given him and apply for the examination requisite to the first of the bachelor degrees, that of Biblicus Ordinarius, or Cursor, Avhich test Avas given by four doctors. If successful he was presented to the dean of the faculty to receiA^e the token of his bachelorship, to be permitted to deliver his first public lecture, kuoAvn as the principium, and afterAvards to enter upon the delivery of his first year’s course of lectures on a single book of the Bible. The next year Avas given to a like course on another book. If a secular his courses Avere treated as extraordinary or cursory, and if a bachelor he Avas entitled a cur¬ sor. As a rule he Avas then anxious to get aAvay from the mere Biblical Avork, and into the field beyond, Avhere he could exercise his logical poAvers and try his philosophy on the more available themes presented by the scholastic theologians. Undeniably it Avas by the self-denying members of the religious orders that the truly religious AAmrk of both study and instruction Avas mostly done. In the ninth year of his course came an important trial knoAvn as the “ tenta- tiA-e.” It Avas a disputation at which a master presided and supplied the sub¬ ject of debate. His opponents Avere a given number of bachelors of divinity Avaiting for the “ formati ” license. After the disputation they submitted their judgment of his part to the master Avho, if concurring, Avas pleased to announce the fact and to declare him ingeniosus et doctissimus. Next folloAved the reading of the Sentences, the student making his entrance upon each of the four books an occasion for delivering a solemn public discourse known as “ the principium,” to Avhich all the doctors of the faculty were formally invited by the bedel, and at Avhich one at least was in duty bound to be present, in order to make a reliable report of the candidate’s performance. It also ap- 542 EDUCATION BEPORT, 1904. pears that it ^Yas not uncommon on such occasions to indulge in a little drinking of beer at the lecturer’s expense, by way of congratulating him on his success. There was sometimes a considerable number of candidates for this degree, all of whom followed each other with their principia in some systematic order. Our candidate, now a sententiarius, went foiwcard with his reading and dis¬ cussion of the sentences until his completion of the fourth book, when he had. or gave, another principium, and received the third of the bachelor’s degrees, the baccalarius formatus, from which for\tard until the granting of the license, which awaited him at the end of three or four years, he was to remain in Paris, taking part in public acts of the faculty, holding public discussions, preaching a university sermon as required, holding conferences, etc. Some idea of the spirit which pervaded even the schools of theology in these times may be gained from the following reference to one of the many disputa¬ tions in which the bachelor candidate for the final license is required to take part : A certain amount of animal combativeness and physical endurance was almost as necessary in the “ warfare of the schools ” as in a tilt or a tournament. At this disputation, known as the “ sorbonic,” from its taking place in the Hall of the Sorbonne, the respondent was required to reply standing alone (and without the assistance of any moderator, or judge, except an audience which occasion¬ ally signified its approval or disapproval by stamping or clapping) against a suc-cession of opponents, who relieved each other at intervals from six in the morning till six in the evening, an hour’s relaxation only being allowed for refreshments in the middle of the day. He was preparing for service in the “ church militant.” The last of the honors provided for the student of theology — those of licen¬ tiate, master, and doctor of divinity, which seem to have been practically synonymous, were conferred only on, or near. All Saints’ Day in every alternate year at what was known as the “ Jubilee.” It was made a great occasion, and there had been from the beginning of the university a quite serious difference between the faculties and the chancellor of the cathedral as to who should have the chief part in the examination and approval of the candidate, as well as in the final ceremonial. In the matter of deciding the fate of candidates the faculty of theology at last prevailed, so that before the end of the fourteenth century the examination in the bishop’s hall was nothing more than the merest formality. It was little more than this anywhere, and very naturally, in view of the many tests which the candidate had passed during the long period of his studentship. It amounted to little more than an inquiry into the term of his residence, the performance of all duties enjoined by the university statutes, and whether his capacity and powers, character, and orthodoxy fairly entitled him to the final degree. But the exainination, such as it was, was conducted by the faculty, the members of which as a body at the proper time recommended _the approved candidate to the chancellor. There was talk among the more exacting friends of learning that, in time, standards here as well as in other faculties declined ; but, on the other hand, the researches of historians have found very gratifying evidence of a regard for the dignity and value, if not sacredness, of the D. D. degree which should put to shame more than one modern institution of high pretensions, in that such honors were now and then firmly refused to the coveting sons of princes and kings who were found wanting in qualifications. As regards the ceremony of conferring the title it is sufficient to say that in pomp and assumed importance it exceeded anything indulged in by the other faculties. A messenger of the chancellor, bearing the high-sounding title of paranymphus, who was sent to notify the rector of the university and to invite the attendance of all the licentiandi who had passed the examination, dis- UNIVEKSITY OF PARIS BURINd THE MIDDLE AGES. 543 charged that duty on the day previous, in his velvet c*ap and scarlet robe, making an address in extravagant glorification of science, and finally presenting the “ signeta ” bearing the names of the candidates whom the chancellor was to honor. There were also on this occasion duties for the candidate at his own house in the form of a reception to his friends Vvith hearty welcomes and ample supplies of cake and wine, to say nothing of the unwarrantable fees for the chancellor, paranymphus, and others, with which the messenger was to return at the end of the day. Finally the candidates themselves went in person to invite the lords and canons to the commencement. The ceremony itself, knovni as the aulatio of the new D. D., was conducted in the Bishop’s Hall by the chancellor, who, having pronounced the formal words, Incipiatis in nomine Patris, Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, Amen, crowned the licentiate with the hirettum doctorale. But this was not the end with him who had thus been received into the honored ranks of the D. D's. He must then mount his caithedra, deliver an address in praise of the Scriptures, maintain himself in a disputation, called the aulica, in which, by formal assignment, the chancellor, the presiding master, other masters, and a bachelor were expected to take part. Last of all, at the beginning of the next academical year the new doctor, hav¬ ing shared in still another disputation, was admitted to the regency with the fullest authority to teach and to preach as he might desire and occasion should offer. HI. - THE FACULTY OF LAW. Law as a science, and the teaching of law, had their throne in Italy, where indeed they may also be said to have had their origin. It was Italy that produced Irnerius, the reviver of the civil law after the period of the dark ages, and its chief promulgator through the University of Bologna. It was in Italy also that the teaching of the civil law, as nowhere else, was favored- by imperial and Pa.pal powers. And finally it was Italy that gave to the world the renowned Gratian, founder of the science of canon law, and his everywhere accepted Decretum, the Concordantia discordantum canonnm, but for which the tholog- ical world might have groped in the mist of uncertainties for yet other centuries. (1) The civil law, as already remarked, was less favored in France. Its teachings came to prominence after awhile at Montpellier, but at Paris it gained but a slight footing, not only because there was less taste for it as a science in western Europe, but for the reasons that the theological forces of the whole Christian world, having determined upon Paris as their chief center, were jealous of a science capable of arousing such enthusiasm as had gathered thou¬ sands upon thousands of law students at Bologna, and because by this time the church had become anxious lest a study of the civil law should prove a hin¬ drance, if not a menace, to its oum great cause, the progress of Christianity in the world. This anxiety of the church had already become so great, even in the early part of the thirteenth century, as to have led the head of the church at Rome to issue a decree prohibiting the teaching of civil law in any institution over which the Church of Rome had jurisdiction. The civil lawyer was regarded as hostile to the church, so hostile that, according to John of Salisbury, many of his contemporaries destroyed by fire all the civil-law manuscripts that fell into their hands. Worse than this, even Papal bulls were again issued, prohibiting the teaching of civil law — that of Pope Honorius III, in 1220, limiting itself to Paris and the neighboring cities, and that of Innocent IV, in 1254, covering the whole of France. The reasons urged were, in substance, first, the uselessness of the study, and, 544 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. secondly, tliat tlie study of civil law would be a hindrance to theological studies and promulgations. Thus Ilonorius III insisted that, -while the church did not wish to reject the “docile cooperation of the secular laws,” yet since in France and other parts governed by the common law there was no use of the Roman law, and since it was seldom that ecclesiastic suits could not be better settled by use of the canon law, there should be appeals to none other. He accordingly forbade, “ under penalty of excommunication * * * any per¬ son to employ himself in teaching or learning civil law.” As a matter of fact, as suggested by one or two writers, the pontiffs were also influenced not a little by the ostentation and extravagance of the law professors, who by means of practice in the courts were able to indulge in princely habits of living that made numbers of other faculties more or less unhappy. The following from a bull of Honorius III, as quoted by Denifle, would sufficiently indicate this: “ We have learned with sorrow that, abandoning the study of philosophy, to say nothing of that of theology, the majority of the clergy hasten to the lectures on secular law ; and that in the majority of the states no one is chosen by the bishops to occupy positions of dignity and honor or ecclesiastical prebends unless he is either a professor of civil law or an advocate.” Further along, hav¬ ing drawn a gloomy picture of the self-denial, privations, and sufferings of those who were giving themselves to philosophy, and religion, he adds: “While our advocates, or rather say our devils, covered with purple, mounted on richly caparisoned horses, in the glitter of gold, the whiteness of silver, the splendor of precious stones, their royal vestments reflecting the splendors of the astonished sun, make ostentatious display and give rise to scandal everywhere.” It is almost needless to add that Honorius concluded his bull with a sweeping pro¬ hibition of all teaching of the civil law. Happily he had enough of worldly wis¬ dom to privately question the result of his prohibition, and hence to add this saving clause: “ If, hovrever, the heads of state permit,” etc. Of course the civil law made its way after a struggle with organized forms, and in due course of time won the favor of the church, so that not infrequently it found a welcome at the foot of the papal throne, and even wrung from the heart of Roger Bacon so moving a plaint as this in the writing of his Compen¬ dium Philosophic: “The jurists have acquired such influence over the minds of prelates and princes that they monopolize all places and favors at their dis¬ posal, so much so that students of philosophy and theology remain empty- handed, no longer having the wherewithal to live, to buy books, to devote them¬ selves to research, or to experiment on the secrets of science. * * * The civil lawyers alone are honored and enriched.” A little later still the sentiment of the church had been so far liberalized that Pope Clement V himself at the inauguration of legal studies in the University of Orleans in 130G delivered himself of this glowing eulogy upon the law and upon the jurists he had in mind : “ Let none wonder that the sun glistens on their golden bucklers, for they are the defenders of the country; they disentan¬ gle rights from the midst of the most hidden facts ; they reestablish the rights of man and come to the aid of the human race, thus meriting by the results of their science as much as if they had saved their country by wounds received in combat.” (2) The canon law. — Nevertheless the University of Paris was destined to remain xm exception to the teaching of both civil and the canon law in the same institution. The civil law made a modest beginning, but very soon the faculty became exclusively the faculty of canon law, faculty of decrees, or faculty of decretal — ail meaning the same department. The last named was entirely appropriate, for the Decretum of Gratian was almost the only, and certainly the chief, authority. Works supplementary UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 545 to it, sncli as tbe collection in the five volumes by Raymond de Penaforte, brought out in 1284, by the Dominican order, of which ho was chief, under the title of Decretals of Gregory IX, or Extra ; a sixth book added by Boniface VIII under the name Sexta ; and the work known as Clementines, because it embraced the letters of Clement V, published in 1313. Doubtless there were others. The course of study and teaching methods were substantially those of Bologna, and the same was true of the period, which was six years, or forty- eight months of work spread over the period of seventy-two months, which provision, coupled with the extra thirty-four holidays annually accorded to this faculty over and above the sixty days allowed to all in common, gave the canon¬ ists a tolerably easy time. Still, if we make account of the great number of discussions, disputations, and sermons included in the course, for an earnest student, anxious to lit himself thoroughly for the mission to which he had con¬ nected himself, there was work enough to be done. Unfortunately, however, the proportion of this sort of students was not very large — not so large, strange to say, as in other faculties, if the statements of the best authorities known to us are to be credited. Father Denifle, for some unaccountable reason, says little about it, but others who have written on the subject appear to have but one opinion. For example, Bulmus calls attention to the important fact that the teaching was largely done by bachelors rather than by professors. Compayre also says the professors came to consider the doctorate as a sinecure and so intrusted the work of instruction to bachelors in their stead. Rashdali declares that too many of the students in this faculty were men with whom the attractions of the capital and the ecclesiastical influ¬ ence of its university were recommendations which far outweighed the scientific superiority of the great provincial schools, and that it was to the faculty of decrees that the great mass of the well-born, well-beneficed, or wealthy idlers of the university belonged, whether their object was to get on in the world and attain high preferment in the church or merely to pass their time pleasantly in a university town. Worse still, he insists that it is more especially with refer¬ ence to this faculty that we constantly meet with legislation against froward students and even against bribery and corruption in the purchase of degrees or dispensations from the prescribed conditions for obtaining them ; that the intentional overestimation of the “bursa” (weekly expenses by which the dues payable to the faculty were regulated) was a common means of corruption; and he concludes with saying: “In short, it is pretty clear that it was almost as easy to buy a Paris degree in canon law as it is, or vras till very lately, to buy the title of doctor from certain American universities, though the tariff was much higher and the forms of residence, study, and examination less sweepingly dispensed with. The presents and fees paid by candidates made the position of regent in this faculty a lucrative privilege, which its possessors naturally sought to convert into a monopoly.” Thurot is yet more severe, if possible, saying: “The faculty of decretal was the most corrupt and venal of all the faculties ; it had neither masters nor stu¬ dents ; it had only sellers and buyers.” This picture would be somber enough if but half true. But it should be viewed from the standpoint of the shadowy period to which it pertained, not from that of the present day, and without entire forgetfulness of the darker side of the present, since even we of the twentieth century have but little to con¬ gratulate ourselves upon. There has always been a broad enough gulf between religion and religious pretension, and it is to be feared that there always will be. With all its faults and shortcomings, this same faculty of the canon law may nevertheless be credited with a helpful part in gaining for the faculty of ED 1904 M - 35 54G EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. theology and for the university at large that remarkable influence which made it in time not only a leading intellectual center, as well as a force in affairs both social and political, but also a guiding and for the most part healthful influence, if not indeed at times a sort of supreme council and court of last resort for the Universal Church. IV. - THE MEDICAL FACULTY. While there were many famous medical practitioners and medical authors in Egypt, Greece, and Arabia in ancient times, we hear of no medical schools until that of Salerno, in Italy. In the eleventh century it became a public school and took a new start under the inspiration and guidance of the renowned Constan- tinus Africanus, very much as the school at Bologna afterwards did under the impulse and direction of Irnerius. He produced the earliest Latin revision of Arabian authors, having first traveled widely in the East, studied at Babylon, visited Egypt, and practiced his profession at Carthage. After a century or so, there followed other schools of medicine in the West, the first and most important being those of Cordova and Montpellier. Both of these were Saracenic in their origin and gave due prominence to Avicenna and Averroes, while they also honored Hippocrates and Galen. Montpellier became at length the leading medical school of the world, so that “ popes and kings summoned its masters to come and heal them.” The first of its statutes were drawn up by Cardinal Conrad, the Pope’s legate, in 1220, and, according to Fournier, others followed at intervals of twenty and one hundred years. But in these first statutes the Cardinal made eulogistic reference to the past achievements and services of tlie institution. The location was deemed fortunate, in that from an early date it had been a rendezvous for both Saracen and Christian merchants, who were naturally followed by learned men, includ¬ ing many Jewish and Spanish Saracens seeking the security and quiet afforded by the liberal laws and friendly manners of its people. Compayre says : “ It was Montpellier that Charles VI, in his letters patent of 1396, called the source (fons originalis) of medical science. It was a professor of Monti>elIier, Guy de Chauliac, who published in the fourteenth century (1303) his Grande Chirurgie, of vchich Victor Leclerc has said, “ It marked a notable progress in studies based on the observation of nature.’ ” I have said these things of Salerno, and more especially of Montpellier, by way of explaining, in good part, the secondary rank only, in the great medical field, to which the faculty of medicine in the University of Paris , actually attained. Having little hope of transcending, or even equaling, the already famous Montpellier, the university professors at Paris were less ambitious, and hence less thorough and less original, and the university as a body sharing this conviction, would the more easily satisfy themselves with a medical department sufficiently important to give a recognized as well as CiCtual completion to an institution the purpose of whose founders had been that very early in its record no faculty or department should be wanting. Besides which there was the old reason, outweighing all others, that theology was to be supreme at Paris. After no little effort to reach and utilize all available sources of information upon conditions of admission, terms of study in order to obtain degrees, courses of study, authorities relied on, the work of professors, examinations, degrees, and so on, so little has been found that it will be necessary to assume the general accordance between- the Paris University faculty and the contemporary schools of medicine, and hence in some matters to report their requirements and usages instead, especially those of the other and greater French school at Montpellier. Ul^IVEESITY OF PARIS DFEmO THE MIDDLE AGES. 547 It would, appear, then, if we are to accept the accounts of Fournier, Crevier, Compayre, and other French authorities — (1) That, in the statutory conditions of admission, there was such recogni¬ tion of the value of preparatory studies in the arts as made it necessary to spend at least a year’s time more in the medical studies if unlicensed in the arts than otherwise, and that the full period necessary to the degree was nine 3^ears, of which term three years (each having eight mouths of study and attendance upon lectures) were requisite to an examination for the bachelor's degree and the remaining six for the doctorate. (2) That the lectures were of both grades, ordinary and cursory; and to a large degree they consisted of literal interpretations of old writings, deemed next to sacred, with very little account of recent and present experience, and still less in the way of demonstration in the departments of chemistry, botany, and anatomy, or in practice, whether medical, distinctly speaking, or sur¬ gical. Even the Montpellier statutes of 1340 prohibited the use of any book of natural science other than De Animalibus. (3) That the “old writings” referred to were, of course, first of all those of Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, Averroes, aiid Constantine. But, according to Rashdall, the books prescribed at Paris were the Liber Tegni of Galen, the Greek; the works of Theophilus, the Byzantine; of the Jewish physician, Isaac; those of Nicholas, the distinguished physician of Salerno; and those of Hilgidius, the no less distinguished physician of Paris, especially his Theoretica and his Practica. (4) That the spirit of the faculty of medicine finally became scholastic, and even political, to a degree that seriously interfered with the work and practical usefulness of what should have been a thoroughgoing scientific school. Thurot says : “ It attached much more importance to disputatious than to lessons.” And to this Compayre adds : The ordinary disputations took place every Monday and Thursday from All Saints’ Day until Lent — that is, during three or four months. In addition to these there was one disputation more formal than the others, called quod- libetaire, because it might relate indifferently to any subject, and each master was obliged to take part, in turn, under penalty of deposition. The supreme end to be attained was, not the acquirement of positive knowledge, but skill in dialectic. The idea that man is made to reason, to be a perpetual dialectician, even in medicine, dominated the human mind, and people seemed to think that syllogisms were good for everything, even disease. The same author, while generously shielding the medical schools of those times on the ground that science had found little development, that hygiene was a division of medicine hardly dreamed of, and while also half excusing the medical practitioners because the general system of study then “ rendered them more apt at distinguishing the premises and consequences of a train of reasoning than in diagnosing disease, more skillful in managing an argument than in hand¬ ling the scalpel and the bistoury,” nevertheless admits to his pages with apparent relish the extravagant raillery of Petrarch, in his letter to Boccaccio, v/herein he says of the doctors of his day : • They never appear in public without being superbly dressed, mounted on mag¬ nificent horses, and wearing golden spurs. * * Next thing you know they will arrogate the honors of a triumph ; and, in fact, they deserve it ; for there is not one among them who has not killed at least 5,000 men, and that is the number required to entitle one to these honors. The great hindrances to the progress of medicine as a science in those times were, first, the nonacceptance of the truth that for the most part, to say the least, the universe and man are subject to law, natural and divine, and, secondly, a consequent full committal to the doctrine of divine interference, no less ready and perpetual than arbitrary, and without warrant in reason or justice. 548 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. V.— HELPS TOWARD DEVELOPMENT. Among tbe many helps toward university development at Paris, it seems proper to mention, first, such as were most direct and may be accounted as privi¬ leges — those accorded by the church, state, and municipality. I. - PAKT OF THE CTIKISTIAN CHUKCH. I name the church first because it fairly entitled itself to that place of honor from every point of view — as originator, promoter, guide, and defender. At Bologna the central idea was jurisprudence, and it was the state, accordingly, that became the first and chief helper of her university in making itself fore¬ most of all in that great department of human interests. But at Paris, for the many reasons already mentioned, the leading part in the university mission was assumed by the church, as being distinctively formed and maintained in the interest of those spiritual concerns which, while the most important of all, are by their very nature and the nature of man ever and everywhere most in danger of neglect. And well did the church perform her part ; availing herself, first of all, of the interest in the higher learning awakened among the people of all Europe by that most zealous and most brilliant, if not, indeed, most learned of her many gifted sons, Peter Abelard ; utilizing the ancient and most important of her arts schools then existing, the cathedral school of Paris, under that other able and learned educator, William of Champeaux ; and beginning right there, at the best suited and most attractive of European centers, an institution which should become at once her own source of encouragement, guidance, and defense in all matters of religious faith, and the world’s supreme authority in the whole field of science, arts, and letters. Whether one finds himself in accord with the doctrine of the Catholic Church or not, he is compelled by the facts of history to acknowledge that, but for its professed interest, watchful care, and generous sacrifices of many kinds, coupled with the immense infiuence it wielded among kings and princes, as well as in the world at large, the University of Paris could not then and might never have gained for itself so important a place in the world. At Paris, as elsewhere during the middle ages, the schools were nearly all under the management of ecclesiastics, and those undertaking the work of teaching came at once under the paternal care of the Holy See, sharing by com¬ mon consent the many privileges and helps already enjoyed by the religious orders and by the most favored officers and members of the great church at large. And this meant a good deal, for, according to Gibbon, whose records are generally beyond challenge, “ the whole body of the Catholic clergy was exempted from all service, private or public, all municipal offices, and all per¬ sonal taxes and contributions which pressed their fellow-citizens with intoler¬ able weight, and the duties of their holy profession were accepted as a full dis¬ charge of their obligations to the Republic.” And all these immunities hereto¬ fore exclusively enjoyed by ecclesiastics were now not only extended to the university as an organization and to its officers and teachers, but even to all students and other persons over whom the institution exercised a maternal care. It was Pope Celestine III who, almost before the cathedral school had been thought of very generally as a nucleus for a university, decreed that “ for clerics residing in Paris all suits relative to money matters should be tried before ecclesiastical, and not before secular, judges,” even as Gregory IX, in confirming the foundation of the University of Toulouse in 12.38, decreed that neither masters nor scholars, clerics nor domestics, should be judged by a lay¬ man ; and as the legate of the Holy See gave to Montpellier statutes, in 1220, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 549 for the forming of ;i court by the Bishop of Magiielonne, composed of himself and of masters chosen from among those ^Yho were deemed “ the most discreet and honorable,” that should mete out justice to both masters and students and to those who shall bring civil suits against them, while reserving to tlie bishop himself exclusive cognizance of all matters criminal. It was the church before whose dignitaries all suits relating to benefices held by a member of the University of Paris were tried. It was a bull of Gregory IX, issued in 1231, which included the following: “If an injustice is committed toward anyone of you [masters at Paris], if a serious injury, like a murder or wound, is inflicted, unless justice is rendered you within fifteen days you are permitted to suspend your lectures until you have obtained complete satisfac¬ tion,” a decree so far utilized that when, after a serious conflict between students and citizens, on account of a cruel act of the Queen Regent Blanche, who had caused two students to be put to death, and refused reparation, the university first suspended operations altogether, and then dissolved itself by the dispersion of the professors to other parts of the world, until the Pope appealed for their return, and the King made humble apologies and the best reparation in his power; and it was Alexander IV who, when this right of suspension, known as the right of cessatio, brought such trouble that he issued a bull of his own, modifying it, was nevertheless constrained to withdraw or suspend the modifica¬ tion when the university authorities insisted upon a continuance of the right, declaring it to be ” the buckler of the university.” And the university so main¬ tained it through the centuries that in 1407, when the provost of Paris had caused two students to be unjustly hung, the university not only caused a su.s- pension of lectures and sermons during. the whole period of Lent, but by a threat of removing the university bodily to some other country compelled the provost “ to go in person and take down the two students from the gibbet, kissing them on the mouth, and conducting their obsequies with great pomp.” Still another illustration, among many in history, of the power of the university because of the continuance of this papal decree of cessatio is given by Compayre to the effect that in 1453, when, after a collision between students and citizens and a number of the former were put in prison and the life of the rector of the univer¬ sity was threatened, the cessatio was declared, and the ” Parliament vcas obliged to ordain that eight archers, or ushers, should make the amende honorable to the university, wearing nothing but their shirts and carrying lighted torches,” while ” the man who had threatened the rector had his hand cut off.” It should also be mentioned that, besides numerous instances of intervention in favor of the university in general, and of individuals connected with it, including officers, professors, students, and even employees, down to the bell ringer, as well as approved supply merchants, there were yet other broad, sweeping papal decrees on occasion, both temporary and without time limita¬ tion, that were esteemed beyond price because of the assurances they gave of justice to those whose devotion to the cause of education made them willing to accept great trusts at a personal sacrifice — such, to offer a single example, as the decree that no act of excommunication could affect the head of a university without a special edict from the papal throne. II. - FAVOR OF THE CIVIL POWERS. But there was also a universal sympathy with the Parisian and all univer¬ sities among the civil powers. Kings vied with ecclesiastical potentates and lesser dignitaries in their efforts to promote their welfare — doubtless in some degree because of the material advantage and prestige that would come to their respective kingdoms, yet ofttimes unmistakably on account of a love of learning 550 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. and the intellectual advantage that would result to their people. Compayre - gives a strong expression to the general fact in saying: “There was on the part of kings, as well as on that of Popes, a sort of conspiracy in favor of the universities.” It was Philip Augustus who, in 1200, after a quarrel between citizens and stu¬ dents, in which the provost of Paris had headed the armed populace by whom a student was slain, heartily espoused the cause of the students, and made such marked reparation as he could by ordering imprisonment for life for the pro¬ vost, unless he should prefer the ordeal by water, with the accompanying condi¬ tion that “ if he succumbed he should be hanged ; ” and who further decreed that university students should be tried by ecclesiastical tribunals only — which then meant the Episcopal Court of Paris. No student was to be arrested by an ordinal^ judge, except in case of extreme necessity, in which event he was to be immediately passed over to the ecclesiastical authorities ; and as for their chief, the capitale scholarium, the civil courts were to lay hands on him for no crime whatsoever. It was the Kings of France who, in successive letters patent to the University of Paris, copied the right of the Bologna University — there known as non trahi extra — a right by virtue of which members of the university, whether masters or students, and whether defendants or plaintiffs, could have their cases tried at the seat of the university, thus saving them from interrup¬ tions to their work, and from the cost of travel and of study at other points, perhaps distant. It was King Charles II, who, having levied taxes upon certain articles by way of raising money for the war, was pleased to exempt the students at the Univer¬ sity of Orleans solely because they were students, as did also King Louis XII, and after him Francis I, a like thing for like reason. It was Philip the Fair who decreed that the goods of members of the univer¬ sities should not be taken or their revenues attached under any pretext, and who, with other European sovereigns, so established the principle of student protection that it was practically agreed to by everybody, and that, according to Compayre, the University of Padua laid it down in one of its statutes in these unqualified terms : “ Students must be considered as citizens in what con¬ cerns the advantages, but not in that which concerns the burdens of citizens.” From the same author we also learn that, besides being free from the burdens of civil affairs, the university was also exempt from military service, and that this exemption extended not merely to war but to the obligation of serving in the city militia as town guards; that it manifestly desired, through a high estimate of the superior importance of study, to free both students and profes¬ sors from all duties that could distract them, or in any way interfere with their intellectual labor, and that “ the letters patent of the Kings of France con¬ stantly reproduce the same formula, ordering tliat all members of the university shall be exempt from patrolling or sentry duties, except in case of imminent peril.” The fitness of such measures, in the public judgment, was strikingly illus¬ trated by the exceptional action of Louis XI, who in 1407 determined to enlist all able-bodied men in Paris between 10 and 00 years of age, and who, when resisted by the rector of the university for reasons ably set forth, so modified his order that the university was simply required to cause the weekly celebra¬ tion of a mass for the King. Surely enough has now been said to show the esteem in which the universities of the middle ages were held by the ruling powers, both civil and ecclesiastical — to show that the University of Paris was a little republic in itself, made strong by the most extraordinary concessions of Pope and King. UNIVEESITY OF PAEIS BUSING THE MIDDLE AGES. 551 III. - THE CONNECTED AND COOPERATING COLLEGES. All important and exceedingly interesting feature of the university after a time was the association with it — incidental at first, but permanent, if not indeed organic, at last — of a considerable number ,of duly established societies or communities. The first of these were known as “ hospicia.” But soon other organizatipns appeared, which came at length to be known as “ colleges.” These last were suggested to the minds of generous and sympathetic men and women anxious to be helpful in some way to worthy but indigent young men seeking for an honorable place in community, church, or state. The hospicia were not very different in either constitution or management from the hospicia formed by law students of the University of Bologna. They (of Bologna) were voluntary associations of young students of law, leagued together, in simple quarters for both security and economy, choosing their own chief, and making their own regulations. Those of Paris were associations or clubs of younger persons, more commonly with religious inclinations, and the hope to become a “ clerk ” or something higher. Having to agree upon the house they would like to occupy, as well as the rent they would be willing to pay, and how (i. e., by what system, rules, and regulations) they would be gov¬ erned, they would of necessity choose a chief to preside over their deliberations and wisely manage their affairs. Such chief was at first commonly known as “ principal.” He was not necessarily a university master, but he was bound to be of no less importance than a senior in the arts department, and was, in fact, very often a bachelor of arts ; and finally it became the requirement that he should be either an A. B. or an xA. M. Almost from the first organization of the university it became universal for students to live in houses of this sort, except with two classes, namely, the wealthy, who lived in their own homes or in elegant apartments elsewhere, and the very poorest, who, being unable to make the payments required of them by the hospicia, got on the best they could in some mi.serable garret or cheap tenement, in some wretched quarter of the city. Accepting the statements of Denifle and Rashdall, the college was nothing, dif¬ ferent from an endowed hospicium. It was less democratic, in that the master who governed as principal was placed at its head by the founder instead of his associates. But in both cases the members of the college had a share in its management. It seems that the first of such foundations was exceedingly humble, being the consecration of a single room “ for poor clerks” in the “ Hospital of the Blessed Mary of Paris,” situated near the Cathedral of Notre Dame, and finally known as the Hotel Dieu. Thanks to a pilgrimage to Jerusalem by the large-hearted Josius, of London, and a subsequent visit to this hospital, the room thus con¬ secrated was purchased and fitted up for “ eighteen scholar-clerks,” the proctors of the house further agreeing to pay them “ twelve numinia a month out of the alms collected in the hospital chest.” As for the scholars thus favored, “ their sole statutory obligation was to take turns in bearing the cross and holy water at the funerals of those who died in the house, and nightly to repeat the seven penitential psalms and other customary prayers.” Foundation after foundation, some of them very liberal indeed, followed each other right along through the years of the thirteenth century and of the succeed¬ ing two centuries to the number of over sixty colleges. The first of the colleges of higher rank than that of a grammar school was named the College of Constantinople, in remembrance of its connection with the Latin conquest of that city of the East in 1204. It was to help in the great 552 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. undertaking of supplying the East Avitli a host of ecclesiastics from the center of Christian theology and for the bringing a like or greater number of Greek, Turkish, Arabian, and Persian youths to Paris for conversion to the true faith. In the College of St. Nicholas du Louvre, endowed as early as 1241 and favored with a royal charter in 1293, the university found the first institution of this class planned especially for students in the university faculty of arts. The House of Sorbonne, though at first planned, as said before, for IG students of theology, was soon enlarged by other benefactions so as to accommodate 30. Many contributions were made to its endowment. St. Louis gave a part of the site, near the palace of Julian, and collections were made for it in the churches by indulgence of bishops and Popes, so that after a little it was in a most pros¬ perous state and could allow each “ fellow ” to have a “ poor clerk ” as his per¬ sonal attendant, sharing his chamber and other advantages. Its government and the supply of its “ burses ” were made the duty of the archdean or chan¬ cellor of Paris, the doctors of theology, the deans of other superior faculties, and the rector and proctors of the university, the more immediate management being intrusted to a “ provisor,” This was a college of theologians — those who, having taken the degree of M. A., were eager to enter upon the long and labori¬ ous task of prepari]]g themselves for that of doctor of divinity. It took high ground at once and finally gave its title (the Sorbonne) to the whole faculty of theology, for popular use, by reason of its interest, activity, and influence in the discussions and informal judgments upon matters of faith so commonly rendered in its halls. Duvernet says of it : , The great care which was taken not to admit among the teachers any but men of the highest talents and attainments soon procured for the school a European fame, and in the fourteenth century the entire theological faculty of the univer¬ sity was merged into it. During the middle ages, the period of the Reforma¬ tion, and even after that time, the Sorbonne was generally considered one of the highest authorities of the Christian church, and its decisions were appealed to not only in theological controversies, but also in the contests between the Popes and the secular powei's. It was a stanch champion of the freedom of the Galilean church and strongly opposed to ultramontanism. It condemned Jansen and the Jansenists in matters of doctrine, but sided with them in their fight with the Jesuits. Its culmination was in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, who, himself a graduate of the school, provided it with a magnificent building and enlarged its library. The College of Navarre was not very different from the Sorbonne in either purpose or administration. It was founded in 1304 by Joanna, Queen of Navarre, and consort of Philip the Fair, and was munificently endowed and handsomely administered. At first the government and patronage were with the faculty of theology, afterwards with the Bishop of Melun, the Chancellor of Paris, the dean of the theological faculty, and the grand master, and last of all, after many more changes, with the King's confessor, by his own arbitrary appointment. The more noticeable feature of these last two, which were the most liberally endowed as well as the most distinguished of the colleges at Paris, was the increase of college teaching which they especially represented. They became the pioneers in bringing about important changes in this regard. The theolog¬ ical mastei's connected with them had lectured in their halls from the very first, and their lectures were so ordered, prepared, and delivered, in harmony with the courses established by the faculty of theology, that they were accounted as of the university in determining the claims of students therein. Other colleges followed suit as they were able, adopting the new educational methods and opening their living accommodations as well as halls of instruction to outsiders until, in 1445, the university authorities are said to have been found declaring to the King, ” Almost the whole university resides in the colleges.” UmVEKSITY OF PAEIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 553 Independent of the advantages accruing to the university from the college system which have been already noted, there was another of much importance — the better discipline among the students than would otherwise have been possi¬ ble. As already remarked, the university was at first a voluntary association of masters acting in their individual capacity ; not a single, compact institution, with its corps of universally accepted officers. It determined the courses of study to be completed in order to reach certain honors and prerogatives, but had nothing, to do with the discipline of its students. It was the university of masters and scholars, with the masters in command, and it might properly enough have been expected of them that they would assert and maintain their authority over the students in matters of conduct as well as of study. But they did not. Discipline in the outer world was left to the police and to the ecclesi¬ astical tribunals established by university request ; that of the hospicium or hall or pedagogium and college to their several principals, pedagogues, and masters. It was not before 1287 that the university provided for the registering of the students’ names in the matricula and an inventory of their property. It was wholly at sea, therefore, when a student was under arrest and proof was demanded of his connection with the institution. And it was not until the fif¬ teenth century that the faculty of arts, as being that one of the faculties that embraced the greater number of students, including nearly all of those under age and likely to require supervision and discipline, rallied its forces, established disciplinary regulations, and sought to put an end to the fearful outbreaks, fierce conflicts between bands of armed students, and between student mobs and citi¬ zens, which were of such frequent occurrence as to make the city almost will¬ ing, at times, to allow the university authorities to execute their threats to locate the institution somewhere else. But even the colleges found it difficult sometimes to duly supplement the uni¬ versity in the field of conduct. The spirit of independence, quite regardless of the demands of moral order or of common decency, was now and then so ram¬ pant that there was a general looking about for some sort of a remedy. It was in this spirit of barbarism that scholars in the same hoarding house into which some of the hospices and weaker colleges had been half transformed got into the habit of migrating from one to another when they could not quite have their own way, and, in case of hindrance to their plans, visiting the most brutal judg¬ ments upon the establishments so interfering. It was well, therefore, that the university (or its constituent faculties and nations) maintained and so enlarged its influence and control over the colleges that when aroused it was able to provide and enforce regulations even for their internal management ; that it was able, when necessary, to remove their ofiicers, even their founders, when the circumstances demanded. Doubtless it was not an authority always enjoyed or even acquiesced in by the colleges, but it was none the less for the general good that it existed' and the right of visitation was maintained. Moreover, the migration referred to was prohibited, and the char¬ acter and availability of the colleges were so far improved that by 1463 resi¬ dence within the “ pedagogy ” or college, with certain exceptions, was made obligatory, and the mastership therein was treated as a university ofiice, and they were not only allowed but encouraged to attract lecturers of established reputation and thus conduct the work of education to an important extent — to such an extent, indeed, that in some departments almost the entire instruction requisite to a degree was conducted in them. This was especially the case in the department of theology, the lecturing in which came to be practically con¬ fined to the great colleges of the Sorbonne and Navarre (both secular), with a little help from the “ regulars.” The advantage to the university was that the college system largely relieved 554 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. the university of the responsibility of renting buildings and halls, of raising money for the masters and doctors who conducted the instruction, and devolved it upon many lesser institutions, which, while practically subdivisions of it and enjoying the benefits of its guidance and influence with state and church, at the same time had the benefit of that spirit of honorable rivalry which makes itself so immensely helpful in every great field of activity. VI.— SOME OF THE HINDRANCES. There is another side of this picture, however. It was not all sunshine with the university. There were serious hindrances, as vrell as many helps toward its development. I. - THE OPPOSING CHANCELLOR OF NOTRE DAME. The first of them was the antagonism, in one form and anothej-, of the power¬ ful chancellor of the cathedral, whose personal ambition was unbounded, and who, foreseeing the probability of a loss of power in university matters unless great vigilance and skillful management should be exercised on his part, was persistent in his opposition to all forward tendencies. The association of mas¬ ters of arts, ready for any service as teachers in the arts department of the coming university, which had been formed almost spontaneously and without very definite aims around the cloister school of the cathedral, finally came to a realizing sense of the looseness of its organization, and began to think seriously of a formal and legal incorporation of the several schools or faculties growing up and to be developed as one great institution, with statutes of its own, and with the requisite facilities and powers. It seems that hitherto the chancellor could not only grant or refuse licenses to teach at his own ])Ieasure, but could take away a license already enjoyed, or deprive a student of his privileges as such, and by his own arbitrary command also rob either master or student of the ecclesiastical privileges appertaining to his connection with the schools. He was in fact clothed with, or at least exer¬ cised, the most absolute tyranny, and did not omit to indulge himself in the exercise of his authority. He enforced his decisions by excommunication, and liad control of a prison for the confinement of the refractory. The only offset the society of masters had lay in the fact that, while all-powerful in the grant¬ ing of the licenses, he could not compel the association to admit as a member any¬ one so licensed. On the other hand, they could require every new master to make oath to obey the regulations of the association, and could impose various penalties and disabilities upon anyone who, through falsities or other miscon¬ duct, had rendered himself obnoxious. Moreover, no licentiate of the chan¬ cellor was accounted fully empowered until he had been received into the association of masters by a public inception. It is manifest that two forces thus so empowered, respectively, and in the nature of the case, antagonistic, would have almost unceasing conflicts. xVnd so it was with the chancellor and the masters. Many interesting accounts of clashes, prosecutions, and suits are recorded. It was the chancellor versus the university, or vice versa, all the while, until the powers at Rome became weary and intervened by decreeing; (1) That the oaths of obedience to the chancellor hitherto taken by masters should be relaxed; (2) that there should be no exaction of such oaths in the future; (3) that the chancellor’s licenses should hereafter be gratuitous; (4) that it should be the duty of the chancellor to grant licenses to all candidates recommended by UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 555 a majority of the masters in the several superior faculties, or by six selected, masters in the faculty of arts, three to be named by the chancellor and three by the faculty; (5) that there should not be imprisonment of scholars during trial in case of but slight offenses, and that in any event a scholar imprisoned should be discharged upon the furnishing of sufficient bail, and, finally, (6) that the chancellor should under no circumstances whatsoever impose a money penalty on a convicted student, though there might be an award of damages to the party injured. Two years later (in 1215) these provisions were embodied in permanent statutes imposed by Cardinal Courgon, together with the right of the university, within certain limits, to make statutes for its own government and to require oaths of obedience thereto. Nevertheless the conflict went on, becoming more and more bitter on the part of the chancellor, who, with the cooperation of the bishop, even went so far as to revive an old and defunct proclamation against conspiracies, and to excom¬ municate the university as a whole, on the ground of disobedience thereto. The very existence of the university was a conspiracy from the chancellor's and bishop’s point of view and they were bent on destroying it. Happily the Holy See took a very different view, and in 1219 and 1222 bulls were issued by Popes Ilonorius III 'and Gregory IX which turned the scale and gave to the university a larger freedom. II. - THE OPPOSING MENDICxiNT OPtDERS. * A more subtle and still more troublesome hindrance was found in the mendi¬ cant orders, Dominican and Franciscan, both of them powerful and persistent. Ere the coming of the twelfth century the higher educational work was quite exclusively done in the convents, some of which had forgotten the old-time sim¬ plicity and become both wealthy and vainly ambitious. The schools known as “ external,” which followed the efforts of Charlemagne, had so far occupied this field and interfered with the plans of the monastics that the cloisters had prac¬ tically ceased to furnish educational facilities for the seculars, who by the twelfth century had become the active workers. The monasteries were gradu¬ ally ceasing to be intellectual forces, and there must come a new order of things unless they were to lose their hold upon the more progressive elements of society, and above all upon the etlucational agencies already in the lead at the great centers of intellectual effort — even the universities themselves. The disciples of St. Dominic were first to gain the conception and first to move with energy. Already established at P>oIogna, Paris, and Oxford, in each of which places they had schools of collegiate rank, with this ambitions end in view they soon aroused the less intellectually ambitious Franciscans, who were not willing to be left behind, and they, too, established a convent at Paris. The two orders were different in spirit and purpose in that the Dominicans were zealous for conservative orthodoxy, while the Franciscans seemed constitutionally inclined to encourage new theories and new social movements, and were, of course an easy prey for new heresies. But both were in harmony on the vital necessity for overcoming the rationalistic tendencies of the time. Aristote- lianism, in spite of the early narrowness of the Church, had not only come to be thought safe, but its dialectic element was now reinforced, philosophically speaking, from the East, through Saracenic channels, and had brought with it new and disturbing elements in the teachings of Avicenna and Averroes. As a consequence, skepticism had established itself at Paris with very serious results for a considerable time, and there were measures against the reading of Aris¬ totle’s newer works. After which, however, came the adoption out and out of 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. his writings as text-books in the university faculty of arts, followed by direct translations of Aristotle from tbo Greek, by acts for the suppression of heresy by fine, etc. Meanwhile the Dominicans, made strong by the teachings and writings of those two greatest men of the age, Albertus Magnus and his pupil Thomas Aquinas, steadily gained ground. The first won the world to Aristotle by mak¬ ing his idiilosophy Christian, while Aquinas devoted himself to a reconciliation of the new truths and highest thought with the profoundest of religious convic¬ tions based on the truths of the Gospel. At first the studies of the friars were made in the secular theological schools then available, but later they were pleased to present themselves at the univer¬ sity for admission to the faculty of theology. They were cordially received and continued to avail themselves of its facilities until the great dispersion of the university masters and doctors because of the suspension of university work HI 1220, already mentioned. But during the suspension the friars were pleased to form a school of their own ; nay two schools, the newly converted theologian, John of 8t. Giles, of England, having been constrained by his admirers to open a second. At about the same time the Franciscans opened a school under the leadership of another Englishman, Alexander Hales, as also did still other religious orders, so that the university, vrhen it had settled itself down again to regular work, found a whole cluster of theological schools doing the work which the faculty of theology had hitherto supposed itself fully and alone competent to do. The mendicant orders had taken the field and a confiict was inevitable. A bull from the Pope re(iuiring the chancellor at Paris to confer the licentia docendi upon as many members of the religious orders as upon examination he should find qualified opened the rupture quite unexpectedly in 1250. The defense was lU'omptly taken up, first by the great university association in the form of an insistence upon its right to refuse to approve the inception of doctors whom the chancellor had licensed without its consent ; and, secondly, by the faculty of the¬ ology in a formal statute against the Dominicans, Franciscans, and all other of the mendicant orders to the extent of ordering serious limitations upon the privileges of their members. Riots and other troubles resulted, and these were followed by a university decree of cessatio (cessation of lectures), by the refusal of obedience thereto by three friars, two of them Dominican and one Franciscan, by an ineffectual appeal to Rome, by a university requirement that all masters should swear to insist on justice, and by final expulsion of the friars. The i)ersistency of the university in this case had been due to the discovery that the fi-iars were bent on enjoying the benefits of the association of masters, whether obeying its requirements or not, as they might prefer. The masters were firm in their determination that the regulations of the society should be sacredly observed. It was absolutely necessary to the maintenance of the uni¬ versity itself. The offending friars were expelled. Then followed an appeal to the Holy See, an annulment of the order of expulsion, a positive requirement for the reinstatement of the offenders, and the defiance of the Pope in the form of otiicial notice to the thousands likely to attend the instruction and sermons of the friiirs that their schools would not be recognized by the university. After Innocent IV, who favored the seculars and condemned the usurpations of the friars, his successor, Alexander IV, took the other side very emphatically, and even offensively. Bull succeeded bull, and yet the masters resisted, finally adoptiiig the expedient of dissolving their society as a means of cutting off the mendicants fi*om association with them, as hitherto. TTuder these ciroumstances it was inevitable that the seculars should decline in power and influence. But in 1201 Alexander IV died and the university UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 557 found a new friend in his successor, Urban IV, who had been a Parisian can¬ onist and who took a different view of matters. As a result, bulls of privilege took the place of bans of condemnation, and among them certain restrictions upon the privileges which had been acquired by the mendicants, to the effect that, although members of the faculty of theology, the faculty of canon law, or the university as such, the mendicants and the students with them could, never¬ theless, be refused admission to the faculty of arts or the societas magistrorum et scholarium at its pleasure ; that no religious college would be allowed to have more than two doctors acting as regents and sitting at the same time in the gen¬ eral congregation of the university, and that secular students should thereafter incept under secular doctors only. Naturally, under existing circumstances, these rights of refusal accorded to the faculty of arts and the university congre¬ gation were duly exercised. Seculars were not debarred the privilege of attend¬ ing lectures given by friar doctors, yet their inability to incept under them, together with the oath to “ stand with the secular masters to whatever state he should come,” regularly administered to every master of arts at his inception, would, in most cases, prevent such attendance. Thus, while failing of entire success in recovering its ground, the university had nevertheless won a substantial victory after a long and bitter contest, so that in 1318 it was able once more to impose upon the friars the oath of obedi¬ ence to its statutes. Furthermore, by reason of the conflict, the university and its faculties became better organized. The corporate body could act for one of its faculties as a whole, and the acts of tlie faculties were to be treated as acts of the university. A system of finance had been developed, and the university had acquired a consciousness of its ability to hold its own high ground in defi¬ ance, if need be, of decisions of the Holy See. VII.— CONCLUDING WORDS. I have thus presented, with such fullness as the prescribed limit would allow, a systematic and orderly detail of the several steps by which the University of Paris advanced from its small beginning to final greatness. Totally wanting in the grand cluster of palatial halls, laboratories, museums, observatories, and other establishments suggested by the munificent endowments and ambitious plans of the Stanfords, Rockefellers, and Carnegies of modern times, the early University of Paris is nevertheless more deeply interesting than all of these because of the simple and rude conditions — material, social, political, and reli¬ gious — of its origin, the intellectual awakening among the people of many lands which fostered it, and the unparalleled enlistment of kingly and papal powers which finally established it. As already remarked, the notable achievements of the University of Paris were not alone in the field of learning, wliere indeed they were unsurpassed, but also and especially, as already suggested, in affairs national, international, and ecclesiastical. Its place in the world was exceedingly fortunate on many accounts. Unlike Bologna and other Italian universities in relation to the cities where they were located, it made itself a part of Paris and Paris a part of it, with resulting greater numbers of both masters and students, with increasing interest on the part of the religions, municipal, and national authorities through a most natural pride and sympathy, and with such relationships as eventually gained for it an unprecedented and otherwise impossible influence and power. After its safe passage - through the perils at first believed to attach to the pagan philosopMesi'-of Greece, Arabia, and Persia, and the reenforcement of its 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. faculty of theology by the very ablest philosophers and theologians of the age, the university easily came to the honors and responsibilities of what was in fact a supreme council of the church — rectifier of minor errors, v,Uether of prelates or others, and the invincible defender of the faith where assailed from without. It created a scholastic theology, and it was thus, as Rashdall has well said, that it triumphed over the skeptical as well as over the mystical reactionaries, and became “ the first school of the church and theological arbiter of Europe ; ” for, “ however much the theological dictatorship assumed by the university may have blasted the fair prospects of the twelfth century ‘ illumination,’ it was by means of this dictatorship that Paris conferred on France, and indeed on all northern Europe, one of the most memorable services which she ever rendered to the cause of enlightenment, of civilization, and of humanity.” The referenc-e here is, of course, to the influence exerted by the University of Paris in saving France and other portions of northern and northwestern Europe to so large an extent from the fearful ravages of the great inquisition. Another signal service was that of resisting, and in some measure thwarting, as we have seen, the adverse schemes of the mendicant orders. It was, indeed, the most powerful champion of the secular clergy in their many conflicts, while in the remarkable schism which for a time divided the papal power the university also managed with great wisdom and was at last the main instru¬ ment in bringing about a return to unity. It had come to first honors, so that it even sent ambassadors to foreign courts on missions most important, and thus gained a still larger influence in the affairs of the world at large. I have dealt first with the ecclesiastical side of this interesting subject of the university's influence because it was, first of all, by intent of its founders and in actual service, a theological institution par excellence. But the situa¬ tion of the university at Europe's most brilliant and most influential center was no less fortunate from a political than from a theological point of view. Because of this simple fact it gained a supreme advantage, as already noted, and well it utilized it. First of all, it won the favor of the King, so that in a large sense he made it his special protege, protecting its students from abroad when at war with their native lands and thus making them practically citi¬ zens of the world ; tenderly entitling it “ eldest daughter of the King,” and opening the way for it to become a real force and influence in national and international affairs. In many cases the university, became the chief pacificator, outranking in recognized dignity and importance all other mediators, civil or ecclesiastical. It had become a ” European power.” Historians dealing with the middle ages have with one accord made Germany first in imperial power and martial glory ; Italy first in jurisprudence, in art, and in ecclesiastical authority, as seat of the papal power ; but to France no less fitly belongs the honor of having produced that most brilliant and influen¬ tial of the wmrld's universities, through whose agency her queenly capital was made first in the realm of letters-, first in science, first in medieval philosophy, and first in scholastic theology, as well as foremost in the vast and diversified realm of those practical, {esthetic, and social arts which are essential to the world's progress in civilization. CHAPTER VI. THE WORK AKD INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. PROCEEDINGS OF A MEETING HELD IN NEW YORK CITY, FEBRUARY 12, 1904, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE ARMSTRONG ASSOCIATION, WITH THE ADDRESSES OF MR. ANDREW CARNEGIE ( CHAIRMAN ), PRESIDENT CHARLES W. ELIOT, DR. H. B. FRISSELL, AND DR. BOOKER T. WASHINGTON. The meeting was opened by Mr. William Jay Scliieffelin, president of the Armstrong Association, who read the following letter from ex-President Cleve¬ land : Princeton, Fehruanj 8, 190-'i. My Dear Sir : I am sorry I must forego the gratification of attending the meeting to be held on the 12th instant for the promotion of the purposes of Southern educational work. I am so completely convinced of the importance of this cause, as it is related to the solution of a problem which no patriotic citizen should neglect, that I look upon every attempt to stimulate popular intei'est and activity in its behalf as a duty of citizenship. All our people and every section of our country are deeply concerned in the better equipment of our negro population for self-support and usefulness. There should be a general agreement as to the necessity of their improvement in this direction ; and all good men should contribute, in the manner best suited to their several circumstances, to the accomplishment of this beneficent result. Different sections of our country are affected in differing degrees and with greater or less directness ; but it seems to me all must concede that no agencies can possibly do better service in the cause of negro amelioration than the insti¬ tutions in vdiich they are taught how to be self-supporting and self-respecting. Such institutions as these, which have demonstrated their efficiency, and which prove their merit by an exhibit of successful effort, should be constantly and generously encouraged and assisted. The extent to which this is done may well be accepted as a test of our sincerity in the cause of negro improvement. Yours, very truly. Grover Cleveland. Mr. Scliieffelin then presented, as the chairman of the meeting, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, who spoke as follov/s : ADDRESS OF MR. CARNEGIE. Ladies and gentlemen, we meet upon the birthday of the great emancipator, Abraham Lincoln, he who knocked the shackles from 4,000,000 slaves and made them physically free under the law. But in the higher sense he only is a free¬ man whom education makes free. Lincoln did his part, but he only began the task. It remains for us, the followers of that leader of men, to continue and complete it. This brings us here to-night. There is one class of men which experience is said to teach — the fools — but I suspect these are beyond teaching. Let us rather say that experience teaches the ignorant. I suggest this change because by experience I have been taught the Southern problem, and hesitate to class myself with the former. Every man and woman in the North who has not lived in the South, or visited it often 559 5 GO EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. for exteuded periods, must be ignorant of the South and the serious problems which confront our fellow-citizens there, white and black. We have nothing like it in the North ; neither has Britain nor any English-speaking community under free institutions similar conditions with which to deal, because it is not only a question of less or more education, but of race. Before I had a vote I was an ardent Free Soiler, and a contributor in my ’teens to the New York Tribune, then our great antislavery organ. After the war my brother and his family made their winter home in the South, and during my numerous visits there I was brought face to face with the Southern problem, and became deeply impressed with its gravity, as any Northern man is who is brought face to face with it. It was an entirely new problem, which I had never thought of and never could have correctly imagined. Preconceived ideas of liberty and equal¬ ity, ending in tbe sublime privilege of the suffrage, were rudely shaken, and I was forced to see that it was not enough to say that “ a slave can not live in the Republic ; he breathes our air ; his shackles fall.” That necessary act per¬ formed, the task does not end ; it only begins. We have destroyed one bad system, but constructive work is needed. The shackles may be off, but the slave of yesterday can not rise to the height of full citizenship next day. The prisoner from the dungeon, long confined in darkness, is blinded for a time by the light when released. Resolutions and party platforms, eloquent harangues upon liberty, equality, and fraternity, promote no healthy growth, produce no good fruit. Even legislation can not reach the seat of the malady. The men who stand face to face with the Southern problem are soon convinced that the needed help, the uplifting element, the indispensable instructor, is to be sought in an entirely different direction. The cure is not political, but social. Now, ladies and gentlemen, here is a remarkable fact — for fact it is as far as my knowl¬ edge extends — Avhich I ask you to note. There never was, so far as 1 know, an intelligent, worthy, kindly Northern man who settled in the South and became conversant with its conditions Avhose experience has not been mine as I have recounted it to you. Without excei)tion, they change their views and deeply sympathize with their sorely tried white brethren of the South and see that only through cordial cooperation with them is the needed work of raising the negro to be successfully accomplished. We should ponder upon this, especially those of us in the North Avho have not known life in the South. I am persuaded that the educational conference presided over by Mr. Ogden, represented here by him and others ; Tuskegee, represented by that remarkable leader of his people, Mr. Washington ; Hampton, represented by the president, and others are on the right path, and theirs the means through which the colored man is to be made capable of finally exercising the powers and performing the duties of a citizen of a free State vrith safety to the State. Many of you have read the wise paper of our distinguished fellow-citizen of New York, Hon. Carl Schurz, present with us to-niglit, an essay full of wise counsel. He points out that our aim should be first to lift the colored man and make him Avorthy of citizenship, neA^er denying him, hoAveA’er, that ideal Avhich he should strive to attain finally — complete political equality. Iterhaps I can give you a just conception of the difference in the situation with us in the North and our AA'hite friends in the South. We safely extend the suffrage in this home of free schools and universal education, and trust to education to make sober-minded, intelligent citizens as the sure effect of knoAvl- edge. The number of uoav citizens giA’cn the suffrage AA’ho are not sufficiently informed is relatively small. Even if they vote luiAvisely they do not droAvn the voice of the intelligent. These are still in the majority and their vieAvs prevail. Good and safe governmeiit is not endangered. In the South the ignorant are the immense majority. To give suffrage Avith- THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 561 out restriction to the blacks would mean that the intelligent whites were powder- less — overwhelmed. Government w^ould be in the hands of men steeped in ignorance of political responsibilities to a degree impossible for northern people to imagine. Only residence among them can give a true impression. No fault this of the colored people who w^ere reared and held in slavery, or w^ho at best are only emerging from that depth. The cheering fact is that they have shown and are showding more and more the capacity to rise in the scale. There can not be any doubt about this; their rapid and increasing acquisition of property proves it beyond a cavil. Nowd, the wdise policy seems obvious. We should agree that the keeping dowdia of millions of people, even if successful, wdould be destructive to civilized society and a menace to the State. To treat them as if they had already risen Wdould be equally so ; therefore, an educational test for the suffrage should be adopted and strictly applied, applicable to wdhite and black alike, for ignorance in the w^hites is deplorable. There is only one way to make satisfactory mem¬ bers of society, wdliether black or white, and that is through education in its widest sense. So much for the dangerous and difficult problem of the South. To our wdhite brothers and fellowd-citizens of the South wde owde at least an equal duty, and especially to the ignorant. He is no true friend of the South or wdise American who forgets this, and I hope wde shall prove in the future that wdhile we sympa¬ thize with the colored race we do not forget our white brothers. After all is said and done, the improvement of the South, wffiite and black, must be accom¬ plished by the best educated wffiite element in the South, which is in sympathy with our view’s and seeks the steady though perhaps slow’ elevation of both races, not the continued degradation of either. I stand before you to-night, side by side and hand m hand W’ith our Southern brothers of our ow’ii race, feeling that it is through them w’e must labor if w’e are to solve the threatening problem wffiich menaces the South. Fortunately the Educational Conference, Hampton, and Tuskegee all recognize this and find a responsive wffiite element in the South, with w’hich they are in cordial alliance. It is amazing to see now’ and then schemes for the expatriation of the colored race, as if such a transfer were possible, wffiich is not, and further, as if such a transfer w’ere desirable, w’hich it is not. We have a country w’ith less than thirty people per square mile. England and Wales, Belgium and Holland, have over five hundred. We can not produce cotton enough for the w’ants of the world. We should be in the position in which South Africa is to-day but for the faithful, placable, peaceful, industrious, lovable colored man ; for industrious and peaceful he is compared w’ith any other body of colored men on the earth — not up to the standard of the colder North in continuous effort, but far in advance of any corresponding class any w’ here. South Africa has just had to admit contracted Chinese labor, although there are betw’een five and six millions of colored people there w’ho w’ill not w’ork. We should be in the same condition but for our colored people, w’ho constitute one of the most valuable assets of the Republic, viewed from an economic standpoint. It is certain w’e must grow more cotton to meet the demands of the w’orld or endanger our prac¬ tical monopoly of that indispensable article. Either the efforts of Europe wull be successful to grow’ in other parts, even at greater cost for a time, or the w’orld will learn to substitute something else for it. We can not afford to lose the negro. We have urgent need of all and of more. Let us therefore turn our efforts to making the best of him. Signs are highly encouraging. Individ¬ uals of the race w’ho have risen and are to-day good citizens and w’orthy of the suffrage are easily found, and it is by the exceptional man every race is lifted. ED 1904 M - 36 562 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. The race is improving and is capable of continued improvement, and the poor whites of our owm race in the South, it goes without sajing, are capable, with proper education, of wiiat w’e ourselves have accomplished. We proclaim as our sole purpose the steady elevation of the ignorant of both wiiite and black races in the South, That is the duty in behalf of w^hich we meet to-night, with our hands and hearts outstretched to our own race in the South, beseeching its wisest leaders to advise us how' we can best cooperate with them under their guidance for the genuine advancement of that portion of our common country we love so w^ell. Mr. Carnegie. Ladies and gentlemen, I have now* to introduce to you one whose voice is heard upon every vital question affecting our country ; and there is one merit President Eliot possesses in the highest degree — there is never any doubt w^here he stands. Our universities are sometimes charged with neglect of attention to civic questions, but there are none in any other country w^hose [(residents take such leading parts in public affairs and wiio are such leaders of the people. Among the foremost of these ranks he w^hom I beg to present, President Eliot, of Harvard, our oldest university. ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT ELIOT. There is no larger or graver problem before civilized man at this moment than the prompt formation of a sound public opinion about the right treatment of backward races, and Hampton possesses the keywords of that great problem — education and productive labor. The support of Hampton Institute depends directly on public opinion concerning it among intelligent and public-spirited people North and South. Let these people remain convinced that Hampton not only has been but is and will be an effective instrument for uplifting the two backward races it serves, and let this conviction be as firmly and broadly planted in the Southern mind as in the Northern and the vigorous life of the institute is assured. I therefore ask your attention to some of the resemblances and some of the differences between opinion at the North and opinion at the South concerning the negro. In the first place, northern opinion and southern opinion are identical with regard to keeping the tw’o races pure — that is, wdthout admixture of one with the other. The northern wdiites hold this opinion quite as firmly as the southern wdiites ; and, inasmuch as the negroes hold the same view, this sup¬ posed danger of mutual racial imiiairment ought not to have much influence on practical measures. Admixture of the two races, so far as it proceeds, will be, as it has been, chiefly the result of sexual vice on the part of white men ; it wall not be a wudespread evil ; and it will not be advocated as a policy or method by anybody worthy of consideration. It should be borne in on the mind of the southern wdiites that their northern brethren are entirely at one with them in this matter, in spite of certain obvious differences of behavior towaird the negro at the North and at the South. Let us next consider some of these differences of practical behavior. At the North it is common for negro children to go to the public schools with wiiite children, w^hile at the South negro children are not admitted to w^hite schools. This practice at the North may be justly described as socially insig¬ nificant, because the number of negro children is in most places very small in proportion to the number of white children. In northern towns wiiere negro children are proportionally numerous there is just the same tendency and desire to separate them from the wiiites that there is in the South. This separation may be effected by public regulations, but if not it will be effected by w^hite THE WORK AHD IHFLUEHCE OF HAMPTON. 5G3 parents procuring the transfer of their children to schools where negroes are few. The differences of practice in this matter at the North and at the South are the result of the different proportion of negroes to the white population in the two sections. Thus in the high schools and colleges of the North the pro¬ portion of negroes is always extremely small, so small that it may be neglected a.s a social influence. Put the prosperous northern whites into the Southern States, in immediate contact with millions of negroes and they would promptly establish separate schools for the colored population, whatever the necessary cost. Transfer the southern whites to the North, where the negroes form but an insignificant fraction of the population, and in a. generation or two they would not care whether there were a few negro children in the public schools or not, and would therefore avoid the expense of providing separate schools for the few colored children. With regard to coming into personal contact with negroes, the adverse feel¬ ing of the northern whites is stronger than that of the southern whites, who are accustomed to such contacts ; but, on account of the fewness of the negroes at the North, no separate provision is made for them in public conveyances and other places of public resort. It would be inconvenient and wasteful to provide separate conveyances ; and, moreover, race is not the real determining consideration in regard to agreeableuess of contact in a public conveyance or other public resort. Any clean and tidy person, of whatever race, is more wel¬ come than any dirty person, be he white, black, or yellow. Here again the proportion of the negro to the white population is a dominant consideration. On the whole, there is no essential difference between the feelings of the north¬ ern whites and the southern whites on this subject; but the uneducated north¬ ern whites are less tolerant of the negro than the southern whites. More trades and occupations are actually open to negroes in the Southern States than in the Northern. I come next to a real difference between northern opinion and southern opinion — a difference the roots of which are rather hard to trace. At the North nobody connects political equality — that is, the possession of the ballot and eligibility to public office — with social equality ; that is, free social inter¬ course on equal terms in the people’s homes. At the South the white popula¬ tion ,seems to think unanimously that there is a close connection between the two questions following; Shall a negro vote or be a letter carrier? and Shall he sit with a white man at dinner or marry a white man’s sister? At the North these two questions seem to have nothing whatever to do with each other. For generations the entire male population of a suitable age has possessed the ballot ; but the possession of the ballot has never had anything to do with the social status of the individual voter. In the northern cities, vrhich generally contain a great variety of white nationalities, the social divisions are numerous and deep ; and the mere practice of political equality gives no means vffiatever of passing from one social set to another supposed to be higher. The social sets are deter¬ mined by like education, parity of income, and similarity of occupation, and not at all by the equality of every citizen before the law. Many an old New England village and many a huge tenement house in a great city at the North illustrate the sharpness and fixity of social distinctions much more strongly than the newest fashionable quarter. The male villagers call each other John and Bill when they meet on the road or at town meeting, but their families hold themselves apart. In the tenement house families will live for years on the same staircase and yet never exchange so much as a nod. In democratic society it is only “ birds of a feather that flock together,” and true social mobility in a democracy is not preserved by the ballot or by any theory of the equality of all men before the law, but by public educa- 564 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. tion and by the precious freedom which enables the men and women who possess remarkable natural gifts of any sort to develop and utilize those gifts. This democratic mobility is an application of the general principle that human beings of the same sort, possessing the same desires and governed by the same motives, will seek each other out and associate in the pursuit of common objects, whether at work or at play. At the North, then, people do not in the least connect politi¬ cal equality with social equality of intercourse. In this respect the northern people closely resemble the English and the nations of continental Europe that, have introduced the ballot into their political structures. No European has ever associated the possession of the ballot with social equality. An English¬ man would find such an idea utterly unintelligible. During the nineteenth cen¬ tury there have been successive extensions of the suffrage in England, but these extensions have not affected in the least the social classification of the English people. To the northern mind there is something i^ositively comical in the notion that a letter carrier or a fourth-class postmaster or an alderman changes his social status or his social prospects when he attains to his office. At the North this man remains in the social position to which his education, business training, and social faculties entitle him. His fellow-citizens may form a new opinion about him froin the way he does his work and from his bearing and manners, but if his social status is altered in any way it will be because his personal qualities give him a lift or a drop, and not because he holds an office by election or appointment. At the South, on the other hand, the possession of the ballot before the civil war distinguished the poor white from the black slave, and to hold public office was a highly valued mark of distinction among whites. Hence the southern whites are convinced that possession of the ballot and eli¬ gibility to public office, however humble, tend toward social equality between two races which ought not to be mixed, while nothing in the long experience of freedom among the northern whites has ever suggested to them that there is any connection between social intercourse and political equalit3\ The southern white sees a race danger in eating at the same table with the negro ; he sees in being either the host or the guest of a negro an act of race infidelity. The northern white sees nothing of the kind. The race danger does not enter into his thoughts at all ; he does not believe there is any such danger. To be the host or guest of a negro, a Mexican, or a Japanese would be for him simply a matter of present pleasure, convenience, or courtesy. It would never occur to him that such an act could possibly harm his own race. His pride of race does not permit him to entertain such an idea. This is a significant difference between northern whites and southern whites. Their sentiments on this subject are really unlike — so unlike that they do not understand each other. Yet their fundamental belief that the two races ought to live socially apart is precisely the same. The southern sentiment on this subject ought to be provisionally respected as a social fact, although the northern white’s race feeling seems to be really much more robust than that of the southern white’s. The northerner’s is simply impregnable, like the self-respect of a gentleman. If the southerner when in the North could conform to northern practice, and the northerner when in the South to southern practice, each without losing caste at home, an amiable modus Vivendi would be secured. Again, the northern whites and the southern do not entirely agree with regard to public education. Northern opinion is unanimous in favor of giving the whole southern population — white and black alike — good opportunities for edu¬ cation in every grade, though in separate establishments. It seems to the northern whites that if the southern negroes are to constitute a separate com¬ munity-separate, that is, with regard to church, school, and all social life— that separate community will need not only industrious laborers and operatives, THE WOKK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 565 active clerks, and good mechanics, but also teachers, preachers, lawyers, physi¬ cians, engineers, and indeed professional men of all sorts, and therefore that all grades of education should be made accessible to negro children and youth. On this subject three different opinions may be discerned among southern whites. Some southern whites, educated and uneducated, think that any edu¬ cation is an injury to the negro race, and that the negro should continue to multiply in the Southern States with access only to the lowest forms of labor, for which they maintain, as Plato did, that no education is necessary. Another section of the southern whites holds that negro children should be educated, but only for manual occupations — that is, for farm work, household work, and work in the fundamental trades, such as the carpenter’s, mason’s, and black¬ smith’s. This section approves of manual training and trade schools, but takes no interest in the higher education of the negro. Still a third section of the southern whites recognizes the obvious fact that a separate negro com¬ munity must be provided with negro professional men of good quality, else neither the physical nor the moral welfare of the negro population will be thoroughly provided for. At the North the higher education of the few young negroes who will reach that grade can be provided in the colleges and pro¬ fessional schools maintained for white youth and is successfully given at this moment to a few negro youth. In the Southern States the higher education must be given in separate institutions, if at all. The northern people hardly realize how heavy the educational burden on the Southern States, really is, because at the North they are under no necessity of providing separate institu¬ tions of all grades* for negroes in addition to those provided for the whites. The pecuniary burden of this separate provision on the relatively poor Southern States is enormous ; it is heavy in the elementary schools, but in the higher grades of education it is heavier still in proportion to the numbers to be edu¬ cated. The provision of a higher education for negroes is the logical conse¬ quence of the proposition that the black and white races should both be kept pure ; and, as I have said, this proposition is accepted both at the North and at the South. The alternative view, that the negro needs no education, or is harmed by it, or that the race should only be offered the lower grades of education, is thoroughly inconsistent with the proposition that the two races should be kept unmixed. Democratic society can not possibly contemplate the permanent presence of millions of a race but recently delivered from slavery breeding fast and left in ignorance, or even without guidance and incentives to intellectual and spiritual life. Such a suggestion flies in the face of all democratic thought about public justice, liberty, and even safety. The northern whites have precisely the same dread of an ignorant and cor¬ ruptible suffrage that the southern whites feel, for they have suffered and are now suffering from it. Millions of immigrants, who have had no practice in civil or religious liberty, have invaded the North, and negro suffrage there has often proved not only unintelligent but mercenary. Their remedy, however, for an ignorant suffrage is to abolish ignorance by patient, generous work on the children. As an aid in this long campaign they value an educational quali¬ fication for the suffrage. Moreover, the northern people are having at home abundant illustration of the way crimes increase when portions of the popu¬ lation have emancipated themselves from accustomed restraints, but have not yet been i^rovided with any new effective restraints either from within or from without. In this respect they are prepared to sympathize warmly with their southern brethren, whose situation is even more difficult than their own. Both parts of the country are feeling acutely the same need — the need of a stronger arm for the law, of a permanent, large, pervasive police force, organized in military fashion and provided with all the best means for instantaneous com- 566 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. munication between stations. Tbe presence of a competent public force would tend to prevent those sudden gregarious panics which cause lawless bar¬ barities. In respect to the value of that peculiar form of education which Hampton Institute has so admirably illustrated — education through manual training and labor at trades and crafts — there is a striking agreement between northern and southern opinion. One of the most remarkable changes in public education in the northern States during the past fifteen years has been the rapid introduc¬ tion of just these features into urban school systems. The northern whites are beginning to sjunpathize strongly with their southern brethren in respect to the peculiar burden which the action of the national Government in liberating the negroes has imposed on them. They see that the educational problem at the South is much' more difficult than it is at the North and calls for much greater public expenditure. They also perceive that the Southern States are less able than the Northern States to endure public expenditure for education. In spite of their ingrained preference for local control of education, and for local government in general — a preference which has preserved far too long ward government for schools and cities and district government in country towns — they are beginning to feel that the peculiar burden upon the Southern States, caused by the separation between the black and the white races in the institutions of education, should be borne in part by the National Government. They would like to see devised constitutional means of bringing exceptional aid from the National Treasury to the former slave States which have this exceptional bur¬ den to bear. They would like to see the negro schools of the South kept eight months of the year instead of four — at the expense of the nation. They would like to see separate colleges for agriculture and the mechanic arts provided throughout the South by the National Government. They would like to see the southern universities enabled to maintain separate professional schools for col¬ ored men. They vcould like to see a way found for the National Government to spend as much money on solving the southern negro problem as it has been spending for six years past on the Philippine problem. In short, they would like to see the National Government recognize its responsibility . for many of the physical and moral difficulties which beset civilization in the Southern States and come to the aid of all the civilizing forces in those States They know that efficient help could only be given through existing local agencies ; and the only help they would wish the Governmtnt to give is help to meet the pecul¬ iar burdens those agencies now have to bear because of the expedient social sep¬ aration between the two races which are to occupy together the fair southern country. It was in the supreme interest of the whole nation that the Southern States were impoverished forty years ago by a four years’ blockade and the destruction of their whole industrial system. It is fair that the nation should help to rebuild southern prosperity in the very best way, namely, through edu¬ cation. Finally, let us all remember that the task of making competent free men out of slaves is not the work of a day or a decade, but of many generations. How many Anglo-Saxon generations have gone to dust on the long road from serfdom to freedom ! It is a task to be worked at by each successive generation with the eager energy of men who know that for them the night cometh in which no man can work, but with a patience like that of God, who lives and rules forever. Mr. Carnegie. We all know what a man the founder of Hampton was. General Armstrong, who was not only great, inspired in himself, but who inspired all who became intimately associated with him ; among these his able, untiring THE WOEK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 567 colleague and now bis worthy successor. Let me present to you Doctor Frissell, principal of Hampton. ADDEESS OF DOCTOE FEISSELL. General Armstrong used to say that life would not be worth living if there were no negro and Indian problems. Those of us who have to do with these races believe that it is well for our great country that it has to think of something else than tariff laws and the gaining of wealth. My friends, this is a tremendous problem. The southern people, white and black, are the burden bearers of this country. In the South is the great mass of ignorance. There, too, is the great¬ est poverty. The struggle that the South has had to make to support itself is tremendous. Then there is the fact that in that section two races of different color are living together, often suspicious of one another, in constant dread of one another. Certainly the race problem of our country does not lack in inter¬ est or importance. If we present the bright side to you, it does not indicate that we do not know that there is a dark side, or that we do not appreciate the gravity of the situation. The great problem before us is this ; How are men differing in wealth, station, race, to learn to live together so as to be mutually helpful? How may the rich and poor, the employer and the employee, the white man and the black man, learn to serve instead of hating and hindering one another? When my distinguished predecessor at Hampton went to the Virginia penin¬ sula immediately after the war, he went as an agent of the Freedmen’s Bureau to administer the affairs of the whites and the blacks. He was sent to help them to live together in freedom as thej^ had formerly lived together in slavery. He approached his task with sincere sympathy and with faith in both races. He did not believe, as some of us at the North did, that we were to help the blacks to punish the southern whites for their wickedness. He had been an officer in the Union Army and had come in battle to have a profound regard for the heroism of the southern white man. He had been a colonel of colored troops, and had come to understand the capacity and bravery of the colored man under proper leadership. He had been brought up in the Sandwich Islands, where he had helped his father, as superintendent of public education, to work out the problem of how different races could live and work together. He had come to believe that two peoples, in order to live together successfully, must be mutually serviceable. Training for useful service, then, became the thought of his life and of the great school which he started at Hampton. Many were inclined to doubt whether the black man could be made to serve except by force. General Armstrong had a firm belief that he could learn to serve by love. An old negro preacher once prayed this prayer : “ Lord, make the unfit fit and the fitter more fitting.” This was the thought of the Hampton school — to make the inifit fit for the life just ahead of them. How could they best be fitted to serve themselves, their people, and their white neighbors? I should be glad to speak to you briefly of Hampton’s methods and results. Down at the founda¬ tion of Hampton Institute lies the idea of labor. All education there has for its object the fitting of the student for work. The school is a large industrial village, with its workshops, its farms, its laboratories, and its schoolrooms, where the young are taught how to live and labor. The charge that is brought against the black race more often than any other is that they are unreliable, that they do not take responsibility well. The Indian is universally accused of being lazy. It is of the first necessity, then, to teach negro and Indian boys and girls to do some work, to do it regularly, and to do it intelligently. This work, whether in the shop, in the kitchen, or on the farm, is made the central iwint of the school’s endeavor. The academic work becomes subsidiary. Our 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904.- students must learn, as Mr, Washington lias put it, “ to do common things in an uncommon way.” As soon as they enter Hampton, therefore, they take up some definite duty, and their studies center in that. 'A large number of girls, when they first come to Hampton, go into the laundry. We consider this one of the most important educational departments of the Hampton school. The work of washing and mending clothes has been lifted out of stupid drudgery into a valu¬ able educational process. The laundry work not only enables the girls to gain regular habits of labor, to earn their board and clothing while they are in school, and to be able to make an honest living wherever they go, but it is also distinctly educational. The work is so arranged that they pass from one prob¬ lem to another as they would in the schoolroom. In the evening, after their work is done, they go to the laboratory and try experiments in making bluing and soap. They learn what makes water hard and how they can make it softer. With the help of the microscope they study woolen cloth under the action of hot and cold water, and learn how to wash it properly and the reasons for certain methods. They learn how cloth is made and are taught how to weave it. Then, when they go into their English class, they write and read about what they have seen and have done with their own hands. Their arithmetic, too, has to do with soap and bluing and gallons of water and pieces of clothing. This method of correlation applies also to our other industries. We are just putting up a new kitchen, and that will be a much more im]wrtant classroom than any in our academic hall. When the spring days come the school garden will be filled with negro and Indian girls, each planting or cultivating her own plot of ground. Other girls will be found carrying on the dairy work, and still others caring for the chickens. Every boy and girl at Hampton is given some practical knowledge of agriculture. Every girl must be able before she graduates to make a dress for herself and to cook a good meal. Every boy must be able to work in wood and iron. In addition they receive a thorough knowledge of the rudiments of an English education, and a careful training in morals and manners. Perhaps more important than anything else is the spirit of kindness toward others that the Hampton student gains. “Cantankerousness is worse than heterodoxy,” wrote General Armstrong. Neither students nor teachers are allowed to remain long unless tiiey can work with others. Hate, racial or individual, is excluded. Now, this kind of training produces three things. First, it develops character. The struggle toward self-sui)port, the regular hours of labor combined with study, the military drill, and the religious instruction unite to make strong char¬ acters of these men and women. In the second place, this training produces economic independence. No graduate of Hampton becomes a drag on the com¬ munity to which he goes. With his knowledge of agriculture and the trades he becomes a self-respecting and useful citizen. He is not only able to sustain him¬ self, but also to help others to self-support. Sixty-five i)er cent of those who have learned trades at Hampton are practicing or teaching them. Eighty-seven per cent of the school’s living graduates are known to be profitably employed. Many are leaders in business enter])rises ; 35 per cent are farmers, tradesmen, or part-time farmers, and a very large number are teachers of industries. We have now in almost every State of the South industrial schools carried on by graduates of Hampton. At the head of Tuskegee is Mr. Washington, Hampton’s most distinguished graduate. His brother, Mr. J. H. Washing¬ ton, superintendent of his industries ; Mr. Logan, his treasurer ; his discipli¬ narian, his head farmer, and a large company of other Hampton men and women have aided in building up this remarkable institution. In the third place, the Hampton training has produced young men and women of reasonable intelli¬ gence. While the great mass of our returned students have gone into the coun¬ try disti-icts, the leading colored city public schools in the State of Virginia are THE WOEK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 569 to-day in the hands of Hampton’s sons and daughters. Sixteen per cent have entered the professions, and a number have been graduated with honor from the highest institutions in the land, demonstrating tlie ability of the race to meet the hardest intellectual tests. I suppose most of you have read an article on “ The negro woman ” in a recent periodical. It told many sad truths about our sisters in black. It was kindly in spirit, but it showed little knowledge of the thousands and thousands of decent, pure negro homes in the South. One of the most important facts about the present situation is the ignorance of the average southern white man and woman in regard to the best class of negroes. The average southern white man seldom visits a negro church, does not go into his schools, does not read his newsi^apers, and knows little of the clean Christian negro homes that are growing up all around him. He knew both the good and bad negro in slavery ; now he knows mostly the bad. Perhaps you have seen that terrible book, The Negro a Beast. As a southern man said to me, “ The worst thing about that book is that the man who wrote it believed what he wrote.” Perhaps, as you have read that one-sided book. The Leopard's Spots, you have thought that the mass of the negroes were hateful and bitter. They are not, as southern men have often testified. There never was a kinder race. The great mass of them are making an earnest struggle out of the darkness into the light. When the Russian serfs were freed and education made compulsory, the schoolhouses were burned down, and when an endeavor was made to compel them to go to school the homes of the nobles began to burn. Contrast with this the attitude of the negro toward education. Every negro school in the South is crowded to-day. Hampton refused last year six times as many applicants as could be accepted. I could tell you of hundreds of negro jiarents who are denying them¬ selves the necessities of life in order to give their children an education. When you hear that the negroes are all bad and daily growing worse, will you remem¬ ber that in spite of all their difficulties the negroes have accumulated property since the war amounting to 1^300,000,000 in farms, houses, and various business establishments; that they have themselves raised toward their own education more than Ifl] 3,000,000 ; that they have accumulated in church property more than ^40,000,000, and in school property $15,000,000. When yon hear that they are hopelessly inmioral and criminal, will you remember that this great country of ours set them free without making any adequate iwovision for their physical, moral, or intellectual education? Rut you need concrete examples to help you to understand the work of Hamp¬ ton graduates and ex-students. I have asked to have placed in your seats a short story called ” fifiie Failure of Cunningham.” It is an account of a dull colored boy who was unable to make his way through the school, and was obliged to return to his home in the back country. It tells how one of his former teach¬ ers found him in a poor log schoolhouse and of the tremendous influence for good he exerted in his community. Will you take it home and read it? It will give you an idea of what hundreds of the dullest of Hampton's returned students have done. But let me give you a few illustrations of the service performed by more intelligent Hampton men and women. Last Monday I went to the home of two of our graduates on one of the side streets of Hampton. This couple have a comfortable frame house of six rooms, which they have paid for from their earnings. The husband has been a book¬ keeper in the school treasurer's office since his graduation in 1885. The wife, who was a graduate of the previous year, went back to her home in Georgia and taught for a year in a country school, spending her Saturdays in going from house to house and showing the people how to make their homes comfortable, 570 EDUCATIOIS' REPOET, 1904. and her Siuidaj^s in instructing old and young out of God’s Word. After a year of this work she returned to the town of Hampton and married the young man of whom I have spoken. Her home became, as do those of most of our gradu¬ ates, a sort of social settlement. Every week on Thui*sday a company of girls who were out at service gathered to learn how to cook and sew. Her girls’ club has grown from ten or twelve to over a hundred members, and her efforts to help the neighborhood in various ways have developed into real social settlement work. Her husband has built a clubhouse as a center for this work on the lot adjoining his own, and here, three days in a week, gather large classes in plain sewing, hemstitching, shirt-waist making, basketry, and cooking. A kindergar¬ ten class meets in a little upper room in her shed. A boys’ club has been started, and in the summer there is a class in gardening. A song service is held every Sunday. In all these activities she is assisted by three other Hampton gradu¬ ates, who give their services cheerfully. The head of the settlement keeps in touch with the white women who employ her girls, and assists in adjusting difficulties when they occur. She keeps her own house and cares for her three children, makes her own garden, and still finds time to help her neighbors make theirs. The whole community is cleaner and better because this young woman lives there. Work similar to this is being done by scores of Hampton women in Alrginia, the Carolinas, and the Black Belt of Alabama. The work of the husband of our Hampton settlement worker is no less impor¬ tant than her own. Soon after his graduation several of the graduates of the school joined with the people of the town to form a colored building and loan association. The young man of whom I am speaking became the secretary and mainstay of the association. It commenced business in 1889, with 12 stockhold¬ ers and 18 shares of stock. It has grown until now it has G36 stockholders, owning 2,212 shares, and a paid-in stock of $105,000, of which the colored people alone own $75,000. More than $200,000 has been loaned to colored people of the vicinity, more than 350 pieces of property have been acquired and homes built through its aid, and it has long been regarded as one of the safest financial insti¬ tutions in Hampton. It is difficult to estimate the influence of this one home of Hampton graduates. When I first went to Hampton twenty-four years ago I went into an evening class called the “ plucky class.” It was composed of boys who had worked all day in the sawmill or on the farm. The teacher was a Hampton graduate — the distinguished speaker of this evening. .Just what this one Hampton graduate has meant to this country, and the influence that he has had over his own race in teaching them kindness and patience and industry, can never be estimated. General Armstrong was right in saying that if Hampton had done nothing else than graduate Booker Washington it would have paid for itself. In Mr. Wash¬ ington's class was a small, thick-lipped negro boy from a back county. He had come with no money, and was working his way through the school by his labor in our sawmill. After graduation he went back to his home and took a school. The little building was soon too small for the crowds that came to him. He determined to enlarge it. This he did himself with the help of his boys, who worked Saturdays on the land in order to raise the money. After he had suc¬ ceeded in getting his own school in order he induced other Hampton boys and girls to come to his county as teachers. He built his own home and cultivated land. x\lmost all the colored people in his county were renters. He helped them to buy land and build homes. The churches were improved. The migra¬ tion from that county to Northern cities has been stopped. It is now more than five years since a negro has gone from that county to the penitentiary. Ninety per cent of its negro farmers own and manage their land. The relations THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 571 between the whites and blacks are of the best. Not only in bis own county, but tbrougb all of tide-water Virginia bas tbe influence of that man been felt, lie bas driven out tbe saloon from a number of counties, and bas helped to increase landholding, so that in thirty-three counties of tide-water Virginia more than 70 per cent of tbe negro farmers own and manage their land. In my earlj" days at Hampton I bad a class of negro preachers. They used to come from all tbe country around, spend tbe week at Hampton and go back to their homes to preach on Sunday. I tried to teach them the doctrine of mak¬ ing the Kingdom of God come here in better, cleaner homes. One of them became inspired with the idea of being a sort of “shepherd of Kingdom Come ” among his people. He had a little church one mile outside the city of Ports¬ mouth in Virginia. Here he started a model negro settlement. He bought thirty acres of land, divided it into building lots, and commenced to sell to colored peo¬ ple working in Norfolk and Portsmouth. When the settlement began, $500 would have bought all the property owned by colored men there. They now own over 125 buildings, costing from $350 to $2,500 each. Over 300 colored people live there, and there has never been an arrest nor has there been a saloon in the town. The morals and the order of the place are as good as anywhere in the South. The Hampton student did become “ the shepherd of Kingdom Come.” No other Hampton graduate, and perhaps no other Indian, has had more to do with the surveying and allotting of Indian lands than Thomas Wildcat Alford, an Absentee Shawnee, of Shav.mee, Okla. Beginning his career after graduating from Hampton in 1882 as a Government teacher, Mr. Alford has acted successively as interpreter, surveyor, allotting agent, real-estate agent, and farmer, gradually becoming the most influential Indian among the Shaw- uees. Acting first as axeman in the surveyor’s corps he soon rose to the position of compass man at $4 a day. He acted as allotment surveyor for the Shawnees, Kickapoos, and Sauk and Foxes, being also county surveyor for one year. In 1894 ^le was appointed chairman of the xibsentee Shawnee Business Committee, which has charge of all negotiations concerning Indian lands. He is also secretaiy of the general council appointed to decide questions of importance to the Shawnees, and has several times visited Washington on business for his people. Mr. Alford is at present acting as clerk at the Shawnee Agency and at the same time is cultivating a model farm, where he raises his own vegetables, fruits and meats. His neat frame house, his log kitchen, stable and sheds vcere built with his own hands. He has sent three sons to Hampton, one of whom was graduated last year. One Sunday a colored boy at Hampton named Sheppard went with me to establish a mission station at a place called Slabtovvii, a little out from the school. He gained there, as he afterwards said, his first idea of missionary work. After leaving Hampton he became a missionary of the Presbyterian Church, South, and was sent with a son of Judge Lapsley, a prominent Southern white man, to Luebo, a station 1,000 miles from the west coast of Africa, on a branch of the Congo. Both these missionaries became interested in the Bakiiba, who lived 50 miles farther inland but often passed their doors carrying ivory and rubber to the traders. Although the king of these people had forbidden all foreigners, on pain of death, to visit his territory, these missionaries decided to go to them. Sheppard learned their language ^rom the men who came to his door. The white missionary, Lapsley, died, but with much courage and tact Sheppard pushed his way into the Bakuba country. Because of his discoveries on that journej^ he was made a Fellow of the Rojml Geographical Society. Instead of being beheaded by the chief of the Bakuba, he was well received and given much power. He has built a large church where recently sixty converts 572 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. were baptized on one Sabbatb. A late number of Tbe Missionary said of him : “ lie not only builds churches and preaches the gospel and beautifies the land with broad avenues and boulevards, but, like Luke, he is also the beloved physi¬ cian. He is known, loved and reverenced by the natives far and wide.” Still another Hampton student, who went as a missionary to Liberia, not only preaches but has a large coffee farm and has been practicing the blacksmith’s trade which he learned at Hampton. One of his last letters tells of having just completed the only iron bridge ever built in Liberia. I have given you a very imperfect account of the results of Hampton’s work. Not only has it sent out between 7,000 and 8,000 negro and Indian students into every part of the South and West, but it has influenced the education of the whole country. The Government Indian industrial schools have been directly modeled after Hampton, and largely through its influence industrial training is being introduced into all the schools of the South. The chairman of the board of education of one of our large northern cities said in a public address that Hampton had done more to bring about the introduction of manual train¬ ing into the schools of his city than any other influence. The West Indies, too, are being influenced by Hampton, not only through the students who are being sent back there, but by the delegations that are sent from the islands to study its inethods. Former Hampton teachers have gone to General Armstrong’s island home, and the most important school in Honolulu is in their care. More important than the direct is the indirect influence of Hampton. In an admirable article in a recent mvmber of the Atlantic Monthly, Doctor Washington shows how industrial education, as started by General Armstrong at Hampton, has had the result of bringing together not only the whites and blacks of the South, but the whites of the North and South in an endeavor to work out this great prob¬ lem. The southern and general education boards would hardly have been possi¬ ble without it. At the opening of the present school year there were over 1,200 negro and Indian boys and girls receiving instruction on the Hampton grounds — 800 board¬ ers and 400 day scholars. Five hundred student-teachers were gathered from every part of the South in attendance upon its summer school of six weeks. Our annual expenses are $180,000, about $100,000 of which is provided for by interest on the endowment fund, on one-third of the land-scrip fund of the State of Virginia, the Slater fund, the Morrill Act fund, and an annual appropriation by Congress toward the support of 120 Indians. An appeal has to be made each year for $80,000 to meet the school’s current expenses. One-eighth of this amount has been provided for the last two years by the generous chairman of this meeting, Mr. Carnegie. The remaining $70,000, together with provision for the school’s permanent improvements, is given sums varying from $1 to $5,000. Several friends have given $1,000 a year for the last two years. Much of the time of the school’s officers, which ought to be given to the institution itself, has now to be spent in raising the necessary funds. Since General Arm¬ strong’s death in 1893 the school’s endowment has been increased from $360,000 to $1,200,000. It needs an endowment of $2,000,000. While it would still be obliged to appeal to the public, the strain of securing so large an amount each year would be removed. The increased cost of coal and provisions, together with the larger number of students, makes the present year an especially hard one. Seventy dollars pays the scholarship of a student for a single year. In a book called “ Twenty-two Years’ Work at Hampton ” there are given hundreds of such stories as I have told you of Hampton’s graduates. Mentioned in con¬ nection with these are the names of some of the best men and women of this country, who have made those lives possible. In General Armstrong’s “ Memo- THE WOEK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 573 randa ” is found this appeal : “Hampton must not go down. See to it, you who are true to the black and red children of the land, and to just ideas of education.” Mr. Caenegie. Now we come to the last speaker. What shall I say, or how introduce him to you? Fellow-slave of Epictetus and destined to be as renowned in history. Starting where he did I know of no man living who has traveled so far onward and upward. Read his memorable hook. Up from Slavery, and behold him to-day the recognized Moses of his race, who is lead¬ ing it up to a standard worthy of citizenship and the suffrage. Hereafter history is to tell of two Washingtons— one white, the other black ; both fathers of their people. It is with extreme pleasure I now present to you Booker Washington. ADDEESS OF DOCTOR WASHINGTON. The anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln and the presentation of the claims of the Hampton Institute furnish a fitting occasion to discuss the condL tion of my race. Several persons holding high official position have recently said that it does not pay, from any point of view, to educate the negro, and that all attempts at his education have so far failed to accomplish any good results. Except that these utterances come from official sources, they would have little claim to a place in a meeting of this character. But the Southern States, which out of their poverty are contributing rather liberally for the education of all the peo¬ ple, as well as individual and organized philanthropy throughout the country, have a right to know whether the negro is responding to the efforts they have made to place him upon a higher plane of civilization. It is not possible to improve the condition of any race until its mind is awakened and strengthened. Does the American negro desire to improve his mind, and what has been the result of his efforts? Will it pay to invest further money in this direction? In partially answering this question it is hardly fair to compare the progress of the American negro with that of the American white man, who in some unexplained way got thousands of years ahead of the negro in the arts and sciences of civilization. But, to get at the real facts and the real capability of the black man, let us compare for a moment the American negro with the negro in Africa, or the black man with the black man. As was recently suggested by Mr. Carnegie, in South Africa alone there are 5,000,000 black people who have never been brought, through school or other agencies, into contact with a higher civilization, in a way to have their minds or their ambitions strengthened or awakened. As a result, the industries of South Africa languish and refuse to prosper for lack of labor. The native black man refuses to labor, because he has been neglected. He has few wants and little ambition, and his crude and few wants may be satisfied by laboring one or two days out of the seven. In the southern part of the United States there are more than 8,000,000 of my race who, both by contact with the whites and by education in the home, in school, in church, have had their minds awakened and strengthened — have thus had their wants increased and multiplied many times. Hence, instead of a people in idleness, we have in the South a people who are anxious to work because they want education for their children ; they want land and houses, and churches, books, and papers. In a word, they want the highest and best in our civilization. Looked at, then, from the most material and selfish point of view, it has paid to awaken the negro's mind, and there should be no limit placed upon the development of that mind. Does the Amf^rican negro take advantage of opportunities to secure educa- 574 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. tion? Practically no sclioolbouse has been opened for the negro since the war that has not been filled. Often hungry and in rags, making sacrifices of which 3mu little dream, the negro youth has been determined to annihilate his mental darkness. With all his disadvantages the negro, according to official records, has blotted out 55.5 per cent of his illiteracy since he became a free man, while practically 95 per cent of the native Africans are illiterate. After years of civilization and opportunitj- in Spain, 68 per cent of the population are illiterate; in Italy, 38 per cent. In the average South American country about 80 per cent are illiterate, while after forty years the American negro has only 44.5 per cent of illiteracy to his debit. I have thus compared the progress of m.v race not with the highest civilized nations, for the reason that, in passing judgment upon us, the world too often forgets that, either consciously or otherwise, because of geographical or phj'sical proximity to the American white man, we are being compared with the ver.y highest civilization that exists. Having seen that the American negro takes advantage of every opportunity to secure an education' I think it will surprise some to learn to what an extent the race contributes toward its own education and works in sjnnpathetic touch Avith the whites at tlie South. In emphasizing this fact I use the testimony of the best southern white men. Says the State superintendent of education of Florida in one of his recent official reports : “ The folloAving figures are giA^en to shoAV that the education of the negroes of middle Florida (the black belt of Florida) does not cost the Avhite people of that section one cent.” In those eight black belt counties the total cost of the negro schools is $19,457. The total con¬ tributed by the negro in direct and indirect taxes amounted to $23,984, thus leaving a difference of $4,527 Avhich, according to the superintendent, Avent into Avhite schools. In Mississippi for the year ending in 1899, according to an eminent authority, the negroes had expended on their schools about 20 per cent of the total school fund, or a total of about $250,000. During the same year they paid tOAA’ard their OAvn education in poll taxes, State, county, and city taxes, and indirect taxes, about $280,000, or a surplus of about $30,000. So that, looked at from any point of view, it Avould seem that the negroes in that State are in a large measure paying for their own education. But all this has little to do Avith my main purpose, and that is to emphasize the fact that Avith all the negro is doing for himself, Avith all the Avhite people in the South are doing for themselves, and despite all that one race is doing to help the other, the present opportunities for education are AAmefully inadequate for both races. In the year 1877-78 the total expenditure for education in the ex-sla\^e States Avas a beggarly $2.61 per capita for Avhites and only $1.09 for blacks; on the same basis the United States Commissioner of Education reasons that for the year 1900-1901, $35,400,000 Avere spent for the education of both races in the South, of which $6,000,000 Aveiit to negroes, or $4.92 per capita for Avhites and $2.21 for blacks ; on the same basis, each child in Massachusetts has spent upon his education $22.35 and each one in NeAV York $20.53 yearly. From both a moral and religious point of view, what measure of education the negro has received has paid, and there has been no step backAvard in any State. Not a single graduate of the Hampton Institute or of the Tuskegee Insti¬ tute can be found to-day in any jail oi* State penitentiary. After making care¬ ful inquiry, I can not find a half dozen cases of a man or Avoman AA'ho has com¬ pleted a full course of education in any of our reputable institutions, like Hampton, Tuskegee, Fisk, or Atlanta, avIio are in prisons. The records of the South shoAV that 90 per cent of the colored people in prisons are Avithout knoAAd- edge of trades and 61 per cent are illiterate. This statement alone disproves the assertion that the negro groAA'S in crime as education increases. If the THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 575 negro at the North is more criminal than his brother at the South, it is because the North withholds from him the opportunity for employment which the South gives. It is not the educated negro who has been guilty of or even charged with crime in the South ; it is, as a rule, the one who has a mere smattering of education or is in total ignorance. While the negro may succeed in getting into the State prison faster, the white man in some inexplainable manner has a way of getting out faster than the negro. To illustrate: The official records of Vir¬ ginia for a year show that one out of every three and one-half white men were freed from prison by executive clemency, and that only one out of every fourteen negroes received such clemency. In Louisiana it is one to every four and one- half white men and one to every forty-nine negroes. So that when this feature is considered matters are pretty well evened up between the races. As bearing further upon the tendency of education to improve the morals of the negro, and therefore to prolong his life, no one will accuse the average New York insurance company of being guided by mere sentiment toward the negro in placing its risks ; with the insurance company it is a question of cold busi¬ ness. A few months ago the chief medical examiner for the largest industrial insurance company in America stated that af^r twenty years’ experience and observation his company had found that the negro who was intelligent, who worked regularly at a trade or some industry and owned his home was as safe an insurance risk as a white man in the same station in life. Not long ago a Southern white man residing in the town of Tiiskegee, who represents one Of the largest and most wealthy accident and casualty companies in New York, wrote to his company to the effect that while he knew his com¬ pany refused to insure the ordinary, ignorant colored man, at the Tuskegee Institute there were some 150 officers and instructors who were persons of edu¬ cation and skill, with property and character, and that he, a Southern wffiite man, advised that they be insured on the same terms as other races ; and within a week the answer came back : “ Insure without hesitation every negro on the Tuskegee Institute grounds of the type you name.” The fact is that almost every insurance company is now seeking the business of the educated negro. If education increased the risk, they would seek the ignorant negro rather than the educated one. As bearing further upon the effect of education upon the morals of the negro during the last forty years, let us go into the heart of the black belt of Mississippi and inquire of Alfred Holt Stone, a large and intelli¬ gent cotton planter, as to the progress of the race. Mr. Stone says : The last census shows that the negro constitutes 87.G per cent of the pop^ila- tion of the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta. Yet we hear of no black incubus; we have had few midnight assassinations, and fewer lynchings. The violation by a negro of the person of a white woman is with us an unknown crime ; nowffiere else is the line marking the social separation of the two racfes more rigidly drawn ; nowhere are the relations between the two more kindly. V\^ith us race riots are unknown, and we Jiave but one negro problem, though that constantly confronts us, how to secure more negroes. There are few higher authorities on the progress of the negro than .Joel Chandler Harris, of the Atlanta Constitution, of “ Uncle Remus ” fame. Mr. Harris had opportunity to know the negro before the wai% .and he has followed his progress closely in freedom. In a printed statement two weeks ago Mr. Harris says : In spite of all, however, the condition of the negro has been growing better. We can not fairly judge a race, or a country, or a religious institution, or a social organization, or society itself, nay, not the Republic in which we take pride, unless we measure it by the standard set up by the men who are its best representatives. 576 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. We are in such a furious hurry. We are placed in a position of expecting a race but a few years from inevitable ignorance, imposed on it by the conditions of slavery, to make the most remarkable progress that the world has ever heard of, and when we discover that in the nature of things this is impossible, we shake our heads sadly and are ready to lose heart and hope. The point I desire to make is that the overv/helming majority of the negroes in all parts of the South, especially in the agricultural regions, are leading sober and industrious lives. A temperate race is bound to be industri¬ ous, and the negroes are temperate when compared with the whites. Even in the towns the majority of them are sober and industrious. The idle and crim¬ inal classes among them make a great show in the police court records, but right here in Atlanta the respectable and decent negroes far outnumber those who are on the lists of the police as old or new offenders. I am bound to con¬ clude from what I see about me, and from what I know of the race else¬ where, that the negro, notwithstanding the late start he has made in civiliza¬ tion and enlightenment, is capable of making himself a useful member in the communities in which he lives and moves, and that he is becoming more and more desirous of conforming to all the laws that have been enacted for the pro¬ tection of society. In connection with this testimony from Joel Chandler Harris, may I add, no one has a right to pass final j^^lgment upon the moral status of a race unless he has visited the homes, the intellectual gatherings, the schools and churches, where he can observe something of the higher life of that people. Our moral progress must not be judged by the man on the street. You may not know it, but the moral lines are beginning to be as strictly drawn in my race as in yours, and it must not be forgotten that we are as proud of our race as jmu are of yours, and that the more progress we make in education the more satisfaction do we find in our homes and social circles. We are to live in the South, and sympathy between the races is vital, and we must convince the ‘southern white people of the value of educating the negro, and this we are doing, according to the testimony of southern people themselves. Some time ago I sent out letters to representative southern men, covering each ex-slave State, asking them, judging by their observation in their own com¬ munities, what effect education had upon the negro. To these questions I received 13(3 replies, as follows : 1. Has education made the negro a more useful citizen? Answer. Yes, 121 ; no, 4 ; unanswered, 11. 2. Has it made him more economical and more inclined to acquire wealth? Answer. Yes, 98 ; no, 14 ; unanswered, 24. 3. Does it make him a more valuable workman, especially where skill and thought are required? Answer. Yes, 132 ; no, 2 ; unanswered, 2. 4. Do well-trained, skilled negi’o workmen find any difficulty in securing work in your community? Answer. No, 117; yes, 4; unanswered, 15. 5. Are colored men in business patronized by the whites in your community? Answer. Yes, 92 ; no, 9 ; unanswered, 35. (The large number of cases in which this question was not answered is due to scarcity of business men.) G. Is there any opposition to the colored people’s buying land in your com¬ munity? Answer. No, 128 ; yes, 3 ; unanswered, 5. 7. Has education improved the morals of the black race? Answer. Yes, 97 ; no, 20 ; unanswered, 19. 8. Has it made his religion less emotional and more practical? Answer. Yes, 101 ; no, IG ; unanswered, 19. 9. Is it, as a rule, the ignorant or the educated who commit crime? THE WORK AKD INFLUENCE OF HAMPTON. 577 Answer. Ignorant, 115; educated, 3; unanswered, 17. 10. Does crime grow less as education increases among the colored people? Answer. Yes, 102 ; no, 19 ; unanswered, 15. 11. Is the moral growth of the negro equal to his mental growth? Answer. Yes, 55 ; no, 40 ; unanswered, 35. But it has been said that the negro proves economically valueless in propor¬ tion as he is educated. Let us see. All will agree that the negro in Virginia, for example, began life forty years ago in complete poverty, scarcely owning clothing or a day's food. Right here I lay emphasis upon conditions in Vir¬ ginia for the reason that the Hampton Institute, whose claims Ave are consider¬ ing, is located in that State, and is the oldest and most Avidely knoAvn of all our schools. From an economic point of vioAAg Avhat has been accomplished for Virginia alone largely through the example and Avork of the graduates of Hamp¬ ton and other large schools in that State? The reports of the State auditor sliOAV that the negro to-day OAvns at least one tAventy-sixth of the total real estate in that CommoiiAvealth, exclusive of his holdings in toAvns and cities, and that in the counties east of the Blue Ridge Mountains he OAvns one-sixteenth. In Middlesex County he OAvns one-sixth; in Hanover, one-fourth. In Georgia the official records sIioav that, largely through the influence of educated men and women from Atlanta schools and others, the negroes added last year $1,520,000 to their taxable property, making the total amount upon Avhich they pay taxes in that State alone $10,700,000. From nothing to $10,000,000 in one State in forty years does not seem to prove that education is hurting the race very much. Relative progress has taken place in Alabama and other Southern States. Every man or Avoman Avho graduates from the Hamilton or Tuskegee institutes, Avho has become intelligent and skilled in any of the industries of the South, is not only in demand at an increased salary, on the part of my race, but there is equal demand from the white race. One of the largest manufacturing concerns in Birmingham, Ala., keeps a standing order at the Tuskegee Institute to the effect that it Avill employ every man who graduates from our foundry department. When the South had a Avholly ignorant and Avholly slave negi‘o population she produced about 4,000,000 bales of cotton ; iioaa" she has a Avholly free and partly educated negro population and the South produces nearly 10,000,000 bales of cotton, besides more food products than Avere ever groAvn in its history. In the making of these statements it should not be overlooked that it is not the negro alone Avho produces cotton, but it is his labor that produces most of it. And while he may pay a small direct tax, his labor makes it mighty convenient for others to pay direct taxes. Judged purely from an economic or industrial standpoint, the education of the negro is paying, and Avill pay more largely in the future in proportion as educational opportunities are increased. A careful examination shoAvs that of the men and Avomen trained at the Hampton and Tuskegee sch.ools not 10 per cent can be found in idleness at any season of the year. They have learned the beauty of Avork, the disgrace of idleness. But my i-eal object, I beg to repeat, is not to enter into a controversy on this or that point of the progress of the race, but to emphasize the fact that, Avith all the negro is doing to help himself, with all that the southern Avhite people are doing, that the opportunities for education for my race are inadequate almost beyond description, and the same may be said of the poor white people in certain sections of the South. Years ago some one asked an eminent clergyman in Boston if Christianity is a failure. The reverend doctor replied that it had never been tried. When people are bold enough to suggest that the education of the negro is a failure, I reply ED 1904 M - 37 578 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. tlia.t it has never been tried. The fact is that 44.5 per cent of the colored people in this country to-day are illiterate. A very large proportion of those classed as educated have the merest smattering of knowledge, which means practically no education. Can the negro child get an education in school four months and out of school eight months? Can the white child of the South, who receives $4.92 per capita for education, or the black child, who receives $2.21, be said to be given an equal chance in the battle of life, or has education been tried on them? The offi¬ cial records in Louisiana, for instance, show tha.t less than one-fourth of the negro children of school age attend any school during the year. This one-fourth was in school for a period of less than five months, and each negro child of school age in the State had spent on him for education last year but $1.89, while each child of school age in the State of New York had spent on him $20.53. In the former slave States 90 per cent of the negro children of school age did not attend school for six months during the j'ear 1900. I would seek to convince you that wherever the race is given an opportunity for education it takes advantage of that opportunity, and that the change can be seen in the improved material, educational, moral, and religious condition of the masses. Contrast two tovmships, one in Louisiana, where the race has had little chance, with one in Farmville, Ya., says the United States Bulletin of the De¬ partment of Labor. In the Louisiana township only 10 per cent attend school, and they attend for but four months in a year, and 71 per cent of the people are illiterate. And as a result of this ignorance and neglect we find only 50 per cent of the people living together as man and wife are legally married. Largely through the leadership of Hampton graduates 56 per cent of the black children in Farmville, Ya., attend either public or private school from six to eight months. There is only 39 per cent of illiteracy. Practically all the people living together as man and wife are legally married, and in the whole community only 15 per cent of the births are illegitimate. But the vital point which I want to emphasize is the disposition of the negro to exercise the self-help in the building up of his own schools in connection with the State public school system. Wherever we send out from Hampton, Tuskegee, or any of our southern colleges a negro leader of proper character, he shows the people in most cases how to extend the school term beyond the few months pro¬ vided for by the State. Out of their poverty the Southern States are making a tremendous effort to extend and improve the school term each year, but while this improvement is taking place the negro leaders of the character to which I have referred must be depended upon largely to keep alive the spark of educa¬ tion. But when all this has been said, the question as to the elevation of the black man goes deeper than the interests of the Hampton Institute, deeper than the interests of a single race, deeper than the interests of the South. In the last analysis it means that we shall have in this country either a democratic form of government or a mere sham and semblance of the same. It now seems settled that the great body of our people are to reside for all time in the southern portion of the United States. Since this is true there is no more helpful and patriotic service than to help cement a friendship between the two races that shall be manly, honorable, and permanent. In this work of molding and guiding a public sentiment that shall forever maintain peace and good will between the races on terms commendable to each, it is on the negro who comes out of our universities, colleges, and industrial schools that we must largely depend. Few people realize how, under the most difficult and trying cir¬ cumstances, during the last forty years, it has been the educated negro v/ho counseled patience, self-control, and thus averted a war of races. Every negro THE WORK AHD INFLUENCE OF HAMPTOH. 579 going out from oiir institutions properly educated becomes a link in tlie chain that shall forever bind the two races together in all the essentials of life. Finally, reduced to its last a^nalysis, there are but two questions that consti¬ tute the problem of this country so far as the black and white races are con¬ cerned. The answer to the one rests with my people, the other with the white race. For my race one of its dangers is that it may grow impatient and feel that it can get upon its feet by artificial and superficial efforts rather than by the slower but surer process, which means one step at a time through all the constructive grades of industrial, mental, moral, and social development which all races have had to follow which have become independent and strong. I would counsel : We must be sure that we shall make our greatest progress by keeping our feet on the earth, and by remembering that an inch of progress is worth a yard of complaint. For the white race the danger is that in its prosperity and power it may forget the claims of a weaker people, may forget that a strong race, like an individual, should put its hand upon its heart and ask if it were placed in similar circumstances how it would like the world to treat it ; that the stronger race may forget that in proportion as it lifts up the poorest and weak¬ est, even by a hair’s breadth, it strengthens and ennobles itself. All the negro asks is that the door which rewards industry, thrift, intelligence, and character be left as wide open for him as for the foreigner who constantly comes to our country. More than this he has no right to request. Less than this a republic has no right to withhold. Neither must the nation grow impatient and faithless. It must remember that during the last forty years the South has been passing through a tremen¬ dous industrial and social crisis. This is true of the white race, equally true of the black race. The change from slavery to freedom could not be accomplished without mistakes on both sides, without each race going to extremes. Time, the great leveler, will exercise a modifying, a sobering influence upon all concerned, and in all proper directions. With all his faults the negro rarely betrays a trust or manifests a spirit of in¬ gratitude. Whenever he has been called upon to render service in behalf of his State or nation such service has been ungrudgingly given. Further — whether in ignorance or in intelligence, whether in slavery or in freedom — the negro has al¬ ways been true to the Stars and Stripes and the best interests of the nation, and no black-skinned citizen has ever lifted his hand to strike down the Chief Magis¬ trate of the nation or raised the red flag of anarchy. For every dollar that is put into our education by the North or South through such agencies as the Hamp¬ ton Institute the race will more than repay bj^ a life of industry, intelligence, high Christian character, and in helpful friendship between the races; and be¬ cause of our elevation it shall be said of the South : “ The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad, and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose.” 1 i I ■J 1 i 1 CHAPTER VII. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND THE LIQUOR QUESTION.» Contents: (1) Report on temperance, physiology, and hygiene in the schools of Connec¬ ticut. — (2) Report of the New York State central committee on the study of physi¬ ology and hygiene. — (3) The battle against alcohol in the United States. — (4) Tem¬ perance instruction in Prussia. — (o) Report on temperance instruction in western Massachusetts. REPORT ON TEMPERANCE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE IN CON¬ NECTICUT SCHOOLS. [From the Report of the Connecticut Board of Education, 1002, pp. 191-200.] The law relaliiig to the teaching of physiology and hygiene was modified by the legislature of 1001. The law prior to 1001 and the law of LAW 1803-1001. Section 1. The nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and special instruc¬ tion as to their effects upon the human system, in connection with the several divisions of the subject of physiology and hygiene, shall he included in the branches of study taught in the common or public schools, and shall be studied and taught as other like required branches, by the use of graded text-books in the hands of pupils 1901 are given ; LAW OF 1901. Section 1. The eff'ects of alcohol and narcotics on health, and especially on char¬ acter, shall be taught in connection with hygiene, as a regular branch of study to all pupils above the third grade in all graded public schools except public high schools. Sec. 2. Suitable text-books of physiology and hygiene, which explain the effects of alcohol and narcotics on the human system, ° The following information relating to temperance instruction has appeared in recent Reports of the Commissioner of Education : Report of 1808-99: “Antialcoholic instruction in French schools” (Vol. I, chap. 21, pp. 1098-1103). Report of 1890-1900: “Alcoholic physiology and superintendence,” by Prof. W. O. Atwater (Vol. I, chap. 8, pp. 584-002). — “The role of the school-teacher in the struggle against alcoholism,” by A. Sluys, director of Brussels (Belgium) Normal School (chap. 9, pp. 003-014). — “Temperance physiology,” by Mrs. Mary Hunt (chap. 21, pp. 1277- 1280). Report of 1901 : (1) “Is there too much temperance matter in the school physiologies?” by Mary II. Hunt. — (2) Report of a committee of the Department of Superintendence. — (3) “Temperance teaching and recent legislation in Connecticut,” by Supt. W. B. Fer¬ guson, of Middletown, Conn. — (4) Temperance instruction in Nebraska. — (5) “The mod¬ ern subjection of science and education to a propaganda,” by Prof. Wm. T. Sedgwick, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — (0) “The will of the people, not of an oli¬ garchy,” by Mary H. Hunt. — (7) Alcoholic physiology in school. — (8) Enforced temper¬ ance among railway employees. — (9) Report of a committee of the Now York State Science Teachers’ Associrdion (Yol. I, chap. 21, pp. 1027-1050). Report of 1902 : Text of. the laws of the several Slates relating to temperance instruc¬ tion (Vol. I, chap. 0, pp. 315-338). 581 582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. where other branches are thus studied, and orally in the case of pupils unable to read, and by all pupils in all schools supported wholly or in part by public money. Sec. 2. The text-hooks used for the in¬ struction required by the preceding section for intermediate and primary pupils shall give at least one-fifth of their space to the consideration of the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and the hooks used in the highest grade of graded schools shall contain at least 20 pages of matter relating to this subject ; hut when this subject is massed wholly or in part in a chapter or chapters at the end of a hook, such hook shall not he considered as meet¬ ing the requirements of this law. Sec. 3. It shall he the duty of all school visitors to report to the comptroller if the provisions of this act have not been com¬ plied with, as specified in the preceding sections ; and any failure thus reported, or otherwise satisfactorily proven, shall he deemed sufficient cause for withholding the amount of school dividend which such dis¬ trict or districts are otherwise entitled to receive. Sec. 4. No certificates shall hereafter he granted to any person to teach in the pub¬ lic schools of Connecticut who has not passed a satisfactory examination in physi¬ ology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects and nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics upon the human system. Statement of the Committee on Temperance Legislation Appointed by the Connecticut Council of Education at its February Meeting, 1901 ; Printed AND Distributed at the Request of the Council. To the School Superintendents, Principals, and Teachers of Connecticut : So fur as the iiiemiiers of this committee know, there has been little or no opposition among the school people of Connecticut to giving the children in the public schools a reasonable amount of instruction in temperance physiology. There had been, however, from the time the statute of 1893 was passed until it was repealed, increasing opposition to inflicting on the children of the State the kind and amount of instruction required by the statute. STEPS TAKEN TO SECURE A NEW STATUTE. The widespread opposition to some features of the law became apparent, in a measure, at a meeting of the council of education, held in New Haven, early in the present year. So pronounced did the hostility to some requirements of the statute appear that Rev. J. II. James, secretary of the Connecticut Temperance Union, suggested that the school people and temperance people should get to¬ gether and see if they could not come to some agreement, and if it seemed best, ask for modifications in the law. The suggestion was acted upon, and this com¬ mittee was appointed to confer with representatives of the temperance organiza¬ tions of the State. Those appointed to represent the temperance people were Mrs. Cornelia B. Forbes, of Hartford, president of the Connecticut W. C. T. U. ; Mrs. Anna Kerr, of Norwich; Rev. J. H. James, secretary of the Connecticut Temperance Union; Mr. E. L. C. Ilohenthal, of the Sons of Temperance, and shall he used in grades above the fifth in all graded public schools except public high schools. Sec. 3. The provisions of sections one and two of this act shall apply, in un¬ graded public schools, to classes corre¬ sponding to. the grades designated in said sections. Sec. 4. All normal schools and teachers’ training schools shall give instruction in the subjects prescribed in section one of this act, and in the best methods of teach¬ ing such subjects. Sec. 5. No certificate to teach in grades above the third shall he granted to any per¬ son who has not passed a satisfactory ex¬ amination in the subjects prescribed in sec¬ tion one of this act. Sec. 6. If it shall he satisfactorily proven to the comptroller that any town or dis¬ trict, having pupils above the third grade, has failed to meet the requirements of this act, such failure shall he deemed sufficient cause for withholding, in whole or in part, school dividends which such town or district would otherwise he entitled to receive. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 583 Rev. Walter J. Slianley, of Hartford, president of the Connecticut Catholic Total Abstinence Society. A conference was held at which nothing was accomplished, but later, by each party making concessions, a compromise was effected and a bill agreed upon and introduced as a substitute for a more radical measure that was already pending in committee. Two hearings were given by the committee on education of the legislature. The bill was supported by Principals W. I. Twitchell and W. F. Gordy, of Hartford ; Mrs. Anna Pollard, superintendent of schools, Southington ; Dr. E. H. Forbes, superintendent of schools, Torrington ; W. H. Hail, superintendent of schools, West Hartford; Principal George H. Tracy, Portland; Rev. .J. H. James, secretary of the Connecticut Temperance Union; ITof. William North Rice, of Wesleyan University ; W. B. Ferguson, superin¬ tendent of schools, Middletown. Many others were present ready to support the measure. Mrs. Cornelia B. Forbes, president of the Connecticut W. C. T. U., stated that her association accepted the bill in good faith, and would be loyal to its agreement with the teachers of the State, a promise which was faithfully kept under most trying circumstances. A. petition, signed by superintendents and principals representing nearly two thousand teachers and seventy thousand pupils, and urging the passage of the bill was presented, and letters from Presi¬ dent Hadle3% of Yale, and President Raymond, of Wesleyan, favoring the measure, were offered in its support. The bill was opposed by Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, national and international superintendent of the department of scien¬ tific temperance instruction of the W. C. T. U., who appeared before the commit¬ tee on education, two or three clergymen of the State, and several members of the advisory committee of the National W. C. T. U., who sent a circular letter to every member of the general assembly, urging the defeat of the measure. Other means for defeating the bill were resorted to by its opponents, but it passed both house and senate without a word of opposition from any member. THE NEW STATUTE. The provisions of the new law are given above. HOW THE NEW STATUTE DIFFERS FROM THE OLD ONE. By comparing the foregoing statute with that of 1893 it will be seen that the new law differs from the old one chiefly in not prescribing instruction in tem¬ perance physiology in grades below the fourth year of school nor in the high school ; in not requiring the use of text-books in grades below the sixth, and in not requiring in any grade the use of books that devote any definite amount of space to a consideration of the nature and effects of alcohol and other narcotics on the human body. The books used must, however, be “ suitable ” books and must explain the effects of narcotics on the human system. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In securing these changes in the law, changes made in the interests of tem¬ perance and morality, too much credit can not be given to those broad-minded temperance people of the State who showed a spirit of conciliation and an invin¬ cible loyalty to their agreement under circumstances that would have severely tested the courage and faithfulness of any except those who place duty before policy, honor before favor, and the interests of the children before the pleasure or censure of anybody. This committee believes this to be the first instance of the school people and temperance people of any State coming together in support of a temperance educational bill. It is an evidence of the good sense of both parties. 584 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. RESPONSiniLTTY OF SCHOOL OFFICIALS AND TEACHERS, It now remains for the school officials and teachers of the State to live up to the letter and spirit of the law by endeavoring to impress on their children and youth the principles of temperance and of temperate living. Unless this respon¬ sibility is fully met we shall fail to prove true to the agreement clearly implied in our support of the bill which has become a law. We should all see to it that our fidelity to that promise is not surpassed by the loyalty which we admired so much in the temperance people. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. In proving true to our agreement we shall also be loyal to the highest inter¬ ests of our pupils. It is important that all children shall become familiar, before leaving school, with at least the primary laws of health. Such knowledge is an all-essential part of a rational education. Herbert Spencer, in his epoch-making discussion of “ Education — Intellectual, moral, and physical,” says, in discuss¬ ing the value of a knowledge of physiology, “ We infer that, as vigorous health and its accompanying high spirits are larger elements of happiness than any other things whatsoever, the teaching how to maintain them is a teaching that yields in moment to no other whatever.” ” For complete living it is necessary not only that sudden annihilations of life shall be warded off, but also that there shall be escaped the incapacities and slow annihilation which unwise habits entail. As, without health and energy, the industrial, the parental, the social, and all other activities become more or less impossible, it is clear that this sec¬ ondary kind of direct self-preservation is only less important than the primary kind, and that knowledge tending to secure it should rank very high.” Such knowledge the study of physiology and hygiene gives, and we fail to do our duty as teachers if we deny to our pupils this information which affects life so vitally. We do not assert that knowledge of the laws of health insures correct habits in every case, but we do assert most confidently that such knowl¬ edge, acquired in early life, renders evil habits less likely in any case. “As the laws of health,” said Herbert Spencer, “ must be recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of such knowledge must precede a more rational living, come when that may.” “ If fatigue of body or brain were in every case followed by desistance; if the oppression produced by a close atmos¬ phere always led to ventilation; if there were no eating without hunger, or drinking without thirst, then would the system be but seldom out of working order.” But this is far from the case, as we all know, and therefore an acquaintance with the fundamental principles of physiology and the primary laws of health is of very great imjmrtance. TEMPERANCE. The term temperance in its broad signification relates to the proper use of all the powers of mind, soul, and body. It is opposed to excess of every kind. In this broad sense temperance should be assiduously cultivated. No day passes without some incident happening on the way to school, in the school yard, or schoolroom that furnishes an excellent opportunity for enforcing lessons of tem¬ perance. Every cruel or unkind word, every exhibition of bad temper, of greedi¬ ness, selfishness, or jealousy, of rashness or timidity, is a violation of temper¬ ance. But it is evident that in this sense temperance bears no closer relation to physiology and hygiene than to other subjects, and to none is the relation likely to be so close as it is to environment out of school. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 585 RELATION OF NARCOTICS. TO PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. In a narrower sense, However, temperance relates to abstinence from the use of alcoholic liquors and other narcotics. In this sense, it bears a very close re¬ lation to physiology and hygiene. The term physiology relates more especially to the anatomy and functions of the various organs, while the term hygiene re¬ lates to the care of those organs, the preservation of health. Narcotics often have a serious effect upon health. It is evident, therefore, that a consideration of the effects of narcotics on the human body may properly come under the subject of hygiene. lHrORT.4.NCE OF THE SUBJECT. The importance of any branch of instruction is accurately measured by the assistance it can give toward complete living. Measured by this standard, instruction concerning the effects of alcohol and other narcotics on the human system is very important. By their deteriorating and destructive effects on the bodily organs, often causing disease and shortening life; by their indirect effects on mind and morals, often undermining both and causing crime and unhappiness, narcotics are a curse to the human race. I’heir effects are felt to some extent by the innocent as well as the guilty. But unless warned against the terrible evils that often follow their use, the innocent of to-day may become the guilty of to-morrow. Teachers should, therefore, warn and endeavor to fortify their children and youth against the temptations and dangers to which they may be exposed. INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY GRADES. The law does not require the teaching of physiology and hygiene in primary grades, but courses in nature study and elementary science will generally in¬ clude more or less of such instruction. Teachers of these grades should give their pupils any needed warning against eiil habits, especially against the smoking of cigarettes. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 1. This committee recommend that the principal topics under physiology and hygiene be taught at least twice during the course, once orally or with books as may be preferred, and once with text-books. Of course the teaching should be more exhaustive and critical in the higher grades. While the statute does not specify that text-books shall be used by pupils, it is strongly recommended that all pupils above the fifth grade make a thorough study of at least one text-book of physiology. 2. While it is assumed that by far the greater part of the time will be devoted to other topics of physiology and hygiene, the temperance lessons should not be slighted. They should be carefully planned and impressively taught. Unless the teacher feels a deep interest in the subject, and in saving the boys and girls from lives of unhappiness and possible crime, the instruction will have little effect. Perfunctory teaching of this subject is likely to be valueless or posi¬ tively harmful. 3. Narcotics should be taught chiefly in connection with dietetics and the nervous system. 4. In teaching the dangers attending the use of alcoholic liquors, emphasis should be placed upon the power alcohol has of creating an increasing appetite for itself, until, perhaps, the victim has lost all self-control and become a slave to an appetite “ stronger than love for parents, wife, or children ; stronger than 586 EDUCATION EEPOET, J904. desire of respect or dread of poverty or ^ridicule; an appetite terrible in its torments and never to be satisfied in its demands.” Show the children how temptations often arise, and endeavor to fortify their wills against them by creating a desire to lead lives of respectability and nsefnlness, more than by attempting to frighten them. 5. State the facts plainly and impressively, but guard against exaggeration. Truth is mightier than falsehood. “A serious mistake is made when the sus¬ picion is aroused that an effort is made to establish a case rather than to ascer¬ tain the truth.” G. Select illustrations that do not grate too harshly on the sensitive natures of children. SOME THINGS TO TEACH. The following topics are not intended to be exhaustive, and yet they suggest the points wdiicli should be most strongly emphasized in teaching temperance. Pupils should be taught: 1. The source of alcohol. 2. The two classes of alcoholic liquors: (o) Fermented — cider, wdnes, beer, ale; (h) Distilled — brandy, wdiisky, gin, rum. 3. That alcohol is a harmful drink, because often (o) it injures the body; (h) it injures the mind; (c) it injures the morals; (d) it decreases one’s chances of succeeding in life; (e) through its powder of creating an increasing appetite for itself it causes intemperance, wdth all the frightful results that follow. It is not to be understood or taught that alcohol in all quantities and in all cases produces all or any of the foregoing effects, but that it has a tendency to produce them and wall abvvays succeed, if sufficient quantities are taken, and if other conditions are sufficiently favorable. 4. In connection with the nervous system teach (a) that alcohol in sufficient quantities temporarily paralyzes the nerves that control the voluntary muscles and thus causes drunkenness; (h) that in sufficiently large quantities it tempo¬ rarily paralyzes the brain, causing unconsciousness and sometimes death; (c) that it is a potent cause of hereditary defects. . The teacher and pupils should trace the results of these primary effects, such as the loss of employment, health, self-respect and the respect of others, unhap¬ piness, poverty, and death. o. Teach that the use of tobacco (a) may retard the grovrth of the young body and decrease its strength; (f>) sometimes makes the young intellectually lazy, w’eak, and dull; (c) often has a harmful effect on the nervous system, sometimes producing serious disorders; (d) may interfere wdth digestion; (e) creates a strong appetite for itself and often makes a man a slave to it — • many try to leave off its use, but only a few succeed; (f) frequently leads its user into the company of those who are addicted to the use of alcoholic liquors and thus subjects him to dangerous temptations; (g) its use involves great expense without any valuable return; (h) tobacco chewnng is a filthy habit, and smoking is offensive to many; (?) many business men wall not employ boys W’ho are cigarette smokers. 6. Teach briefly the danger of using opium, morphine, chloral, and cocaine. 7. Teach the importance of practicing temperance in all things. 8. By means of biography, the testimony of local physicians, employers of labor, prominent men of the to^nl, and those holding exalted positions, impress upon the children the fact that temperance brings that strength of body, clear¬ ness of mind, self-control, respect, and confidence of others w^hich are necesssary to success in life. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 587 SOME THINGS NOT TO TEACH. 1. There are questions connected with the food value of alcohol and with alcohol considered as a poison which have not yet been answered to the entire satisfaction of leading scientists, and the public school-teacher will do well to omit all discussion of them. There is enough that is known about alcohol to condemn its use as a beverage. 2. Do not teach that an appetite for alcohol or tobacco is commonly inherited. If such cases exist they are very rare. Certain physical v/eaknesses which have been caused by the use of narcotics may doubtless be inherited, and such weaknesses may render their possessor more susceptible to the alcohol or tobacco habit. Teach this. 3. Do not teach that tobacco creates an appetite for alcohol, but that one bad habit often leads to another, and, therefore, the user of tobacco is more likely to become a user of alcoholic liquors. IL LU S TR ATT V E EXPERT M ENTS. Guard against using illustrative experiments which convey wrong impres¬ sions. For instance, because pure alcohol will harden many animal and vege¬ table substances placed in it by extracting water from them, it does not follow that all alcoholic liquors, as usually taken, have so great an effect on those substances in the stomach. AYhen such liquors are drunk, the stomach pours out an abundance of gastric juice to further dilute the alcohol, and thus greatly lessens the power of the alcohol to retard digestion. Alcoholic liquors tend to cause a waste of gastric juice and to weaken the stomach. CHARTS AND BOOTHS. Pictorial illustrations appeal strongly to children. Facts which make little or no impression when stated in words often produce a lasting impression when represented to the eye by means of a striking picture. 1. Charts which show the comparative cost of liquors and the food or schools of the country are suggestive. Charts which show the effects of alcohol on the stomach should be used with caution, especially those charts that are repulsive to sensitive children. 2. Books. — We know of no physiologies published in this country for primary or grammar grades that are satisfactory. Some books give an undue propor¬ tion of space to temperance matters, and some have not been revised and brought up to date. Under the circumstances, therefore, and until satisfactory books are published, care should be taken to correct or omit ail misleading state¬ ments in the books used, but in making corrections great care should be taken not to convey the impression that an argument is being made in favor of even the moderate or occasional use of narcotics. It is hoped that books which are scientifically accurate and at the same time strong but reasonably brief in their temperance features will soon be published. CONCLUSION. While this committee can not indorse the view that in teaching physiology and hygiene “ temperance should be the chief topic,” while they believe that temperance should be presented as only one of many topics under the subject of hj'giene, and that much the greater part of the time should be given to other matters, they are unanimous in the belief that all the children should be thoroughly instructed in the evil effects of narcotics on the human body and 588 EDUCATION KEPGKT, 1904. character as well as on society and the state. They earnestly hope, therefore, that all teachers in Connecticut will give to this subject the attention Vvdiich its importance demands. W. B. Ferguson, P. II. Beede, W. I. Twitciiell, F. A. Verplanck, Committee. REPORT OF THE NEW YORK STATE CENTRAL COMMITTEE AS TO THE RESULTS OP THE STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, BEING A REPLY TO THE STATE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION. NEW YORK STATE CENTRAL COMMITTEE ON SCIENTIFIC TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. OFFICERS. Chairman, Rev. David .1. Bui-rell, D. D. First vice-chairman, Rev. .T. II. Darlington, Rh. D. Second vice-chairman, Hon. William T. ATardvvell. Secretai-y and treasurer, Alfred L. Manierre. Baptists : Rev. Robert S. MacAi-thiir, D. D. Rev. James C. Fernaid. Rev. r. S. Henson. Congregationalists : Rev. Lather R. Dyott. Rev. Edward N. Packard, D. D. Rev. Henry A. Stimson, D. D. Friends : Henry W. Wilbur. Hebrews : Rev. F. De Sola Mendes, D. D. Methodists : Rev. James R. Day, LL.D., Chancellor Syracuse University. Rev. James Clayton Howard. Rev. W. P. Odell, D. D., Ph. D. Itev. I. D. Van Valkenburg, D. D. Francis E. Baldwin, Esq. Norwegian Luthei'an : Rev. Eberg C. Tollefsen. Presbyterians : Rev. .John C. Bliss, D. D. Rev. Edward M. Deems. Rev. Howard DufBeld, D. D. Rev. Daniel S. Gregory, D. D. Rev. David O. Mears, D. D. Rev. Charles L. Thompson, D. D, Mr. and Mrs. John C. Martin. Protestant Episcopal : Rev. F. M. Clendenin, S. T. D. Rev. James H. Darlington, Ph. D. Rev. Percy S. Grant. Rev. James E. Freeman, liev. Ernest M. Stires, D. D. Reformed : Rev. David J. Burrell, D. D. Reformed Episcopal : Rev. W. T. Sabine, D. D. Roman Catholic : Rev. James Nilan, A. M., P. R. American Sabbath Union ; Hon. Darwun R. James. Brotherhood of St. Andrew : William Braddon, Esq. Christian Endeavor : Rev. Edwin F. Ilallenbeck, D. D., presi¬ dent. Christian Home for Intemperate Mon : Rev. D. Stuart Dodge, D. D. Epworth League : Robert R. Doherty, Ph. D. National Temperance Society and I’ublishing House : Rev. James B. Dunn, D. D. Woman’s Christian Temperance Union : Mrs. Ella A. Boole, President, New York State. Mrs. Emma F. Pettingill. Mrs. Ellen L. Tenney, treasurer. New Y^ork State. Mrs. Ida G. Van Valkenburg, State su¬ perintendent scientific temperance. Young Men’s Christian xVssoclation : William il. Kingsley, president. Y. P. P. L. ; Edward E. Blake. Fred A. Victor. Reynold E. Blight. Unassigned : Col. Alexander S. Bacon. Truman H. Baldwin, Esq. Henry D. Didama, M. D., LL. D., dean medical college, Syracuse University. J. W. Grosvenor, M. D. John McKee. Alfred L. Manierre, Esq. Carlos Martyn, D. D., Litt. D. James Talcott. Hon. WTlliam T. Wardwell. TEMPEEANCE INSTRPrCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 589 Iiiasmncb as certain strictures on the present system of teaching physiology and hygiene in the schools of this State were made by the committee on stimu¬ lants and narcotics of the Nevv^ York State Science Teachers’ Association at its last annual meeting (December 28, 1901), attention is called to the following statement of facts : In 1895 the temperance committees of the various churches and representatives of other philanthropic organizations in New York State united with the State Woman’s Christian Temperance Union under the name of the New York State Central Committee for Scientific Temperance Instruction, the object being to secure the present law requiring the study by all pupils in the public schools of physiology and hygiene, including the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. It is the settled policy not of New' York alone, but of this entire country, to require by huv the study in question for all pupils in all public schools. Although the law's requiring it have not been long enough in force to show' their utmost results, the beneficent effects of this study are already manifest: First. In increased popular know'ledge and practice of sanitary law's which are admitted to be contributing causes to the gain of four and one-tenth j'ears in the average length of life in this country reported by the last census. Second. In the demand of emj)loyers for abstinence in employees, following eloselj^ as it has upon the teaching in the schools that alcohol injures w'orking ability. Third. In the consequent greater sobriety of the American w'orkman, w'hich is acknow'ledged to be one factor in the commercial success of the United States. The New' York central committee, w'hich never disbanded, has now reorgan¬ ized to protect the instruction wiiich it secured in its own State. In pursuance of this purpose the committee presents the follow'ing reply to the Science Teach¬ ers’ Association : 5!t ^ ^ * NO LIMIT OF SAFETY IN THE USE OF ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. The report of the State Science Teachers’ Association, after admitting that it does not undertake to prescribe the limit of safety (in the use of alcoholic drinks) for the average adult, says later that “spirits should never be used as beverages unless largely diluted, and that alcohol in any form should be taken only at meals and after the w'ork of the day is done,” and that “ youths under 21 should abstain altogether,” as though after that period they might use alco¬ holic drinks w'ith safety. They urge the importance of self-control, adding that “ the w'orld belongs to those w'ho can control themselves, but the man w'ho uses alcohol in excess can never do this.” This wTiole section is a specious plea for moderate drinking, w'ith the qualifi¬ cation that youths should abstain before they are 21. Such an argument is dangerous, fallacious, and not sustained by science or experience. Concerning the effects of alcohol on children and youth. Dr. G. Bunge, professor of physiological chemistry in the University of Basel, Sw'itzerland, says in a recent article: “I have never yet heard any valid reason for this opinion that alcohol is less injurious to adults than to children. * * * If one wmuld answ^er the question on the grounds of experience, he must compare the effects of proportionate doses upon the organism of the child and that of the adult. If, for example, a child weighing 20 kilograms received a quarter of a liter of w'ine daily and a man weighing 80 kilograms receives 1 liter, I do not know' w'hether the man would bear the w'ine any better than the child or not.” In its discussion of this phase of the alcohol question, the State Science Teach- 590 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. ers’ Association seems to forget the fact that alcohol, like opium, morphine, and other narcotics, when taken with any continuity, even in moderate amounts, has the power to create the uncontrollable and destructive appetite for more. This power is not lost when it is taken “ diluted ” as in beer, wine, and cider, in “ diluted ” whisky, “ with meals ” or “ after the day’s work is done,” or whether under or over 21, No one can tell how long he may be able to resist the power of alcohol to make him its slave. It is this power which makes it futile to attempt to teach self-control in the use of a substance whose nature it is to destroy self-control. It is this inherent quality to create the alcoholic appetite which furnishes the scientific basis Tor total abstinence and leaves no justifica¬ tion for calling the moderate use of alcohol “ strict temperance.” Because of this power the “ difference to be emphasized ” between moderate and excessive use, for which the Science Teachers’ Association contends, should be that the moderate use leads to “ excessive ” use, and “ excessive ” use leads to destruc¬ tion. Therefore, whoever begins the moderate use lessens his chances of secur¬ ing that portion of the world “ which belongs to those who can best control themselves.” Such physiological investigators as Professors Bunge, of the University of Basel ; Meyer, of Gottenberg ; and Frick, of Zurich, testify to the same truth as that expressed by John Madden, M. D., of Wisconsin, who says ; So subtle are the processes of the narcotics, of which alcohol is one, in creat¬ ing a need on the part of the nervous system for a repetition of the same drug, tiiat the habitue becomes such before he is aware ; and his chance to regain his former mental and physical condition, other things being equal, is in exact ratio to the amount of damage he has sustained from alcoholic poisoning. As to taking alcohol with meals. Prof. Victor Horsley, of the University of London, says : From a scientific standpoint the claim so often put before us that small quan¬ tities of alcohol, such as people take at meals, have practically no deleterious effect, can not be maintained. The idea that there is safety in taking it ” after -the day’s wmrk is done” is a delusion, for Professor Kraepelin, of Heidelberg University, Germany, has shown by actual demonstration that — Alcohol causes a diminution of brain power which lasts sometimes until even¬ ing of the second day. Hence, for the person who is unwilling to surrender any portion of his intel¬ lectual ability to this substance or to run the risk of becoming its slave, absti¬ nence is the only safety, whether he is under 21 or over, or whether alcohol be taken with or without meals. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION COMPARED. The report of the State Science Teachers’ Association criticises our temperance physiology law as though it demands merely instruction concerning alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, ignoring its requirements in general hygiene. The fact is that only one-fifth of the space in the text-books for primary and gram¬ mar grades and but 20 pages in high school books need be given to the subject of alcohol and narcotics. All the rest is physiology and hygiene. The investigation conducted by the committee from the State Science Teach¬ ers’ Association was threefold in character — First. An effort to secure the opinion of supervising teachers of the State on the status of this sulpect in the schools. Second. An inquiry of physiology classes in two normal schools to ascertain TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 591 their attitude toward this subject, and what they had gained from previous study. Third. A list of questions to college and medical school professors and mem¬ bers of the committee of fifty, high school physiology teachers in the cities and towns of New York and New England, to ascertain their opinion of the law and what should he taught under it. 1. It is a noteworthy fact that in the effort to secure the opinions of the teach¬ ers of the State the Science Teachers’ Association was obliged to admit that the grammar school men, who come most closely in contact with the children, favored physiology throughout the whole course to a greater degree than other groups, while in all the groups there were teachers favoring the present provisions of the law. 2. The inquiry in normal school classes has little practical hearing on the sub¬ ject, because young people are seldom able to decide intelligently what studies are necessary to an all-round development nor what are the formative influences which have shaped their own habits and character. No one would consider that the interest in mathematics, or their lack of it, on the part of normal school students should have any weight in deciding whether mathematics should he pursued either in the normal or public graded schools. Why, then, is this sub¬ ject? If, however, it was the expectation of the committee to prove by such investigation that normal pupils felt they had been getting too much physiology through the grades, the facts elicited proved exactly the contrary. None of the pupils questioned considered that such had been the ease, but on the contrary nearly one-fifth of those questioned felt that they wanted more of the subject. 3. As to the third line of investigation of the State Science Teachers’ Associa¬ tion, the question may justly be raised why the Science Teachers’ Association felt it necessary to consult college and medical school professors and high school teachers in New England as to the practical working of this law in the public schools of New York. The New York State central committee, on the contrary, has sought for spe¬ cific information concerning the results of the study of this whole subject from those best qualified to judge of its effects upon the children of this State, namely, their parents and the patrons of the schools. Some parents receiving our questions sought additional information from teachers. Thus much testimony has been obtained incidentally from those engaged in the actual v^ork of instruction through the various grades. Responses to our inquiries have been received from 361 different sections, including leading towns and cities, representing every county in the State. RESULTS OP TEACHING GENERAL HYGIENE. In response to the questions : Do the children in your public schools report at home facts of general hygiene learned at school? and Is the teaching influencing the hygienic habits of children? parents testify that as a result of this study the children do practice and bring home the truths thus learned. They insist upon proper ventilation of sleeping and living rooms, and tell how to get it. They comment on the danger of drains or pools of stagnant water in cellars, dooiyards, or near wells, and urge the necessity of using pure water. The importance of eating slowly and at regular intervals, the proper selection and cooking of food, its adaptation to season, suitable dress, the harmfulness of corsets, the danger of drafts, are facts learned at school and put to practical use by the children. They ask for tooth¬ brushes and individual towels, and object to public drinking cups. They become 592 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1904. little rebels against dirt and disorder in the home, and help to secure better con¬ ditions ; are more careful of the eyesight ; assume better positions in standing, walking, and studying. Teachers comment on the improvement in personal appearance resulting from this study. Mothers say, “ Take any other study out of the schools, but leave this.” Their testimony in this respect is almost uni¬ form. One mother says ; ” I have been surprised and delighted for years with the information the children in my large family have gained in hygiene as well as in temperance in the schools. The work is thorough and real and is influ¬ encing the homes.” (Cattaraugus County.) ” I have six children taught in the public schools who have all profited by their instruction in physiology and hygiene. Even if the temperance part were left out, the rest would be absolutely essential. With the temperance instruc¬ tion it becomes the most important study pursued in the common schools.” (Columbia County.) ” This teaching is helping some children to observe certain laws of health which their parents do not know about and can not teacli them.” (Sullivan County.) “ You have no idea what a help this study is to me.” This mother had been reading her children's physiologies. (Erie County.) ” I am the mother of six children and am truly in favor of the study as taught in our schools, and know that every parent is, as it does much good. I would not have it taken out for anything.” (Chautauqua County.) No one who looks over the voluminous testimony from all parts of the State on this phase of the study, of which the foregoing is but a mere sample, can fail to see that, conti’ary to the opinion of the Science Teachers’ Association, there is a growth of widespread intelligent practice of general hygiene resulting from this study and that the statute requiring it is ‘‘ accomplishing what it was des¬ tined to accomplish.’’ KESri.TS OF TEMrERANCE TEACHING. The New Y"ork State central committee in its inquiries asked how this teach¬ ing is influencing the children regarding the use of alcoholic drinks and tobacco, and if they persuade others to give up such use. The replies show that the in¬ struction is strengthening the children to resist temptation to use these sub¬ stances, and is helping them and their parents to abandon such use when already begun. It appeals to their self-respect in causing abhorrence of the idea of ever becoming victims of alcoholic or narcotic habits, and also to their desire to ‘‘ get on in the world,” as they learn that alcohol and tobacco by impairing mental and physical ability, limit the chances of success in life. The following are extracts from some of the replies received by the State central committee: INFLUENCE OF THE TEACHING ON PUPILS. ‘‘ It is influencing the children against alcoholic drinks by showing them the danger of beginning to use any of them.” (Dutchess County.) “ Mrs. B. says that her boy, when he sees a man smoking, says, ‘ I don’t be¬ lieve he studied physiology.’ Several have given up smoking, some because of their own study about the effects of tobacco, some because the girls in the class refused to have anything to do with them if they smoked.” (Suffolk County.) ” Not so many boys are trying to learn to smoke and drink as formerly.” (Essex County.) “ In the case of my child the instruction is very weighty against alcoholic drinks.” (Delaware County.) “ It influences the children as to the effects of alcoholic drinks so that they refrain from using them.” (Seneca County.) ‘‘A boy whose father smokes said he ‘ had intended to smoke when he was a little older, but if tobacco was so injurious he guessed he would let it alone.’ ” (Suffolk County.) TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 59a “ I overheard several boys talking the other day, and one boy said, ‘ I want to be a big man who knows something, and if we smoke we won’t grow so well, and smoking makes the brain dull. Our teacher said so.’” (Orleans County.) “ Some of the boys who had already formed the cigarette habit have given it up as a result of the teaching.” (Chenango County.) “ The children try to help each other give up habits of drinking and smoking.” (St. Lawrence County.) " It is influencing the children very decidedly against tobacco.” (Livingston County. ) ” So far as known, only two boys in our schools use tobacco. Registration during the year, 812.” (Nassau County.) “ It helps keep the children from forming the tobacco habit.” (Chemung County. ) “ One high school teacher has told me she certainly thinks this instruction is influencing the children, for there are not so many of the boys who have gradu¬ ated in the last five years who drink as before that time.” (Putnam County.) “ This teaching appeals to the law of self-preservation inherent in every child.’^ (From a teacher, Herkimer County.) “ The children tell with great delight what they have learned, and resolve to keep the body free from intoxicants.” (Fulton County.) “ I asked the teachers whether in their opinion the children are stronger against alcohol and tobacco than they would have been if they had not had the teaching, and they all say ‘ Yes ’ very decidedly. I have also had much testi¬ mony from parents to the same effect.” (Franklin County.) “ The teaching is influencing the attitude and habits of children in some cases, if not in all, against alcoholic drinks and tobacco.” (Broome County.) ” I am almost if not quite an enthusiast in this line of Vork, and the children with whom I have worked have always seemed to be deeply interested. During my period of teaching, which covers several years (ten or more), only two parents, mothers, have objected to their children receiving such instructiom These mothers were ignorant and representatives of the lowest of the social classes. Parents, if they do not uphold, at least tolerate the teaching, but it is my belief that thoughtful, intelligent parents do believe in it thoroughly. I am expecting much of the mothers of the next generation who are little girls of to-day.” (Madison County.) ” The children are known to refuse fruit, cake, and candies in which alcohol is used.” (Onondaga County.) ” The boys do not now consider it smart to smoke. There is not to my knowl¬ edge a single boy under 16 in the village who smokes.” (Columbia County.) “A little boy refused a pudding of which he was very fond because his mother served it with wine sauce.” (Greene County.) “ I have heard my own daughter, 12 years old, as a result of her instruction, teach her younger brother never to use tobacco or intoxicating liquors, and have heard him declare that he never would.” (Schenectady County.) ” One of our saloon keeper’s sons, 15 years of age, has said to his father that he ‘ had better stop selling liquor and go to work like other people.’ The son can not be induced to sell it or have anything to do with it, a result of the teaching in our public schools, and his father has told him that he must leave home on that account, but it makes no difference with the boy.” (Jefferson County. ) “ The formation of the tobacco habit is prevented until children have arrived at an age when they will never form it.” ( lYestchester County.) “ Some cigarette smokers have given up the use of cigarettes.” (Warren County. ) “It is creating an aversion to the tobacco habit.” (Washington County.) “ The streets and walks do not show so many empty cigarette cases as they used to ; in fact, I seldom come across one now, while scores of them were seen a few years ago. Children are not often seen with them now.” (Cortland County. ) “ During a period of extremely cold weather last winter, D. S. took his 15-year- old son with him into a box car to care for a horse which was being shipped to New York City, and his mother, thinking they would suffer from the cold, wished them to take some whisky with them, but the son positively refused, giving facts concerning the erroneous impression that liquor ever did help one to withstand the cold.” (Otsego County.) ED 1904 M - 38 594 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. AN AID IN EESISTING TEMPTATION AND AN APPEAL TO THE DESIKB FOR FUTURE SUCCESS. Cases are given where as a result of this instruction the habit of cider drink¬ ing is noticeably on the decline. “ In one locality where it is plentiful none of the children in the school will touch cider.” (Wyoming County.) “ In some instances pupils will not even touch sweet cider which they had learned to drink in their homes.” (Ontario County.) “The habit of cider drinking is being largely done away with.” (Schoharie County. ) “ It is causing many children to give up drinking cider.” (Clinton County.) “ One of my pupils, a boy about 14 years of age, son of a former Congressman, who is a liquor dealer, was dining with a classmate. When offered a glass of cider he inquired if it had alcohol in it, saying that he would not be willing to drink it if it had.” (Albany County.) “ Whisky sellers have tried to hire three or four schoolboys to drink, offering them money, but they steadily refused.” (Monroe County.) “Although we have a saloon in our town, it has not got one of our boys for some years past, and every method has been resorted to to tempt them.” (Saratoga County.) “ It makes the children careful about taking a ‘ treat ’ from those whom they sometimes meet.” (Cayuga County.) “ One little boy was so strong and persistent in refusing wine (in this grape section) that now they do not pass it to him or ask him to take it. He said he wanted to be a good man to help his mother (a widow). lie will not touch a cigarette or a bit of tobacco.” (Chautauqua County.) “ Mrs. P. took her son of 12 years to dine with an uncle. The boy’s glass was filled with ale, but he declined it. On being pressed, he said he did not want it. His mother finally commanded him to drink the ale, and the uncle, lately from England, observed that American boys appeared to be brought up to disregard their parents’ wishes. His mother insisted on obedience, and the boy finally said : ‘ Why, if I once begin to drink ale I may want more and more, and go on and drink so that I shall not be able to help my mother when I grow up.’ Needless to say he was urged no more.” (New York County.) “A young girl graduate of the public schools spent a few weeks in a family that used liquors and wines in cooking and sometimes in social drinking. This harmonized with her early home habits, but her physiological school studies had changed all that, and she abstained quietly but strictly. Being ques¬ tioned after she returned home, she said she felt it a privilege and an honor to call herself a total abstainer and to acknowledge herself indebted to her scien¬ tific temperance instruction.” (New York County.) “ Two well-grown lads who went to the Middle West after they left school wrote home enthusiastically, saying that they found it easier to obtain employ¬ ment because they could give assurance that they were total abstainers.” (New York County.) INFLUENCE ON PARENTS. “A German boy of 7 declined to drink his mug of beer at lunch, and his father inquired the reason. ‘ Because my teacher says it is bad for me, and she has a book that tells about it.’ ‘ You get dot book for me ; I want to read it.’ The book was produced and read by both parents, and beer was banished from that household.’ (New York County.) “A visitor among the city poor found a German mother whose children had learned so much about beer at school that they would not drink it. After this had gone on for some time the father said : ‘ If our children will not drink beer, then we will not have it on the table,’ and from that time it was banished.” (New York County.) “ It opens the eyes of parents, especially of those who use liquors, to the evil and menace to their health.” (Bichmond County.) “ Parents who were not privileged to attend school and receive such instruc¬ tion learn of the evil effects of alcohol and tobacco from their children as it is now taught them.” (Oswego County.) “A hoy 8 years of age convinced his father of the evil effects of tobacco and persuaded him to discontinue its use. A little girl influenced her brother to stop cigarette smoking,” (Wayne County.) TEMPEEANCE INSTKUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 595 “ V. D. said that since he had learned about the effects of alcoholic drinks his father had stopped drinking and had not drunk now for four years.’ (Suf¬ folk County.) “ I asked a family of four children what they had learned at school of this subject. The father said, ‘ I wish I had known and been taught what my four children have, and I should not have been such a slave to these bad habits (of the saloon).’ C. said, ‘Well, Pa, you don’t get drunk any more, you know.’” (Schuyler County.) “ It is making the youth more intelligent and indirectly affecting parents and friends.” (Oneida County.) “ I know of four families who have been saved from drunkenness through the influence of the teachings received in school.” (Kings County.) “A child tried to get his father to stop smoking.” (Tioga County.) “ A little girl became so interested in the study of the evils resulting from alcoholism that night after night she faithfully related to her intemperate father the information she had gained in school. Early one morning one of the clergymen was aroused by the door bell. He found the father and the little girl at the door, both asking to sign the pledge. The father for a number of years has been a sober, Christian citizen.” (Queens County.) INFLUENCE ON THE COMMUNITY. Another question asked by the New York central committee was, “ What good is this study doing in your community? ” The following are samples of the replies ; Our children do not seem to think it manly to drink and use tobacco, as formerly, although, of course, there are exceptions. This has become a strong temperance town. We have had no saloon for about five years.” (Rensselaer County. ) “ Our boys understand more about the evil effects of moderate and occasional indulgence in smoking and drinking, and eventually we shall have a generation of parents who will find it harder to sin against light and knowledge than those who, being ignorant, have accustomed themselves to beer and tobacco.” (Ulster County. ) “ There is a silent influence, the forming of public opinion, that will tell on the side of temperance when our children are men and women ; also a gradual influencing of parents and the community.” (Montgomery County.) “ I fully believe the good will appear when the children take their fathers’ places in the home and society and in performing the duties of citizenship.” (Orange County.) “ The parents are being reached for health and temperance through the children as they could not be in any other way.” (Tompkins County.) “ It is creating a wide-awake youth who will not walk blindly into the traps of alcoholism and narcotics.” (Onondaga County.) “ It is giving the children such instruction as will tend to make them useful and intelligent citizens in the future. We all hope this law may not be repealed.” (Niagara County.) “ It is gradually opening people’s eyes and building in the character and habits of the children a solid foundation of temperance truth which will grow stronger, wider, and deeper as the years go on.” (Monroe County.) ” It is slowly but surely awakening the people to the great danger to which their sons and daughters are exposed by licensing this great evil.” (Yates County. ) “ It has helped to create a temperance sentiment and is making the business disreputable.” (Cattaraugus County.) “ It is doing much in the way of better living, especially in regard to pure air, good food, and cleanliness, and to the use of cigarettes by young boys.” (Dutchess County.) “ It is training the children to an understanding of the evil effects of alcohol. This knowledge is becoming a part of themselves, which can but have the result of keeping at least a majority of them from using alcohol. If this were not so, the people friendly to the use of strong drink would not trouble their heads about the comparatively short time that is taken for this study.” (Erie County.) “ It has raised the moral tone of the place.” (Genesee County.) 596 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. “ It is making narcotics something to be feared and the selling of beverage liquors despised.” (Steuben County.) “ The children in our town look upon the liquor business as something not respectable. Thirty years ago some of the best families were in the business ; now they are not, and do not consider it a respectable trade.” (Rockland County. ) ” The proprietor of one of our largest department stores said he thought this one of the grandest movements that could have been taken up.” (Kings County. ) “ There is a better temperance sentiment among the boys of our village than ten years ago. Many influences have helped to secure it, but this counts one.” (Lewis County.) ” It is teaching boys and girls correct ways of living, especially those who have no good home training.” (Orleans County.) “ It gives a healthful uplift to the community where it is taught.” (Saratoga County. ) ” It receives the most profound respect and approval from all quarters. I have never heard the least disapproval from anyone, but righteous indignation from several readers of ‘ The Outlook ’ at the antagonistic position of its edi¬ torials. A short time ago one old subscriber of twenty-five years’ standing stopped her paper in consequence, giving reasons.” (Schuyler County.) “ It is helping fathers and mothers to bring up their children fortified against the temptation to drink.” (Suffolk County.) In answer to our question concerning the effects of this study, the principal of a high school (Allegheny County) wrote: “A waste of time ; dislike of the subject from repetition ; sometimes gives false ideas of things.” Evidently the people of this community differ from the high school principal, for on the same sheet was written the following : “As a parent and as a pastor, I am enabled to affirm that scientific teaching of the physiological effects of alcoholic drinks is approved by myself and the members of my congregation. “(Signed.) (Name), Pastor of Baptist Church.” “ I most cordially and heartily indorse the above statement of the Rev. - for myself and in behalf of my own congregation. “(Signed.) (Name), Pastor of the Presbyterian Church.” “ I hereby certify that at a union meeting of the congregations of the Presby¬ terian, Baptist, and Methodist churches, held in the Methodist Episcopal Church, those present voted unanimously against any repeal of the New York temper¬ ance-education law. “(Signed.) (Name), Pastor of the Methodist Episcopal Church.” REPLY TO CONCLUSIONS OF SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION. The examples quoted constitute but a mere fraction of the testimony received by this committee from those best qualified to judge, namely, the parents, show¬ ing that this instruction, contrary to the opinion of the Science Teachers’ Asso¬ ciation, is producing marked results for total abstinence in the lives and homes of our young people, and that the teaching of physiology and hj-giene not only “ ought to be ” but is of “ great help in the everyday life of the pupil.” These results are destined to increase the number and infiuence as the years go by and methods of teaching are perfected. Even if nothing more has been accomplished than is told in the reports in the hands of the undersigned committee, which we believe give but a faint idea of the good actually being done throughout the State, the people of New York would have abundant reason for gratitude to the law-abiding teachers in our public schools for the faithful, not “ perfunctory,” work most of them have done in teaching this branch, in spite of opposition and hindrances encountered where they should have had help. TEMPEKANCE INSTKUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 597 THE TIME REQUIFED IS NOT EXCESSIVE. In answer to the question of the Science Teachers’ Association, “ Do you regard as excessive the time now required by law for the study of physiology? ” we emphatically replied, No. The law of New York requires not more than thirty lessons in each school year (twenty only in each of the three primary jears) in the whole subject-matter of physiology and hygiene, including the temperance matter. The law does not specify the length of lessons. One hun¬ dred and sixty or more lessons are ordinarily given in geography during the year. It is certainly more important for the child to learn how to take care of liis body than to be able to name every geographical feature of the earth ; yet fully five times as many lessons are given each year in geograpliy as in physi¬ ology. Hence it is evident that the requirements for the latter, so far from being “ excessive,” are extremeh- reasonable. NO “ WEARISOME REPETITION REQUIRED BY LAW.” The object of the study is to influence the children’s habits, of which new ones are forming every year. To do this the study must run through the habit¬ forming years, and, like other progressive branches, be graded to the child’s growing comprehension. Hence, so far from requiring a “ wearisome repeti¬ tion,” as the Science Teachers’ Association claims, the law definitely specifies that the subject shall be graded to the capacities of primary, fourth year, inter¬ mediate, grammar, and high school pupils. Neglect of this provision has, in some cases, led to the use of books not adapted to grade in successive years, instead of having fresh matter each jmar, as the law provides. To use a primary arith¬ metic in grammar grades, or to put an advanced arithmetic into the lower grades and continue its use for the entire course, would be an absurdity. Yet in some instances something like this has been done in physiology. A high school teaclier in tins State recently said with much emphasis: “When I hear the complaint that high school pupils show a lack of interest in physiology because they have had it in previous years, I always say it is the fault of the teacher and of the selection of books which do not represent the larger develop¬ ment of the subject which these pupils are able to grasp.” A school principal objects to the law because he says “ it requires the use of the same book year after year.” His difficulty is due to his lack of knowl¬ edge of what the law really requires. Experience and a wider knowledge of the needs of the study and of the fact that there is a large variety of books adapted to all grades will in due time remedy this condition. REPLY TO RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION. The Science Teachers’ Association recommends : First. “ That the present law be modified in such a way that teachers of physiology be given more freedom to decide as to the character and content of their teaching.” If by “ character ” of teaching, the association means the method, neither the New York law nor any other law specifies the method by which this instruction shall be imparted. It leaves methods wholly to the judgment and peda¬ gogical skill of the teacher. The law merely prescribes that there shall be an oral lesson book to aid primary teachers in giving instruction ; that pupils beginning with the fourth year shall have text-books adapted to grade as one source of information, and that tests in this subject, as in others, shall be necessary for promotion. Providing a text-book as one source of information for a pupil’s use on any subject is not prescribing the method or “ character of the teaching ” any more than requiring that a pupil shall have a dictionary 598 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. prescribes the method of te.^ching spelling. Neither does the law specify what shall be taught about alcohol or about any feature of general hygiene. There¬ fore, the clamor of the Science Teachers’ Association for “ more freedom to decide as to the character and content of their teaching ” is uncalled for. Second. The Science Teachers’ Association would have the law so modified as to allow more freedom to writers of text-books, both as to space devoted to the subject and its location in the volume. This refers, presumably, to the amount and arrangement of the temperance matter. Authors now have freedom in arrangement of temperance matter, the only specification of the law being that the effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics shall be treated where they logically belong, with other hygiene. The effect of bad air and other unhygienic conditions upon the various organs of the body are always treated in connection with the description of those organs and their functions. This is the only sensible method in dealing with the effects of alcohol and other narcotics. To put such discussion in a separate chapter, out of connection with its relative physiology, is neither good logic nor good pedagogy. The present legislation has prevented this illogical method. Before the people will consent to changing the law which provides that an adequate amount of temperance matter shall be in the text-books it must be proved that the subject of the nature of alcohol and narcotics can be adequately treated in less space than is now required. ^Yhoever computes the amount of physiology and general hygiene adapted to each grade and the proportion required for clear statement of the nature and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics necessary to meet the needs of these grades will find that one-fifth of the matter in books for lower grades and 20 pages in high school books is the minimum that will cover this important subject This, as we have shown before, if well graded, is not a repetition but a development by the addition of new facts from year to year. NEW YORK DOES NOT WANT THE CONNECTICUT TEMPERANCE EDUCATION LAW. Third. The Science Teachers’ Association suggests the present Connecticut temperance education law as a possible example for New York. The provisions of the Connecticut law show, without waiting to see how it works, its utter undesirability. In its description of what shall be taught in section 1 it makes no requirement for the study of physiology — merely that of hygiene and the effects of stimulants and narcotics. Hygiene with physiology appeals to the reason of the pupil ; without physiology it consists of mere dog¬ matic rules, the “ you should ” or “ you shouldn’t ” method. This is inconsistent with modern ideas of child training. The Connecticut law requires no instruc¬ tion as to the nature of alcoholic drinks, that is, their inherent characteristics. It does not require the study in the high school and has practically no penalty to secure its enforcement, the penalty being left entirely to the discretion of the comptroller. It makes no definite requirement for the essential helps of text¬ books for pupils’ use in this subject at any time in the course, not even for teach¬ ers, until the sixth year. When it has been proven to the satisfaction of this State that text-books for pupils’ use are unnecessary in other subjects, perhaps such a recommendation for this branch may then be considered, but not till then. The Connecticut law requires no instruction in this subject in the primary grades. The effect of that is obvious, for the report of the Connecticut State Board of Education for 1900 shows that, in spite of the compulsory-education law, 15 per cent of the children of that State drop out of school before the end of the third primary year. Hence, for this 15 per cent of all the children of the State, who are ordinarily from classes who most of all need this instruction. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 599 the law makes no provision whatever. Connecticnt’s report on education for 1901 shows that 85 per cent of the children in the public schools of that State do not complete the sixth 3"ear, which is the first j^ear for which that law speci¬ fies the use of books on this subject even for teachers’ use, while the same report shows the need of the added help of books for pupils because of the admitted lack of preparation of teachers in all branches. Thus no adequate provision is made by this Connecticut law for the education of 85 per cent, the overwhelming majority, of the future men and women of that State in this subject, which is essential to health, life, and good citizenship. The school attendance in New York may vaiy from that of Connecticut, but the fact remains that a large class of our population does not go to school beyond the; lower grades. Whatever we v/ould teach them must be taught in those grades. This class is daily being increased by the children of the enor¬ mous number of immigrants coming to our State from the Old World. These foreign-born children ordinarily stay in our public schools only long enough to learn our language, to read and write enough to become bread winners. Under our present sj^stem of phj^siological instruction these and all other children are taught in the lower grades such elementary facts of hj^giene as they can com¬ prehend, including those relating to alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, which will help make them good American citizens, or to go on further in this pro¬ gressive study, if they stay in school through the grades. To take this study away from these grades would be to exclude it entirely from a large class of our future citizens and be suicidal to the best interests of this the most populous State in the nation. To imagine that the people of New York would do such a thing is to imagine the impossible, namely, that they have lost their interest in the future well-being of their children and of their State soon to be governed by them. Whoever contrasts the New York law with the Connecticut law can not fail to see the immense superiority of the former. TEXT-BOOKS ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL FOR PUPILS’ USB. Fourth. The same arguments which have put text-books in other subjects in the hands of children old enough to use them intelligently apply to this study as well. Without some use of books in the grammar grades too much work is thrown on the teacher and too little responsibility on the pupil. The child does not go to school to have knowledge poured into him, but to gain mental power, and this in no small degree comes from the use of books in physiology as in arithmetic or geographjL Experience has shown that, ovring to the lack of preparation of teachers, where text-books are not required for pupils’ use in this branch, as soon as they are able to glean information from the printed page the studj^ is apt to degen¬ erate into monotonous exhortation instead of consisting of definite, progressive instruction which presents new matter each j^ear as do the series of indorsed text-books. Therefore the laws of the National Congress and most of the States wisely specify text-books for pupils’ use in this study in grades where books are used in other subjects, that is, from the fourth year upward. No such results as we are already able to chronicle in our own State could be cited from States in which this study is not pursued in the lower grades and where text-books are not required. THE CHILD’S INTERESTS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED^ NOT HIS LIKES AND DISLIKES. Fifth. The report of the Science Teachers’ Association lays much stress on its claim that the children enter the high school with less interest in this subject because thej^ have studied it in previous years. This is not supported by evi- 600 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. clence. Of 320 replies wliicb we received to the question, “ Do the children in the various grades enjoy the study?” 257 say “Yes,” or “As much as other branches.” Eleven only say “ No.” The remaining 52 say : “ It depends on the teacher” (18), “Some do and some do not” (11), “Yes, but most in certain grades” (23). We doubt whether a better showing could be made for any other subject taught in the public schools if a similar question were asked in regard to it. Interest on the part of the pupil is desirable, and, as is shown by the figures above, is being secured in this as in other branches. But whether the children like this or any other study is a matter of little practical bearing on the ques¬ tion whether it should be taught. We do not ask, “ Do pupils after having studied mathematics through the grades enter the high school with increased or diminished interest in that subject? ” We do ask whether they have such an adequate knowledge of it as will enable them to take part intelligently in the affairs of the world. So with physiology and hygiene it is not a case of “ increased ” or “ diminished ” interest, but whether the child has sufficient knowledge to guide him in intelligent observance of the laws of health. Besides, to view this matter almost wholly from the standpoint of the high schools, as does the Science Teachers’ Association, is to fail to take cognizance of the great host of children who never reach the high school, and who will not have any intelligent interest to be either “ increased ” or “ diminished ” if in¬ struction is withheld from the lower grades. MISCONCEPTION OF THE CIIAEACTER AND SCOPE OF THIS INSTRUCTION. The Science Teachers’ Association reports that “ the evils of alcohol and nar¬ cotics can be presented most effectively from the moral and economic point of view.” An understanding of the physiological effects of alcohol is an essential basis for a comprehension of the moral and economic arguments against its use. Because alcohol as a beverage is injurious it is morally wrong to use it. Hence a knowledge of its inherent character and consequent effects is essential to an intelligent comprehension of the moral aspects of the question. The Science Teachei's’ Association recommends that “ the possible benefits of alcohol, when prescribed by physicians, should be conceded ” in a public school study of physiology and hygiene. The object of this instruction is prevention, not to teach medicine. It is admitted by the most ardent advocates of the medical use of alcohol that it should never be taken on lay prescription. If the pupil is to wait for the doctor to prescribe it, instruction as to its therapeutic use belongs to the medical college and would be a waste of time in the public schools. Therefore the subject of its medical use is not treated in the indorsed books. The objection now reiterated by the Science Teachers’ Association that this is “ the only study dominated by legislative enactment ” was well answered by a prominent member in a speech before the legislature at the time of the passage of the present temperance-education law. He said in substance : Yes, gentlemen, that is true, and the public necessity for a specific law for this form of education is self-evident. It touches a product that has to be dealt with as we deal with no other. We put no restriction upon the farmer’s selling his fruit and vegetables, but should he turn them into alcoholic drinks, in the inter¬ ests of the public good we put restrictions upon their sale in order to reduce the resulting evil to the minimum. This study puts the restriction concerning the use of these substances upon the intelligence of the future men and women of this State. It is upon that intelligence that we must depend for the future of civil government ; therefore it is the acknowledged right and duty of the State to provide in this as in other respects for such education as is essential to good citizenship, TEMPEEANCE INSTEUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 601 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF STATE CENTRAL COMMITTEE. The aiis\Yers to the inquiries sent out by our committee show that a large majority of the common school teachers believe in this study, appreciate its importance and object, and, as we have already shown, are doing faithful work that will make every lover of humanity glad and grateful for their service as the results of their labors are known. From the answers received to our inquiries it is also evident that where dis¬ satisfaction exists or where children are said not to enjoy the study, an explana¬ tion is to be found in one or more of the following causes ; First, The failure of school officials properly to arrange the course of study, with the result that the teachers feel this branch a burden. Second. The selection of books unadapted to grade and the use of the same book through too many grades which leads to the charge of “ repetition.” Third. The personal habits of teachers, in some instances not in harmony with the desired end of this instruction. Fourth. Misconception of what the law really requires. We rejoice in the measure of success that has attended our present system of teaching physiology and hygiene. The testimony in our possession as to this success in our State shows that as an educational force for right living this study has passed beyond the experimental stage to that of results justifying the expectation that this form of education is destined to overthrow the greatest evil and peril of our times. Therefore we are opposed to any effort to change the law requiring this study. In order that the State may receive the greatest amount of benefit from it we urge : First. Cessation of destructive criticism of the law and the instruction it requires by school authorities whose duty it is to enforce the law. Second. A sincere, conscientious, and earnest endeavor on the part of edu¬ cators, normal school principals, institute instructors, and teachers to carry out the provisions of the law in a constructive spirit, to fit themselves to make the subject interesting and to present it properly graded in such a way as to inculcate the principles of hygiene in the lives of the youth of our State and make them intelligent total abstainers. Third. The appointment of institute instructors who are in sympathy with the law and whose personal habits conform to the teaching ; who have made a study of physiology and hj’giene, as required by law, and who will apply to this subject up-to-date methods of teaching. Fourth. That superintendents of schools and school officials prepare suitable courses of study, naming text-books and supplementary helps adajited to grade. The report of the State Science Teachers’ Association has been sent out to the teachers of the State, and the State central committee submit the foregoing reply in the best interest of the children of the State, and respectfully ask for its careful consideration on behalf of the committee for scientific temperance instruction. David Jas. Burrell, Chairman. James II. Darlington, F irs t Vi ce-Ch a irn lan. Wm. T. Ward well, Secon cl y ice-Cli a inn an . Alfred L. Manierre, Secretary and Treasurer. 602 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL IN THE UNITED STATES. [From the French of F. Dupre La Tour, in the Musee Social for June, 1903.] The problem of alcoholism is among those which occiipj" the first rank in the minds of thinkers in the United States. A c-ommission of fifty distinguished persons, appointed six years ago to inquire into the moral condition of the American people, began with one accord by a study of alcoholism. Under the direction of such men as Messrs. Carroll D. Wright, Charles W. Eliot, Seth Low, James C. Carter, and Doctors Peabody and Atwater, the work was divided among four subcommittees, who were to consider the problem in its physiological, economic, moral, and legislative aspects. The four volumes, the result of this collaboration,® which were prepared by such conscientious editors as Messrs. Koren, Calkins, and Wines, form an inex¬ haustible mine of information for the economist and the legislator. It would be presumptuous to attempt to add anything to them. But for the foreigner, more interested in the struggle itself, with its vicissi¬ tudes and its maneuvers, than in its origin and legislative steps, this vast inquiry needed a commentary. It remained to observe on the spot the army of temperance, to follow it on the field of battle, and to try to discover the secret of its victories. This is the task which the writer took upon himself, and he gives here a brief resume of the results obtained from an observation of three months. & The United States is a country favorable to alcoholism. The climate, with ,its extremes of temperature, there being no transition whatever from one season to another, invites the use of stimulants and tonics. The dry atmosphere makes the fortune of all dealers in thirst-quenching liquids. The dietary methods are execrable, and how could it be otherwise, since the workman or employee, obliged to take an hour on the “ elevated ” for his trip to and from the factory or the business place in the city, has no time to eat at his leisure, and has but a half hour at most for his midday lunch? So he pretends to satisfy his hunger with cold pie with a thick crust of flour and sweets, and it is not long before he feels the necessity of assisting his rebellious digestion with something healing to his weakened stomach. The high rents (an average of $3 a week for two rooms in the outskirts of New York) make it necessary for the workingman to limit the size of his lodg¬ ing and increase the charm and social attraction of the public house. Finally, that country is the rendezvous of emigrants from the four quarters of the world, some belonging to the sober races, as the Jews, Italians, and negroes ; others carrying the weight of several centuries of intemperance, as the Irish and Scandinavians ; but nearly all of them rendered incapable through poverty, loneliness, and even by the covetousness engendered by their small wages ($10) of resisting the allurements of the vice which lies in wait for “ Published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co. (Boston). ^ He wishes to acknowledge the cordial welcome given and assistance rendered by Dr. W. H. Tolman, correspondent of the Musee Social, New York ; Dr. W, T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education ; Talcott Williams, editor of the Philadelphia Press ; Father Doyle, Paulist, secretary of the C. T. A. U. of America, New York ; Father Eliot and Doctor Shephard, Brooklyn ; Miss Claghorne ; Rev. Mr. Curran, pastor at Wilkes- barre. Pa. ; O. Stewart, member of the State legislature of Illinois ; Al. E. Wilson, Chi¬ cago ; Rev. Mr. Noon, secretary of the Massachusetts Total Abstinence Society, Boston ; Mr. Pearmain, broker, Boston ; Mr. Koren, editor of the reports of the Committee of Fifty ; Doctor Beach, Binghamton, N. Y. ; Mrs. Anna Gordon, vice-president, and Mrs. S. Fry, secretary, of the W. C. T. U. ; the professors of the University of Pennsylvania; the members of the Lyonnaise colony at New York ; Mr. Ingres, president of the Alliance Frangaise, Chicago. THE BATTLE AGAINBT ALCOHOL. 603 them. Each year the newcomers form a new mass of citizens to be converted to temperance, thus keeping in full vigor the zeal of the apostles in spite of all the victories which have been gained. Moreover, the race which results from so composite a mixture of blood is particularly active and nervous, violently attracted, when days of dejection occur, by the excitement which alcohol procures for them and implacably van¬ quished by it.« The breaches thus opened by the existing conditions are still more widened by certain social customs. That of “ treating,” for instance, which corresponds to the “ tournee ” of our public houses, with this difference, that every participant there is obliged to return the courtesy immediately. There is also the peculiar institution of the “ free lunch,” a kind of buffet gratuitously opened in the pub¬ lic houses to every buyer of a drink. The greater part of the dishes which are placed within reach of the hand are ingeniously chosen to excite an inextin¬ guishable thirst in the customer who allows himself to be tempted by them. Yet they attract a great many poor people, happy to find for the small sum of 5 cents (price of a drink) the means of getting an actual dinner.® From this point of view it can not be denied that here they really play a philanthropic role. At any rate this is a service which the public houses in the cities of the United States render and which attracts to them a great number of passers-by. For some inscrutable reasons, which are not those of economy, the municipali¬ ties exclude from the streets certain public conveniences. The saloons and the hotels are the only recourse. But in performing an act of charity they find their recompense, for there is more than one passer-by whom the sight or simply the odor of whisky holds for an instant near the bar. In order to render clear the character which alcoholism assumes in the United States and the remedies which are necessary, nothing can be more instructive than to observe a drinker in the exercise of this habit. Let us then enter a public house, a “ saloon ” of a large city, Brooklyn, for instance, and see how the Americans drink. Generally situated in a populous street, its outward aspect is somewhat engaging. The glittering architecture contrasts with the poverty of the neighboring houses ; a screen before the door and curtains at the windows keep outsiders from seeing what goes on inside. We enter ; not a chair in the shop. The bar occupies the farther end, with waiters in white aprons who attend to the customers. On the walls are hung mirrors and pictures representing nude figures which the artists in this specialty have been obliged to sell there cheaply, there being almost no other place at present where they can dispose of them. On the counter are some gambling or slot machines where cigars or drinks may be won. There seem to be very few people there and at first one wonders iiovr the saloon keeper can make expenses. Two minutes of patience give us the key to the mystery. The customer does not remain. He enters, goes straight to the bar, drinks, and departs. Ten times in a few minutes the bell of the cash register machine has announced a receipt and yet the saloon always seems empty. Twice a day only, at lunch time and at the closing of the workshops, it will be filled for some time by the lovers of the free lunch, who come to dip into the dishes. ® Even the best known and most wealthy families are not spared from this scourge, and sometimes one hears it said that such or such a member of some family has suddenly disappeared from society, his future sacrificed to a sudden passion for alcohol. The only means of safety for him thereafter is through some of the agencies for redeeming drunkards. '* On Friday a great number of the public houses replace meat with fish to satisfy their Irish Catholic customers. 604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The delicate manner in which the habitues of our cafes sip their absinthe is not known, nor the long idling over an empty glass on the terrace of our boule¬ vards. The cocktails themselves are beginning to disappear from their native soil, their skillful preparation requiring too much care. Beer or whisky is drunk, not to kill time, but to satisfy an ungovernable thirst. In undertaking the warfare against such an enemy two kinds of tactics have been combined. The first undertakes the reformation of the drunkard and the formation in the younger generation of sober habits ; the other is especially directed to the suppression or restriction of the traffic in liquor by legal methods, and attacks the saloon as the source of every evil. Far from being in opposition the two methods complement each other wonder¬ fully. If it can be said that the drinker creates the saloon, and if the first care of the reformer should be a campaign of individual reformation, on the other hand the absolute lack of restraint of the places of temptation seems too severe a test for even the best disposed. The writer proposes to review successively the two great phases of the anti- alcoholic war.a I — Safety and Reformation of the Individual. The religious denominations, the temperance societies, and the public schools devote themselves specially to the preservation of the individual, seconded pow¬ erfully in their efforts by the necessities of the struggle for existence. agencies which operate to save. The temperance preached in the United States is very different from that championed by its apostles on the European continent. No American is entitled to the right of being called temperate if he uses beer or wine, and still less so if he sells it. Temperance in that country occupies itself exclusively with total abstinence from all sorts of drinks containing alcohol in any degree whatever, fermented or distilled. We are so far from having this one of the rules of our antialcoholic societies that certain ones have been found excessively severe in prohibiting alcohol altogether, and we remember having greatly scandalized the “ temperance men ” in America in letting them know that the president of one of our most important temperance societies is a large proprietor of vineyards and sells, besides, some excellent wines. It may be asked if there is not a certain sign of weakness in the pledge of total abstinence to which the adept of temperance of the Anglo-Saxon race fiees for refuge, and if the position which discerns strength in moderation is not the better one. Should this reasoning, recognized to be false as regards the drinking of dis¬ tilled liquors on account of their terrible property of increasing the desire which they pretend to assuage, apply to fermented drinks? This depends, in the first place, on the temperament of different peoples. The distinctive character of the American is a lack of moderation in everything that he undertakes, good or bad. Moreover, as we have seen, alcohol is pai Licularlj^ attractive and inju¬ rious to him. It is thought that for him, under these conditions, it is more prof¬ itable and easier to abstain totally than to stop or limit the abuse when it has “ A third method has often been pointed out as very efficacious in combatting alcohoi- ism. This is to take away from the saloon all of its attractions by providing better institutions for the needs of rest and recreation of the people, such as cheap dwelling houses, popular universities, libraries, sporting clubs, etc. The Committee of Fifty has made this the object of a special inquiry contained in the fourth volume, “ Substitutes for the saloon.” This study, which embraces the entire philanthropic field in the United States, exceeds the limit of this sketch. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 605 commenced.« Eiivironnient and habits play also a great role. In France we drink during the meal wine produced on our own soil, clear and light liquids, which are commonly used at the family table with the addition of water. In the United States fermented drinks are generally absent from the meal, and the stranger who for the first time takes a seat at a table in a New York restaurant is astonished to have a glass of water offered as the first mark of hospitality. The explanation of this general abstinence is very simple. The native wine, the greater part of which comes from California, is mediocre, and if it is imported from bejmnd the sea is too much charged with alcohol. On the other hand, the water is very pure in nearly all the large centers, and this quality, added to the good habit they have of always serving it cool, makes anything else unnecessary. Moreover, the greater part of the popular restaurants do not care to pay the liquor license, and the customer who wishes to drinli beer or wine is obliged to go to a neighboring saloon and there submit to the dangerous contact of the saloon keeper and the drinker of alcohol. They have thus been led to adopt a radical programme for temperance. Finally, the radicalism of the American apostle of temperance becomes still more comprehensible when it is remembered that the temperance movement was born fifty years ago when whisky was the favorite drink. Despite the progress accomplished since the start, the plan and the banner remain the same. Role of the religious denomiuations. — If, landing on a Saturday evening at New York, the inquirer into antialcoholism has the curiosity on the following morning to go to a church in the outskirts, Methodist or Presbyterian, the chances are even that he will hear a temperance sermon. If, in the afternoon, he should promenade the length of First, Third, or Ninth avenues, he will infal¬ libly perceive, forming a circle, the Salvation Army ; when he draws nearer he hears an orator improvising a public speech, who recounts his conversion to total abstinence. And in the evening, in the most miserable localities — the Bowery, for example — he will see here and there a wooden chapel bearing the inscription, “ Christian Temperance Mission,” which opens its doors on that evening. There are a great number of people coming and going. They hear a sermon on temperance here also, but one managed v,dth such art that at any hour of the evening, without a single exception, they are sure to hear within five minutes the entire series of customary arguments. At the end of the day the inquirer returns pursuaded that in that country alcoholism has reached immeasurable proportions. The fact is that it is not alcoholism, but the anti- alcoholic movement, which holds such an exceptional place. The Protestant churches have always been specially devoted to the cause of temperance, possi¬ bly because there can always be a certain agreement on that subject between the pastors and the members of the congregation ; more probably, however, on account of the apostolic zeal with which they are animated. In the first rank are the Methodist and Presbyterian churches. These two sects exclude from membership the manufacturers and sellers of alcohol and all those who are silent partners and guarantee the establishments or who lease them their locations. The Methodist Church goes still further and makes total abstinence a religious precept, the violation of which entails a reprimand from the pastor the first time and at the third offense a dismissal from the church, at least unless there is sincere repentance.^ “ Unsuccessful attempts were made about the year 1850 to organize in the United States temperance societies of the French type of to-day. " Book of the discipline of the Methodist P^ipiscopal Church, article 248. Minutes of the Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, 1877, page 558, 606 EDUCATIOlSr REPOET, 1904. Carrying the consequences of their doctrine into the domain of politics, the pastors of these churches, with a freedom of speech which would be startling in other countries, but which the American people find perfectly natural, never lose an occasion to affirm officially their sympathy with the Prohibition party and make it the duty of their followers to support it.« We see further how they are obeyed. It is no longer rare to hear them from their pulpits inveigh against some license law or some violation of a prohibitory law by the constituted authorities. As to the Catholic Church, its great number of Irish members and emigrants of the poorer classes imposes on it the duty of occupying itself especially with the question of temperance. It has performed its task with zeal and success, and if it can still be said that out of every two drunkards and every two saloon keepers in the United States one is a Catholic, the proportion of its apostles of temperance is at least as great. The Catholic hierarchy keeps its place at the head of the movement. Such men as Mgr. Ireland and Mgr. Keane are the per¬ sonalities most in evidence. Abstainers from the first (Mgr. Keane having had for godfather in the temperance crusade Father Mathew himself), they never miss an opportunity to descend from their pulpits in order to mount the plat¬ form at popular meetings, side by side with the ministers of other denomina¬ tions. According to the memoirs of Abbe Maignien, who was for thirty years superior of the great seminary at Baltimore, it was not always so. Formerly the priests abstaining formed the exception. Nevertheless the priests of those days were good, coming for the most part from the Emerald Isle, that blessed country where Saint Columba, establishing the rules for his monasteries, pun¬ ished with 30 disciplinary stripes a simple infraction of routine and with 5 only a case of notorious drunkenness. To-day the priests not having made the vow of total abstinence are the excep¬ tion in the United States. The very great influence of the Catholic priest over the faithful, which a profound faith and Irish traditions have consecrated, ren¬ ders such examples fruitful. The church in America has felt called upon on different occasions to formulate officially its doctrine regarding temperance. While recommending the practice of abstinence as a virtue, it divides itself clearly from its Protestant sisters, Methodists and Presbyterians on the question of precept, and establishes a f undamental distinction between “ the abuse of intoxicating drinks, which is a sin, and their moderate use, which is not, at least until it becomes of such a nature that it verges on abuse.” The saloons, on the contrary, are looked upon with the greatest distrust on account of the temptations which they provoke. “ If the sale of drinks with an alcoholic base is not in itself a sin, it leads the saloon keeper fatally toward it ; who, unless he is careful, encourages habits of intemperance among his custom¬ ers.” & It is therefore against saloon keepers that all the severity of the church is directed. A certain number of bishops, following the lead of Mgr. Watterson, bishop of Columbus, Ohio, even went to the point some years ago of refusing “ The general assembly of the Methodist Church at Chicago in 1900 renewed “ the for¬ bidding to Christians to support the political parties which adopt the principle of license and refuse to enter into open hostility to the saloons.” The United Presbyterians in their session of May, 1900, declared that legal authority given to the liquor traffic is a sin against God, a crime against man, and affirmed that parties affiliated with such politics had no right to the votes of Christians. ® Inserted at the close of the proceedings of the ninth diocesan synod, at Baltimore, September 24, 1886 ; abstracts of Mgr. Roosevelt Bailey. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 607 them admission to religious and charitable associations, among others the society of St. Vincent de Paul. This decision Avas not reached without actiA’e protesta¬ tions, and although the nuncio. Mgr. Satolli, felt it his duty to confirm this decision, some prelates, like Mgr. Spalding and Mgr. Ryan, at the head of the episcopacy, have always refused to subscribe to it. Little by little, hoAvever, the Catholic societies of the territory in question have themselves rallied to the side of severity ; and to-day the clause providing for the exclusion of saloon keepers is found in most of their statutes. Temperance societies. — The apostolate of temperance draws inspiration from the churches ; it carries on its work chiefly through the temperance societies. If one opens the directory of a large town at the heading “ Temperance,” he is astonished at the number of these societies holding meetings, having organs, and sometimes having a permanent oSice in the town. In 1902 one could count 77 periodicals deAmted to temperance, of Avhich 24 Avere weeklies, and besides innumerable local associations, there Avere half a score of national federations. « It is necessary to distinguish among the associations to promote temperance, first, the temperance societies properly so-called, Avhich devote themselves to the individual propaganda, and, second, those having a political character, Avhich aim to see that the laAV-s are executed, or to carry measures of reform Avith more rigorous provisions. The study of these latter will of course find its proper place in connection Avith legislation. The temperance societies properly so called comprise denominational societies, secret societies, and a great association of Avomen, the Women’s Christian Tem¬ perance Union, or, more briefly, the W. C. T. U. There are besides a certain number of school children’s societies, employees’ associations, and sailors’ or soldiers’ unions, Avhich are either associated Avith the first or are too much scattered to receive attention. & Finally, there is another new federation with a somewhat sensational title, the “ Blue Button Army,” Avhose object is only to giA^e play to certain unemployed forms of activity, and Avhose members are in reality recruited from the ranks of the preceding societies. We Avill limit ourselves to speaking of the first group. The common character of all the associations is the obligation imposed upon their members to take the pedge of total abstinence. The form, the ceremonies, and the length of time in force of this pledge vary according to the nature of the socieW. In general, the members are required to sign a formula something like the folloAving; “ I solemnly promise, Avith the help of God, to abstain from all distilled and fermented beverages, and in particular from wine, beer, and cider, and to use all my efforts to discourage their use and to prevent traffic in them.” Among the church societies the most important is the federation of Catholic societies, the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America (C. T. A. U. of A,), which comprises 1,000 societies and has 89,000 members. I Avas enabled to substantiate the fact of its vitality at the annual congress held in August last at Dubuque, lOAva. Three hundred and fifty delegates, priests, and laymen were present, under the direction of Mgrs. Ireland, Keane, and the archbishop of Cincinnati. The annual report shoAved an increase of about 4,000 members over the preceding year, and an increase of about 38,000 members in eight years. “ A central bureau of publicity and information, organized at New York under the name of the “ National Temperance Society and Publication House,” under the direction of Rev. J. Dunn, renders invaluable service. * We shall mention farther on the societies of school children. With regard to those of soldiers and sailors, found everywhere, they are specially the care of the great and beneficent Y. M. C. A., or form a special branch of the W. C. T. U., Sailors’ Homes, etc. It seems that this special mission has done a great deal of good. 608 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. The dominant trait of the Catholic temperance society, which constitutes both its strength and its weakness, is its parochial and intensely religious character. Its grouping about the parish has the advantage of assuring recruits, but the influence of the priest, the statutory spiritual director, does not hesitate to exclude from the pale of the society those Catholics who are not judged sufficiently fervent, and the temperance society becomes a brotherhood. There are few Methodist or Presbyterian societies (with the exception of the Sunday school societies) ; and this is not to be wondered at when it is known that temperance is an inherent part of the worship of these sects. On the contrary, it would seem very natural to find temperance societies among the adherents of the Episcopal Church ; there are, in fact, a few. For originality of methods I would point out the Church Temperance Society. Rev. Mr. Graham, who is the soul of the society, has undertaken to install in the streets of New York fountains of ice water, where the poor people can refresh themselves in the summer season ; he has also installed on the public streets wagons from which are sold temperance drinks and good food at low rates. But the most original scheme is the organization of a wagon service for the transportation of hot coffee to firemen at the scene of a conflagration, and to the cabmen who spend the night waiting till the balls are over. This last service is paid for by a contribution of 10 cents for each person invited, which is requested of the persons giving the ball, who have never yet refused. The secret societies were formerly very numerous and very important. There were as many as six federations. The greater part of these are dying out, or have become societies in which the mutual-aid feature is predominant. The only society worthy of attention which has avoided that stumbling block is the international federation of Good Templars. Very unequally divided through¬ out the Union, with their principal lodge at Milwaukee, Wis., it is difficult to determine their total number in the United States. The official statistics of the supreme lodge stated the number on May 1, 1902, as being 57,503 members, about 5,640 less than the preceding year. « It might be asked what secret a temperance society would have to keep. I asked this question of Mr. Mann, past grand master of the order. ‘‘ Its aim,” he replied, ” is simply to attract toward temperance people of the ordinary class, especially young people. We pique their curiosity by the mys¬ tery which surrounds us, and which consists of a simple password, and we satisfy their liking for sho\v and ceremonies by the decorations with which we adorn them and by the i-ites of initiation. We finally gratify their ambition for diplomas by establishing various grades and by having them pass examina¬ tions in temperance.” Perhaps it is not unnecessary to add that these secret societies are not hostile to the religious idea, but that on the contrary they firmly sustain it. Women's Christian Temperance Union (W. C. T. U.). — This association out¬ ranks all the others by its importance and vitality, and will detain us longer. For one who has studied the American woman it is not surprising that this is so. Through her personality, overflowing with energy and activity, the Amer¬ ican woman appears to the eyes of the foreigner as the most remarkable prod¬ uct of the civilization beyond the sea. It is rare, outside of the moneyed aristocracy, to find an unemployed woman. A certain number earn their living vcithout being compelled to do so, because their conscience tells them it is their duty to make themselves useful. Among those who remain at home, a great number apply themselves to litera- a Proceedings of tbe foiirteenth congress, held nt Stockholm, July 8-16, 1902. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 609 tnre, to philosophy, even to sport ; but a very large number are eager to devote themselves to good works, perhaps because of the natural goodness of their heart, perhaps because old maids or widows, they have been formed in the school of suffering. There are no convents for them ; they perform their mis¬ sion in the world armed with the motto of the W. C, T. U., “ For God, home, and native land.” The W. C. T. U. was founded in 1873 under picturesque circumstances. After an unusually eloquent sermon on temperance the women of Ilillsburg, Ohio, started on a crusade against the saloons of the town. They assembled together in the street and repaired to the saloons ; there they adjured the drinkers to give up their vices and the saloon keepers to renounce their traffic in the name of Christ. 8uch a spirit of enthusiasm was inspired, the story goes, that a great number of the saloon keepers were converted, and there are still exhibited, piously preserved among the relics of that heroic time, the bar furnishings with which the repentant dealers showed homage to their persecutors. The leader of the movement was ^liss Frances E. Willard, a woman of rare merit, who until her death, about five years ago, remained at the head of the association and exercised a prepontlerating influence. Founded at first solely with temperance as its aim the W. C. T. U. soon found its primary scheme too narrow. Even as the Mississippi, when the spring floods come, overflows its borders and fertilizes the neighboring plains, the accession of willing spirits to the ranks of the W, C. T. U. was so great that it was obliged to enlarge its sphere of action in order to satisfy their demands. The W. C. T. LT. numbers at the present a total of 450,000 paying members, spread over the entire world, of whom 150,000 live in the United States, divided into G2 unions, each of which has a committee, and in the large towns a journal and a permanent bureau. Their programme is as large as their heart, that is to say, without limit, and the way in which they carry it out adds still more to its natural poetry. It was revealed to me in all its simple grace at the annual congress of the W. C. T. U. held at Portland, Me., last October, under the chairmanship of Lady Henry Somerset, president of the federation, who had come from England for that purpose. The committee of ai-raugements had conceived the very ingenious idea of having a demonstration night, when the diff'erent sections of the asso¬ ciation came on the scene successively to explain their aim, their methods, and to give some examples of their results. There vrere about forty specialties — from the sanctification of the Sabbath to pity for animals ; from the teaching of the duty of giving a tenth of one’s goods to the poor to that of proscribing the use of alcohol in therapeutics. There was the committee of the workers among the negroes and the Indians; the committee on soldiers, on sailors, on employees of the railroads, on watchmen, on policemen ; there was a committee for the sermons in the churches ; the committee on the campaign for woman suffrage, for the proscrip¬ tion of the cigarette, for the war against impurity, for forbidding the use of fermented wine at the Lord’s Supper ; the committee on visiting the poor, etc. Each passed in its turn, the president at the head, followed by the converts and the emblem bearers with their banners. Advancing to the platfoi’m the president read a report several lines in length and then she spoke, her followers behind her sketching the scenes of which she spoke by tableaux. The president of the committee on evangelization announced to the public that during the year 1901-2 there had been given by the members of the section 37,690 public discussions, 5,268 sermons in the churches ; they had distributed 3,694,000 pages of temperance pamphlets, and had made in all 1,666 conversions. ED 1904 M - 39 610 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. The president of the committee on soldiers, still young and pretty, advanced, followed by veterans of the civil war, and addressed the assembly : “ You see,” she said, “ men who have served their country and whom we love and will do everything in our power to render their lives strong, temperate, and pure.” “ Pray for these brave men,” said the president of the committee on police¬ men, “ because they protect your firesides. Do not forget the debt of gratitude which we owe to them.” And the brave ix)licemen in sincerity — as all the sol¬ diers, the sailors, and the watchmen — made no demur, because they were under the charm, and because they felt that there dwelt in these women the real affec¬ tion of mothers. The president of the committee on purity advanced, followed by children and mothers who carried babes in their arms, and proclaimed the need of a common code of morals for both sexes, a more efficacious protection for young girls against seduction, and curfew laws for the children and strict repression of all pernicious literature. The committee on fiowers in its turn announced that in 1902, 50,000 shrubs, 7,000 packages of seeds, and 200,000 boquets had been distributed, wrapped up in the same number of leaflets of the Holy Sriptures and the temperance journals. In seeing this touching procession of charity and devotion, as long as the list of human evils, unroll itself, one could not but marvel at the inexhaustible fruitfulness of a feminine temperance association, and the motto of Miss Willard, “ Never to let an opportunity to do good pass by ” (“ Do everything ”), came to mind at the same time with the verse of the poet of the “ Contemplations.” “ Woman is on earth For its idealization.” How could it be otherwise on the battlefield against intemperance than for such an army to gain victories? Who could resist the influence of women so persuasive, so generous, and, it may be added, so persevering in their aims? The ministers of the churches, mindful of their campaign in favor of the tithes, support them by their influence. The public authorities themselves, unceasingly harassed by petitions, agita¬ tions, the appeals for decisions, end by yielding, either unwillingly or graciously; and no one can say whether it is for the sake of pleasing the parliamentary com¬ mittee of the W. C. T. U. or to get rid of it that more than 400 municipalities have introduced the rule of the curfew bell ; « that all the States have succes¬ sively introduced obligatory instruction in temperance in the schools ; that the Congress at Washington has passed an anticanteen law, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic liquors in the Army and the Navy ; and, finally, that the Mormon polygamist, IMr. Roberts, was prevented from taking his seat in Congress. Instruction in temperance. — The obligatory instruction of temperance in the schools is assuredly one of the principal factory of protection against alcohol. It is also one of the greatest triumphs of the W. C. T. U., and principally of Mrs. Mary Hunt. It was obtained after a most indefatigable campaign of twenty years. In 1882 not a State had this law. In 1902 the four last to yield were obliged to give in to the force of public opinion. It is quite interesting to find in this rear guard a State in which women are electors — Utah — which should have been at the head of the movement, if it be true that suffrage adds to the political and social influence of women.^ « The “ curfew law ” punishes with fines the parents of children under 12, 13, and even 15 years of age, who run the streets after the sound of the bell (generally at 8 o’clock in the evening). ^ This tends to prove that the dream of Miss Willard, “temperance through woman suffrage,” is not yet ready to he realized. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 611 The laws on instruction in teniperance differ in various States as to its being obligatory or merely sanctioned. According to the law of New York (the most complete), temperance must be taught for eight years in all the primary and secondary schools supported by the State, at the rate of twenty lessons a jmar in the three primary classes and thirty lessons in the five higher. The intention of the law is certainly most excellent ; but it may be asked, with Mr. Thomas S. Cole, principal of the high school of Chester,- if it is not pre¬ suming too much on the patience of the pupils to compel them during eight years to listen to the same teaching ; for, if one examines the series of manuals he will find that they vary very little. The poet Pope says somewhere ; Vice is a monster of so frightful a mien, As, to he hated, needs but to be seen ; But seen too oft, familiar with her face, We first endure, then pity, then embrace. There is also the question as to the scientific value of the manuals placed in the hands of the pupils. Some doubt as to this has been raised by Doctor Atwater and other savants, which has raised a veritable tempest in the camp of temperance. It would be rash for us to take part in this controversy ; how¬ ever, when we read in the school manuals of Mrs. Hunt that cider makes all those who drink it disagreeable and of bad character, often cruel, and indifferent to good (Physiology and Health, I, p. 29), one must ask if even an apostle so admirable as Mrs. Hunt and so disinterested an author that she has given up all income from her books, does not give to her pupils ideas of physiology which are a little too exaggerated. In the double aim of reaching children who do not attend the public schools and of keeping in a right mind those who do, instruction in temperance is also given in the Sunday schools, which are a sort of catechistical schools, directed by devout persons in collaboration with the pastor. It is from such environ¬ ments that the younger temperance societies are recruited, and to the organiza¬ tion of which the Massachusetts Total Abstinence Society is devoted, of which the Hon. J. D. Long, formerly Secretary of the Navy, is president and Hev. A. Noon, secretary. The necessities of the struggle for existence. — Economic forces render power¬ ful aid to the churches, the temperance societies, and the schools. In order to use such machines as the self-binding mowmr, the farmer has no need to give himself artificial strength. On the contrary, he needs to keep constant watch in order to avoid damaging his machines, to have great skill in repairing them, a quick nye to enable him to choose them before making his purchase, and some reserve capital with which to pay for them. All this drives whisky from the farm. How much more necessary to have men with entire clearness of mind and an unshattered nervous system since the wheelwork of machinery is becom¬ ing more delicate and exact, its quickness is increasing, the watch over it is growing more minute, the responsibility is redoubled, and the strongest com¬ petition lies in wait for the least fault and the minutest degree of weakness. Moreover, the greater part of the great captains of industry are obstinately opposed to the intemperate workman. The great railroad companies go still further. They insist that their em¬ ployees be abstinent, at least in the broad sense of the word. The rule of the American Railway Association demands that the use of Intoxicating liquors during the hours of work be prohibited. Their habitual use or the frequenting of places where they are sold is sufficient cause for dismissal. This rule is applied strictly by the greater number of the companies. Secret inspectors watch suspected employees to such an extent that, having taken their photo- 612 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. graphs at a bar, the proof is complete and discharge follows.^ This rule may seem severe and the espionage offensive; but, as the editor of the Railroad Gazette remarked to me, “ It would be impossible to tell by his simple outward aspect whether a man's nerves are still influenced by the libations of the night before.” Commerce and banking also, from the point of view of requiring sober quali¬ ties, compete with the more delicate and dangerous industries. In the columns of ” Wanted, employees,” in the Sunday papers of from seventy to eighty pages, one is struck by the great number of advertisements ; ” Wanted, a sober and active clerk.” Thus it will be seen that sobriety is demanded in equal measure with honesty and energy on the part of the accountant, the cashier, and even the salesman of the fashionable shops, who will not be allowed to wait on the ladies if he smells of whisky. Great merchants, like Mr. Wanamaker, considered by every¬ body as model employers, are inflexible on this point. If the fear of being dismissed is for many the beginning of temperate lives, the example of the more important men in the affairs of the world exercises a profound moral effect. When they see such a man as Mr. Rockefeller, with his $75,000,000 annual revenue, strictly abstinent, they ask themselves if possibly abstinence may not have had something to do with his millions, and they abstain. It would not amount to anything with them to be told that Mr. Rocke¬ feller has some stomach trouble. Mr. Rockefeller represents an ideal to them, and they wish to hold all the trump cards in their game. The universities endowed by the millionaires necessarily feel the influence and spirit of their founders, and with all 'the more docility that, these not yet being dead, the list of their generous donations is not yet ended. Thus, at Chicago, beer and wine are ex;cluded from the table of the Professors’ Club.& Trade unions. — In their turn, the trade unions have also taken up the question. Besides the individual and professional interests of their members, they are led to take this stand by motives of the general order. Formerly drinking places were chosen for the meetings of the trade unions. All this is changed. The development of the organizations, the importance of their financial opera¬ tions, the control of their aid funds, the direction of the great masses of men who at a word from their chief quit their work and return to it, make it neces¬ sary that their leaders shall be men of great clearness of mind and judgment; and on election day the reputation for temperance in the candidates for the ofiices of president and secretary is a recommendation to the least temperate of the members of the union. From another point of view, but for reasons quite as plain, the greater part of the unions, and especially all the brotherhoods, refuse to take care of their mem¬ bers who have been dismissed for drunkenness and deprive them of all participa¬ tion in aid during idleness and sickness. In addition to this, a very great number exclude from their ranks dealers in liquors. Finally, the trade unions are forced to impose temperance at times of strikes in order to lessen their financial responsibility and to prevent the disorders which might be at the risk of alienat- “ In an inquiry conducted under the direction of the Commissioner of Labor, in 1897, among 7,000 industrial establishments employing 1,700,000 persons, 5,303 replied that they never employed anyone without being first informed as to his sobriety, and 1,794 that they absolutely prohibited the use of intoxicating liquors to their workmen. The reasons given were not at all philanthropic ones, but purely and simply those of interest — to prevent accidents, to assure better workmanship and stricter economy. ** The Ambassador of China, who v/as invited recently to respond to a toast at a ban¬ quet of this club, asked, like a real enfant teirihle, why all these banqueters, who doubt¬ less were fond of wine in private, should not find it to their taste at the “ quadrangle club.” THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 613 ing public opinion. Just this last year, at tbe time of the great strike of anthra¬ cite miners, Wilkesbarre, headquarters of Mr. John IMitchell, president of the Federation of Miners, a city of 50,000 people, had nearly all the saloons closed.® Thus it can be said, with Mr. Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, that the trade unions have done more to favor temperate habits than all other organizations together. In enumerating the forces which make for temperance may be added the reduction in the premiums which many of the life insurance companies allow, following the example of the principal one, the Equitable, which grants this to total abstinents on account of their greater longevity, as shown by statistics. The influence exercised by these examples in a country where insurance is so common is not to be passed over. We will surprise no one in saying that this formidable army of temperance, aided by such powerful allies as economical forces, vastly influences public opinion. Consequently he who wishes to drink is obliged to conceal himself. The saloons have screens at their doors and at their windows, and in spite of that, fearful of losing their places, employees in the stores and mechanics scarcely dare to venture in. Last February the members of the American Congress found themselves obliged, under the pressure of public opinion, to exclude from their cafe all liquors containing alcohol. The future will decide if ])arliamentary eloquence has lost anything. Drunkenness has become a shaineful vice. Not only is it no longer allowed, as was formerly the case, in good society, but if there is a drunken man in a car the conductor pulls the cord and puts the unfortunate one in the open fields by the roadside. Therefore those who are tainted with this vice seek to get rid of it. AGENCIES OF REFORMATION. There are special establishments whose aim is to cure drunkards. Some are called “ Keeley cures ” or “ Gold cures,” and make use of a homeopathic treat¬ ment with strychnine as its base, which gives a temporary distaste for alcohol.^ There are also hospitals for inebriates, ineliriate asylums, some of which are for women specially, which have not done all that was expected of them.® The most celebrated, that of Binghamton, N. Y., has recently been obliged to close. The difficulty in the therapeutics of drunkenness is not that of a temporary cure. The problem is that tlie drinker should remain cured when he has again taken up his old life and his ordinary diet, returned to his habits and customs, frequenting the same street where he finds the same saloon and the same saloon-keeper friend who lies in wait for him. From this last point of view the Christian homes for inebriates have accom¬ plished marvels. The Franklin Reformatoiy Home for Inebriates, at Philadel¬ phia, is a consoling spectacle for human dignity, for from its portals 70 per cent depart not only cured, but armed for the battle. a To the influence of Mr. Mitchell was added that of one of the Catholic priests extremely popular among the miners and one of the champions of antialcoholism, Father Curran, who had succeeded in influencing three-fourths of his parishioners to take the pledge. The priest and the leader of the strike were of mutual assistance in their work. ^ Opinion is divided as to the deflnitive success of this treatment. There have keen, it seems, patients who have died of it, and others who on leaving the institutions have immediately returned to the vice. The Keeley cure hospitals, scattered all over the United States, have their secrets and mysteries, as have all other medical institutions. ‘^A periodical. The Journal of Inebriety, serves as the organ of these different institu¬ tions. 614 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. The method used supposes the patients to be of a religious nature, as Amer¬ icans generally are. After having given to the patient the first treatment which his condition demands, generally one of alimentation, the treatment becomes essentially moral. They are brought to the conviction that hereafter the simple fact that they do not flee from an opportunity to gratify the vice w'ould be a sin as great as the lapse itself, since the one leads fatally to the other ; that to raise a glass to their lips would be a sin ; to take alcohol into the house, or to pass the saloon of the neighborhood would also be a sin, and sin renders useless the blood which Christ had shed for them. Simple experience has shown, said the superintendent of this institution, Hon. Harry Davis, an old inmate of a hospital, but to-day a criminal judge of Phila¬ delphia, that if the motives of human interest lead patients to the asylum, only supernatural motives are sufficiently powerful to make them persevere. And if in the presence of temptation they can make themselves the judges of their human interests, this last resource will be wanting to them when it is God himself who weighs in the balance. It must be added that the superintendents never lose sight of the patients who have gone forth from the asylums. They are invited to attend the w’eekly reunions and to share with the new arrivals their little experiences, and thus they are ingeniously enabled to convert some, and at the same time lead others to desire to do better.^ At the great festivals, and particularly at Christmas, they are invited to the table of the institution in order to be removed from the temptations of the family repast. All social classes are admitted into these hospitals ; but — a touching custom — the rich — and there are many of them — must consent to be cared for with the poor, drunkenness having leveled all ranks and made all social inequalities disappear. II.— Restrictions of the Traffic. Should not the law aid in the work of saving and aiding individuals by mak¬ ing some effort to restrict the traffic? There is not in the entire territory of the Union a single State which has not believed this to be its duty,^ and the system of complete liberty enjoyed by the public houses in France is here entirely unknown. The principle of public law which, in the suits which have come before it, the Supreme Court of the United States has laid down as the basis of all American legislation is the following: ® Mr. Harry Davis did me the honor to invite me on one of these evenings. There were about a hundred present ; hymns alternated with the exhortations of the old con¬ verts ; these narrated, with an ease which is only found in Anglo-Saxon countries, the faults of their past, then their conversion, and how, hy the grace of God, they had been able to persevere. Then one after another made some remarks, animated for the most part and with an accent of truth which on other occasions had seem-ed to me to have been generally lacking in this kind of meeting. I brought away with me a touching remembrance of this evening. ^ We will only mention the taxes which the Government of the United States imposes on alcohol and all fermented liquors manufactured or imported into its territory. The Federal Government also exacts a license of every distiller and of every dealer, either wholesale or retail, in these different products. But in this case there is no thought of moral duty, the aim is solely to increase its revenue. The success in this particular is great, the total receipts from these different taxes in 1901 being $191,697,887.21 on a total of $306,871,609 indirect taxes, duties not included. The greater part, $110,855,000, was derived from a tax of $1.10 per gallon on distilled liquors; $74,956,593 was obtained from fermented liquors at the rate of $1.60 per barrel of 31 gallons. The purely fiscal character of this legislation is shown in the difterence between the licenses required of wholesale and retail dealers, the first being four times as great as the second. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 615 The State has the right as a measure of police to regulate or even suppress any traffic which appears to be a source of public clanger without having to make any reparation whatever to the interests of individuals who may have suffered from such a law. Now the sale of intoxicating drinks comes in this category. (State of Kansas v. Ziebold, October, 1887.) And elsewhere : No citizen of the United States can claim any natural or in¬ violable right to sell liquors with an alcoholic base. (Crowley v. Christensen, 137 U. S., 1886, etc.) This principle applies even in a case where the State prohibits the sale to pri¬ vate individuals in order to reserve to itself the monopoly. It is considered to take this step only to restrain drinking. It is easy to understand how light the task of the reformer becomes in view of s.o inexpensive a past liquidation. Active legislation in the United States is divided into three classes. The first prohibits purely and simply all traffic in the territory in question ; this comes under the head of prohibition. The second regulates the retail sale of liquors with an alcoholic base in order to prevent its abuse; this is the law of license. The last makes a legal monopoly of the sale ; this is the system of dispensaries. Some of the States have a general law for their entire territory, others leave the different communities free to choose such system as they prefer. This is called “ local option,” and is increasing in favor throughout the Union. Prohibition. — The idea of purely and simply prohibiting a trade which can only prosper at the expense of the health and morality of the public was the first to enter into the minds of the reformers. We will examine successively the prohibition which qxtends over the entire territory of a State and that which is limited to a county or a community. In consequence of the temperance crusade conducted in the middle of the last century by Gen. Neal Dow fifteen States had prohibition inscribed among their laws ; the most zealous even had it incorporated in their constitutions. To-dajq of that brilliant epic there are but four survivors — Maine, Kanisas, North Dakota, and New Hampshire.® The complete defeat of State prohibition is attributable to two causes, the one external, the other internal. According to the Constitution no restraint on the liberty of commerce between the States can be effected by local legislation (interstate commerce law). Now, if one State wishes to prohibit the public sale of alcoholic liquors within its territory, it can not prevent the products of a' neighboring State from being sold at home. The consumer can thus give regular orders for packages bearing the mark of origin (original package) without breaking the prohibition laws. The law only intervenes if an attempt is made to trafiic in them. It is easy to see, however, how difficult it would be to prevent fraudulent disposition thereof. The greatest evasion is produced when the law attempts to govern all parts of the State indiscriminately without regard to the public sentiment of com¬ munities. The municipal organization furnishes a very simple means of render¬ ing any law inoperative which is opposed hy public sentiment. The candi¬ dates for the public offices simply receive orders to close their eyes to the viola¬ tions of the law. And in order to be safe from judicial prosecution it is only “The latest defections are quite recent; that of Vermont was occasioned on February 3 last, in consequence of a recent vote of the people. At the moment of writing the American journals announce that New Hampshire, which-had for some time been shovving signs of disaffection and had begun to authorize the manufacture of liquor, but without authorizing the sale, is on the point of abandoning prohibition entirely. A bill has already been proposed in the legislature and has obtained a large majority. It is now to be submitted to popular vote. 616 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. necessary for the dealers to set themselves right with the internal-revenue office hy paying the $25 license required of every retailer in the Union.a Thus a State with prohibitive legislation is not a little like those which have left to the communities the liberty of choosing their system. In both cases the efficacy of the prohibitive measures depends on the public opinion of the inhabit¬ ants, But whereas in one case they violate or obey an existing law at will, in the other they enact the law of which they feel the need. This condition is intolerable in the opinion of all. The custom of seeing a law broken with the complicity of the local authorities creates a tendency to political morals incom¬ patible with democratic institutions. Two remedies have been attempted. One consists in withdrawing from the local authorities the execution of the liquor law and placing it in the hands of the governor of the State. But experience shows that one can not count too much on the good intentions of a man who, being elected by one of two great parties, the Democrats or the Republicans, would hardly wish to alienate the votes of any given community for a matter to which the majority of the electors thereof are indifferent. There has arisen a group of men resolved to find a more ambitious solution, which, in case of success, can neither be compromised nor evaded. This has been nothing less than to form a new party entirely and exclusively devoted to the triumph of prohibition and which should undertake the task of imposing on the candidates for puldic office the command to execute the laws in the prohibi¬ tion States, of obtaining votes in the other States, and finally of forcing the principle into Federal legislation, and even into the Constitution, and seeing it installed at the Capitol and the White House. This party, but little known in Europe, and which in reality is not a serious factor in the United Sates either as regards numbers or influence, politically or otherwise, nevertheless is worthy of attention for the original view which it gives of certain aspects of American character. In all the great cities of the United States the “ Prohibition party ” has a permanent political bureau, charged with looking after the local elections, where the antialcoholic inquirer is always certain of finding abundant informa¬ tion and a cordial reception, A Federal committee, equally watchful, is installed at Chicago. Its mission is to prepare for the Presidential election, the principal care of the party, because defeat itself is the means of a wide publi¬ cation of the ideas which have succumbed on so great a field of battle.^ It is with a sting of remorse that this inquirer is obliged to forget the flatter¬ ing attentions of his hosts in order to set forth the facts impartially. The pro¬ gramme of the Prohibition party, as we have seen, consists essentially in the prohibition of the traffic In liquors with an alcoholic base on every bit of soil of the United States, That single article would appear somewhat too brief for a party which aspires to all the complex responsibilities of power from the post of President of the Republic to that of a sheriff in the smallest counties. Such at least is the thought Vvhich naturally presents itself to the mind of an inhabit¬ ant of the Old World. It is not absolutely justified. The origin of the two great parties. Democratic and Republican, was also due “ Thus one can read in the annual report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue that in the prohibition State of Maine 1,191 dealers paid the license, 2,727 in Kansas, etc. Each of these cases shows an open and, so to speak, official confession of violation of the law. * The campaign is begun with every possible apparatus and with classic seriousness. A special train, called the rrohibition train, carries the Presidential candidate from one part of the country to the other, making fifteen-minute stops wherever a local commit¬ tee has requested, and subscribed .'PIO. From his car the candidate harangues the voters until the time is up, when the train inexorably moves off. THE BATTLE AGAI^^ST ALCOHOL. 617 to a difference of views on a single point, viz, the sovereignty of the States and popular franchise, which at a given period was considered of such importance that it became the bond of party and at the same time the stake of battle — the “ issue,” as it is called. One can hardly conquer a certain skepticism in view of the pretension to reform political morals and to attempt the recasting of old parties on a single question, however important it may he. This skepticism, however, changes to admiration when one sees how the Prohibitionists buckle down to their task. If, indeed, one has seen in certain places that the granting of privileges to dis¬ tillers came near disjoining old party walls in order to cement a new one, how can one imagine that the question of temperance, the principle of personal sac¬ rifice, may have the same cohesive force? It is hard to believe, in spite of its robust faith, that the Prohibition party can still preserve many of its illusions, since, at each new election, it sees the members of its societies and of the churches which have made the strongest official declarations in its favor, Methodist clergymen themselves, silently desert the party,, carried away toward the old parties through some tradition, some personality, some question of the hour. One prohibitionist excused himself to me for having voted for Mr. Roosevelt, although he knew that he drank wine at his table, because Mr. Roosevelt had distinguished himself as a colonel in the Cuban war. And see how, after twenty-five years of warfare, truly worthy of a better fate, the Pro¬ hibition party has not been able to maintain itself in power even in the States which hav’e adopted the system so dear to it. « Still more discouraging is it to note that in the Presidential elections the number of votes in favor of its candidate, after having reached 2()3,000 in 1892, in 1900 showed only 209,000 votes out of 14,000,000. And in that total the State of Maine, the promised land of Prohibition, contributed but 2,5(X) votes out of 103,000. In spite of fate the Prohibitionists remain faithful to their flag, and when gaps are produced they close their ranks. Does not their conscience tell them that drunkenness is an evil, and that the traffic in alcohol is its cause? They will, then, not disarm themselves so long as a single saloon exists and is tolerated by the authorities. To vote with the Republicans or the Democrats, who count in their ranks the dealers in alcohol, who take subsidies from the syndicate of the distillers, who finally vote for a budget obtained from a tax on alcohol, would be in their eyes to become accomplices and co-sinners. On the other hand, to confide to such the task of executing prohibition laws would be to show them¬ selves dupes. The most zealous even refuse their aid toward reforming or diminishing the number of the saloons. Would it not be better, they say, that the evil should be seen in all its hatefulness? And they vote against the system of high license, or, as in 1892, in South Carolina, against a project of monopoly, which ended by making an alliance with the sellers of alcohol. Therefore at each local or general election they bring foinvard some of their own candidates in order that those who may wish to exercise their right of suffrage can at least do so without offending God. There is to be recognized in these characters a type which has not j^et disappeared from the United States, the Puritan. " If it happens, as a great exception, that a Prohibition victory is announced, the causes are usually entirely local and temporary, such as a combination of malcontents who wish to give a lesson to the two official parties, or the popularity of some man, as of Mr. W. Oliver Stewart, in one of the districts of the State of Illinois. I had the opportunity to attend some of the meetings of the party preparatory to the November elections, particularly one of the caucuses where the faithful were charged with the task of nominating the candidates of the party. The meeeting was held at Brooklyn, in a Methodist church. A minister was called upon to lead in prayer. He rose, closed his eyes, and addressed his invocation 1o heaven. Then they took up the matter of choos¬ ing a candidate for the office of county sheriff. The office was not one of riches or 618 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. State prohibition is, then, only a decoy, and its faiiure has passed into a by¬ word in the United States. “ Prohibition is a failure.” “ Prohibition does not prohibit.” o Nevertheless, is there not a prohibition which does succeed? It seems that this may be answered in the affirmative when one sees more than half the rural counties actually under that system and satisfied with it. There is where prohibition has been given a “fair trial” (to use the English expres¬ sion), by placing it, through the mechanism of local option, in a condition which gives opportunity for fair experiment. Local option has brought to light an almost invariable rule, viz, prohibition is suited to the country. It is inappli¬ cable in the cities. Already it is to be seen that out of fifteen States which tried prohibition the four last retaining it were those inhabited by an agricultural people, and that in these States only^ the rural parts observed the law. ^ The statistics of the places in which local option is the law are still more significant. In Connecticut, an industrial State of very dense population, in 53 districts voting for prohibition at the elections in 1902 the most imporant only numbered 8,540 souls, and, on the other hand, in the State of New York, out of 935 rural communities, 650 prohibited saloons. What is the cause of this difference between the cities and the country? Two reasons mgy be given : A prohibitory law, in order to be applicable, must be supported by an almost unanimous public opinion. Everybody knows, of course, that a law becomes such by a majority of votes, but that if that law is injurious to the material interests or the habits of life of a certain number, it will not be possible to execute it unless the majority is numerically overwhelm¬ ing or unusually aroused. In other vrords, it is necessary that the officers of the lav/ must feel themselves sustained in or forced to its execution by an irre¬ sistible current of public opinion. In the second place, a prohibitory law should be applied without the least weakness. Now, if one has time to think of the margin of profit which, under that system, the absence of a tax gives to illegal commerce it will be easy to understand the degree to which fraud is encouraged. To carry out the law the surroundings must favor surveillance or there must be an incorruptible police exclusively devoted to this work. Now, prohibition does not find any serious opposition in the country. If it injures some interests, they are neither suffi¬ ciently powerful nor well enough organized to make resistance profitable, and the surveillance of the police becomes an easy matter where all are acquainted with each other. The countryman, on the other hand, is indifferent to any injury which the law may do to the saloon keeper, and, finally, if he wishes to honor. Indeed, it was simply a question of going from one political meeting to another in the entire district, without the least hope of success. For my personal edification the chairman asked the members of the assembly who had already^ been candidates for this office to' rise ; almost all did so ; only one, a clergyman, remained seated. It was his turn to make the sacrifice. He debated for some time against the misfortune and the intemperate zeal of his too-devoted parishioners who nominated him ; he felt compelled to yield. After that the party would be able to hold their campaign and sow the good seed in a desert where, to borrow the Puritan language, not even the thorns and thistles of opposition would grow. “ A great number of foreigners, however, continue to be convinced of the efficacy of prohibition, because in traveling in a Pullman car in Kansas or North Dakota, on the way to the Pacific, they refuse to serve in the dining car the wine which would beguile the tedium of the journey. It is precisely on this very impression that the authorities count as a means of spreading abroad their virtues. Thus the railroads have become the last asylums and the most jealous guardians of prohibition, where one might have thought that they would be the first to profit by some tolerance. ^ Gut of 370 towns of less than 1,000 inhabitants in Maine, 300 observed the law and were not found on the Federal tax registers. On the contrary, out of 192 more impor¬ tant places, only 79 had remained faithful, and of this number 74 had less than .2,500 inhabitants and 5 less than 3,500. THE BATTLE AGAIHST ALCOHOL. 619 drink, he has apple cider, and if this is not enough he goes to the neighboring town. In the cities, on the contrary, the problem presents a very different aspect. I will not return to the debt of gratitude which the saloon keepers have earned from all men who are not without tenderness of heart for having supplied cer¬ tain necessary facilities which are neglected by the municipalities. Saloons are necessary from another point of view. A hotel simply vegetates which does not sell alcoholic liquors. Now, a hotel in the United States is an institution which presents the character of general public utility. In a central hall all the organs of business life are grouped — offices of the different sorts of trans¬ portation service, of the post-office, the telegraph companies ; there are cigar stands, newspapers and reviews, water coolers, writing and reading rooms. Everything is free to all, and many of the business men make it their rendez¬ vous. But for the ice water and the paper and the reading room, however freely offered, there must be some source of compensation. The principal one is the bar ; to suppress it would be to ruin the entire organization, and would even seriously affect the course of life of the city.® In the towns the saloon is the eternal partner of distress. Until the popula¬ tion of vagabonds and idlers, of workmen without employment, and of the sick and infirm vdio crowd the cities have been seen to disappear, or other places for recreation or for alleviating the suffering of the poor are found in the various “ substitutes for the saloon ” s the saloon keeper affirms his right to existence. He affirms it brutally l)y changing: prohibition into a reign of uncontrolled lib¬ erty and by corrupting all the springs of public life. In one after another of the majority of the cities in which a pretense has been made of imposing prohi¬ bition by a law of the State they have managed to evade it and substitute therefor a veritable regime ,of license. There are but few exceptions to this rule. The most important consists of certain communities in the vicinity of a large city in which saloons are tolerated, such a.s Cambridge, a town of 91,880 souls, the seat of the celebrated Harvard University, across the river from Boston ; Quincy, at the south of the same town, and Hyde Park and Evanston, in the suburbs of Chicago. These are the residence quarters, where business men go at evening to seek calm and repose, far from the dust of the streets, the noise of typewrit¬ ing machines, and the neighborliood of the outskirts where the workingmen dwell. There they can live their own independent existence and are abundantly able to keep out the saloons. * License system. — Realizing the impossibility in many cases of suppressing the liquor traffic, the majority of the cities and a certain number of rural districts limit their efforts to restraining it ; this is the license system. License, properly speaking, is the right to sell alcoholic liquors under certain restrictions by paying a more or less heavy tax. There is a special license, gen¬ erally at a low rate, for the wholesale dealers and the bottlers ; there is also a greatly reduced one for the druggists who sell alcohols as medicines ; we will only take up the case of the retailers. Among the restrictions in the retail traffic which are universal are ; Prohibit¬ ing the sale on Sundays, on legal holidays, on election days, after a certain hour at night, to minors, to drunkards or persons recognized as such, and forbidding “ Unlike England, the United States has very few “ temperance hotels.” ^ Of all the attempts to create places of honest and attractive recreation for the people in place of the saloon the most interesting are assuredly those which at the same time aim at the moral and mental education of the poorer class, such as the university settle¬ ments of Chicago and New York, the “ Light House ” of Philadelphia, and the various clubs, the chief of which is the Y. M. C. A. and its branches scattered over the entire territory of the Union. e>20 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. women to keep a saloon or to be employed in one. Sometimes there are more original measures, such as being .obliged to remove the screens from before the doors and the windows in order that the drinkers may be seen from the outside, the prohibition of music in the saloons, of billiards, cards, or dice, to the end that only those who are thirsty will go there to drink, but that no extraneous recrea¬ tion may attract them to the place. Finally, following the same line of thought, several States, to the number of which Pennsylvania, was added by a recent law (March, 1003), have prohibited the “free lunch,” which serves as a dinner, in the saloons. * * * But the most active and, to an extent, automatic a.gent in reducing the num¬ ber of saloons is the tax paid to the treasury, and which is divided in variable proportions between the city, the county, and the State. A typical and very general example is that furnished by Philadelphia. In 1887, in that city there were 5,773 saloons paying a license of $50; in 1888, the tax having been raised to $500, the number fell to 1,74G. On the contrary, when the tax was raised from $500 to $1,000 in 1891, there was no appreciable reduction. Taking the average of the last twelve years and comparing them with the years previous to 1888, it was found that there was a decrease of G4 per cent in the number of saloons by the simple process of a reasonable increase of the taxes. The second advantage of high license is raising the moral tone of the saloons which remain. When a seller of alcohol is obliged, besides the $25 which he must pay to the Federal Treasury, to pay to the city from $800 to $1,000 of annual taxation, and when, in addition, he must face the expenses of a luxurious establishment, he must either find some one to provide the funds or simply be the agent of some powerful house, or he himself must be a small capitalist, a Moral and legal guaranties are increased in any event. Moreover, he must fur¬ nish security. But the true reason for the popularity of the high license with the electors is, it must be said, the abundant revenues which are thereby fur¬ nished to municipalities, counties, and States. Fortunately, therefore, moral and fiscal interests are here in accord with each other. The amount Of the license tax is a delicate question ; if it is made too large, clandestine dealers will multiply and both morality and the treasury Vvill suffer ; if it is not large enough, the saloons officially allowed become too numerous and the moral guaranty of their proprietors becomes insufficient. Experience has shown that in the cities a tax according to the population gives the best results, with a maximum rarely more than $1,000 ; but there must be no hesitation in carrying this figure higher in cities of more than 200,000 souls, because they are able to supply it.& Curiously, New York and Chicago do not consider that they are able, on account of their shifting and cosmopolitan l)opulation, to levy a license tax equal to that of Boston, New Orleans, Philadel¬ phia, or Pittsburg— towns where the customers of the saloons are more easily regulated.c “ More and more are saloon keepers becoming mere agents of the brewers and dis¬ tillers. The agreement between them is about as follows : The hrewer has charge of decorating and carrying on the shop and furnishing the legal security ; the saloon keeper binds himself to procure his supplies of beer and whisky from his silent partner, and gives as guaranty for the sums spent in the business his license and lease. » At New Orleans the tax amounts to 1,500, but this excessive figure is only explained by the intention to prohibit the business of saloon keepers to negroes. Moreover, it provokes numerous abuses. At Boston the license is .$1,100 ; it is .$1,000 at Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Minne¬ apolis, $800 at New York, and $500 at Chicago. It varies generally from about $500 in towns of from 50,000 to 200,000 inhabitants ; $350 for a population of from 10,000 to 50,000; $300 between 5,000 and 10,000, and $200 between 1,200 and 5,000. The minimum is $100 for villages of less than 1,200 (law of the State of New York). THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 621 To the citizen of a country where fees are in proportion to the presumed amount of business this fixing of a uniform tax « maj^ appear antidemocratic. It effectually tends to make the small saloons disappear and really promotes a monopoly of those better located. & The American system is none the less the only practical method of causing an important and rapid reduction in the number of dealers in liquors. Saloons and politics. — The principle of revoking without indemnity the licenses thus dearly bought, and, it may be added, the progress of prohibition in the rural districts, have led the trade in alcohol to defend itself by organizing its forces on the political field. The inci'easing concentration of the trade in the hands of powerful brewers’ establishments, of which the retailers, nominally licensed, are only the agents, rendered this organization easy.r Funds were raised by means of levies on the sales of the retailers, and the “ rum power,” as it is sometimes called, was al)le to send to Washington during the sessions of Congress an agent charged with ‘‘ influencing ” the members of Congress, who, in the corridors of the Capitol, touched elbows with the W. C. T. U. and the Prohi¬ bitionist party. But it was above all in local politics that the saloon keepers took part, where the good will of some candidate for the office of mayor or chief of police was still more important to them than that of members of Congress. That such influence is injurious we have seen; it vitiates and warps the polit¬ ical wheels, corrupts the press, obtains votes for a private interest, and openly pays to public officers the price of their complaisance. That danger called for a remedy ; it was found. One of the most remarkable and the most engaging charisteristics of the United States is the energetic initiative which is excited by any social vice which it is found necessary to combat. If it is the country^ of corrupt municipalities, it is also that of societies for public good. The police, compounding with licensed and clandestine saloons, were met by men who had resolutely formed the La\v and Order Society, having a private police, which took upon itself the task of personally executing the law. And .when the judges go to hold their annual session of the license court there will be seen the curious spectacle of the president of the Law and Order Society holding the seat of the public officer in place of the chief of police, armed with the proper proofs of the violation of the law and demanding the infliction of the penalties. The task undertaken by the Law and Order Society is a double one ; on the one hand it secures the strict observance of the law by the licensed saloon keepers, denounces the violations of which they have been guilty, and at each new application for a license brings to the judges a searching inquiry into the moral standing of the candidate and the reasons for opening a new saloon in the designated quarter. Its second object is to cause the disappearance of the “ speak easies,” which are open on Sundays and the days when the licensed saloons close their doors. “ With the exception of St. Louis, where an act valorem tax is levied on all the stock in trade of the retailer. ® In a certain quarter of Philadelphia where there were formerly five saloons there is hut one since the operation of high license, but it brings in $20,000 in place of $2,000 per year. When the holder retires after having made his fortune he sells out to his successor for from $5,000 to $8,000. It is also sometimes asked why a town does not sell the licenses to the highest bidder, in place of granting them at a uniform figure, in order that it may be benefited by the monopoly which it in fact creates, to the profit of a few. ‘^'The municipalities have vainly endeavored to put brakes on this movement, which they themselves provoked by limiting competition. According to Brook’s law (Pennsyl¬ vania) the saloon keeper must be the only person individually interested in the business for which the license is demanded and the bonds must not be furnished by the brewers. But how can secret agreements become knov/n? 622 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. For this purpose their agents organize expeditions at intervals on Sundays to those places which they have ferreted out, brusquely invade them, and make quick work of the proofs of crime, the casks and bottles, which they store in a safe place while waiting for the constable to come and serve the warrant. Election days are particularly busy days for the Law and Order Society, and their numerous raids make trouble for more than one political conspiracy hatch¬ ing in the shade of these by-places. This open war against illegal competitors would receive the gratitude of the saloon keei^ers were it not that they themselves are veiy often the silent part¬ ners and source of supply of the clandestine dealers. But the Law and Order Society does not show itself as a systematic enemy of the saloons. One is even struck, on examining into the published accounts of the court of license, at the moderation with which this society presents its proofs against the occasional delinquents, and the respect which it shows for and the recommendations with which it supports the honest trade in liquors.^ On the other hand, however, it is tlie irreconcilable enemy of fraud. It is on the occasions of these raids that the conflicts arise with the police who wish to spare the political friends of the mayor, and the great electors of the party. The police are only called upon to arrest guilty persons when they are caught in flagrante delicto. Sometimes the stroke is so well planned that policemen themselves in uniform are found in the very act of drinking, and in such cases there is no use in calling in others to arrest these. One can under¬ stand with what bad humor such a command would he executed, which in certain cases has gone to the length of refusing to bring the police wagon. Recently, in Philadelphia, however, the Law and Order Society and the police have been seen going hand in hand in the repression of gambling in the saloons, such is the prestige which the society has acquired and the powerful assistance which the police themselves render to their collaborators. Such is the renown of this society, even at a distance, that the authorities of a county of Pennsylvania, seeing themselves powerless in securing respect for the law, addressed themselves to the society, and asked them to undertake for a certain sum the moral cleanliness of some of the town centers. The Law and Order Society, having accepted, sent their agents, and in a few- weeks 240 saloon keepers were arrested, and 209 of their number proved guilty. The expenses amounted to $9,000. Societies of this kind are very numerous in the LTnited States. A large num¬ ber of them are grouped in a federation under the name of tne “ Anti-Saloon League,” very active, even a little noisy ; in connection with their principal mission, which is to watch over the execution of the existing laws, they have also undertaken, under cover of local option, campaigns in favor of prohibition in a great number of rural counties. Their center of action is the State of Ohio, and their orators and missionaries have done wonders through their rally¬ ing cry of “ The saloon must go ! ” The Anti-Saloon League supports a dele¬ gate at Washington to watch over their interests. Along the same line are found several prosperous “ citizens’ leagues.” This year the one at Chicago dissolved, the task which they had undertaken seeming to them beyond human power. “ Sometimes saloon keepers prosecuted by the Law and Order Society have proposed a treaty of peace. They promised, if the prosecution were abandoned, to give a large bond as guarantee that they would observe the law in the future, the retailers’ syndicate to be held responsible. This treaty was accepted by the society, which is more desirous of securing respect for the law than of ruining the delinquents. This occurred in Con¬ necticut in 1895. (New York Evening Post, February 5, 1895.) ** Within a few days 1,200 gambling machines were seized and bu-ned. THE BATTLE AGAINST ALCOHOL. 623 Local option. — In the presence of the mnltiplicity of problems which are pre¬ sented by prohibition and the license system, we have seen that the majority of the States have taken the wise method of leaving to each community of inhabitants the care of choosing according to their convenience and opinions. This is the principle of local option. It is carried in some cases so far as to permit a community to create a monopoly of the traffic for its own profit. The law is generally submitted to popular vote by way of referendum, some¬ times at regular intervals — every year in Massachusetts, the State always cited as a model for local option — at others when a certain number of voters peti¬ tion for it, as in Rhode Island. The question raised is generally the following ; Shall licenses be granted for the sale of intoxicating liquors throughout the community? They vote yes or no. The communities which vote for prohibi¬ tion are called “ dry those which vote for license bear the name of “ wet.” « In deciding upon the extent of territory to have full privileges of sale there are two rocks to be avoided, both of which are dangerous. The first, as we know, is that of uniting under the same law the inhabitants of centers whose interests and conditions of life are different. This has caused a check to State prohibition. The second, on the contrary, is to allow in a too limited area, and particularly in the same city, the establishment of different systems ; for w^e then see the following phenomenon : “ Dry ” sections, which are generally those of tlie rich, drive all the saloons from their midst by their votes into the “ wet ” sections, where the poor live. Thus, because they have not been able to pre¬ vent it, these latter sections become the rendezvous of the vice of the whole city, while all profit equally by the amount of licenses paid into the treasury. The approach of a popular refei’endum gives birth to a most curious conflict between the partisans and the enemies of prohibition ; journals are founded under some very bizarre titles, “ The Frozen Truth,” “ The Eye Opener,” etc. The fences and even the street cars are covered with placards and proclamations of the temperance leagues and the syndicates of brewers. One remarkable thing, and one which contributes not a little to the credit of local option with good citizens, is that politics are systematically eliminated from the battle, and the committees on license and prohibition make it a point of honor not to favor one party to the detriment of the other. There is, besides, no question of individuals. Such campaigns have a rare educational value. It must, however, be conceded that a good half of the voters, generally assiduous at the ballot box, have no interest in this battle. There is another variety of local option, strange enough, which is found in the States of Ohio and Iowa. Prohibition is the law of the State, but the saloon keepers have no uneasiness where the majority of voters in the towns of more than 5,000 inliabitants and 65 per cent in the others have signed petitions in their favor. In such cases they are merely subjected to a fine of $350 in Ohio and $900 in Iowa. This system is called the “ mulct law,” or law of repression. It is quite favorable to prohibition, for, local option having no ofiicial standing, it is necessary for the friends of the saloons to have a certain audacity in order to circulate these petitions among the citizens. Monopoly of the traffic, or the system of dispensaries. — The monopoly of the sale of liquors with an alcoholic base by the State or the county is the third system found in the United States ; but the limited area over which it extends “ Sometimes, as in the State of New York, the question is subdivided. The electors are called to vote on (1) the authorization of the sale of liquors to he drunk at the place ; (2) that of selling liquors to be carried away; (3) that of selling alcohol in the drug stores; (4) that of selling in the hotels. These inconveniences did not pi'event the city of Boston from adopting last November the principle of votes by wards, after a very heated campaign. 624 EDUCATION EEPORT 1904. (South Carolina and some counties of North Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia) makes it impossible to draw any general conclusions as to the vitality of the system. * * * Conclusions. — Now that the time has come to give a resume of the many im¬ pressions which crowd on one in the course of an inquiry into the antia.lcoholic battle in the United States, it seems that the idea which dominates all the others is that of the diversity and the prodigious activity of the army of temperance. All the moral forces of that country give it assistance. In the first rank are the churches and the schools. Innumeral)le associations adapted to all beliefs, all tasteSj all races, and both sexes have been formed to assist and save the people. Under the pressure of opinion the law has stepped in to consecrate and facili¬ tate the work. After some dangerous oscillations it seems to have found a stable equilibrium by making liquor selling a local question. Left to themselves the rural communities have to a great extent adopted the absolute prohibition of the traffic, while the urban centers have rallied around the system of regulation and high license as being more adapted to their moral possibilities and fiscal necessities. Raising the license has resulted in a very considerable reduction in the number of saloons. It has resulted in a sort^f mo¬ nopoly created by the law to the profit of a small number, which was afterwards to be revoked on the first misbehavior of the beneficiaries, to the greater profit of law and order. Where the police have sometimes failed in their duty societies of citizens have been organized with a private police for the purpose of taking the execution of the law into their own hands. There are finally to be noted the attempts at creating here arid there a legal monopoly, either through a high-priced system or by a system of reserving the wholesale trade to the State. The future will show whether from a moral or financial standpoint these experiments have proved successful. The results of so vigorous a campaign have not been long deferred, for while men have fought social forces have prepared the victory for them. The prog¬ ress of agriculture, industry, and trade emphasizes \^'ith its demands the exhor¬ tations .of the apostles of temperance, reserving its benefits for those who listen and destroying those who rebel. The era of uninterrupted prosperity which began ten years ago in that coun¬ try, raising salaries, improving conditions, and ennolfiing the aspirations of life, as well as giving birth to innumerable institutions for the public benefit, must not be forgotten among the principal factors of temperance. If it be true that prosperity is a result of temperance it also gives rise to it. The comforts of life dissipate the social attractions of the saloon, while better food renders the use of alcohol as a stimulant unnecessary. The future will see this work still better organized and more widely extended. Through one of those providential dispensations which are the recompense of excessive efforts for good, the battle for total abstinence has resulted in the triumph of a true moderation. The Federal statistics of the Internal Revenue Office show that since 1840 hygienic drinks and particularly beer have been substituted for alcohol. « Is this to say that the antialcoholic war is no longer an object in the United States? To assert this would be to mtsunderstand the character of intemper¬ ance, which always rises again after a defeat ; it would be particularly false in a country where hundreds of thousands of immigrants land each year. More¬ over, statistics show that since 1890 there has been a slight recrudescence in “ In 1848 there were consumed 2^ gallons of whisky per capita, in 1901 only 1.33, while the consumption of heer in the same time increased from 1.36 to 16.20, the quan¬ tity of pure alcohol consumed being below its former level. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 625 the coiisimiptioii of spirituous liquors, which seems to concur with a certain slackening of the zeal of the apostles of temperance after their first period of success.o The work is not finished, but the method appears good and the exam¬ ple is worth following. It is encouraging to other countries. Sixty years ago America was in a worse condition than we are in to-day ; with her climate, her race, and her political corruption, she has yet to triumph over many more obstacles ; by persevering energy she has been able to reach her goal. With the moral and social forces at the disposal of our country, the victory would only depend on the union of good and willing spirits. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. [The minister of worship, education, and medical affairs of Prussia, Dr. Conrad von Studt, published in the September number of the official organ of his department of edu¬ cation '' a brief guide in temperance instruction for teachers of elementary and secondary schools. This guide is not a course of study, hut merely gives the main points which the minister desires to see impressed upon the pupils and students. Two months later he published a German translation of a detailed American course of study in physiology and hygiene, a course which bears the superscription, “Approved by the department of scientific temperance instruction of the World’s and National Woman’s Christian Tem¬ perance Union.’’ Of this specialized course the minister says that it is not to he taken as a type for courses in Prussia, hut that it contains many hints for practical lessons. With reference to the dangers arising from the use of intoxicants, he points to his own order, which, he says, contains all that should he taught in the schools of Prussia on the subject. Since it is of interest to note how the Prussian authorities limit the instruction in temperance physiology, an English translation of his order is here given.] THE INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF IMMODERATE INDULGENCE IN SPIRITUOUS BEVERAGES. BEIEF GUIDE FOR INSTRUCTION IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA. Alcohol, in German also called spirits (Spiritus) and wine spirits (TFem- geist), is made by means of fermentation directly from cane or fruit sugar, or indirectly from potato starch, from all kinds of grain, and from leguminous plants. All drinks produced through fermentation contain alcohol. To these belong all kinds of beer, from the simplest home brew to porter and ale ; all pure fruit wines, brandies, and cordials ; also eau de cologne, and mint or Carmelite spirits, which consist of a mixture of alcohol and other ingredients. Beverages made by fermentation directly from natural products (such as common brandies, wines, beers, and home-made fruit wines), or by mixing alco- “ From 1S90 to 1901 the consumption of distilled liquors per capita shows an uninter¬ rupted advance. Year. Gallons. Year. Gallons. 1806 .. . . 1.00 1899 . 1.15 1897 . . . 1.01 1900 _ 1.27 1898 . . . 1.10 1901 . 1.33 " Zentralhlatt fuer die gesamte Unterrichts-Verwaltung, 1903. ED 1904 M - 40 626 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. bol with water and other fluids, contain alcohol in different proportions. Among the mixtures are found many so-called fruit wines and artificial wines, espe¬ cially also the cider used in the eastern provinces of Prussia, which is a mix¬ ture of freshly pressed apple juice with water, sugar, and about 16 per cent of alcohol (by volume). In the eastern provinces people also drink ether and ether mixed with alcohol (so-called Hoffmann’s drops). The lightest beers contain less than 2 per cent, the heaviest (porter and ale) up to G per cent of alcohol ; wine of grapes and home-made fruit wines pro¬ duced by fermentation contain from G to 20 per cent ; brandies and cordials, eau de cologne, mint spirits, and Carmelite spirits from 30 to TO per cent of alcohol, while artificial fruit vrines, such as apple, currant, gooseberry, and pear wines, and especially cider, contain from 4 to IG per cent of alcohol, according as sugar is added or alcohol directly mixed in. Alcohol is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and appears, accord¬ ing to the natural product from which it is derived, in different combinations as ethyl alcohol, amyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, etc. With the exception of ethyl alcohol, all alcohols are commonly called fusel oil. The alcohol in a beverage gives to it an animating and, under certain condi¬ tions, a desirable beneficial effect, but if present to excess its effects are in¬ jurious. Taken to excess or habitually, alcohol injures (1) the health, (2) ethical conduct, (3) family life, (4) the economy of the family, and (5) the economy of the state. 1. Injuries to health. Taken in small doses alcohol acts at first as a stimulant and puts the user into a pleasant mood. During the condition of exhilaration it often dispels his worries and sorrows and enables him momentarily to increase his labor power ; but it would be an error to believe that mental or physical powers, as well as the ability to work and perform duties, could be increased definitely by habitual use of alcohol. After every excitation of the nervous system by means of alcoholic drinks follows a condition of relaxation and exhaustion, just as it follows every other nervous excitation. The normal human being can without using stimulants work mentally and physically without interruption to a much higher limit than the one who resorts to stimulants. This has been demonstrated by the soldiers in the American and English armies, who abstain from stimulants entirely. It has further been proved by the example of athletes (bicyclists, oarsmen, gymnasts, and swimmers), and finally by Nansen upon his north pole expedition. Everyone can test the foregoing statement by careful observation of himself. Taken in small doses, and not taken habitually, alcohol will, as a rule, not injure the health of adults. A dose which will not, as a rule, be injurious may be considered to be 30 cubic centimeters a day ; that is, about as much as is contained in one liter ot Bavarian beer, or in half a bottle of light wine, or in a wineglass of brandy. Owing to the great differences in individual conditions of human life such a measure can not be considered absolutely valid for all. Young people, or those whose nervous system is not quite normallj- developed, and especially all who have been weakened by disease or injuries, may endanger their health severely by taking the quantity suggested in the foregoing paragraph. If, on the other hand, persons can stand for a limited period of time larger quantities of alcoholic beverages apparently without special injury, it must not be pre¬ sumed that they can do so in the long run without injurious effect. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 627 Only total abstinence in children and strict temperance and avoidance of excesses in adults and youths will prevent injuries to health. He who neglects these precautions will experience, sooner or later, the exhaustion following upon excitation of the nervous system by the use of alco¬ hol. The perceptive powers decrease, mental elasticity relaxes, physical and mental fatigue takes place after only a moderate indulgence in alcoholic drink. Habitual use of alcohol leads to dyspepsia, which manifests itself in want of appetite and in insufficient digestion of the food taken ; frequently in irregulari¬ ties of the bowels, constipation, or diarrhea. These disturbances are the more noticeable the less the drinker takes wholesome, solid food. The desire to take food is diminished through the use of brandy and strong liquors sooner than through the use of other alcoholic beverages. Strong alco¬ holic liquors have been held to be economical, owing to their effect upon the quantity of food taken. But this is quite as erroneous as the assumption that alcoholic drinks promote digestion. They are not foods [Nahrungsmittel], as was formerly assumed, but almost exclusively means of stimulation and excita¬ tion. This is true, also, of wine of grapes if taken habitually, even though it be perfectly pure, and all the more so the greater the quantity of alcohol it con¬ tains. The so-called “ Bavarian beer,” it is true, has a small nutritive value, but it will nevertheless injure the health not only through the alcohol it contains, but also through the large quantities in which it is drunk. The great quantity of fluid taken overfills the vascular system of the body ; the heart, in order to overcome this superabundance, is obliged to work harder ; a consequence of this is, that ‘the muscles of the heart, like all hard-working muscles, increase in bulk. But side by side with muscular substance fat is generated, and thus we see developed the so-called “ beer heart.” It is a heart which, despite its enlarge¬ ment, is degenerated and weakened, not capable of performing the increased work demanded of it by the beer drinker, nor equal to other efforts for any protracted period ; it fails to do its work, and the man dies of paralysis of the heart or heart failure. In Germany, especially in Bavaria, a large number of men die in consequence of this immoderate senseless beer drinking. Tlie super¬ fluous fluids must be secreted from the vascular system through the kidneys ; this overburdens the kidneys and affects them also; in addition to the beer heart, an enlargement of the kidneys takes place at first, which, in the course of time, turns into shriveling and causes a decrease of the kidneys, which diminishes the capacity of the organ to perform its functions, and leads to further severe effects and long-protracted sickness, and even to death. The formation of fat is essentially favored by beer drinking ; corpulence appears, and a growth of fatty substance in the body takes place. In persons addicted to liquor and beer drinking, also in wine drinkers, a disease of the liver is developed, the so-called “ cirrhosis,” which beginning with an enlarge¬ ment of the liver later turns into shriveling through the growth of fibrous tissues. The injurious effects of excessive or long-continued use of alcohol upon the health take very different forms in different individuals. Healthy strong adults can apparently withstand the effects of alcoholic drinks over and above the permissible quantity for a certain time without injury to their health ; but in most cases, even with vigorous constitutions, immoderation has its revenge by abbreviating the usual duration of life. Habitual drinkers, according to experience, are an easy prey to contagious diseases (cholera, typhoid fever, etc.), also to pneumonia. Chronic diseases, especially tuberculosis, are aided in their destructive effects upon the body. All 628 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. persons afflicted with such ailments should abstain wholly from the use of alcoholic drinks, unless their physicians, in exceptional cases, prescribe them. For children under 14 years, and for enfeebled persons, alcoholic drinks are very dangerous ; they act like poison, and should therefore not be taken by them under any circumstances. Since alcohol affects above all the nervous system, it is obvious that the development of nervous diseases, hypochondria, neurasthenia, is favored by long- continued or immoderate use of alcoholic drinks, and that a special predisposi¬ tion to these diseases is induced ; also that mental derangements, caused by immoderate use of alcohol, are not rare. According to reliable observations, one-fourth of the inmates of Prussian insane asylums in 1899 were notorious drinkers. Only a few figures may be given here : In 1899 alcoholism was proved (a) in public hospitals in 13,G10 male patients and 77G female patients, or in a total of 14,38G patients; (u) in insane asylums in G,259 males and 71G females, or in a total of G,975 inmates. Taking the two kinds of institutions together there were 19,8G9 males and 1,492 females, or a total of 21,3G1 persons suffering from the effects of alcohol. In G,104 males and 410 females (total G,514) alcoholism was assigned as the exclusive cause of the disorders. Among the G,975 inmates of insane asylums suffering from the consequences of alcoholism (9.G per cent of all the inmates of such asylums) 5,388, or 77.3 per cent, were afflicted with strongly ])ronounced mental derangements. Of 1,987 drinkers admitted to these asylums 28.5 per cent had come into conflict with the law. According to the same sources of information diseases caused by alcoholic indulgence have increased materially since 188G. There were admitted to asylums for the insane and to public hospitals, at the dates given, the following number of persons suffering from alcoholism ( Alkoholisten) : 1886-1888. 1889-1891. 1892-1894. 1895-1897. In Prussia . 31,782 39,202 31,09.5 36,874 32,664 40, 190 36,683 46,042 In the German Empire . . . . While in the one year 1899, in Prussia alone, 21,3G1 “ alcoholists ” were con¬ signed to institutions of both kinds. Not only drinkers themselves are in danger of becoming mentally diseased, but also their children, for as many as 20 per cent of the children of drinkers are weak-minded, idiotic, or epileptic. 2. Moral deterioration. Upon immoderate use of alcoholic drinks follows intoxication. Intoxication, by befogging the senses and injuring judgment, reasoning, and observation, leads to imprudence, and through this to all kinds of follies, misdemeanors, transgressions, and crimes. Wanton tricks of young people degenerate into roughness, and not infrequently lead to regrettable destruction of property (as tearing down business signs, pulling out doorbell ropes, etc.). Experience shows that persons in a state of intoxication may do violence to public officials as well as to private persons, that their sense of shame is blunted, and that they may commit immoral assaults upon women and children. Many a student has made, while intoxicated, his first false step in sexual matters, from the consequences of which he suffers all through life, and often infects even his wife and children. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 629 Intoxication often leads to quarrels, which, from mere wordy disputes, turn into blows, and subsequently lead to lamentable duels, to which many a young life falls a victim. For all these reasons eveiyone should beware of the first intoxication ; the first is mostly soon followed by a second, and in this way the round of days of intoxication is begun. On these days occur more frequently than on other days mishaps during work in all, especially in dangerous, industries ; also a disinclination to bodily as well as mental labor, consequences which are particularly noticeable after Sundays and holidays, and which give rise to the so-called “ blue Monday.” What an important part the immoderate use of alcoholic drinks has in pro¬ ducing demoralization is shown by the number of drinkers committed to jail. According to reliable statistics, in Prussia, in 49 penitentiaries and 32 jails for men, in 18 penitentiaries and jails for vromen, and in 21 houses of correction for both sexes, 43.9 per cent of the 30,041 male prisoners and 18.1 per cent of the 2,796 female prisoners were addicted to drink. Most of their criminal actions had, as evidence showed, been committed on Sunday or Monday. S and 1/. Injuries to faniiJij life and to the econonuj of the famUy. Poverty does not lead to the use of liquor, but liquor leads to poverty. The diligent laborer, the well-bred man, wishes for his comfort a clean dwelling, an orderly conducted household, a faithful spouse, and solicitous mother for his children. To reach this end, i. e., a comfortable home, the wages earned by the man are of decisive importance, as is his moral example for the education of his children. In both directions it will prove to be a great detriment if a large portion of his wages is sacrificed for strong liquor and other alcoholic drinks and consumed in disorderly, wasteful living. These lamentable consequences, alas, are easily detected in the modern habits of life of a part of the population in numerous places and families. It is easily proved that wage laborers too often spend as much as one-third of their well-earned wages on pay day in the liquor shops. Wives and children often follow the example of the father. Such a life undermines family happi¬ ness, leads to disorder in the household economy, and not infrequently to com¬ plete collapse of the domestic housekeeping. Disordered conditions of family life are increasing. The husband does not receive sufficient food, because his money has been wasted in liquor ; the wife loses the desire to attend to domestic order. The marriage tie is loosened, discord and strife break out, the liquor bottle is brought into the house, and the evil example of the parents endangers the education of the children and their whole future. To such a sad result another circumstance abundantly contributes, namely, that the unmarried la¬ borer can find no other shelter for entertainment and edification than the saloon, the beer house, or some other retreat where he is obliged to pay for his stay by buying alcoholic beverages. Places of entertainment or recreation that do not require this “ alcoholic admission tax ” are very rare in the German Empire. Lodging accommodations for unmarried people are often so narrow and insuf¬ ficient that relaxation and recreation from daily toil cannot be had in bedrooms. Habituated to this mode of life, the workman enters into wedlock. No wonder that he soon looks up his old drink companions, spends his hard-earned money in brandy or beer, and thus the household (which has only been established after great trouble and of tern with borrowed money) is deprived of it. Bad domestic conditions lead the drinker, as experience shows, in many cases to committing punishable acts (against property, public order, etc.). 630 EDUCATION EEFORT, 1904. 5. hi juries to the economy of the state. Injuries to the health through immoderate use of alcohol, if it be not curbed, will diminish the defensive power of a country. To that is added the financial damage to the state. In the German Empire there are spent every year about three thousand million marks (about $750,- 000,000) for alcoholic liquors. What injury, what an amount of grief and misery, is caused through this wasteful expenditure for superfluous, unhygienic, and demoralizing means of enjoyment ! How much good, on the other hand, could be done by using these enormous means for individuals and the common¬ wealth. If the injuries are extended over a large number of families, the moral and economic life of a town must suffer. That the taxing strength is diminished thereby, and the whole economy of the state is injured, goes without saying. This consideration demands urgently that the state should intercede with a firm hand to curb the immoderate use of alcohol. This is done most effectively by the method of prevention, if the great hygienic, moral, and economic injuries arising from the use of alcohol are pointed out to the young. It will be especially a matter for teachers in elementary and secondary schools to take part in combating drunkenness, and to instruct their pupils (in a manner suitable to their comprehension) concerning the evil consequences of the immoderate use of alcohol, and solemnly and emphatically keep before their eyes the dangers lurking in alcoholic drinks. REPORT OX TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN WESTERN MASSACHU- SETTS.« [By G. T. Fletcher, Agent of the ilassachusetts State Board of Education.] Required temperance instruction ha.s brought the study of physiology into most of our schools. While some text-books and the plans of work may not be best adapted in all cases to meet existing conditions and to secure desired results, much good to children and to the community has been achieved. The following circular letter was sent to superintendents of schools in western Massachusetts : Northampton, Mass., January 2.5, To the Superintendent of Sctiools: To what extent as to time and material and by what methods do individual teachers in your schools present physiology, hygiene, and temperance instruc¬ tion to pupils? An early reply will oblige. Yours, truly, G. T. Fletchf:r. A few complete statements from indi^ iduals, quite fully covering the ground of the questions, are given. Other replies are combined and condensed to indicate opinions and methods. The subject is taught in all grades of the elementary schools and in connec¬ tion with biology in the high school. It is taught for the last two months of the school year, and during these months a daily lesson is given. The actual length of the lesson depends on the age of the pupils. In the middle and upper grammar grades the lesson is usually from half an hour to forty minutes ; in the primary and lower grades it is often not more than twenty minutes. We emphasize hygiene especially, and due emphasis is laid also on the effects of narcotics and alcohol. We do less in anatomy and also in physiology than was done some years ago. My own impression is that we are doing still more 67 Mass. Rep. (1902-3), 212-215. TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 631 in these two phases of the subject than ought to be done. It seems to me that nearly all the time devoted to the subject of so-called “ physiology ” should be given to hygiene, which necessarily includes the discussion of the effects of alco¬ hol and narcotics. No more physiology and anatomy should be taught than is absolutely necessary to make the instruction in hygiene rational. The instruction to our teachers in the grades calls for an oral lesson once a week in all grades but the sixth, where the subject is studied daily through the year, the recitation period being about twenty minutes. A text-book is used in the sixth grade and in some of the other grades. I do not know that the methods in this subject differ from the methods used in teaching other similar subjects. The experiments suggested by the text-book are presumably made for the benefit of the class, and an effort is made to secure effective work and per¬ manent results. In fact, the subject is treated in essentially the same way as other subjects which are not classed with arithmetic, reading, spelling, geog¬ raphy, and language. We give more time to physiology than we give to civil government in the grades, and about one-third of the time we give to history. Of course due attention is given to the effects of stimulants and narcotics. As to time : In grades I-V, one recitation period a week ; grades VI-IX, about two recitations a week. Generally in the higher grades instruction is not given throughout the year, in which case there is solid work throughout the spring term, a recitation daily. As to material : How to Keep Well is used in intermedia'te grades, and Conn’s Physiology and Hygiene in the eighth and ninth grades ; we use the Pathfinder series in the fourth and fifth grades ; Blaisdell’s How to Keep Well in the fifth and sixth grades ; Blaisdeil’s Our Bodies, and How We Live, in the seventh and eighth grades ; and Martin’s Iluman Body in the ninth grade and high school. As to method : Little is done in the primary grades that could be called more than health talks. Most of the instiniction is oral up to the sixth grade. Pupils* are supplied with books from the fourth or fifth grades up. The teachers are instructed to give one lesson in temperance physiology each week. These lessons are given by the teacher in the form of talks, except in the ninth grade, where it is made a regular study. The normal teachers have material that they have used in the normal school. In one town we take up the study of physiology in the ninth grade in a very thorough wmy. In the other grades we take it up during the winter term, using topics that I assign. These lessons are given by the teacher. We have tried using a book, but I think it is the unanimous opinion of the teachers that they can get better results by taking topics in the form of talks. We employ none but normal or college graduates in this town, the largest in my district, and all these have material that they are familiar with and can present in a more interesting way than they could from a text-book. We give the equivalent of one period each week in each grade to this subject. It is not always the case that it is taken by weekly periods ; it sometimes seems better to give it consecutively, allowing it to take the place of some other subject for the time being. I find that the teachers vary in their ability to keep the interest of the pupils if several days pass between th^ successive periods of study in this subject. This work is supplemented by the teacher according to her spirit and enthu¬ siasm. The work indicated is the minimum. The results vary in different schools, and under various conditions in the same schools. The materials for illustrating the subject are very limited in addition to the text-books. We use the New Century physiologies, and find them well adapted to our needs. Grades I to IV. — One lesson a week. General lessons on the care and cleanli¬ ness of the hands, face, hair, and body. Lessons on eating, drinking, breathing, and sleeping, with reference to the formation of right habits and self-control. Simple talks on the senses, and what we learn through them. Parts of the body, their uses and care. Special lessons on the care of the teeth and nails. Teach “ temperance in all things.” Temperance implies self-control, obedience to the law, to right feeling, and right living. In the schools of this district physiology is taught incidentally in grades up to and including the fifth. The instruction is along the lines of personal cleanli¬ ness, decency, and morality. In grades VI, VII, and VIII we use Colton’s Ele- 632 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. mentary Physiology as the basis of our work, and complete it in the three years. Directions are sent to teachers, suggesting materials and methods. Teachers are expected to give lessons weekly to all grades, the time varying from fifteen minutes to thirty. We give two periods a week to the study in all grades above the first or sec¬ ond, depending upon the classes. No books are used below the fourth grade. We put special stress upon such things as teach care of the body, cleanliness, temperance in eating, drinking, thinking, speaking, doing. In all grades excepting the very lowest time is given to a consideration of the effects of narcotics and stimulants. Our teachers take hold of the work with interest and common-sense methods. Some teachers are interested in the subject and get good results ; others do not like to teach it. The general tendency seems to be toward oral instruction and the use of some reading matter treating of hygiene and temperance in the lower grades, with considerable use of books in the upper grades. The time element varies in different schools j^nd with different teachers. The opinion is held that too much or too little time may be given to the topic to secure the best results. Interest must be maintained. The salient points of temperance instruction should be emphasized in some way during each year of school life, that they may make a lasting impression for good. Superintendents and teachers generally manifest an interest in temperance instruction. Not all think alike regarding a method, and a few seem to lack confidence in the educational value of the instruction or are in doubt regarding the best method. Good has evidently been accomplished. CHAPTER VIIL NOTICES OF SOME EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION, 1578-1G03.« WITH DESCRIPTIONS, EXTRACTS, AND NOTES. By Prof. Foster Watson, Of JJniversity CoUene, Ahcrystwyth, Wales. CONTENTS. [Note. — The date given to the left of the title is the date of the earliest edition of the work.] John Stockwood : Page. 1578. Sermon on religious instruction _ i _ 634 1590. Accidence _ 637 1589. Bartholomew Fairing _ 638 Other w'orks _ 639 John Lyly : 1579. Euphues, The Anatomy of Wit _ 639 Anonymous : 1579. Civil and Uncivil Life _ 643 Christopher Ocland ; 1580. Anglorum Praelia _ , _ 643 Richard Mulcaster : 1581. Positions _ 647 1582. First Part of the Elementarie _ 654 BOOKS ON THE KELATION OF CHILDEEN AND ADULTS. 1581. B. Batty: The Christian Man's Closet. Wm. Lowth, translator _ 660 Other hooks on parents and children _ 661 1590. Newnam's Nightcrowe _ 662 1599. .Tames I : BacriAiKov A^pov _ 662 1612. Martyn’s Youths’ Instruction _ 663 1614. P. Ayranit : A Discourse for Parents _ 664 1614. Dod's Bathsheha's Instructions _ 664 1617. Lord Burleigh's Precepts _ 664 1620. Patrick Scot : A Father’s Advice _ 665 1621. Mrs. Dorothy Leigh : The Mother’s Blessing _ 665 1624. Mrs. Jocelin : The Mother’s Legacie _ 666 1638. .1. Scudamore (translator) : Emperor Basil _ 666 1632. Sir Walter Raleigh’s Instructions to Ilis Son _ 667 1633. Cardinal Sermonetta’s Instructions to Young Oentlemen _ 667 1651. H. Delaune : UaTpiKov Aojpov - 667 William Bullokar : 1580. Book at Large, for the Amendment of Orthographie _ 667 A. J. Ellis’s authorities on early English pronunciation - 668 Early hooks on the teaching of English - 670 “ Notices of English writers on education, preceding in point of time those here treated, have appearded in previous Reports of the Commissioner as follows : Report of 1901, Vol. I, chap. 17 (pp. 861-884) ; Report of 1902, Vol. I, chap. 10 (pp. 481-508) ; Report of 1903, Vol. I, chap. 6 (pp. 319-350). 633 634 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. W. S., Gentleman : Page. 1581. Examination of Complaints _ G74 Abraham Fleming : 1581. Footpath to Felicitie _ 1 _ G7G W. Averell : 1584. Dyali for Dainty Darlings - 677 Adriauus .Junius (c. 1512-1575) : 1585. Nomenclator _ 678 Angel Day : 1586. The English Secret arie _ 679 William Kemp (fl. 1590) : 1588. Education of Children _ 681 Louis Leroy (translator, R. Ashley) : 1594. The Interchangeable Course _ 685 John Iluarte (translator, Richard Carew) : 1594. Examination of Men's Wits _ 687 J. B. Nenna (translator, William Jones) : 1595. Nennio, Or a Treatise of Nobility _ 690 Edmund Coote (fl. 1597) : 1596. The Englishe Scholemaister _ 690 Nicholas Ling : 1597. 1‘oliteuphuia. Wits’ Commonwealth _ 693 Richard de Bury ; 1598. Philobiblon (written in Latin, 1344) _ 694 Count Ilanniball Romei (translator, J. Keper) ; 1598. The Courtiers Academie _ 695 Robert Cavrdray : 1600. Treasurie or Storehouse of Similies _ 696 John Daye : c. 1600. Peregrinatio Scholastica _ 697 Samuel Daniel : 1602—3. Musophiius, or Defence of all Learning _ 693 Michael de Montaigne (translator, John Florio) : 1603. Essayes _ 699 Other works of John Florio _ 700 Works for instruction in Italian _ 700 John Stock wood. 1578. A Sermon Preached at Paiiles Crosse on Bartlielmcw Day, heing the 24 of August 1578, Wherein, besides many other profitahle matters meet for all Christians to follow, is at large prooved, that it is the part of those that are fathers, householders, and Scholemaisters, to instruct all those under their government , in the ivord and knoicledge of the Lorde. By John StoePwood, Seholemaistcr of Tunbridge * * * Loud. 1578. 12iiio. From tlie dedication to tlie Worshipful Company of Skinners in London the following passage is taken : Now concerning my purpose of offering this my simple labour and travail such as it is, unto your worships’ favourable acceptation, there may be many causes and reasons moving me thereunto, but chiefly that this way I might leave unto the world a testimony of a dutiful and thankful mind for your Free School of Tun¬ bridge, honourably founded by that worthy Knight Sir Andrew .Judd, somtime Lord Mayor of your famous City of London, and worshipfully and liberally to your great costs and charges maintained against the bad attempts of those that went about to have made it their own private possession, which fact of him, the honourable founder and you the worthy maintainers and defenders, I trust the L. will use as good examples, to move others to do the like, for the training up of youth in the fear of God. Schoolmasters and religious teaching. But because I am thus far entered into this large and fruitful field of chil¬ dren’s education and household government, of fathers and householders gener¬ ally neglected, whilst where they should daily and continually teach their chil- EAELY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 635 dren and. families out of tlie word of the Lord to fear him, many of them daily and nightly are occupied in Dicing, Carding and Gaming, and yet must needs he counted Protestants. Give me leave, I beseech you a little to direct my speech unto those, whom in respect of their office it chiefly concerneth, to bring up youth, I mean schoolmasters. For among all the diseases that these our days and times are grievously sick withal, there is none wherewith they are either more generally or more dangerously infected, than with this, that the most part of schoolmasters, like as fathers and householders, think it no part of their duty to meddle with instructing their scholars and pupils in the word of the Lord and principles of Christian religion. A ring of goid in a sirinc’s snout. Whereas without the fear of the Lord, there is no wisdom, neither is it possi¬ ble for youth to go well forward iu virtue and good manners, things as necessary as learning, which, without these, is but a ring of gold in a swine’s snout, if they be not trained up in the knowledge of the word. * * * Hearken, hearken all you that be Schoolmasters, there is no other means to have your youth to profit in virtue and godliness, but by taking heed to the vrord of the Lord. Youths to he godly as well as learned. And what parent is he that setteth his son to school, but that he would have him as well godly as learned? as well a virtuous child as a toward scholar? as well instructed unto salvation as furthered in profane learning? For if there be any that have other ends in putting their children to school, these being con¬ temned, your schools were better to be without them, than cumbered with them. From whence come the general complaints of the ungraciousness and unhappi¬ ness of scholai-s but from this, that you never teach them their duties out of the book of the Lord? Methods of over-much gentleness and over-much flogging. Some of you think over-much gentleness to be the way, and others continual and tyrannical scourging and whipping to be the way, whereas indeed you are both sorts far and wide out of the way. For the one with too much lenity encourageth them to a lewd licentiousness and looseness of manners : the others thinking by cruel and butcherly beating to win reformation, engender in them such a mislike and loathing of learning that they abhor with as deadly hatred the school-house, as we do those things which are most loathsome and noisome unto us. I like well of gentleness, if it be such as by it manners be not cor¬ rupted and spilled, and on the other side I allow of reasonable correction, so as it be used as the last remedy, that is, when no other will serve. But the first, the best and the chiefest way, is to begin with teaching your youth the fear of the Lord. For that is, as Solomon saith, the beginning of wisdom. Children and religion. But you fear peradventure that it should be to little profit to speak unto chil¬ dren, of religion. I hear you, and think of that jmu say, as a cloak to hide your fault and cover for your slothfulness, rather than a true cause to stay this duty. He that hath said, Suffer little children to come unto me and forbid them not, for unto such belongeth the kingdom of heaven, will no doubt bless your labours, taken in hand in his fear. Begin therefore at length and try : you shall I warrant you, to your comfort, see your youth profit in virtue and godliness. Feligion and the profane authors. I would have you that, setting aside all care of religion in 3mur schools, do make it your only profession to read them profane authors, show me the example but of one person, whom, either Tully his Offices, or Aristotle his Ethics, or Plato his Precepts of Manners, ever yet made a godly and a virtuous man. I am not against the teaching of profane writers : I know thej’' have their use. But I utterly mislike your preposterous, backward, and earthward care in labouring chiefly about these, omitting that which should be foremost, namely instruction out of the word. Take heed that in respect ye worthily run not into the reprehension that our saviour Christ useth towards the Scribes and Pharisees, for touching mint and annis and cummin, and leaving the weightj^ matters of the law, as judgment, mercy and fidelity : that is, for taking much pains about trifles, and dealing slenderly and slightlj'' in matters of great impor¬ tance, Let the name of God and of his Christ be heard often in jmur schools ; let it be familiar unto your scholars by continual beating it into their heads. 636 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. Wliat though it enter but softly, the water by often dropping pierceth into the hard stone : by much heating the strong iron is made soft ; by often putting into tlie tire the toughest steel is made pliant * * * The soft wax will receive any print, whereas the hard will take none; young sciences [scions (?)] will be bowed, which way you will have them, whereas the grown trees will rather break than bend. Look what liquor a vessel is seasoned withal, when it is new, it will keep a snack thereof when it is old. And teach a child while he is young what ways he shall walk, and he will not forget it when he cometh unto years. 1*0 pish schoohna s t ers. This thing do the papists of our time full well understand. And therefore have their picked schoohiiasters privately to notisel up their children in their houses in the Pope’s religion, that they may taste and smell thereof when their parents be dead and i-otten. And great pity it is, that the Queen’s enemies should be per¬ mitted such liberty. For by this means are many toward gentlemen otherwise, utterly marred and spoiled. The instiUiug of popery: StoekwoocV s view. How (I pray you) falleth it out, that you have at this day in this land, many young gentlemen not above 24 years old at the most, that are more obstinate and stubborn papists than their fathers : they will come at no Church, at no Ser¬ mons, whereas their parents will do both. And if at any time there be process out for them from her Majesty’s high Commissioners, they find one means or other to have inkling of it, and then forsooth they must in post, over into France to learn the language, whereas indeed their voyage is not so much to learn the French tongue, as to withdraw themselves from punishment of law, and there at liberty to hear (when they please) a Latin mass. And for my part I wish that all the papists in England (without they repent) together with all the rest of her Majesty’s enemies, were in France or some other place of banish¬ ment, without hope ever to return again, and so should our country be in more quiet and safety. But of this that I have said it evidently api>eareth, that whereas in respect of their years, being not past 24 years they were at the beginning of the prince’s reign capable of no religion, and now be stiff-necked papists, it cannot be chosen, but they must have it by the education of popish schoolmasters or popish parents or both together. And no marvel. The “ hroom ” of the universities, and “ the sweepings.'' For we have in many gentlemen’s houses, and also in the houses of others in the country of higher calling, the sweepings of the universities, I mean, such rotten papists as by the broom of godly discipline, as uni)rofitable dust, have been sweeped out thence, are entertained in the coiintry in private houses to teach their children. And then they be as safe as the fox in his borrow. For who dare be so bold as once to enquire wherein they instruct their scholars? Besides this, they are huddled together, old popish persecuting Mass Priests, in some houses four, in some three, in some two, in some one, and they (forsooth) under pretence of serving in several offices, as some stewards, some Caters, and so forth, pervert whole families. For can it possibly be otherwise, tliat them¬ selves papists, and under jiapists, having the government of youth, as men chosen for the purpose, should teach any other than papistry? The education of the children of Papists. I wish that the children of our papists, so soon as they be capable of learning, might be taken from them (they notv/ithstanding paying for their education) Jind be committed unto the government of godly teachers, that would learn them the fear of the Lord : or if their education be permitted to be in the houses of their parents, that order may be taken, that none have the teaching of them, but such as be well known to be zealous in religion : for these papists howsoever they pretend love, they do indeed kill : howsoever they would seem to cherish, they do indeed corrupt and spill. StocJcwood's request to the high commissioners. Wherefore I earnestly pray the honourable and worshipful of her Majesty’s High Commission, to cause private popish teachers, to be sought after and sifted, as well to stay the present mischief, as also to meet with before hand, the hurt that may, by suffering them, grow hereafter. And to end this matter (in which albeit I have ])een long, I hope the necessity and profit of it shall easily with the godly procure my pardon) 1 likewise heartily desire all teachers of youth, EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 637 not to suffer themselves to be found less diligent in a good cause, than the papists in a bad * * * ; not to he less mindful to teach the scholars the true religion than the papists to learn theirs the false. 1590. A plabie and easie Laying open 'of the Meaning and understanding of the Rules of Construction in the English Accidence, appointed hy authoritie to he taught in all Schooles of his Majesties dominions, for the great use and henefit of young heginners. By John Stockiuood, sometime Schoolmaster of Tunhridge. Imprinted at London hy the Assigncs of Francis Flower. 1590. Svo. (80 pp.) On the back of the title-page is : THE BOOK TO THE YOUNG PONIES AND PETITS OP THE GEAMMAE SCHOOL. When painful Master hath no time In plainest sort your rules to teach, Or cluhhish fellows shall refuse, Their friendly help herein to reach : Because you come with empty hand, And proffer not thrice welcome fee, (Which thing- some scholars much desire) Then holdly make resort to me. I will you help, make proof who list, And set you down the easy way, Your English rules to understand. Their meaning open for to lay. For each example to his rule, I teach you aptly how to fit : Thus may you laugh, where others cry, When up they go for missing it. Now, as for fee I none do crave, I ask no other recompence. The plan is mine, the profit thine, Using this book with diligence. In the Epistle Dedicatory to Master William Lewin, doctor of both laws, jus¬ tice of the peace, and a high commissioner, Stockwood says : If it shall of any be laid unto me for a fault, that I spend time in these small trifles, and Grammar matters, the which might better be employed about things more serious and of greater moment and importance, my defence is, that to have laid well the groundwork, and as it were, the foundntion, whereupon the whole frame and building in a manner of the Latin tongue must be settled, is not in deed and in truth, to be deemed a light and toyish matter, but that shall bring great ease unto the master, and also good furtherance unto the young beginners, if with diligence and heedfulness they look unto the same. He then quaintly adds : Besides that I know not how it cometh to pass that as Navita de stellis, de hohus narrat arator, and every one as he hath been brought up, delighteth to be talking of those things for the most part wherein he hath been most exercised : so I having spent many years about the instructing of youth in the principles and rudiments of the Latin tongue, cannot choose but ever now and then be harping on those matters, with the which in former times I have been so long and well acquainted. If any benefit may grow thereby unto those little ones, for whose sake, as well to save them from the rod, as also to encourage them by this plain laying open of the meaning of their rules, with more willingness, and cheerfulness to go forward in their studies : I shall have obtained my desire. * * * In an address To the friendly Reader concerning the profit of this hook. Stock- wood further writes : Not being altogether ignorant (right gentle Reader) of the slender capacity of many young beginners in the Grammar Schools, having myself by the space of twenty years exercised the office of a poor Schoolmaster, duriifg the which time I have had the trial of many wits, and finding by experience, that one and the selfsame thing being often repeated in teaching, and as it were by small drops instilled into the tender ears of the little Punies and Petits ; yet by rea¬ son of the weakness of their wits in those young years, it hath quickly passed away without any great profit, I have wished many times, that some good 638 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. body would take pains for to lay open the rules of construction in our English accidence, in such a plain and ready manner, as that the little ones, might as it were by themselves easily conceive of the meaning of the same, by the apt applying of every example unto his several rule. For this being w^ell performed, a ready way is opened to the more easy parsing through the examining and parsing of such lectures, as their teachers afterwards shall think good to read unto them. StocJcivood's “ vacation time.''' Which labour, because none hitherto hath entered upon, I myself in the vaca¬ tion time of the twelve days (as they call it) have taken upon me, and with God his help finished the same. ^Y^ly this lahour hath been taken in the English rules. And I have the rather made choice to deal with the English rules, because it is the first thing that the Accidentiaries do enter into, after they have learned their eight parts of speech, and as it were the foundation of all the rest of the Grammar building, the which being well laid, they shall be the better able to proceed to the understanding of Latin Authors. And forasmuch as there lieth a great weight in the manner of teaching the young beginners the understanding of these rules, which is chiefiy to be attained by letting them familiarly and plainly see, how every example agreeth with his rule, I hope that I shall have in such sort performed this point, as that the child of meanest conceit, if he diligently read and mark this book, may almost without any help of his master, be able of himself, by the example, to show the meaning of every rule to every one that shall demand the meaning of the same. Pains spared to the schoolmaster. Ease to the scholar. The Schoolmaster then shall by this book be eased of much pains, that he was forced to use before to little purpose, because that the sound of his words striking their ears for the time, was straightways forgotten : and the scholar that carrying away many a stripe for his dulness and forgetfulness was much discouraged, and not daring for fear to ask his master again the thing which he told him twenty times before, may resort hither, and without any blows hear again and again the same thing even so often as he list, the which neither time nor tediousness will suffer his master to repeat unto him. The use of the book to fathers. Yea every loving and careful father for the profit of his son, the which hath sometimes in his youth been a smatterer in Grammar, and now through con¬ tinuance of time, and other business almost clean forgotten the same, by using this book, and questioning at spare times with his child, when he cometh from the Grammar School, may partly increase his forlorn knowledge, and partly help forward by his riper wit, the tender understanding of his little child, and perceive how he profiteth, so far forth as concerneth the conceiving of the meaning of every rule, by applying every example unto the same, to which purpose I dare boldly pronounce, that nothing is omitted, that any way con¬ cerneth the fitting of every example to every rule throughout the whole rules of construction, having framed myself to be as it were dunstically plain, for the better understanding of the young ones, unto lohom nothing can be made too plain. ^ ^ ^ Stockwood proceeds to point out that his book will “ further the sale of the English Accidence ” and that it will easily be seen to be advantageous to have the two bound together. He is at pains to state that he approves of the author¬ ized Grammar. “I know,” he says, “none (all circumstances considered) to whom our Grammar, allowed by public authority, ought to yield one foot of ground in regard to plainness and easiness, if it be rightly understood and taught accordingly.” Stockwood wrote the following curious book of 100 pages : 1589. A Bartholomew Fairing for Parentes, to bestow upon their sonnes and daughters, and for one friend to give unto another: Shelving that children are not to marie, without the consent of their parentes, in ivhose poiver and choice it lieth to provide wives and husbandes for their sonnes and daughters. EAELY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 639 Wherein is sufficientJi/ prooved, ivhat in this point is the office of the fathers: and in like manner declared the part and duty of all obedient children. By John Stockioood, Minister and preacher of Tunbridge * * * London, Printed by John Wolfe, for John Harrison the yonger divelling in Paternoster- roive, at the signe of the golden Anchor. 1589. 12mo. In the dedication to Thomas Skevington, Esq., of Skevington, Stockwood says : Children (right worshipful) as we all well know, when their parents or any of those, with whom tliey have any familiarity, go unto any fair, use commonly at their taking their journey to say unto them : “ I pray you bring me home a fairing.” And not only children are for the most part thus affected, but we see it also to be the fashion of others of greater growth and further years, whenas at fairs they meet with their friends and acquaintance to be begging and asking them : What will you give me for a fairing? And the courtesy that is this way bestowed be it in a manner never so small and simple, is notwithstanding well accepted and kindly taken from the hand of the giver, as being a sign and token of his good will and loving affection towards the party, on whom he doth bestow the same. Stockwood explains that by the novelty of the title he hopes to draw the attention of readers to this very important matter of the choice of wives for their sons, and husbands for their daughters. The late Prof. Henry Morley wrote the valuable “ Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair,” 1859, a book which he claims is “ not only the first history of Bartholo¬ mew Fair, but the first serious history of any fair.” In it a very interesting passage is given from John Stow (died 1G05) describing the meetings of school¬ masters held at fair time, at which the boys of their several grammar schools repaired to the churchyard of St. Bartholomew, the Priory, in Smithfield, and where Stow in his youth had witnessed how “ upon a bank boarded about under a tree, some one scholar, hath- stepped up, and there hath opposed and answered till he were by some better scholar overcome and put down ; and then the overcomer taking the place, did like as the first. And in the end the best opposers and answerers had rewards, which I observed not but it made both good schoolmasters and also good scholars, diligently against such times to prepare themselves for the obtaining of this garland.” Stockwood also wrote : 1. Quaestiones ct Iteaponsiones Grammaticales, ad faciliorcm earum regulariim explana- tionem, quae in Grammatica Liliana habentur, accommodatae, etc.. Land. J.592. 8vo. 2. Progymnasma Scholasticum. Hoc cst, Epigrammatum Graccoriim ex Anthologia selec- toruni ah He. Stepliano dupUcique einsdem inierprctatione expUcatorum Praxis Grammatica. * * * Lond. 1597. 3. Disputatiuncularum gramma ticaUum lihellus, ad puerorum in schoUs trivialihus exa- cuenda ingenia excogitatus. Lond. 159S. 12mo. 3rd eel., 1607 ; 4th ed., 1G19, 8vo. ; and 6th ed., 1650. Stockwood was head master of Tonbridge School. He died in 1610. (See article on him in Diet. Nat. Bio.g., vol. 54, p. 395.) John Lyly. c.1554-1606. 1579. Euphues, The Anatomy of Wit. Editio princeps. 1579. Professor xirber’s reprint of 1868 is of the late Prof. Henry Morley’s copy (believed to be unique) of the first edition, collated with editions of 1581 and 1582. Professor Arber states that there were six editions in the first two years, i. e., of the two parts, (1) Euphues, The Anatomy of Wit, and (2) Euphues and his England, which latter first appeared in 1580. It is stated that there were edi- 640 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. tions of the Anatomj^ of Wit in 1595, 1G05 both parts, 1006, 1013, 1017, 1623, 1026, 1030-31, 1636 (both parts). John Lyly : Born about 1554, died 1600; matric-ulated at Magdalen College, Oxford, 1571 ; M. A., 1575. lie also studied at Cambridge, of which he became M. A., 1579. He sought court favor, became vice-master of St. Paul’s and Savoy companies of child actors. Lyly’s treatment of education in the Euphues, Mr. Sidney Lee points out, is directly borrowed from Plutarch’s Education. As Mr. Lee suggests, cf. Plutarch ; “ Philosophie,” translated by Philemon Holland, « 1603, though this latter was later than Lyly’s book. In the Anatomy of Wit there is a whole section devoted to the subject of the education of youth. Euphues begins with insisting that the mother of a child shall also be the nurse. Clear enunciation. Moreover they are to be trained up in the language of their country, to pro¬ nounce aptly and distinctly, without stammering, every word and syllable of their native speech, and to be kept from barbarous talk, as the ship from rocks ; lest, being affected with their barbarism, they be infected also with their unclean conversation. The force of imitation. It is an old proverb that if one dwell the next door to a cripple he will learn to halt, if one be conversant with a hypocrite, he will soon endeavour to dis¬ semble. When this young infant shall grow in years and be of that ripeness that he can conceive learning, insomuch that he is to be committed to the tuition of some tutor, all diligence is to be had to search 'such a one as shall neither be unlearned, neither ill-lived, neither a light person. The slight esteem of teachers. If among all his servants he shall espy one, either filthy in his talk or foolish in his behaviour, either without wit, or void of honesty, either an unthrift or a wittall, him he sets not as a surveyor and overseer of his manors, but a super¬ visor of his children’s conditions and manners, to him he committeth ye guiding and tuition of his sons, which is by his proper nature a slave, a knave by con¬ dition, a beast in behaviour. And sooner will they bestow an hundred crowns to have a horse well broken, than a child well taught, wherein I can not but marvel to see them so careful to increase their possessions, when they be so careless to have them wise that should inherit them. The teacher Ulce an expert physician or a cunning pilot. Some fathers are overcome with the flattery of those fools which profess out¬ wardly great knowledge, and show a certain kind of dissembling sincerity in their life, others at the entreating of their familiar friends are content to com¬ mit their sons to one without either substance of honesty or shadow of learning. By which their undiscreet dealing, they are like those sick men which reject the expert and cunning physician, and at the request of their friends admit the heedless practiser, which dangereth the patient, and bringeth the body to his [its] bane: Or not unlike unto those, which at the instant and importunate suit of their acquaintance refuse a cunning pilot, and choose an unskilful mariner, which hazardeth the ship and themselves in the calmest sea. Fathers and sons. Good God, can there be any that hath the name of a father which will esteem more the fancy of his friend than the nurture of his son? It was not in vain that Crates would often say, that if it were lawful even in the market place he would cry out : “ Whither run you fathers, which have all your cark and care to multiply your wealth, nothing regarding your children unto whom you must leave all?” In this they resemble him which is very curious about the shoe, and hath no care of the foot. “ Philemon Holland’s best known translation is that of the Historie (i. e.. Natural History) of the World of Pliny, IGOl, 1634, 1635. The book sums up the knowledge of the ancient world on science, and it is interesting that this famous translation takes place in the very age of Bacon. EAKLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 641 Bow to maJtC a gentJeman. It is good nurture that leadetli to virtue, and discreet demeanour that plaineth- the path to felicity. If one have either the gifts of fortune, as great riches, or of nature, as seemly personage, he is to be despised in respect of learning. To be a noble man it is most excellent, but that is our ancestors, as Ulysses said to Ajax, as for our nobility, our stock, our kindred, and whatsoever we ourselves have not done, I scarcely accompt ours * * * It is virtue, yea virtue. Gentlemen,® that inaketh Gentlemen : that maketh the poor rich, the base-born nol)le, the subject a sovereign, the deformed beautiful, the sick vdiole, the weak strong, the most miserable most happy. There are two principal and peculiar gifts in the nature of man. Knowledge and Reason : the one commandeth, the other obeyeth : these things neither the whirling wheel of Fortune can change, neither the deceitful cavilling of worldlings separate, neither sickness abate, neither age abolish. The degeneration of the universities. Is it not become a by-word amongst the common people, that they had rather send their children to the cart, than to the University, being induced so to say, for the abuse that reignetli in the Universities, who sending their sons to attain knowledge, find them little better learned, but a great deal worse lived than when they went, and not only unthrifts of their money, but also bankrupts of good manners. After touching upon physical exercise in the shape of martial affairs, shooting, darting, hawking, hunting, Euphues has a characteristic passage as follows : The alternation in life. As there is watching so there is sleep: as there is war so there is peace: as there is winter so there is summer: as there be many working-days, so is there also many holy-days : and if I may speak all in one word, ease is the sauce of labour, which is plainly to be seen, not only in living things, but also in things without life. We unbend the bow that we may the better bend him, we unloose the harp, that vre may the sooner tune him, the body is kept in health as well with fasting as eating, the mind healed with ease, as well as with labour: those parents are in mind to be misliked which commit the whole care of their child to the custody of a hireling, neither asking neither knowing how their children profit in learning. A curious anticlimax from the ]u-etentious beginning! The training up of youth. But having said almost sufficient for the education of a child. I will speak two words, how he should be trained when he groweth in years. I cannot but mis- like the nature of divers parents which appoint overseers and tutors for their children in their tender age, and suffer them when they come to be young men, to have the bridle in their own hand, knowing not that age requireth rather a hard snaffle than a pleasant bit and is sooner allured to wickedness, than child¬ hood. The sum of Eupliues's edueational views. The sum of all wherewith I would have my Ephoebus [i. e., his pupil, in the same way that Rousseau calls his pupil Emile] endued, and how I would have him instructed, shall briefly appear in this following. First, that he be of honest parents, nursed of his mother, brought up in such a place as is incorrupt, both for the air and manners, with such a person as is undefiled, of great zeal, of profound knowledge, of absolute perfection, that he be instructed in phil¬ osophy, whereby he may attain learning, and have in all sciences a smack, whereby he may readily dispute of any thing. That his body be kept in his pure strength by honest exercise, his wit and memory by diligent study. “ This recalls Chaucer’s : Lok who that is most vertuous alway, ITive and pert, and most ectendeth aye To do the gentil dedes that he can, Tak him for the grettest gentilman. Wife of Bath’s Tale, 11. 257-260, I. e., throwing or shooting darts. ED 1904 M - 41 642 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. Then follows an appeal to young men to abandon allurements to vice, the beauty of women, and dicing — and the exhortation, “ Serve God, fear God, love God, and God will bless you.” The sweet of learning involves the sour of lahoiir. This passage occurs in Euphues to the gentlemen scholars in Athens : Every action hath his end, and then we leave [i. e., leave off] to sweat when we have found the sweet. The Ant though she toil in summer, yet in winter she leaveth [off] to travel [i. e., work]. The bee, though she delight to seek the fair flower, yet is she at last cloyed with honey. The spider that weaveth the finest thread ceaseth at the last when she hath finished her web. But in the action and study of the mind (Gentlemen) it is far otherwise, for he’ that tasteth the sweet of learning endureth all the sour of labour. Tie that seeketh the depth of knowledge : is as it were in a labyrinth, in the which the farther he goeth, the farther he is from the end : or like the bird in the limebush, which the more she striveth to get out, the faster she sticketh in. And certainly it may be said of learning, as it was fained of nectar, the drink of the Gods, the which the 'more it was drunk, the more it would overflow the brim of the cup, neither is it far unlike the stone that groweth in the river of Caria, the which the more it is cut, the more it increaseth. In the edition of 1581 Lyly writes : To my verie good friends the Gentlemen Scholars of Oxford ; It was reported of some, and believed of many, that in the education of Ephoebus, where men¬ tion is made of Universities, that Oxford was either defaced or defamed * * * If I should now go about to make amends, I were then faulty in somewhat amiss, and should show myself like Apelles’, prentice, who coveting to mend the nose, marred the cheek, and not unlike the foolish dyer, who never thought his cloth black until it was burned. If any fault be committed, impute it to Euphues who knew you not, not to Lyly, who hates you not. From Euphues and his England : The praise of the learning of Elizaheth. In questioning not inferior to Nicaulia the Queen of Saba, that did put so many hard doubts to Solomon, equal to Nicostrata in the Greek tongue, who was thought to give precepts for the better perfection : more learned in the Latin, than Amalasunta : passing Aspasia in Philosophy, who taught Pericles ; exceeding in judgment Themistocles, who instructed Pythagoras, add to these qualities, those, that none of these had, the French tongue, the Spanish, the Italian, not mean in every one, but excellent in ail, readier to correct escapes in those languages, than to be controlled, titter to teach others, than learn of any, more able to add new rules, than to err in the old : Insomuch as there is no ambassador, that cometh into her court, but she is willing and able both to understand his message, and utter her mind, not like unto the kings of Assyria who answered embassies by messengers, while they themselves either dally in sin, or snort in sleep * * * o noble pattern of a princely mind, not like to the kings of Persia, who in their progresses, did nothing else but cut sticks to drive away the time, nor like the delicate lives of the Sybarites, who would not admit any art to be exercised within their city, that might make the least noise * * * Such are her gifts that the living God hath indued her withal, that look in wTiat art or language, wit or learning, virtue or beauty, any one hath particularly excelled most, she onely hath generally exceeded everyone in all, insomuch, that there is nothing to be added, that either man would wish in a woman, or God doth give to a creature. I let pass her skill in music, her knowledge in all the other sciences, when as I fear lest by my simplicity I should make them less than they are, in seeking to show how great they are, unless I were praising her in the gallery of Olympia, where giving forth one word I might hear seven * * =!= Behold, Ladies, in this glass a Queen, a woman, a virgin in all gifts of the body, in all graces of the mind, in all perfection of either, so far to excell all men, that I know not whether I may think the place too bad for her to dwell among men. To talk of other things in that Court, were to bring eggs after apples, or after the setting out of the sun, to tell a tale of a shadow. But this I say, that all offices are looked to with great care, that virtue is embraced of all, vice hated, religion daily increased, manners reformed, that I EAELY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 643 who so seeth the place there, will think it rather a church for divine service, than a court for princes’ delight. All this extravagant exaggeration in praise of Elizabeth h.y so many writers at any rate suggests that learning in women was thought desirable, and uncon¬ sciously may have assisted the idea of the higher education of women more than at first sight appears, valueless as such testimony is for an accurate esti¬ mate as to the actual learning of Elizabeth. Anonymous. 1579. CyvUe and uncyvUe life. A discourse very profitalile, pleasant, and fit to he read of all Nohilitie and Gentlemen." AVliere, in form of a Dialoge [between Vincent and Valentine] is disputed, lolioA order of lyfe best heseemetli a Gentleman in all ages and times: as tvel for educatio, as the course of his lohole life. li. Jones, London, 1579. 4to. The printer of this book dedicates it to Sir Francis Walsingham, but the author's name is withheld. The following is the argument and occasion of the dialogue : It happened (as oft it doth) that divers gentlemen being convited to dine together : Among many other things, they chanced to fall in speech of the coun¬ try and courtly lives, reasoning whether it were better for the gentlemen of England to make most abode in their country houses (as our English manner is,) or else ordinarily to inhabit the cities and chief towns, as in some foreign nations is the custom. These gentlemen as they were diversely disposed and used so were their opinions of this matter likewise differing; some commending the country dwelling, others preferring the city habitation. This matter a while spoken of by everyone, was at length by assent of the whole company disputed by two gentlemen, th’ one (for this time) I will call Vincent, th’ other Valentine, both men of more than common capacity and (haply) somewhat learned. Vincent had been brought up in the country ; Valentine his education and life was in courts and cities. Either of them with the best reasons they could, maintained their opinions, as hereafter in this discourse you shall plainly perceive. Indirectly this furnishes a side light on the general condition of the age in which it was written. It establishes a preference for town life. Especial stress is laid upon the fact that in towns there are the most skillful tutors to instruct children, and Vincent says to Valentine at the end of the dialogue : Through your good reasons I am brought to know that the education of a gen¬ tleman ought to be only in learning and arms, and that no gentleman, no, nor no nobleman, should withdraw or hold back his son from the attaining of these knowledges, which are the very true and only qualities or virtues of a gentle¬ man, as things not only beseeming such a person, but also for the service of a prince or state very necessary. CHEISTOPHER OCLAND.a 1580. Anglorum Praelia. This is, I believe, the first book published in England intended for school use with a view of definitely giving to the youthful mind due and proper material out of which patriotism might not unreasonably be expected to develop. The writer in question is Christopher Ocland, and his book — written through¬ out, it should be added, in Latin— has on its title page (dated 1580) : ''Anglorum Praelia: Ah anno Domini 1327 anno nimirum primo inclytissimi Principls Edtvardi eius nominis tertli usque ad annum Domini 1558. Carmine summatim This account fii’st appeared in the Journal of Education, London, June, 1899. 644 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. perstricta. Christophoro OcJando Buckingamicnsi Anglo Antliore.’' [In the edition of 1582, on the title-page, Ocland is announced as “ primo Scholae South- warkiensis prope Londinum, dein Cheltennamenfeis, quae sunt a sereuissima sua Majestate fundatae, Moderatore.”] [To the 1582 edition is also addedc “Item: De pacatissimo Angliae statu a imperanti Elizahetlia eonipendiosa Narratio."’ And then the proud words: "‘Ilaec duo Poemata, tani oh argiunenti gravitatem quani Carmmis facilitatem, Nohilissimi Regiae Majestatis ConsHiarii in omnihiis Jiuius regni Scholis praelc- genda piicris praescripscnmtP] In 1582 appeared a quarto edition and also an octavo edition ; in 1589 a fur¬ ther edition of the Elizabetheis. There is also a translation of the Elizabetheis into English, dona by John Sharrock in 1585. The title indicates the contents of the book. It is an account in Latin verse of the wars of England carried on between 1327 (the accession of Edward III) and 1558 (the death of Mary). There is a Latin poem by Richard Mulcaster, and also one by the well-known poet Thomas Watson, prefixed to the Eliza¬ betheis. Readers of Positions will remember the ecstacy of praise in which Mulcaster indulges over Queen Elizabeth. In these verses Mulcaster envies Ocland the subject of his verses after the strain : “Nam quid uobilins sol nostra Principe cernit? ” In the 1582 octavo edition of the Anglorum Praelia, on the page opposite to the beginning lines, and occupying the whole page, are the royal arms of Queen Elizabeth. The title-page had already announced “ Cum privilcgio Regiae MaiestatisP But the point which requires full recognition about Christopher Ocland is the fact that the Lords of the Privy Council ordered his Praelia Anglorum to be used in the grammar schools. I venture to transcribe the minute : & A letter to the Commissyoners for Causes Ecclesiasticall in London that whereas there hathe bene of late a booke written in Latyn verse by one Christo- fer Ockland, intituled “Anglorum Prelia,” which, as he enformeth, hathe bene by him at his great charges aboute half a yere sithence imprinted and published, and now againe lately imprinted with the addytion of a shorte treatise or appen¬ dix concerning the peaceable government of the Queues Majestie ; forasmuche as his travell therein with the qualitie of the 'verse hathe receyved good comen- dacion, and that the subjecte or matter of the said booke as he is worthie to be read of all men and especially in the common scliooles, where divers heathen poetes are ordinarily read and taught from the which the youthe of the Realme receyve rather infectyon in mannei’s and educatyon than advauncement in vertue, in place of which poetes their Lordships thincke fitte this booke were read and taught ill the grammer scliooles, their Lordships therefore have thought good, as well for the commoditye of the said Ockland and for the incoraging of him and others that are learned to bestow their travell to so good purposes, as also for the benefitte of the youthe and the removing of such lascivyous poetes as are commonly read and taught in the said grammer scliooles, requiring them uppon the receipt hereof to write their letters unto all the Bushoppes through the Realme to give commaundement that in all the grammer and free schooles within their severall Dyoces the said bookes “ De Anglorum Praeliis” and peaceable government of her Majestie inaye be, in place of some of the heathen poetes nowe read among them as Ovide “ De Arte Amandi,’-’ “ De Tristibus,” or such lyke, may be receyved and publickly read and taught by schoolemasters unto their schollers in some one of their formes in the schooles fitte for that matter. This remarkable minute is dated xxi Aprilis, at Grenewiche, 1582. Perhaps the most interesting point that arises from the passage is the direct “ This is described elsewhere as Eiprjvapxi-a. Acts of the Privy Council of England. Edited by J. R. Dasent. New series. Vol. XIII, A. D. 1581-82, pages 389-390. EAKLY ENGLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 645 relation which the privy council takes up to the work of education. The mot d’ordre is given to all schools (we should say all secondary schools) to use a certain book in place of works commonly read and on the whole less advan¬ tageous. It is important also to notice that the privy council, in its supervision of schools, works its will through the dioceses of the bishops. This is natural enough when it is remembered that the bishops had the licensing of schoolmas¬ ters in their hands, and also that in their visitations they also inquired into the way in which schools were being carried on throughout their dioceses. The reading of “ heathen poetes,” and the reconciliation of such a practice with a Christian teacher was a stumbling block with many of the pious in all generations of the Christian era. There were those, of course, who held that the broad highway of the classics was the only way to intellectual salvation. Ascham, for instance, often heard « Sir John Cheke say : “ I would have a good student pass rejoicing through all authors, both Greek and Latin ; but he that will dwell in these few books only, first in God’s Holy Bible and then join with it Tully in Latin, Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon, Isocrates, and Demosthenes in Greek, must needs prove an excellent man.” Here, however. Sir John Cheke is speaking of ” students,’’ and his list is very choice. Dr. Laurence Humphrey, in his treatise Of Nobility, & on the other hand, pointed out the danger of indis¬ criminate classical teaching with the young, had protested against Ovid, and only included Terence because, as he says, ” I saw Cicero so much esteem him.” In the Angloriim Praelia is given the copy of the letters directed by the minute quoted above to be sent to all the bishops throughout England and Wales. It will be seen that it was drawn up sixteen days after the meeting of the privy council. It reads : After our heartie commendations, &c. Whereas wee of hir Maiesties high Commission Ecclesiastical have received letters from the Lordes of hir High- nesse moste honourable privie Counsell, That we should directe order to all the Byshops of the Realme, to cause to bee receyved and publiquely read and taught in all Grammar and Free Scholes within their severall Dioceses a Booke in Latine verse of late imprinted, entituled “Anglorum Praelia,” sette forth by one Christopher Ocklande, as by the true Copie of their Honours Letters, which wee sende you here inclosed, it may appeare unto you. These are therefore to require you, according to their Honours pleasures signified to us in that behalfe, forthwith upon receipt hereof to take present order within your Dioces for the due accomplishment of their sayde Letters accordingly. And so wee bidde you heartily farewell. From Loudon the seaventh of May, 1582. Your Lov¬ ing Friendes. I have not as yet found any account of how the “Anglorum Praelia ” was esteemed in the schools. But it is possible to form a judgment by remembering that the subject was the martial glories of England, and that these included the feats of Edward III and Henry V at a period three hundred years nearer to them than we are. In fact, it would seem that Ocland’s book was somewhat similar in its line of interest to that very successful book. Deeds that Won the Empire, of to-day. It was, however, written in Latin — much shorter and much more restrained in detail, though perhaps not always in its enthusiasm. The following is the account of Edward III and the Black Prince at Cressy : Fulminat ense pater Princeps Edwardns, et eius Filins impnbes ; illoqiie Britannica virtus Quanta sit eluxit bello, quo millia caesa Triginta aut plus oo, campique cruore madebant ; and so on. Strype’s Life of Cheke, Oxford edition, 1821, page 153. » 1563. 646 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. Henry V at Agincoiirt is thus clescriijed : Ipse manu magno conatu rex rotat ensem, Nobilior faciebat idem pars, turbaqne tota. Omne nemiis resonat pnlsatae cassidis ictu Armorum orebris tiniiitibus insoaat unda, Yicinique suis colies cum vallibus aegros Accipiimt gemitus morieutum, sanguis inundat etc., from which it will he gathered that there is, for modern taste, rather too much enthusiastic gloating over bloodshed. The “ Elizabetha ” is included in the volume. This is a panegyric of Ocland’s queen up to 1580, and a recital of the peaceable state of England. There is also an account of the members of Her Majesty’s council. The following extract, from John Sharrock’s translation, will give some idea of the matter and style of the verses. They deal with the towardness of Queen Elizabeth in her childhood : But when her mother tongue slie knew, Expressing signs of wondrous wit, and judgement to ensue ; She at her prudent sayings made astonished men to stand, And books, desirous to be taught, would always have in hand. She scarce the letters with her eyes intentive did behold. Their several names, but thrice before by her instructors told : But perfect them at fingers’ end as two months taught. Their figures diverse made, deciphering well, by judgements rare. Yea, in few days (a marvel great it is to speak no doubt) The princely imp by industry such sap had sucked out. That, without counsel to assist, she anything could read. With regard to Cbristopber Oclaiid himself, the facts to be gathered are few. While master at St. Olave’s School in 1571, it appears that he received 20 marks a year, for which he was to teach ten or twelve boys at first and to help the usher to teach the “ petytes,” Ocland was also to be allowed to take six or eight scholars. This comes from the minutes of the vestry of the parish of St. 01ave.« In the minutes of the same vestry, January 27, 1571, there is another schoolmaster, one John Poyne. There is a letter quoted in Sir Henry Ellis's collection of letters, written by Ocland to Sir Julius Cmsar, chiefly as to his poverty ; but the most pathetic let¬ ter is the one to the great Lord Burghley, begging to be relieved in his distress. It is a vivid letter. It might be used as an apt illustration to Melanchthon's Miseries of Schoolmasters. After reading it one hardly needs more details of Ocland’s life. No history of education can be complete which does not include the side light afforded by such a letter. It takes us right into the middle of Ocland’s life struggle : Help, my very good Lord, my singular good Lord, help I pray and most humbly desire your honour for God’s sake, your poor and infortunate Christopher, that her Majesty may give me a prebend or benefice that will first fall. I never had anything at her Grace’s hands for all my books heretofore made of her High¬ ness. I trust my Lord Chancellor will give his good word with you and the other Lords of the Council, Or at the least speak to D, Aubrey, the Master of the Requests, and he will move my cause the sooner at your speech. At the writing of this, my lord, tidings come to me that one Hurdes, a serjeant of Lon¬ don, who cast me in the Counter upon the feast of the Nativity of Christ last past, hath a Capias utlagatum out for me, I ought [owed] him but five pounds and he hath condemned me in forty pounds. Tlie learned in the law say it to be ridiculous that I was bound in thirty pounds for payment of five pounds, and the condemnation upon the outlawry is risen to forty pounds. Quid faciam? Quo me vertam? Mors est mihi lucro. He goes on to explain he has no rehMions to fall back on. His wife is para¬ lyzed — has been these three years — and grows worse every day on account of Quoted in Sir Henry Ellis's Letters of Eminent Literary Men, pages G5-G6, EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION, 647 the misfortunes of her sons. Prison for Ocland. would mean death to his wife and to their one daughter. lie begs Lord Burghley, therefore, to get the writ of outlawry stajmd. He then continues : I teach school at Greenwich, where my labour will not find me bread and drink. I dare not teach in London where it would be better. For my debt is grown to twenty-three pounds in ten years, for so long ago it is since I gave over teaching school and began to get out “Anglorum Praelia ” and my other books. I have compiled also at this time a book, the title is “ De vitis aliquot illus- trissimorum virorum in Anglia,” wherein I do not forget your honourable Lord- ship to have due place. I have opened myself to your Lordship, for truly it is said, “Crescuntque tegendo vulnera.” Thus, having been too much tedious, I crave pardon, and pray God to send your Honour long life to the service of her Majesty in Council, the benefit of the realm, and the comfort of us all true English. Greenwich, this xiii. of October, 1590. — Your Lordship’s most bounden for ever, most poor, and most wretched. Christopiiee Ocland. To the right Honourable and his singular good Lord, the Lord Burghley, Lord Treasurer of England. There does not seem to be any indication as to whether Lord Burghley responded to the pathetic appeal, but Mr. Thompson Cooper, the writer of the notice on Ocland in the Dictionary of National Biography, gives us a refer¬ ence to a petition to Prince Charles, preferred January 14, 1617, by Ocland’s daughter (mentioned above), which met with better hap. Jane Ocland, the daughter, received a gift of 22 shillings. One’s thoughts at once recur to Edmund Spenser’s lines, printed, be it remembered, a few years after Ocland’s letter was written : Full little knowest thou that hast not tried What hell it is in suing long to hide * * * To have thy prince's grace, yet want her peeres. Poor Ocland had made a bid for his prince’s grace by his “ Elizabetha,” and for “ her peeres ” by his letter to Lord Burghley. But, apparently, he ob¬ tained neither. “ Where I hanked after plenty, I have run upon scarcity,” said Ocland. It is little compensation that now he should turn out to be the first English writer of a hook on civics. But the title, such as it is, does not seem to be undue to him. Richard Mulcaster c.1530-1611. Mulcaster was born about 1530. He was educated at Eton, and in 1548 entered King’s College, Cambridge. He migrated to Oxford, and in 1555 was elected student of Christ Church. He became a schoolmaster in 1558, and in 1561, the same year in which he first published his Positions, became the first head master of Merchant Taylors’ School, at Lawrence Pountney Hill. In 1586 he quarreled with his governors as to his salary, and resigned his post. IMulcaster’s career is then said to have been : Surmaster of St. Paul’s School, 1586 ; head master, 1596 (Mr. Quick suggests that “ after his reign of twenty-six jmars at Merchant Taylors’ he would not be likely to accept any mastership where he would be a subordinate”) ; vicar of Cranbrook, in Kent, 1590; prebendary of Sarum, 1594; rector of Stanford Rivers, in Essex, 1598 ; died 15th April, 1611. Mulcaster took part in the royal pageant at Kenilworth in 1575. Mr. Quick states that Mulcaster was a correspondent of Sir Philip Sydney’s, and it is most probable that Edmund Spenser was one of his pupils. Shakespeare is sometimes thought to have had Mulcaster in mind, in his Holofernes, of whom Armado says ; “ I protest the schoolmaster is exceeding fantastical ; too too vain, too too vain.” 648 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. For further account of Richard Mulcaster, see — R. II. Quick: Reprint (1888) of the Positions, in the Appendix. R. II. Quick : Educational Reformers. 1890 ed. Pages 00-102. Henry Barnard : English Pedagogy, 2d series, pages 177-184. A careful study of Mulcaster is the following ; Lebeii und Werke Richard Mulcaster's, eines englischen Piidagogen des IG. Jahrhuiiderts (Dresden, 1893, 8°, pp. 58), by Theodor Kliihr. In the thirty-ninth volume of the Dictionary of National Biography the Rev. J. II. Lupton, present surmaster of St. Paul’s School, has written a biography. Mulcaster is mentioned in Thomas Fuller's Worthies of England (Westmore¬ land), indorsing a traditionary view : “ It may be truly said {and safely for one out of his school) that others have taught as much learning with fewer lashes.” (Quoted by J. E. Bailey in his Life of Fuller.) 1581. Positions: Wherein those primitive circumstances he examined, which are necessarie for the training np of children, either for shill in their hoohe, or health in their hodie. Written hy Richard 2Iulcaster, Master of the Schoole erected in London anno 1561, in the parish of t^ainct Lawrence Powntney, hy the Worshipful Companie of the Merchaunt Tailers of the said Citie. Imprinted at London hy Thomas Tautrollier, dwelling in the hlache Friers hy Ludgate, loSl. Mr. Quick, together with the former U. S. Commissioner of Education, Henry Barnard, with great public spirit issued a handsome reprint of the Positions in 1887. It was printed by Harrison & Sons, St. Martin’s Lane, London, and is published through Longmans, Green & Co., London and New York. In the very able and interesting appendix, which contains an account of Mulcaster, Mr. Quick mentions that the Gentleman’s Magazine, Volume LXX, page G03, speaks of a second edition of the Positions (4to) published in 1587, and that W. C. Haz- litt in his “Handbook” (p. 404, ed. 18G7), says the Positions was reprinted in 1587 and 1591. The first edition of 15G1 and the second of 1581 are both in the Quick loan collection. Mulcaster may be described as garrulous and pedantic, and accordingly there is little difficulty in describing the Positions entirely in his own words. The occasion of this discourse. I have taught in public Avithout interrupting my course, now two and twenty years, and have alway had a very great charge under my hand, which how I haA^e discharged, thej^ can best judge of me, Avhich Avill judge Avithout me. During Avhich time both by that, Avhich I have seen in teaching so long, and by that Avhich I have tried, in training up so many, I do Avell perceive, upon such lets [hindrances], as both myself am subject unto, and other teachers no less than I, that neither I have done so much as 1 might, neither any of them so much as they could. Which lets, me think [s], I haA’e both learned Avhat they be, and Avithal conceived the mean, Iioav to get them removed. Whereby both 1 and all other may do much more good, than either 1 or any other hitherto have done. Why Mulcaster writes in English. I do Avrite in my natural English tongue, because though I make the learned my judges, Avhich understand Latin, yet 1 mean good to the unlearned, which understand but English. And better it is for the learned to forbear Latin, Avhich they need not, than for the unlearned to have it, Avhich they know not. By the English both shall see, Avhat I say, by Latin but the one Avhich were some Avrong, Avhere both have great interest, and the unlearned the greater, be¬ cause the unlearned have not any but only such English helps, the learned can fetch theirs from the same fountains, Avhence I fetch mine. My meaning is principally to help mine OAvn country, Avhose language Avill help me, to be understood of them, Avhom I Avould persuade : to get some thanks of them, for my good will to do Avell : to purchase pardon of them, if my good Avill do not well. The parents and friends Avith Avhom I have to deal, be mostAvhat no latin- EAELY ENGLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 649 ists : and if they were, yet we understand that tongue best, wherennto we are first born, as our first impression is aiway in English, before we do deliver it in Latin, And in persuading a known good by an unknown way, are we not to call unto us, all the helps that we can, to be thoroughly understood? He that understands no Latin, can understand English, and he that understands Latin very well, can understand English far better, if he will confess the truth, though he think he hath the habit and can Latin it exceeding well. The alleging of authors (/. e., the quoting of authorities) . But here by the way, I must adv ertise my reader thus much, that I think a student ought rather to invest himself in the habit of his writer, than to stand much upon his title, and authority, in proof or disproof, seeing who knoweth not, that all our studies be generally debtors to the first devise, and fairest delivery? Therefore to avoid length thereby, I will neither use authority, nor example, seeing matter is the main, and not the man’s name, saving only where one man’s deposition upholds or overthrows : and the ground of the example is so excel¬ lent in that kind, as it were too much unkindness, not to let the person be knov/n, where the fact is so famous. I will rest upon reason the best, where I find it, the next where that fails, and conjecture is probable, to prove such things, as reason must pattern. If the trial be in proof, and experience must guide it, I will bind upon proof, and let trial [i. e., experience] be the touch. The age at iDhicli the child is to go to school to he settled hy the parent, after consulting others. At what years [the child is to go to school] I cannot say, because ripeness in children is not tied to one time, no more than all corn is ripe for one reaping, though mostwhat about one. Some be hastinges and will on, some be hardinges, and draw back ; some be willing when their parents will : some but willing, when they will themseves, as either will to do well, upon cherishing wisely, or pleasure to play still, upon cockering fondly, hath possessed their minds. But he that deserveth to be a parent, must dispose himself to be also a judge, in all these cases : and who is so ill-friended, as he hath not one, with whom to confer, to learn by advice, the towardness and time of his jmung son’s schooling, if he be not able to look into it himself? They that limit the beginning to learn by some certain years, have an eye to that knowledge, which it were pity were lost, say they, and may easily be gained in those young years. * * * But more pity it were, for so petty a game, to forego a greater, to win an hour in the morning, and lose the whole day after : as those people most commonly do, which start out of their beds too early, before they be well awaked, or know what it is a clock ; and be drowsy when they are up, for want of their sleep. The teacher has to train perception, memory, judgment. These three things, wit to take, memory to keep, discretion to discern, and mo if ye seek, though but branches to these, which I choose Tor my purpose, shall ye find peering out of the little young souls : when you may see what is in them, and not they themselves. Whose ability to increase in time, and infirmity to crawl at that time is commended to them, which first begot them, or best can frame them. Now these natural towardnesses being once espied, in what degree they rise, because there is odds in children by nature, as in parents by purchase, they must be followed with diligence, increased by order, encouraged by comfort, till they come to their proof. Which proof travel [=^work] in time will perform, haste knits up too soon and imperfect, slowness too late and too weak. Instruction before the grammar stage. This consists of reading, writing, drawing, singing, and playing, and is dwelt upon by Mulcaster at greater length in his Elementarie (see p. 654). The importance of training to read. Reading offereth herself first in the entry, chosen upon good ground, con¬ tinued upon great proof, enrolled among the best, and the very foremost of the best, by her own effects, as very many so very profitable. For whether you mark the nature of the thing, while it is in getting, or the goodness thereof when it is gotten, it must needs be the first, and the most fruitful principle, in training of the mind * * *. Partly by use and partly by argument, the child gets the habit, and cunning to read well, which being once gotten, what a cluster of commodities doth it bring with all? What so ever any other, for either profit or pleasure, of force or free-will, hath published to the world, by 650 EDUCATIOIS' REPOET, 1904. pen or print, for any end, or to any use, it is by reading all made to serve us: in religion to love and fear God, in law to obey and please men : in skill to entertain knowledge, in will to expel ignorance, to do all in all, as having by it all helps to do all things well. Wherefore I make reading my first and fairest principle of all other, as being simply the first in substance, and leaning to none, but leading all other, and growing after so great, as it rangeth over all, being somewhat without other, other nothing without it. The importance of ivriting. Next to reading followeth writing, in some reasonable distance after, because it requiretli some strength of the hand, which is not so soon staid nor so stiff to write, as the tongue is stirring and ready to read * * *. [Now that writing has reached such perfection] it proves the prop to remembrance, the executor of most affairs, the deliverer of secrets, the messager [messenger] of meanings, the inlieritance of posterity, whereby they receive whatsoever is left them, in law to live by, in letters to learn, in evidence to enjoy. The importance of draining, as a subject of instruction. Commonly they that have any natural towardness to write well, have a knack of drawing too, and declare some evident conceit in nature bending that way. And as judgment by understanding is a rule to the mind to discern what is honest, seemly, and suitable in matters of the mind, and such arguments as fall within compass of general reason exempt from sense : so this quality by draw¬ ing with pen or pencil, is an assured rule for the sense to judge by, of the pro¬ portion and seemliness of all aspectable things * * *. And why is it not good to have every part of the body : and every power of the soul to be fined to his best? * * * If I or any else should seem to contemn that principle, which brought forth Apelles, and that so known a crew of excellent painters, so many in number, so marvellous in cunning, so many statuaries, so’many archi¬ tects : nay whose use all modelling, all mathematics, all maimaries do find and confess to be so notorious and so needful : both I and that any else might well be sui)posed to see very little, not seeing the use of that, which is laboured for sight, and most delightful to see * * *. [Aristotle] sayeth, that as writing and reading do minister much help to traffic, to householdry, to learning and to all public dealings ; so drawing by pen or pencil, is very requisite to make a man able to judge, what that is which he buyeth of artificers and craftsmen, for substance, form and fashion, durable and handsome or no : and such other necessary services, besides the delightful and pleasant. The importance of music. [Of all subjects I do not find any] wherein speech might so spread all the sails, which she hath, and the pen might use all the pencilling, which she can, as in painting out the praise and ornaments of Music. The matter is so ample, the ground so large, the reasons so many, which sound to her renown : the thing itself so ancient, and so honourable, so general, and so private, so in churches, and so without, so in ail ages, and in all places, both highly preferred, and richly rewarded : the princess of delights, and the delight of princes : such a pacifier in passion, such a mistress to the mind, so excellent in so many, so esteemed by so many, as even multitude makes me wonder and withal to stay my hand, for fear that I shall not easily get thence if I enter once in. * * [In the training of children] music will prove a double principle both for the soul, by the name of learning, and for the body, by the way of exercise. There is no writer on education who has more energetically insisted on the necessity of physical training than has Richard Mulcaster. Anjmne specially interested in this subject should consult the book and read chapters 6-35. The following are the — Heads of the chapters on physical education. Of exercises and training the body, flow necessary a thing exercise is. What health is and how it is maintained : what sickness is, how it cometh, and how it is prevented, What a part exercise playeth in the maintenance of health. Of the student and his health. That all exercises though they stir some one part most, yet help the whole body. The branching, order and method, kept in this discourse of exercises. Of Exercise in general, and what it is. And that it is athletical for games, martial for the field, physical for health, preparative before, postparative after the standing exercise : some within doors, for foul weather, some without for fair. EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 651 Of the particular exercises. Why I do appoint so many, and how to judge of them, or to devise the like. Of loud speaking. How necessary, and how proper an exercise it is for a scholar. Of loud singing, and in what degree it cometh to he one of the exercises. Of loud and soft reading. Of much talking and silence. Of laughing and weeping. And whether children he to he forced toward virtue and learning. Of holding the hreath. Of dancing, why it is hlamed, and how delivered from hlame. Of wrestling. Of fencing, or the use of the weapon. Of the top, and scourge. Of walking. Of running. Of leaping. Of swimming. Of riding. Of hunting. Of shooting. Of the hall. Of the circumstances, which are to he considered in exercise. The nature and quality of the exercise. Of the bodies which are to he exercised. Of the exercising places. Of the exercising time. Of the quantity that is to he kept in exercise. Of the manner of exercising. An advertisement to the training master. Why both the teaching of the mind and the training of the body he assigned to the same master. The inconveniences which ensue, where the body and the soul he made particular subjects to several professions. That v.^ho so will execute anything well, must of force he fully resolved in the excellency of his own subject. Out of what kind of writers the exercising master may store himself with cunning. That the first grounds would he laid by the cunningest workman. That private discretion in any executor is of more efficacy than his skill. That all hoys are not to he set to school. The leaniiny to read and to write. Sure all children may not be set to school, nay not though private circum¬ stances say yea. And therefore schools may not he set up for ail, though great good \Yill find never so many founders, both for the place wherein to learn, and for the number also which is for to learn : that the state may be served with sufficiently enough, and not be pestered with more than enough. And yet by the way for wndting and reading so they rested there, what if everyone had them, for religion sake, and their necessary affairs? Besides that in the long time of their whole youth, if they minded no more, these two were easily learned, at their leisure times by extraordinary means, if the ordinary be dainty and no school nigh. Every parish hath a minister, if none else in the parish, which can help writing and reading. The reasons loliy maidens are to he set to learning. And to prove that they are to be trained, I find four special reasons, v/hereof any one, much more all may persuade any their most adversary, much more me, which am for them tooth and nail. 1. The first is the manner and custom of my country, which alloweth them to learn, will be loath to be contraried by any of her countrymen. 2. The second is the duty, which we owe unto them, whereby we are charged, not to leave them lame, in that which is for them. 3. The third is their own towardness, which God by nature would never have given them to remain idle, or to small purpose. 4. The fourth is the excellent effects in that sex, when they have had the help of good bringing up : which commendeth the cause of such excellency, and wisheth us to cherish that tree, whose fruit is both so pleasant in taste and so profitable in trial. What can be said more? our country doth allow it, our duty doth enforce it, their aptness calls for it, their excellency commands it : and dare private conceit, once seem to withstand where so great, and so rare circumstances do so earnestly commend. The custom of our country as to the education of gwls. If I should seem to enforce any novelty I might seem ridiculous, and never see that thing take place, which I tender so much : but considering, the custom 652 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. of my country hath delivered me of that care, which hath made the maiden’s train [=education] her own approved travel [==w,ork] what absurdity am I in, to say that it is true, \vhich my country dare avow, and daily doth try? I set not young maidens to public grammar schools, a thing not used in my country, I send them not to the Universities, ha.ving no precedent thereof in my country, I allow them learning with distinction in degrees, with difference of their calling, with respect to their ends, wherefore they learn, wherein my country confirmeth my oi)inion. 21ie Elizaljethan constcUatlon of learned women. If no story did tell it, if no state did allow it, if no example did confirm it, that young maids deserve the training, tliis our own mirror, the majesty of her sex, doth prove it in her own person, and commends it to our reason. We have besides her highness, as undershining stars, many singular ladies and gentlewo¬ men so skilful in all cunning, of the most laudable, and loveworthy qualities of learning, as tliey may well be alleged for a precedent to praise, not for a pattern to prove like by : though hope have a head, and nature be no niggard, if educa¬ tion do her dutjg and will seek to resemble even where precedents be passing, both hope to attain to, and possibility to seem to. Wherefore by these proofs, I take it to be very clear, that I am not far overshot, in admitting them to train, being so trainable by nature and so uota.ble by effects. The subjects for girls to learn. And is not a young gentlewoman, think you, thoroughly furnished, which can read plainly and distinctly, write fair and swiftly, sing clear and sweetly, play well and finely, understand and speak the learned languages, and those tongues also which the time most embraceth, with some logical help to chop, and some rhetoric to brave. Besides the matter which is gathered, while these tongues be either learned, or looked on, as words must have seats, no less than raiment bodies. Were it any argument of an unfurnished maiden, besides these quali¬ ties to draw clean in good pro])ortion, and with good symmetry? Now if she be an honest woman, and a good housewife too, were she not worth the wishing, and worthy the shrining? And yet such there be, and such we know. The doubtful good of foreign travel as a means of education. As young gentlemen may travel, both for their pleasure, to see foreign coun¬ tries, and for their profit, to return home wise : so their own country desires them to mind that profit in deed, and not to mar it with too much pleasure, which is the cause why that all ages have misliked travelling, as the occasion of cor¬ ruption at most, and think it better forborne for hindering of so many, than to he allowed, for the good of some few, which is hazarded at the first, and uncer¬ tain to prove well. The reason of all this is, both for the foreign evil, which may corrupt, and for the very good, which will not fit, be it never so fit there, from whence it is fetched. The best hours for study and play. From seven of the clock, though ye rise sooner, (as the lamb and lark be the proverbial leaders when to rise and when to go to bed) till ten before noon, and from two till almost five in the afternoon, be the best and fittest hours, and enough for children wherein to learn. The morning hours will best serve for the memory and conceiving: the afternoon for repetitions, and stuff for memory to work on. The reasons be the freeness or the fulness of the head. The other times before meat be for exercises, as hath been fully handled heretofore. The hours before learning, and after meat, are to be bestowed, upon either neating of the body, or solacing of the mind, without too much motion: wherein as I said before the greatest part, and the best to be played consisteth usually in the trainer’s discretion, to apply things according to the circumstances of person, place, and time. The following is a remarkable passage, and illustrates the clear-headedness of Mulcaster : Of the elementary teachers' entertainment. But to say somewhat concerning the teachers’ reward, which is the encour¬ agement to good teaching, what reason is it, though still pretended, and some¬ times performed, to increase wages, as the child waxeth in learning? * * * What reason carrieth it, when the labour is less, than to enlarge the allowance? the later master to reap the benefit of the former’s labour, because the child makes EAELY ENGLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 653 more show with him? Why? It is the foundation well and soundly laid, which makes all the upper building muster, with countenance and continuance. If I were to strike the stroke, as I am but to give counsel, the first pains truly taken should in good truth be most liberally recompensed; and less allowed still upward as the pains diminish, and the ease increaseth. Whereat no master hath cause to repine, so he may have his children well grounded in the Elemen¬ tary. Whose imperfection at this day doth marvellously trouble both masters and scholars, so that we can hardly do any good, nay scantly tell how to place the too too raw boys in any certain form, with hope to go forward orderly, the ground work of their entry being so rotten underneath. The qualifications of a satisfactory master. Besides his manners and behaviour, which require testimony and assurance : besides his skill in exercising and training of the body, he must be able to teach the three learned tongues, the latin, the greek, the hebrew, if the place require so much, if not so much as is required. Wherein assuredly a mediocrity in knowledge will prove too mean to implant, that in another which he hath in himself. For he that meaneth to plant some little well : must himself far exceed any degree of mediocrity. He must be able to understand his writer, to master false prints, unskilful dictionaries, simple conjectures of some smat¬ tering writers concerning the matter of his train [= teaching], and be so appointed ere he begin to teach, as he may execute readily, and not make his own imperfection, to be a torture to his scholar, and a schooling to himself. For it is an ill ground to grow up from ignorance by teaching, in that place, where no ignorance of matter at least should be, at the very first ; though time and experience do polish out the manner. He must have the knowledge of all the best grammars, to give notes by the way still, though he burden not the child’s memory, of course, with any more than shall be set down. In addition to these and further i)oints of learning there are other desiderata. There are required besides * * * hardness to take pains: constancy to continue and not to shrink from his trade ; discretion to judge of circumstances : lightsomeness to delight in the success of his labour: heartiness to encourage a toward youth: regard to think each child an Alexander: courteous lotvUness in himself, as if he were the meanest though he were known to be the best. For the very least thing in learning, will not be v/ell done, but only by him, which knoweth the most, and doth that which he doth with pleasure and ease, by reason of his former store. The inadequate salaries paid to teachers. [These qualities (see supra) deserve much], and in our schools they be not generally found, because the rewards for labour there be so base and simple, yet the most near is best in choice, and many there be which would come near, if entertainment were answerable. Let the parents, and founders provide for the one : and certainly they shall find no default in the other. Mulcaster proposed that in the universities there should be seven colleges, divided off into specialistic studies with practical aims. There should be : 1. The college of tongues ; 2. The college for mathematics ; 3. The college for philosophy ; 4, 5, 6. Colleges for divinity, law, and “physic ; 7. College for “ training maisters.” The seventh college for training masters, and the necessity thereof. This suggestion of a training college for schoolmasters is one of the boldest and most noteworthy, not only in Mulcaster, but of the whole company of educational writers between 1500-1050. The section on the subject is given below in full and verbatim. There is no diverting to any profession till the student depart from the col¬ lege of Philosophy, thence he that will go to Divinity, to Law, to Physic, may yet with great choice, to have the fittest according to the subject. He that will to the school [i. e. to school-teaching] is then to divert. In whom I require so much learning to do so much good, as none of the other three (honour alway reserved to the worthiness of the subject which they profess,) can challenge to himself more : either for pains which is great ; or for profit which is sure : or for help to the professions : which have their passage so 654 EDUCATION- EEPORT, 1904. much the pleasanter, the forwarder students be sent unto them, and the better subjects be made to obey them ; as the schooling train is the track to obedience. And why should not these men have both this sufficiency in learning, and such room to rest in, thence to be choosen and set forth for the common service? be either children, or schools so small a portion of our multitude? or is the framing of young minds and the training of their bodies so mean a point of cunning? be schoolmaisters in this Realm such a paucity, as they are not even in good sadness to be soundly thought on? If the chancel have a min¬ ister, the belfry hath a master : and where youth is, as it is eachwhere, there must be trainers, or there will be worse. He that will not allow of this careful provision for such a seminary of masters, is most unworthy either to have had a good master himself, or hereafter to have a good one for his. Why should not teachers be well provided for, to continue their whole life in the school, as Divines, Lawyers, Physicans do in their several professions? Thereby judgment, cunning and discretion will grow in them : and masters would prove old men, and such as Xenophon setteth over children in the schooling of Cyrus. AVhereas now, the school being used but for a shift, afterward to pass thence to the other professions, though it send out very sufficient men to them, itself remaineth too too naked, considering the neces¬ sity of the thing. I conclude therefore that this trade requireth a particular college, for these four causes. 1. First for the subject being the mean to make or mar the v.diole fry of our state. 2. Secondly for the number, whether of them that are to learn, or of them that are to teach. 3. Thirdly for the necessity of the profession which may not be spared. 4. Fourthly for the matter of their study which is comparable to the greatest professions, for language, for judgment, for skill how to train, for variety in all points of learn¬ ing, wherein the framing of the mind, and the exercising of the body craveth exquisite consideration, beside the staidness of the person. This “ so great a good,” as Mulcaster would say, for secondary schoolmasters is as yet delaj^ed in England, though training for secondary schoolmistresses is so successfully carried out, e. g., in the Maria Grey Training College and in the Cambridge Training College. Another point on which Mulcaster insists has only recently received attention : The cJesirahlJity of conferences. Which I find [says he] to be four complements: parents and neighbours: teachers and neighbours : parents and teachers : teachers and teachers : whereof every one offereth much matter for the furthering of both learning and good manners in children. Under the name of neighbours I comprehend all foreign persons, whom either commendable duty by country law : or honest care of common courtesy doth give charge unto, to help the bettering of children, and to fray them from evil. A section is devoted to each of these “ complements,” showing how con¬ ference, “ whether by way of asking counsel or by advertisement to check faults,” is, in each case, very “ profitable for the weal of the little ones.” 1582. The First Part of the Elonentarie, which cntreateth chefelie of the right loriting of our English tung. Loud. 1582. 4to. “ The First Part ” is all that Mulcaster published. The following are Mulcaster’s headings of the chapters of the Elementarie : THE TITLES HANDLED IN THIS BOOK. ;Wliy I begin at the Elementarie, & wherein it consisteth - Cap. 1. That this five branched Elementarie is warranted by generall autoritie of all the gravest writers, & the best commonweals _ Cap. 2. The opinion of the best v.^riters concerning the choice of wits fit for learning - Cap. 3. That this Elementarie and the profitablenesse thereof is confirmed by great reason and the most evident proufs _ Cap. 4. That this Elementarie seasoneth the young mindes with the verie best and swetest liquor - Cap. 5. That this Elementarie maketh the childe most capable of most commendable qualities - Cap. 6. EAELY ENGLISH WRITEES ON EDUCATION. 655 That this Elementarie resemhleth natur both in number of abiiities, and in man¬ ner of proceding _ Cap. 7, That this Eiementarie riddeth the course of the after iearning from aii diflieultie and hardnesse - Cap. 8. That this Eiementarie by avoiding of ignorance avoideth aii misiiking _ Cap. 9. That the entrie to ianguage and iudgment thereof by Grammar is the end of the Eiementarie _ Cap. 10. The generall platform & method of the hole Eiementarie _ Cap. 11. The method which the learned tungs used, in tlie finding out of their own right writing - Cap. 12. That the English tung hath in it selfe sufficient matter to work her own artificial! direction for the right writing thereof _ Cap. 13. An answere to som pretended imperfections in the writing of our tung _ Cap. 14. What right in writing is, and of what force consent is in voluntarie inventions _ Cap. 15. The seven means to find out, and ascertain the right writing of English _ Cap. 16. Of generall rule, wherein the natur, and force of everie particular letter is examined _ Cap. 17. Of proportion 2 _ Cap. 18. Of composition 3 _ Cap. 19. Of derivation 4 _ Cap. 20. Of distinction 5 _ Cap. 21. Of enfranchisement 6 _ _ _ Cap. 22. Of prerogative 7 - Cap. 23. The use of the generall table - Cap. 24. The table _ Cap. 25. The conclusion of this treatis concerning the right writing of our English tung _ Cap. 26. Of the natur of an Eiementarie institution _ Cap. 27. THE PERORATION. To my gentle readers, and good cuntrimen, wherein manie things are handled concern¬ ing learning in general! : the natur of the English, and foren tungs besides som par¬ ticularities concerning the penning of this, and other books in English. The “ Eiementarie ” « deals with school life up to twelve years of age, before the teaching of grammar (Latin) is begun. Now, Miilcaster boldly maintains that the highest master should teach the youngest hoys, and should receive the highest pay for so doing. It is the foundation, well and soundly laid, which supports the w’hole building. “ If I were to strike the stroke,” says he, “ as I am but to give counsel, the first pains truly taken should in good truth be most liberally recompensed ; and less allowed still upward, as the pains [of teaching] diminish, and the ease increaseth.” The subjects. The subjects he proposes “be” five in number — reading, writing (we miss arithmetic!), drawing, singing, and playing. In addition, always, and of the first importance, w^hatever wdll “ strengthen their [the children’s] bodies or quicken their wits.” This liberal course Miilcaster grounds upon authority (Plato, Aristotle, Politian, etc.) and “probability,” but he is aw'are that so full a course will not be “ allowed of most.” Plow modern this passage sounds ! Mark the direct and dignified English, when Miilcaster lets himself go : Who am I to persuade the liking of so full an Eiementarie? * * * [It may be said to me] : “ You meddle in this matter alone, you do but trouble your¬ self ; you cannot turn the course which is ordinary and old, and therefore very strong for you to strive against ; this thing which you commend is not every man’s wmr ; it will not be compassed ; do you let it alone ; if you wdll needs write, turn jmur pen to other matters, which the State wnll better like of : which this time will soon allow" ; wdiich you may persuade wnth credit, if they be new and suitable ; or confirm wnth praise, if they be old and need the file.” “This account of the Eiementarie is taken from a lecture given by myself before the College of Preceptors, London, Dec. 14, 1892, on “ Richard Miilcaster and his Eie¬ mentarie.” 656 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. The winning of a “ resolute goodT Miilcaster recognizes that this is the fate of everyone in “ all attempts of turn¬ ing.” This is his answer : To win a resolute good, he that wishes to have it must think to wrestle for it, both with words and writing, against corruption of the time, against the alone- ness of attempt, against the prejudice of parties, against the difficulties of per¬ formance, and whatever else. Then follows the curious passage : May it not fall out that such a thing as this is may he called for hereafter, though presently not cared for, through some other occasion, which hath the rudder in hand. I had, therefore, rather that it were ready then, to help when it were wished for, than for fear of misliking, at the first setting forth, to defraud posterity of a thing so passing good. Posterity has not interested itself to hear what Mulcaster has to say. Yet, in an age which has adopted free elementary education, it would not be inappro¬ priate or unacceptable to have a reprint oi the “ Elementarie,” for the twentieth century, that English people should judge for themselves if Mulcaster’s ideas are “ passing good.” Scope of the Elementarie. Mulcaster planned his ” Elementarie,” not for all boys and girls, but for those who, by their quick conceiving, sharp wit, laborious courage, fast retaining, and honest disposition, showed themselves worthy of going on to the heights of learn¬ ing. He would have every child taught reading and writing; but his “Elemen¬ tarie ” is, strictly speaking, a foundation for a higher course. Yet much of what he has to say is true for education which ceases at 12 or 13. Here is a rationale of his subjects: “By reading we receive what antiquity hath left us, by writing we deliver what posterity craves of us; by both we find great ease in every occasion of our daily use.” Drawing trains the eye ; music, estab¬ lished on arithmetic (one of Mulcaster’s few references to arithmetic), helps to an appreciation of the beauty of concord and the blot of dissension even in a politic body, and, moreover, is the “ natural sweeter of our sour life, in any man’s judgment that is not too sour.” (Ends proposed are human, not merely utilitarian. Man is the end, not the means.) Mulcaster insists on the training of the hand in writing, the eye in drawing, and the ear in music. He offers a psychology — of a somewhat crude kind, it is true — for the senses, the brain, “ the prince of all our parts,” and the soul. He also gives a rough account of the physiology of digestion and nourishment. It is interesting that he should make an essay toward a psychology, and that he should base his teaching on it, crude as it is. First and best humanities. He divides abilities into the first humanities and the best humanities. The former include all that is necessary for living; the latter refer to those induced by “train” or education, for Vicing well. Of the best humanities he says — and this may stand as his Definition of education: They [the best humanities] forju the senses and the instruments thereof to their best perfection and their longest endurance. They restrain desire to the rule of reason, and the advise of foresight. They so enrich the mind and the soul itself, as they lay up in the treasurie of remembrance all arts, all fore¬ cast, all knowledge, all wisdom, all understanding, whereby either God is to be honoured, or the world to be served in honest and wise sort. Method and necessity of the fore-train. The training of the powers of children is done, so to say, surreptitiously. Mulcaster occasionally introduces stories to illustrate his point, and he tells EATILY ENGLISH WEITERS ON EDUCATION. 6573-' how Timotheus, the Athenian, gained his victories by the want of thought on the part of the enemy. He thinks, in the same way, the friends and teachers are to steal a march on unwary boys and girls and educate them, as he him¬ self says, “ ere themseh’es can perceive it.” This precisely brings out Mulcas- ter’s defect in the light of later pedagogy. He has no adequate idea of the responsive self-activity of the child as a pedagogic principle. When, however, he speaks of the uecessUt/ of the fore-train, he is a modern^ of the moderns. Is the compassing of tongues [languages] hard? sure so it is, to one of no fore-train, that never learned granmiar, that never read writer, that never proved his stile [pen]. Be the mathematics hard? Sure so they be to one not prepared, that never did number, that never drew line, that never knew note, that never marked motion. Be the abilities of the body laborious and hard?^ Sure, that they be, where no exercise goeth before, where the joints be stiff where it is painful to prove what the body can do, being never put to it. Grammar in earhj education. In connection with the necessity for this elementary foundation, there are two- points in Mulcaster v>dnch are so much in accord with the best (I say best advisedly) modern education that I must mention them. First, he thinks the • advantage of grammar teaching at an early stage is overrated. The end of Grammar [he says] is to write and speak, which when we do most.,, we learn our grammar best * ❖ As for the understanding of writers, thatv. comes by years and ripeness of wit, not by rule of grammar. Education and the icorJcman. Secondly, although the idea of universal education has not struck Mulcaster,. yet he is exceedingly liberal in his view of the use of his elementary ” founda¬ tion.” After saying that, for the boy who is destined for learning, he vrill find- nothing intolerably hard if he has a good fore-train : ” Nay, what shall he find_ hard, though handicraft be his end? For he may well have all these [elemen¬ tary] principles, yea, and the mathematics, too, and yet aspire no higher tham the plain workman.” In another passage he distinctly asserts that it is a mis¬ take to suppose a handicraftsman can be satisfactory without sharp wits and'f good abilities. Choice of wit limits students. Is [a boy] poor? provide for him, that he may live by trade, but let him not loiter. Is he vritty? why, be artificers fools? and do not all trades occupy wit?-' The teaching of EngJish. Latin was, as \\q have seen, the learned tongue, and Mulcaster apologizes fom his plea for the teaching of English. He says : Our natural tongue being as beneficial to us for our needful delivery as any" other is to the people which use it ; and having as pretty and as fair observations in it as any other hath, and being as ready to yield to any rules of art as any other is, why should I not take some pains to find out the right writing of ours^. as other countrymen have done to find out the like in theirs? He returns again and again to this delightful theme. His joy in it is com¬ parable to that of Columbus on seeing America. Mulcaster discovered the great merits of English as a language. How could he justify his pleasure to a.. learned 'world that, by tradition and use, only thought of Latin as a literary language? He must show, in the first place, its antiquity. Antiquity of our tongue. Our language can not be called young — Unless the German himself [itself] be young, which claimeth a prerogative for- the age of his [its] speech of an infinite prescription; unless the Latin and: ED 1S04 M - 42 658 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Greek be young, whose words we enfranchise to our own use, though not always immediately from themselves, but most-what through the Italian, French, and Spanish ; unless other tongues, which be neither Greek nor Latin, nor any of the forenamed, from whom we have somewhat, as they have from ours, will, for company’s sake, be content to be young, that ours may not be old. But I am well assured that every one of these will strive for antiquity, and rather grant it to us than forego it themselves. In bold, noble language, instinct with the patriotism of the Elizabethan age, Miilcaster speaks of the English nation as being of “ good credit,” even in the language of its detractors and enemies. He then shows that the matter of our speech is as significant and lofty as that of any other nation. lie discusses, with admiration, the effect that chivalry must have had in increasing and refin¬ ing our vocabulary. The inspiring effect of war, its true and untrue reports, its projects, devices, and multitude of discourses, are vigorously shown, and, finally, Mulcaster draws attention to the influence of trade in expanding ideas and in provoking apt expression. If the spreading sea and the spacious land could use any speech, they would both show you where, and in how many strange places, they have seen our peo¬ ple, and also given you to wit that they deal in as much and as great variety of matters as any other people do, whether at home or abroad. Which is the reason why our tongue doth serve to so many uses, because it is conversant with so many matters, in so sundry kinds of dealings. Now all this variety of mat¬ ter and diversity of trade make both matter for our speech and means to enlarge it. Teaching of English. vSpace does not permit me to give an account of Mulcaster’s thoroughgoing attempt to expound the principles of English teaching. He divides his dis¬ courses and exposition into proportion, composition, derivation, distinction, enfranchisement, prerogative. He supplies a general table, in which he gathers together the words most commonly in use in Elizabethan speech. The whole treatment of English is so interesting that it is rather remarkable how the student of the English language usually manages to overlook the study of the “ Elementarie.” Mulcaster addresses a long peroration to his readers at the end of his “ Ele¬ mentarie.” In it he returns once more to the advocacy of the English language as a subject for teaching and as worthy of cultivation. He is a head master of a classical school, he is an able Latin writer, and yet his call to the study of English is the strongest thing of its sort in the last three hundred years. English and Latin. One passage more, the best known, from the peroration to the “ Elementarie.” It is on the value of the English v. Latin as a literary language ; Our own language bears the joyful title of our liberty and freedom, the Latin remembers us of our thraldom and bondage. I love Rome, but London better ; I favour Italy, but England more. I honour the Latin, but I worship the Eng¬ lish. ❖ ❖ * I iionoiir foreign tongues, but wish my own to be partaker of their honour. Knowing them, I wish my own tongue to resemble their grace. I confess their furniture, and wish it were ours. Why should not all of us write in English? * * * I do not think that any language, be it whatsoever. Is better able to utter all arguments either with more pith or greater plainness than our English tongue * * * not any whit behind either the subtle Greek for crouching close, or the stately Latin for spreading fair. I will recall the main educational contentions of Mulcaster in the Posi¬ tions and the Elementary : 1. Culture and learning for those who have the wit to profit by it, whether rich or poor. Adequate knowledge for those who go into trade. EAELY ENGLISH WEITERS ON EDUCATION. 659 2. Education for girls and women, as well as boys and men. Higher educa¬ tion for girls who have good abilities. 3. Training colleges for teachers. 4. Phj’sical training for all — boys and girls, teachers and pupils, and this to be continued in after life. 5. Liberal education, with disinterested aims for the elementary schools. G. The best masters to take th6 lowest classes. 7. Drawing and music to be taught in every school, not as “ extras,” but as essentials. 8. Conferences between teachers, parents, and neighbors. 'Note. — Besides the Positions and the Eiementarie, the only other books the names of which are known are the “ Cato Christianus ” and the “ Catechismus Paulinus.” Mr. Quick draws attention to a quotation from the former in the margin of Robotham’s preface to the Janua.” OTHER WRITINGS. Mulcaster wrote some easy-going Latin verses to Elizabeth on her royal prog¬ ress to Kenilworth in 1575. In 1573 he prefixed commendatory verses to John Baret’s Alvearie, and to the second edition in 1580, and in 1580 also to that remarkable schoolbook of Christopher Ocland called “Anglorum Prielia,” and in 1582 to the same writer's Eipj/vapxia. In 1575 he addressed more verses to Elizabeth, on her skill in music (printed in Tallis and Bird's ” Discantus Caii- tiones,” 1575). Here is what Ballard (“Memoirs of British Ladies,” 1775, p. 158) quotes as a “ handsome ” compliment: “ Re^ia majestas, setatis gloria nostra?, rianc in cleliciis semper habere solet : Nec conteuta graves aliorum aurlire labores, Ipsa etiam egregie voce mauuqiie canit.” “ Our gracious Queen, bright glory of our age. The pow'r of notes harmonious can engage ; Much joy she thence receives, but more conveys, While both her voice and hand the concert raise.” In 1603 Mulcaster published ; Naniia consolans in mortem ^erenlssiiiiT Regime FAizahetliec. I have met with a translation of six of the verses of this Latin poem into English by Mulcaster himself (Collier: “Bibliographical Account of Early English Literature,” p. 542). They are not worthy of Spenser’s schoolmaster. “See Gascoigne's “Princely Pleasures of Kenilworth” (pp. 9, 10, in reprint of 1821) : “ Her Majesty, proceeding towards the inner court, passed on a bridge, the which was railed in on both sides. And on the tops of the posts thereof were set sundry presents and gifts of provision — as wine, corn, fruits, fishes, fowls, instruments of music, and weapons for martial defence. All which were expounded by an actor clad like a Poet, who pronounced these verses in Latin ; Jupiter, e summi dum vertice cernit Olympi, Hue, Princeps Regina, tuos te tendere gressus : Scilicet eximijE succensus imagine formas, Et memor antiqui qui semper ferverat ignis, Siccine Coelicolae patientur turpiter (inquit) Muneris exortem Reginam hoc visere castrum. Quod tarn Iseta subit? Keliqui sensere tonantis Imperium superi, pro se dat quisque libenter : Musicolas Sylvanus aves ; Pomonaque poma, Fruges alma Ceres, rorantia vina Lyeeus ; Neptunus pisces, tela et tutantia Mavors : Hsec (Regina Potens) superi dant munera divl : Ipse loci clominus dat se Castrum que Kenelmi. “ These verses were devised by Master Mulcaster.” 660 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. but I give them as illustrating a heroic struggle to say something in English, at any cost: “As good Elizabeth raignes most happie now in heaven, So happy may King James raigne long with us on earth ; And as she did avoid the Jesuites’ treacherous traines, Whereby she got her grave in dire and quiet death, So good King James goe late to God, and slip their snares; For if thou stick'st to God, they'l not sticke to sticke thee.” Here we see Mulcaster at his very worst. He has forgotten his metre, and writes the atrocious pun on “stick.” Yet Collier, while recognizing the faults, would have us observe that these lines are interesting, as one of the early specimens of English blank verse prior to Milton. Books on the Relation of Ciiildeen and Adults. 1. Batty [Bartholomew]. Christian Man’s Closet. Englished by W. Lowth. 1581. Other Books on Parents and Children. 2. Newnam's Nightcrowe. 1590. 3. James I’s Bao-tAixoi' Atopov. 1G03. 4. Martyn (Wm.) Youth’s Instruction. 1(512. 5. Ayrault (P. ). Translated by J. Budden. A Discourse for Parents, etc. 1614. 6. Dod’s Bathsheba’s Instructions. 1614. 7. Precepts, by Lord Burleigh. 1617. 8. Father’s Advice to his Sonne, by Patrick Scot. 9. Mother’s Blessing, by Mrs. Dorothy Leigh. 10. Mother’s Legacie, by Mrs. Jocelin. 11. Emperor Basil, translated by Scudamore (Jas.). 1638. 12. Sir Walter Raleigh to his Son. 1632. 13. Cardinal Sermonetta. 1633. 14. Henry Delaune. iiarpiKdr A^pov. 1651. DARTHOLOAIEW BATTY (TRANSLATOR, WILLIAM LOWTH ). 1581. The Christian mans Closet. Wherein is eonteined a large discourse of the godly training up of children; as also of those duties that children owe unto their parents * * *. Englished hy William Lowth. B. L. Thomas Dawson and Gregoric Eeton. 1581. 4to. This volume is divided into two books : . 1. Tlie duty of parents toward their children. 2. The duty of children toward their parents. It is thrown into the form of a dialogue in which the follovvdng take part: .4musus, Theodidactus, Theophilus, Martina, the mother. Of the two parts, probably the first is of more importance than the second. The following are among the points brought forward : The misery of a dis¬ orderly family. The wife and the family. God’s command to nurture children. Parents are stirred up to instruct their children with sweet promises. We must not deal with youth by threatenings and stripes. Examples of godly fathers and how they brought up their children. The best schoolmaster should be chosen. Children must be taught from their tender years. The things to be taught to children — especially the subject-matter of the Apostles’ Creed. Children ought to be instructed for four reasons: (1) To receive the seeds of g(.diiness ; (2) to love and learn liberal sciences; (3) to lead honest and virtuous lives; (4) to learn good manners. Recreation must be u.sed. Parents should spare no labor in teaching their children. To be among children is to be in the midst of angeis.« Nothing ought to seem troublesome and grievous a “ For their angels, saith Christ, do always behold the face of my father which is in heaven. If all parents did understand this excellencie and dignity given unto them, with what pleasure and cheerfulnes would they teach their children.” EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 661 unto parents, schoolmasters, and pastors, and all others that have charge of children and youth. Schoolmasters should he godly, and a man must not bestow his whole study in one art only. The efficacy of education. We must not leave off instruction on account of the stupidity of wit. Of the ordering of noble wits. “Correction” (punishment) is necessary. Fathers abuse their authority by too great severity. A mean in correcting is best. Fourteen causes for which a parent may justifiably disinherit his son. “Cockering” is the original cause of negligent instruction. Negligent parents are injurious to their country and commonwealth. What and how great mischiefs do arise by negligent instructing. Negligent parents do exceed in cruelty Pharaoh, Herod, or any other tyrants. Whether negligent parents are to be compelled by any law? The law of Solon against negligent parents. Children bear the sins of parents. Riches are not ot be heaped up for children, but a good name is better than riches. The pains of studies are not to be remitted. A handicraft, science, or faculty is to be learned by all.® The manner and order how to “terrify” children (relate, for instance, “the horrible pains and plagues” which come from God’s anger). Whether children ought to be sent into strange countries to learn the liberal sciences. Mothers ought to nurse their own children. What company a child ought to use, and what playfellows he must have. Women get great [er] renown in the good and virtuous educa¬ tion of their children than by the curious garnishing of themselves. The death of children to be borne moderately. Parents ought to take great heed that they choose godly wives for their sons. The second book, concerning the duty of children tov/ard their parents, is divided into five parts : I. What manner of honor and obedience children ought to show to parents. II. The honesty, profit, and necessity of teaching, and true wisdom. III. Shunning of vices and embracing of virtues. IV. Matrimony, and how a young man shall contract himself therein. V. Worthy and excellent sentences collected out of the best and purest authors. It will be noted that the subjects mentioned above are disconnected. This, indeed, is a noticeable characteristic of the book. It goes from one point to' another without any clear order. It displays, however, very great industry in its collection of quotations and stories to illustrate the different points, and is at least interesting in insisting (as did Erasmus) upon the importance of teach¬ ing children from infancy. OTHER ROOKS OX PAREXTS AXD CHILDREN. In Andrew Maunsell’s catalogue of books, published in 1595, Lowth’s transla¬ tion of Bartholomew Batty's book is named, together with the following: A rule to hriiig up cliiUlren : a treatise wherein is (lecla red, how the father opposcth ihe son in the holy scripture. Wherchy all parentes may he taught how to bring up their ehUdren. By John Lister. Printed hy Thomas East. 8vo. Celius Seeundus Epistle, for the godly hringing up of children. Trans¬ lated hy William Lyving. Printed hy John Aide. 1576. 8vo. Exhortation and fruitful admonition to virtuous parentes and modest Matrones, to the hringing up of their children in godly Education and house¬ hold discipline. By It. G. Printed for Nic. Ling. 1581/. 8vo. I have not been able to see any of the above. “ The reason given is ; “ For goods oftentimes are taken from a man l)y some mishap or chance, as hy fire, theft, war, shipwreck or for some fault or offense; hut an art or occupation is the surest possession which always and in any place is readj'’ to comfort and relieve a man in his necessity whatsoever.” 662 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The following books, further, are taken from W. Carew Hazlitt’s bibliograph¬ ical collections ; The Civilitie of Child eh ode, with the disciprme and institution of Children ete. translated oute of Freneh into Englysh hy Thomas Paynell Anno Do. 1560. (8vo. 55 leaves.) The eoiinsell of a Father to his Eonne, in ten severall Preeepts. Left as a Legacy at his death. London. Printed for Joseph Hunt and are to he sold at his shop in Bedlem, neere moore-field gate (circa 1620). A sheet. In verse. The Mothers Counsell or, Live loithin Compasse. Being the last Will and Testament to her dearest daughter. Printed at London for John Wright, and are to he sold at his t^hop in Gilt-spur street u'ithout Newgate at the signe of the Bihle. 16 — . 8vo. 24 leaves, the last blank. Woodcut on title. The Country-Mans Care, And the Citizens feare, In bringing up their ehil- dren in good Education. Bet forth in a Dialogue hetween a Citizen and Country-Man. Printed at London for T. B. 161^1. 4to. 4 leaves. A pleasant and shady pathe for the hringing up of yonge ehildren. Li¬ censed to Edward White. 3 Oct. 1580. 1590. newnam’s nightcrowe. Newnands Nightcrou'c. A Bird that hreedeth hrawles in many Families and Ilouseholdes. Wherein is rememhcred that hlndely and iwovident regard tohich Fathers ought to have toicards their Bonnes. Together with a disciphring of the injurious dealinges of some younger sorte of stepda^nes. John Wolfe 1590. 4to. The Table : Part I. Chap. I. That the virtue, thriving and prosperity of children are for the most part wrought by the father’s good examples and instructions. Chap. II. That the vice and other infelicity of children, mostly proceedeth of the father's ill examples. Chap. III. That fathers ought not to provoke their children to wrath or disobedience. Chap. IV. That fathers ought to deal kindly and faithfully, and not prejudicially or fraudulently towards their children. Chap. V. That fathers or parents ought not to dispose their goods or lands after private fancy. Part II. Chap. VI. Of the ungentle dealing of some stepmothers towards their husband’s children. Chap. VII. That stepmothers ought not to be private or false accusers of their husband’s children more than of others. Chap. VIII. That stepmothers ought not to supplant or procure disheriting of their hus- bandes eldest sonnes. Chap. IX. That disinheriting of the eldest son without very great lawful cause is an art very wrongful and ungodly. Chap. X. That procurers and counsellors of disherision and all wrong doing ought to make or procure restitution. JAMES I. 1599. BAiSlAIKON ALIPON, Or, Ilis Majesties Instructions to his dearest sonne Henry, the Prince. 1599. Other editions: London: 1603. Another edition 1603, 1604, 1624, 1630. Edin¬ burgh: 1603. Stockholm: 1606. Paris: 1603, 1604. Frankfort: 1679. Rox¬ burgh Club Reprint, 1887. Included in a Miscellany in Henry Morley’s Uni¬ versal Library, 1883. EAKLY E^TGLISH WKITERS ON EDUCATION. 663 The treatise is divided into three parts ; 1. Of a King's Christian duty towards God. 2. Of a King’s duty in hie Office. 3. Of a King’s behaviour in indifferent things. The conclusion of the whole treatise. Kemember, my son, by your true and constant depending upon God, to look for a blessing to all your actions in your office; by the outward using thereof, to testify the inward uprightness of your heart; and by your behaviour in all indifferent things, to set forth the vive [=lively] image of your virtuous dispo¬ sition : and in respect of the greatness and weight of your burdens, to be patient in hearing, keeping your heart free from pre-occupation ; ripe in concluding, and constant in your resolution. For better it is to bide at your resolution although there were some defect in it, than by daily changing, to effectuate nothing ; taking the pattern thereof from the microcosm of your own body : wherein ye have two eyes, signifying great foresight and providence with a nar¬ row looking in all things ; and also two ears, signifying patient hearing and that of both the parties : but ye have but one tongue for pronouncing a plain, sensible, and uniform sentence ; and but one head, and one heart, for keeping a constant and uniform resolution, according to your apprehension : having two hands and two feet, with many fingers and toes for quick execution, in employing all, instruments meet for effectuating your deliberations. After warning his son against anger, James continues ; “ Above all let the measure of your love to everyone be according to the measure of his virtue.” He advises his son to adopt “ the wise man’s schoolmaister, which is the exam¬ ple of others * * * eschewing so the over-late repentance by your own experience, which is the schoolmaister of fools ” (an echo from Roger Ascham). WILLIAM MAETYX. 1G12. Youth’s Instruction. Composed and Written hij William Martyn, Esquire, Recorder of the honoiirahle Citie of Exeter. Prwstat non nasci; Quam male vivere. London, Printed hy John Beale, 1612. 4to. Also, 1G13. Addressed to his son ” Nicholas Martyn, now a Student in the University of Oxford.” This love of mine (my son) [says Martyn] hath made me over-bold with mine own business, and with mine own convenient pleasures ; in borrowing some hours (which were indeed owing to my public emplo5'ments and to my necessary recreation) to compose, and to write this ensuing Discourse; not to please myself, (if it were praiseworthy) but to do you good; and (by such Motives, and by such Instructions, as are therein comprised) to enrich your understand¬ ing and behaviour, with those selected virtues, and most commended qualities, whose discourse it doth contain. After citing instances of godly and wise men, Martyn treats of study and learning. Hard labour and daily study. He that is learned, treasureth up wisdom, whereby he effecteth what he lis- teth ; yea, things justly to be admired, and to be wondered at. This fair and this lovely Lady cannot be won, but by an industrious care and by a constant suit, and she is overtaken by such only, as with daily labour and study do fol¬ low after her. Therefore, (my son) if you desire to be her companion, you must (by frequent study) attempt to procure, and to win her love. Yerno enini nascitur Artifex, Learning is not obtained without labour, and labor improbus omnia vincit, as saitli the poet, by hard labour, and .daily study, we always do step nearer unto learning. The rule for study. Let your study, therefore, be moderate, not violent, more pleasing than pain¬ ful, that sanity, and health of body may (with study, and with learning) be preserved and maintained, nam frustra sapit, qui sibi non sopit: you shall in vain think to make yourself to be profitable unto others by your learnin.g, if you be not careful (by moderating of your studies) to provide for your own health. 664 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. The hest time for stiuly. It is true, that for the attaining of learning, Melior est vigilantia somno: We must not he slothful or sluggish, but we must watch: But not too much. in the night. For night watchings in study are dangerous and hurtful, both to the wit, and also to the eyes : yea, they are generally prejudicial unto the state of the whole body. The moiaiings must therefore be the choicest, and chiefest times in which I counsel you to spend, and to employ your labours in those studies, and in those projects which by your religious, learned, and honest tutor (Mr Ilanniball Gamon) shall (for your best furtherance in knowledge and in learning) be appointed to you, which times (I am right well assured) you can with the more facility, and alacrity employ therein; because you have hereto¬ fore been trained and enured so to do by the provident care, and directions of your last sufficient and kind schoolmaster (Mr William Perimaii). Amongst the subjects specially treated are : Wisdom, The Choice of Company, Rules in Friendship, Honesty of Life, Modest talking. Idleness, Banqueting, Drunkenness, Humility, Humanity, Adversity, Patience, Eight rules of Liber¬ ality, Card and Dice-playing, Dancing and Vaulting, Rules for Speaking well, Truth, Rashness, Exercises, As to the last named, Martyn especially recommends his son to read the work of Balthazer Castilion. PETKUS mKODIUS ( =PIEERE AYRAULT). 1614. A Discourse for Parents honour and autlioritie. Written respectively to reclaime a young man that iras a counterfeit Jesuite: By his Father Petrus A^rodius the rcnoicned French Civilian, sometimes Justice in causes crinii- 7ial and blaster of Requests to the Duke of Angiers. Done into English at the instance of some ivorthy learned friends hy Jo: Budden Doctor of the Laircs and his Majesties Professor in the University of Oxford. London: Printed hy Edw. Griffin, for William Harper, and Thomas Harper, IGlJf. This English translation of “ a most excellent Latin original treateth for the honourable maintenance of parents’ authority, and was compiled some five and twenty years since by the famous French civilian Petrus .Erodius, in purpose to reclaim his son Renatus, y Iio at that time, being under age, and without his father’s leave, had betaken himself to the Jesuits' company." (Petrus H!lrodius= Pierre Ayrault.) JOHN non AND WM, HINDE. 1614. BathshehaJs Distruetions to her son Lemuel: * * * Exposition of the last chapter of Proverhs * * * Penned hy a godly and learned man, now with God. Perused and puhlished for the use of God's Church. By John Dod and Wm. Hinde. London. John Beale, IGl.’i. 4to. This is a sermon one part of which is to show that it is the duty of parents to teach and instruct their children, and that it is the children’s duty firmly to retain in memory the instruction and precepts of their parents. Very tedious. LORD BURLEIGH. 1617. Certaine Precepts, or Directions, for the well ordering and carriage of a mans life: as also weonomieall Discipline for the government of his house: with a platformc to a good foundation thereof in the advised choice of a Wife: Left hy a Father to his son at his death, who was sometimes of emi¬ nent Note and Place in this Kingdom. And Puhlished from a more Perfect Copy, than ordinary those pocket Manuscripts go warranted hy. With some other Precepts and Sentences of the same nature added: taken from a per- EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION, 665 son of like place and qualltie. London, Printed l)y T. C. and B. A. for RL Meighen and Thom. Jones, and are to he sold at St. Clemenfs Church tcith- oiit Temple Barre 1611. Also, editions in 1G36, 1G37, 1728, 1783, 1821, 1824, and probably many others. The following are the subjects of the Precepts : 1. For choice of your wives. 2. The education of children. 3. For Household pro¬ vision and the choice of Servants. 4. How to entreat your kindred and allies. 5. Adviseth to keep some great man to your friend and how to compliment him. 6. How and when to undertake suits. 7. Advertiseth for suretyship. 8. How to behave a man’s self. 9. How far to disclose a man's secrets. 10. Be not scurrilous in conversation. PATEICK SCOT. 1G20. A Father's Advice or last Will to his Sonne, Affording matter profitahle for all men, now puhlislted for the use and henefit of every one, and more particularly for the Inhahitants of Great Britaine and Ireland. Lond. 1G20. 4to. In the introduction Scot says ; I doe find (by the Law Falcidia) if the Child committeth any fault for want of Education, the Father was punished. That I should not bee lyable to that (and a more supreme) Law, I have (from your Infancy) been carefull to have you sufiiciently grounded in these Rudi¬ ments, that doe coiicerne both your spirituail and Civill conversation. MRS. DOROTHY LEIGH. 1G21. The Mother's Blessing: Or The godly Counsell of a Gentle-woman, not long since deceased, left hehind her for her Children. Containing many good admonitions profitahlc for all Parents, to leave as a Legacy to their Children. By Mris Dorothy Leigh. The earliest edition in the British Museum library is the seventh, dated 1G21, 12mo. Other editions are the tenth (lG27),the fifteenth (1G30) , and 1G5G, 1GG3, 1707, 1718. Mrs. Leigh gives seven “ causes,” or reasons, which induced her to write this book. The sixth of these is to persuade her sons, as one of their bounden duties— To teach their children. [So] that all your children be they males or females may in their youth learn to read the Bible in their own mother-tongue, for I know it is a great help to true godliness. And let none of you plead poverty against this * * ❖ If any at any time desire you to be a witness to the baptising of their child, [I desire] that then you shall desire the person so desiring to give you his faithful word, that the child shall be taught to read, so soon as it can con¬ veniently learn, and that it shall so continue, till it can read the Bible. If this will not be granted, you shall refuse to answer for the child. The education of the child: A mother's view, 1621. I further entreat you that all your children may be taught to read, begin¬ ning at four years old or before and let them learn till ten, in which time they are not able to do any good in the Commonwealth, but to learn how to serve God, their King and country, by reading. And I desire, entreat, and earnestly beseech you, and every one of you, that you will have yoUr children brought up with much gentleness and patience. What disposition soever they be of, gentleness will soonest bring them to virtue; for forwardness and curstness doth harden the heart of a child and maketh him weary of virtue. Among the froward thou shalt learn frowardness ; let them therefore be gently used and always kept from idleness, and bring them up in the Schools of learning, if you be able, and they be fit for it. If they will not be scholars, yet I hope they will be able by God’s grace, to read the Bible, the Law of God, and 666 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904, be brought to some good Vocation or Calling of life. Solomon saith, (Pro. 22. 6), Teach a Childe, in his youth, the trade of his life, and he will not forget it, nor depart from it, when he is old. ELIZABETH JOCELIN. 1G24. The Mothers Legaeie, To her unhorn Childe, By Elizaheth Joeelin. Lon¬ don, Printed hy John Havitand, For William Barret 162//. 12mo. Srd ed. 1025; 1684; 1724; 1840; 1852; 1853. Also, a translation into Dutch in 1099. This lady died at the age of 27 years, surviving the birth of a daughter nine days. The treatise is one of great piety, is written with language breathing of devotion. The teatise has lately been reprinted (Macmillan & Co., 1894) with a preface by the Lord Bishop of Rochester. The contents are touchingly earnest. In the epistle dedicatory (to her husband Tourell Joeelin) is the following: Mrs. JocelhVs rieir of woman's edueaiion. I desire (if the child be a daugliter) her bringing up may be learning the Bible, as my sisters do, good housewifery, writing and good works : other learn¬ ing a woman needs not: though I admire it in those whom God hath blest with discretion, yet I desired not much in my own, having seen that sometimes women have greater portions of learning, than wisdom, which is of no better use to them than a main-sail to a tiy-boat, which runs it under water. But where learning and wisdom meet in a viiduous disposed woman, she is the fittest closet for all goodness. She is like a well-balanced ship that may bear all her sail. She is— Indeed, I should but shame myself, if 1 should go about to praise her more. This is entirely a. religious exhortation. Mrs. Joeelin is aware that her earnestness may be taken for strictness, and says : Mistake me not, nor give yourself leave to take too much libertie with saying. My Mother was too strict. No, I am not, for I give you leave to follow modest fashions, but not to be a beginner of fashions : nor would I have you follow it [them] till it be genera, 11. So that in not doing as others do, you might appear more singular than wise : but in one word, this is all I desire, that you will not set your heart on such fooleries, and you shall see, that this modest carriage will win you reputation and love with the wise and virtuous sort. EMPEROE BASIL (.LAS. SCUDAMORE, TRANSLATOR). 1038. The Bixty-sixe admonitory Chapters of BasUius, King of the Romans, to his Bonne Leo, in Aerostic manner: That is, the first letter of every ehapter, making up his name and title. Translated out of Greeke hy James Bcuda- more. Printed at Paris, 1638. Basilius succeeded IMichael in the Eastern Empire in 870, and reigned 19 years. Basilius, “ by Christ, King of the Romans,” to Leo his beloved son, and co-emperor. The first chapter is on the value of instruction.' Then follow chapters on : Right faith, Hononr to priests, Judgment and retribution to come, Of alms, Of care and vigilance, Of conversation Avith good men, Of virtue, Of lust, Of goodness of manners, Of temperance, Of faithful friends. Of valour and prudence, Of humility, Of prudence. Of truth and lying, Of meditation of divine oracles, Of counsel. Of chastity. Honour to parents, Justice, Bounty, Friends, Contempt of riches. Drunkenness, Making a friend. Riches and covetousness, I’atience, Government, Making good laws. Of naughty men, Mercy, Speech and silence. That all things here are unstable. Care, Guard, Kingdom of heaven. Of remembering God, Of receiving gifts. Injustice, Magistrates, Peace, Praise, Of care to be had of thyself. Compassion, Gentleness, Returning thanks to God, Bodily beauty. Curing of the soul. Backbiters, Good books. Bounty, Nobility, Patience, Educa¬ tion of children. Hurt that comes from the tongue. Goodness, Restraining pleasure. Per¬ fect reason. Of being not lifted up in mind. yome of the chapters repeat the same subjects. EARLY EJ^GLISH WEITERS ON EDUCATION. 667 SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 1G32. Instructions to his Son and to Posterity. To wbicli is subjoined: The dutiful Advice of a Loving Son to his aged Father. London, 1632. 12mo. Other editions 1636, 1651, 1656, 1722, 1728. These editions are mentioned by writers, but are not all in the British JMiiseiim. Chapters : I. Virtuous Persons to be made choice of for Friends. II. Great care to he had in the choosing of a wife. III. Wisest Men have been abused by Flatterers. IV. Private Quarreis to be avoided. V. Rules for keeping an Estate : 1. Know what thou hast. 2. Never spend anything, before thou have it. 3. Never be surety for another. VI. The Fittest sort of Servants. VII. Brave rags wear soonest out of Fashion. VIII. Riches not to be sought by evil Means. IX. Inconvenience from Delight in Wine. X. Let God be thy Protector and Director in all thy actions. CARDINAL SERMONETTA. 1633. Instructions for Young Gentlemen; or The Instructions of CardinaU Ser- monetta to his Cousin Petro Gaetano, at his First Going into Flanders to the DuJx'e of Parma, to serve Philip, King of Spaine. Oxford, Printed by John Lichfield for Thomas Huggins. Anno Dom, 1633. The Printer to the Reader says : “ For the matter itself, the only complaint is, that it is so short, which I suppose may be somewhat supplied by reading it often ; nee satis est legisse semel.'" The title sufficiently describes the book, but it may be added that though religious in origiii, it is rather toward practical worldly wisdom that it is directed. One of the points suggested is the keeping of a diary. I did put your Lordship in mind here at Rome to keep a diary. I do now again put you in mind of it, for your own benefit : you may make a book to write such things in as happen from day to day ; wherein you shall write not only the successes, but also the manner and causes of them. For (as you know) every action hath its original upon some advice, and he that putteth in execution, keepeth or at least, ought to keep within certain bounds. And thus may your Lordship by all this your pains and travails with speed obtain the ability and valour, which yet you vrant. HENRY DELAUNE. 1651. [UarpiKov Aebpov. Or,] a Legacie to his Sonnes. By Henry Delaane, London, 1651. 8°. Second edition, London, 1657. 8°. 1580. William Bullokar, BulloJx'ars Boolce at large, for the Amendment of Orthographie for Eng¬ lish speech: icherein a most perfect supplie is made, for the wantes and double sounde of letters in the olde Orthographie, ivith Examples for the same, loitli the easie conference and use of both Orthographies, to save expences in BooJccs for a time, untill this amendment grow to a generall use, for the easie, speedie and perfect reading and. ivriting of English, {the speech not changed, as some untruly and maliciously, or at the least ignorantlie blowe abroade) by the which amendment the same Authour 668 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. hath also framed a ruled Grammar, to he imprinted heereafter, for the same speech, to no small commoditie of the English 'Nation, not only to come to casie, speedie and perfect use of our oicne language, hut also to their easie, speedie and rcadie entrance into the secretes of other Languages, and easie and speedie patlncay to all ^traungers, to use our Language, heeretofore very hard unto them, to no small profite crcdite to this our Nation, and stay thereunto in the weightiest causes. There is also imprinted with this Orthographie a short Pamphlet for all learners, and a Primer agreeing to the same, and as learners shall go forward therein, other necessarie Bookcs shall spedily he provided with the same Orthographie. Hereunto arc also ioyned written Copies with the same Orthographie. Give God the praise, that teacheth alwaies. When truth trieth, errour flieth. ^eene and allowed according to order. Imprinted at London hy Henrie Denham. 15S0. (4to. 59 pp.) The preface to this long-titled book is headed “ Biillokar to his Coniitrie.” In this Biillokar states that he had not, ivhen he wrote his book, seen works on the same subject by Sir Thomas Smith and Master Chester, otherwise he would have offered them his services in orthography. The voycc should give names to letters. Blit yet I have foiinde by handling of mine owne children (whome I have used to mine owne liking in teaching them true Ortography written, for lacke of the printed) that reading and writing may be had perfectly, in the time that my helpes before used could be perfectly conceyved and halfe followed, by reason that in true Ortography, both the eye, the voyce, and the eare consent most perfectly, without any let, doubt or maze. Which want of concord in the eye, voice, and eare, I did perceyve almost thirtie yeares past, by the very voyce of children, who guided by the eye with the letter, and giving voyce according to the name thereof, as they were taught to name letters, yeelded to the eare of the hearer a cleane contrary to the word looked for. Of jcjcxvii parts scant six perfect. Hereby grewe qiiarels in the teacher, and lothsomenesse in the learner, and great payne to both : and the conclusion was, that both teacher and learner must go by rote, or no rule could be followed, when of xxxvii partes, xxxi kept no square, nor true ioint. For xiii parts greatly needefull, lacked altogether, or were furnished with the other xxiiii partes, by peecing and contrary hewing of which xxiiii (if they be well viewed) they are so mangled, that there are but sixe partes in perfect use; whereof (as occasion hath offered) I have com- playned to divers of the art of learning, whereunto some have yeelded, some not conceyved of it, some loth to graunt it, and some old ciistomaries could not abide to heare of any spedie way to knowledge, were it never so goodc Authorities on Early English Pronunciation. On Early English Pronunciation, With especial reference to Shake¬ speare and Chaucer; containing an investigation of the Correspondence of Writing with Speech in England from the Anglo-Saxon Period to the present day, preceded hy a systematic notation of all spoken sounds hy means of the ordinary Printing Types. By Alexander J. Ellis F. R. S. For the Philological Society. Part I, 1800 ; Part II, 1809 ; Part III, 1871 ; Part IV, 1875; Part V, 1889. The authorities named by Mr. Ellis between 1500 and 1000 in this subject are the following; EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 669 1530. John Palsgrave. Les clarcissemeiit de la Langiie Franco use. Loud. To the French reprint is added a reprint of: (c. 1532) An Introductoric for to lerne to read, to pronounce and to spelce Freneli trewly. By Giles dii Guez or da Wes. Written for the Princess Mary daughter of Henry VIII. 1545. Louis Meigret. Traite toueliant Ic comniiin usage de Vescriture frangoise, Paris. 1547. W. Saleshury. A Dictionary in Englyslie and Welslie * * * London. 1550. Loys Meigret. Le trette de la Granunere Francoeze. Paris. 1555. Sir John Cheke. De pronunciatione Gracw * * * Lingiuv. Basle. 1567. W. Saleshury. A playne and fainiliar Introduction teaching how to pronounce the letters in the Brytishe tongue, now commonly called Welsh * * * London. 1568. Sir Thomas Smith. De recta et emendata linguw angliccc scriptione, dialogus, Thonia Sniitho Equestris ordinis Anglo authore. Lutetice. Ex offwina Roherti Stephani Typographi Regii. Paris, folio, 44 folios. Colophon dated 13 Nov. 1568. 1569. John Hart. An Orthographic, conteyning the due order and reason, howe to write or painte thimage of mannes voice, most like to the life or nature. Composed Ijy J. H. Chester, Ileralt * * * 1569. Lend. 12mo. 1570. Peter Levins. Manipulus Tocaljulorum : a Rhyming Dictionary of the English Lan¬ guage. 4to. 1573. John Baret. An Alvearie or Triple Dictionarie. 1580. William Bullokar, Booke at large. 1611. Randle Cotgrave. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues. London, imprinted hy Adam Islip. Fol. 1611. John Florio. Queen Anna'’s Few World of Words, or Dictionarie of the Italian and English tongues, collected, and newly much augmented hy J. F., Reader of the Italian unto ihe Soveraigne Majestic of Anna, croioned Queene of England, Scotland, and Ireland etc. and one of the Gentlemen of her Royall Privie Chamher. Whereunto are added ccrtaine nccessarie rules and short ohservations for the Italian tongue. Fol. 1619. Alexander Gill. 2nd ed. 1621. Logonomia Anglica. Qua gentis sermo faciUus addiscitur Conscripta ah Alexandro Gil, Paulince Bcholw magistro priniario. Becundo edita, paulo correctior sed ad usum communem accommodatior. Sm. 4to. 1633. Charles Butler. The English Granunar, or the Institution of Letters, Syllahles, and Words in the English tongue. Whereunto is annexed an Index of Words Like and Unlike. Oxford. 4to. 670 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. 1G40. Ben Jonson. The English Grammar. Fol. 1640. Thomas Gataker. Dg Diphthonis Birocalihus, deque Literarum quarundam sono germano, naturCi, genuind, figurd, novd, idoned, scripturd veteri verdque. Lond. 24 p. 1651. Thomas Willis. VesiiJjiiluni Lingua’ Latina\ 1653. Written by John Wallis, the mathematician. Joannis WaUisii Grammatica Linguw Anglicancc Cui prafigitur De Loquela; sire de sonorum omnium loquelarium formatione : Tractatus Grammatico-Phgsicus. Edifio Sexta. 1765. First eel. 1653; 2114, 1664; 6th, 1699 ; the Oxford reprint of this edition, 1765. Early Books ox the Teaching of English. The following books written from the point of view of teaching English should also be added to the list of authorities from whom Mr. Ellis obtained his material. 1594. Grammatica Anglicana, prweipue quatenus a Latina differt, ad uriicam P. Rami Methoduni concinnata * * h: authore P. G. [P. Greemcoodf] Yocahula Chauceriana quadani seJectiora * * * ipsa’ hodie Poetarum delicia’, una cum eoruni significatis * * * eodem authore J. Legatt: Cantahrigke 1591/. 8vo. (pp. 36). 1624. A Perfect Surveg of the English Tongue, tahen aecording to the Use and Analogic of the Latine. And serveth for the more plaine exposition of the Grammatieall Rules and Precepts, collected hy Lillie, and for the more eer- taine Translation of the English tongue into Latine. Together with sundry good demonstrations hy may of Sentences in either tongue. Written and collected hy lo: Heices, Master of Arts. Prineipiis cognitis, multo faeilius extrema intclligitur. Cie. pro Cluentio. London. Printed hy Edw. Allde, for William Garret. 162'/. 4to. With 16 pages at the end of : “ The Author his Counsel and Exhortation to his beloved Pupils, and those of all Ages.” In Ilevces’s preface to the Lord Bishop of London he makes use of the much used — Comparison of education to gardening. As it happeneth to the skilful Gardener, where he hath committed his seeds and plants to the earth, that still as the same begin to spring up to open show, so fast again doth his labour and toil increase upon his hands : so fareth it ❖ * with the like poor and unrespected, yet necessary state of Schooling and managing of Youth, that all the labours of the Teacher, are little enough to order, polish and refine, that once he hath taken in hand to perform and execute. 1640. Simon Dailies. Orthoepia Anglicana ; or the first principall part of the English Grammar Teaching the Art of right speaking and pronouncing English, With certaine exact rules of Orthography, and rules of spelling or comhining of Syllables, and directions for keeping of stops or points hetween sentence and sentence. A work in it selfe ahsolutc, and never knoivne to he aceomplishcd hy any before: No lesse profitable then necessary for all sorts, as well Natives as EAELY ENGLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 671 Forreigners, that desire to attaine the perfeetion of our English Tongue. Methodically composed hy the industry and ohservation of Simon Daines, Schoolemaster of Hintleshani in Suffs. Perficit omnia tempus. London. Printed hy Rohert Young and Richard Badger for the Company of Statio^i- ers, Anno Domino IGJiO. 4to. (96 pp.) 1646-1G-I9. Ricliarcl Hodges. 1. A Special Help to Orthographic: or The True Writing of English. Consisting of such Words as are alihe in Sound, and nnlike both in their signification A Writing 4-c. Bond. 16 gS. 4*’. 2. The English Primrose * * * hy the ful sight ivhereof there will manifestly appear the easiest * * way both for the true spelling d- reading of English, as also for the True-writing thereof, etc. Lond. 16. U. 3. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That ever teas hitherto puhlisht * * * . Invented hy Richard Hodges, a weTwisher to Learning. London. IGJiO. 8°. 4. The Plainest Directions for the True Writing of English, That ever teas hitherto puhlisht: Especially of such Words tvhose Sounds are alto¬ gether Alike, cC- their Signification altogether Unlike: And of suck whose Sounds are so neer Alike that they arc oftentimes taken one for another. Whereunio are added divers useful Tables. Invented hy Richard Hodges, a wel-wlsher to Learning. Lond. 1649. 12°. [Printed by Wm. Dugard for Tliomas Eiister at the Giin in I vie Lane.] 1655. J, Wliarton. A New English Grammar; Containing All Rules and Directions necessary to he known for the judicious Reading Right speaking and Writing of Let¬ ters, Syllables and Words in the English Tongue. Very usefull for Scholars before their entrance into the Rudiments of the Latine Tongue. With Directions for the use of this Book in Schools. Likewise for Strangers that desire to learn our Language, it 'ivill he the most certain Guide, that ever yet was extant. Composed hy J. Wharton, Mr of Arts. London: Printed hy W. Dugard, for Anthony Williamson, at the Queens Arms in S. Pauls Church yard 1655. 8vo. (pp. 109.) In bis address to the courteous reader, Wharton gives utterance to an — Appreciation of the English language. Our mother-tongue * * * is as capable of any scholar-like expressions, as any whatsoever. Besides the purity and elegancy of our own language is to be esteemed a chief part of the honour of our Nation, which we all ought to our utmost power to advance. Lastly, because for one that is trained up in the Grammar Schools to any perfection, fit for the University, or any learned Pro¬ fession, a hundred are taken away before ; of whom the most, very shortly after, wholly in a manner, forget their Latin ; so that if they be not bettered in the knowledge of their Native Language, their labour and cost is to little or no purpose. 1662. James Howell. A new English Grammar prescribing as certain rules as the language will hear, for forreners to learn English * * * Also another Grammar of the Spanish or Castilian tung, ivith soni special remarks upon the Por- tugues dialect ■ * * * a discours or dialog containing a perambulation of Spain and Port u gall etc. 1662. 8vo. For teaching reading and spelling, in addition, see Coote’s English School¬ master (p. 690). 672 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. 1570. A Metliode or comfortahJc beginning for all unlearned, loliere'bu they may he taught to read English, in a very short time, with pleasure: So profitahle as straunge, put in light hy J[ohn] Ulart] Chester Heralt. Henrie Den¬ ham. London. 1570. 4to. Mr. W. Carew Ilazlitt quotes from Lowndes : 1590. Thomas Johnson. The Pathways to Readinge or the newest Spellinge A. B. C. (1590.) Iloole says that he has published a New Primer. He says: In the first leaf whereof I have set the Roman capitals * * * and have joined therewith the pictures or images of some things whose names begin with that letter, by which a chikVs memory may be helped to remember how to call his letters, as A for an ape, B for a Bear etc. This hieroglyphical device doth so affect children, (who are generally forward to communicate what they know,) that I have observed them to teach others, that could not so readily learn, to know all the letters in a few hours’ space, hy asking them what A stands for? and so concerning other letters backward and forward, or as they best liked. Iloole is writing in 1600, and gives the following account of the teaching of reading : The ordinary way to teach children to read is, after they have got some knowledge of their letters, and a smattering of some syllables and words in the hornbook, to turn thejii into the A B C or Primer, and therein to make them name the letters and spell the words, till by often use they can pronounce (at least) the shortest words at the hrst sight. This method takes with those of prompter wits ; but many of more slow capacities, not finding anything to affect and so make them heed what they learn, go on remissly from lesson to lesson, and are not much more able to read when they have indeed their book than when they begun it. Besides, the A B C being now (I may say) generally thrown aside, and the ordinary Primer not printed, and the very fundamentals of Christian religion, (which were wont to be contained in those books, and were commonly taught children at home by heart before they went to school) with sundry people (almost in all places) slighted, the matter which is taught in most books now in use is not so familiar to them, and therefore not so easy for children to learn. Iloole accordingly included in his Primer the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments. For practice in early reading he recommends The Single Psalter, The Psalms in Metre, and The School of Good Manners, When children can read well, they should be encouraged to continue reading English, and not begin the Latin Accidence too early. Instead of the Accidence, which they do neither understand nor profit by, they may be benefited in reading orthodoxal catechisms and other books that may instruct them in the duties of a Christian, such as The Praetice of Piety, The Practice of Quietness, The Whole Duty of Wan; and afterward in other delight¬ ful books, of English history, as The History of Queen Elizabeth, or poetry, as Herbert's Poems, Quarles' Emblems; and by this means they will gain such a habit and delight in reading as to make it their chief recreation when liberty is afforded tliem. And their acquaintance of good books will (by God’s bless¬ ing) be a means so to sweeten their (otherwise «our) natures, that they may live comfortably towards themselves, and amiably converse with other persons. This is the first passage in any writer that I have seen that advocates the inculcation of a pleasure and delight in reading English as a part of school work, and distinctly places Iloole at the modern point of view. On the teaching of reading and spelling see W. C. ITazlitt's Schools, School- Books, and School-Masters, pages 209-219. Mr. Hazlitt mentions the following : 1610. A Spelling Book with Syllables, or an Alphabet and plaine pathway to the faculty of reading the English, Romane Italian, and secretarie hands, EAELY ENGLISH WKITEES ON EDUCATION. 67S ivitli SGvcrall copies of the same, devised that hcrehij with the Jesse loss of their time, they may J)e aJjJe to pass to the Latine tongue; also to teach the ignorant to write Orthographice in short time. 1610. 4to. Charles Hoole, in his New Discovery of the Old Art of Teaching School, in the division of the work entitled “ The Petty School ” says : Amongst those that have gone a readier way to reading, I shall only mentioa Mr, Roe and Mr, Robinson, the latter of whom I have known to have taught lit¬ tle children not much above four years old to read distinctly in the Bible, in six weeks’ time or under ; their hooks are to he had in print, hut every one hath not the art to use them. And Mr, Goote’s English Schoolmaster seems rather to he fitted for one that is a master indeed than a scholar. It is highly prohahie that the chief hooks to teach reading were introductions to the Bible and religious treatises, as also even the teaching of writing had the occasion improved hy copies of a religious or moral nature. In early times children were taught to read from ABC tablets. The late Mr„ Tuer « quotes from F, A, Specht’s History of Education in Germany from the Earliest Times to the Middle of the Thirteenth Century (Stuttgart, 1885) an instance in the fifth century of the mention of A B C tablets for teaching to read. Mr, Tuer finds the first mention of real hornbooks about 1450, In 1587 the Sta¬ tioners’ Company licensed the Hornbook to John Wolfe, and in 1G05 the com¬ pany granted £3 a year to Alice Wolfe “ during her life time for relinquishing her claim to the ABC hornbook,” Mr, Tuer thinks the hornbook was not im general use until somewhat late in the sixteenth century. His History of the Hornbook is a very valuable and interesting piece of research on children's early training in reading. As reading-books the importance of the Primer and of the Catechism must not be overlooked, Marshall’s edition of the Primer appeared in 1535, Hilsey's Primer in 1589 and again in 1540, with the title : The Primer in English moste necessary for the ediieacyon of chyldren. extracted oiite of the Maniiall of prayers, or Primer in Englishe an Laten set forth hy Tho laet hyshop of Rochester etc. B. E. In 1545 was published the King’s Primer: The primer, set foorth hy the Kinges Maiestie and his CJergie, to l)e taught lerned and read: and none other to he used in throughout all his dominions.. B. L. This primer went though a large number of editions. As to catechisms it would be simply a huge task to enumerate the various editions of the catechisms issued between 1540 and 1060. Even before 1600 the number was large, as will be seen by Maunsell’s list, and by 1660 the list was enormously increased. The following are the entries under the head Catechism in Andrew Maunsell’s Catalogue (1595) : Edmund Allen (1550), Bartimeus Andrews (1591), Jeremy Bastingius (1591), Wil¬ liam Burton (1591), Swithin Butterfield, Theodore Beza (1578), S. S. (1583), one printed hy Hugh Singleton (1579), R. Bird (1595), Tho. Cranmer (1548), Calvin's Institutions, abridged by Lawne, his Catecdiisra (1592), Wm. Cotes (1585), John Craig Scot (1591), Fred. Count Palatine (translated, 1570), Rob. Cawdray, Tho. Cobhead, one printed for John Harrison (1582), Richard Cox, one printed by assignees of Ricln Day, C. W. (1584), translation from the French by George Capelin (1581), one in three parts (Of the Misery of Men in themselves. Of the happiness of those that believe. Of the Duties we owe to God) printed by Hugh Singleton (1582), E. C., translation by Rob. Legate, M. A. (1592), Edward Dering, Arthur Dent, Jo. Darison, An Exposition printed by Caxton, Stephen Egerton (1594), A Free Schoole for God’s Children by J. R, a The History of the Hornbook, by Andrew W, Tuer, F. S. A. London. 1896. ED 1904 M - 43 G74 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. (1593), Dudley Fenner (1502), .John Fountein translated by T. V\b (1578), George Gif¬ ford (158G), John Gardiner (1583), Alex. Gee, Patr. Galoway, John Gibson (1579), "W'ru. Ilopkinson (1583), John Hooper, Wm. Horne (1590), And. Hiperius (translated by I. H. (1583), Rich. Jones, Schoolmaster of Cardiff 1589), one translated by Dorotb. Martin (1581), D. W. Archdeacon (1586), Rob. Linaker, lo. Morecraft (abridgment of Ursinus, 1586), Miles Moss (1590), Tho. Michelthwait (1589); A necessarie Doctrine and erudition for any Christian Man Set forth hy the King’s Majestie of England, printed by John Mayler (1543) ; Alexander Nowell (translated into English by Thomas Norton), His brief Catechism (1587) ; Rob. Openshaw (1582), Gasp. Oienian (trans¬ lated by Rich. Saintbarbe 1589), Wm. Perkins (1592), Palsgrave (translated by Wm. Turner, 1572), Eusebius Paget (1591), Tho. Pearston, Preparation to the Lord’s Supper by T. W. ; Preparation to the Way of Life, etc., vid. Hopkins; John Parker (1592), T. Robart's Catechism in meetcr (1591), Tho. RatlifEe (1594), Christopher Shutte (1584), Tho. Settle; Sum of Chrisiianitie, containing eight propositions, printed by Rob. Rob¬ inson (1585) ; Summarie of Principles of Christian religion by Swithin Butterfield (1582), Richard Saintbarbe, Short Catechism printed by Christopher Barker, one printed for Thomas Man (1590), Thomas Sharke and John Seddon (1588), Tho. Sparke Doct. Some (1583), .John Tomkis On the Lord’s Prayer (1585), Zach. Ursinus (trans¬ lated by Henry Parry, 1595), Catechism abridged by John Morecraft (1586), abridged by John Seddon ; Math. Virell, Treatise containing all the principall grounds of Christian religion (1594). For further illustration of the importance of catechisms historically in the work of instruction, see in William London’s Divinity Books, alphabetically di¬ gested, one of the sections of his catalogue (1G58). Also Hugh Peters in 1060 says : “ There are iieer an hundred several Catechisms in the nation.” W. S., Gentleman. 1581. A compendious or hrlefe Examination of Certaync ordinary Complaints, of divers of our Country men, in these our Dayes: whieh although they are in some part unjust and frivolous, yet are they all, hy ivay of Dialogues, throughly debated and discussed. By W. S., Gentleman. Imprinted at Lon¬ don in Fleat streate, neere unto Saincte Dunstone's Chureh, hy Thomas Marshe, 1581. Cum privilegio. 1581. 4to. IIG pp. Also in the Tlarleian ^liscellany, Yol. IX, p. 139, ed. 1812. This book once had the honor of being attributed to William Shakespeare. In fact, it was once reprinted (in 1751) with Shakespeare’s name (see Harleian Miscellany, Yol. IX, p. 139). Antony Wood, however, pointed out that the author was William Stafford, gentleman. The dark outlook cjf learning. Capper (cap-maker). In my mind it made no matter though we had no learned men at all. Knight. God forbid, neighbour, that it should be so ; how should the prince have counsellors thenV how should we have Christian religion taught us? How should we know the estates of other realms, and have conference with them of all countries, except it were through learning, and by the benefit ^ letters? Doctor. Care not therefore, goodman Capper, ye shall have few enough of learned men, within a while, if this world hold on. Capper. I mean not but I would have men to learn to write and read, yea and to loam the languages used in countries about us, that we might write our minds to them and they to us ; yea, and that we might read the holy Scriptures in our mother tongue; and as for your preaching (except ye agree better) it made no matter how little we had of it, for of diversity thereof, cometh these diversities of opinions. Doctor. Then ye care for no other sciences at all, but the knowledge of tongues, and to write and read ; and so it appears well that ye be alone of that mind; for now a days when men send their sons to the universities, they suffer them no longer to tarry there, than they may have a little of the Latin tongue, and then they take them away and bestow them to be clerks with some man of EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 675 law, or some auditor and receiver, or to be a secretary with some great man or other, and so to come to a living ; whereby the universities be in manner emptied, and (as I think) will be occasion that this realm within a short space will be made as empty of wise and politic men, and consequently barbarous ; and at last, thrall and subject to other nations, whereof we were lords before. The argument then deals with the necessity of experience, and the bearing of learning on experience. The gifts tee have hy learning. Doctor. Learning siii)plieth unto man the greatest lack that some writers have complained of to be in mankind ; i. e., the brevity of age, the grossness and weight of body : where in the first, diverse beasts as harts and many other ; and in the last, all birds do excell man ; for where it is deemed man to live above a hundred years or thereabouts, by the benefit of learning, he hath the commodity of the life of a thousand years ; yea, two or three thousand ; by rea¬ son he seeth the events and occurrents of all that time, by books. And if he should have lived himself by all that space, then could he have had nothing else to his commodity but that experience of things ; the rest had been but tra¬ vail ; which experience he hath now by letters, and without any travail in manner in that space. As to the other point, that we be not so agile and light as fowls and birds of the air l)e, as that we might stir from one place to another ; we have the commodity through learning, that we should purchase by such peregrinations, as well as we should if we might flee from our country to another like birds, and yet with less travail and danger. May we not, through cosmography, see the situation, temperature, and qualities of every country in the world ; yea, better and with less travail than if we might flee over them ourselves? for that that man^^ other have learned through their great travails, and dangers, they have left to us to be learned with ease and pleasure. Can we not also, through the science of astronomy, know the course of the planets above ; and their conjunctions and aspects, as certainly as if we were among them ; yes, surely that we may, for tell me : hovv came all the learned men heretofore to the exact and perfect knowledge thereof : came they not to it by conference and marking of circumstances, (yes, indeed) so that out of their matings v/e learned it : and to the knowledge whereof by sight only we could never attain, though we were as agile as any bird. WhaUis there else profitable or necessary for the conjunct of man’s life here in earth, but in learning it is tauglit more perfectly and more complete, than any man can learn onely by experience all days of his life * * * as, you, sir Knight, in Vigetius ; and you, good husbandman, in Columella. ''' The vast domain of studies. Knight. I say again, might we not have that in our English tongue, and read them over, though we never went to school ? Doctor. Yea, well enough ; and yet should ye be far from the perfect under¬ standing of them, except ye had the help of other sciences ; that is to say, of arithmetic, in disposing and ordering your men ; and geometry, in devising of engines to win towns and fortresses, and of bridges to pass over ; in the which Caesar excelled other, by reason of the learning that he had in those sciences and did wonderful feats which an unlearned man could never have done ; and if ye had war over the sea, how could ye know towards what coasts ye be sea driven, without knowledge of the latitude of the place by the pole, and the length by other stars ; Astronomy. and you, good husbandman, for the perfection of the knowledge of husbandry, had need of some knowledge in astronomy, as under what aspect of the planets and in the entry of what sign, by the sun and the moon it is time to ear, to dung, to sow, to reap, to set, to graft, to cut your wood, your timber ; yea, to have some judgment of the weather that is lil^e to come for inning of your corn, and grass, and housing of your cattle : yea of some part of Physic called Veterinaria, whereby ye might know the diseases of your beasts, and heal them. “ Similarly Milton, in liis Tractate, refers to Columella as one of the text-books for agricultural knowledge. 676 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Geomctnj Then for true measnriiis? of huul, bad ye not need of some knowledge in geom¬ etry to be a perfect Inisband? Architecture. Then for building, wbat carpenter; or mason, is so cunning or expert, but be might learn more by reading of Vitruvius and other writers of architecture; that is to say, the science of building; « Philosophy, especially moral philosophy. And to pass over the sciences of logic and rhetoric, whereof the first travaileth about the discussion of the true reason from the false, the other about the per¬ suasion of that is to be set forth to the people, as a thing to them profitable and expedient, whereof a good and perfect counsellor might want neither : well, tell me what counsel can be perfect, what commonweal can be well ordered upright, where none of the rulei-s, or counsellors, have studied any philosophy? * * ♦ If men expert in this science were consulted and followed, the commonweal should be ordered as few should have cause to complain ; therefore, said Plato, that divine philosopher, that happy is that commonweal where either the prince is a philosopher, or where a philosopher is the prince. The Knight then says: I had weened before, that there had been no other learning in the world but that these men had, that be doctors in divinity, or of the law, or of physic. * * * The dangers and weakness of specializing too soon. The Doctor. [People] fall to those sciences that they see in some price; as to divinity, to the law, and to physic : though they cannot be perfect in any of these without the knowledge of the sciences above touched ; and therefore it is ordained by universities, that first men should be bachelors and masters of arts, ere they should come to divinity : and these arts be the seven liberal sciences, as grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy ; and now they skip over them and fall to divinity by and by, before they have gotten or purchased them any judgment through the aforesaid sciences, which maketh them to fall to these diversities of opinions that ye speak of : for all beginners in every science be very quick and over-hasty in giving their judgment of things, (as experience teacheth every man) and then when they have once uttered their judgments and opinions, they will see nothing that will sound contrary to the same, but either they will construe it to their own phantasy, or utterly deny it to be of any authority. * * * A commendation of learning. I speak thus much of the commendation of learning; [in general subjects! not only because I heard my friend here [the Capper] set little by learning, but also that I see many now-a-days of his opinion, which care nothing for any other knowledge, but onely that they may write and read, and learn the tongues : whom I can resemble well to those men that esteemeth more the bark than the tree, the shale more than the kernel : wherefore they seem to take bright sun from the earth, that would take away learning from us : for the sun is no more necessary for the increase of all things on earth, than is learning for the increase of civility, wisdom and policy among men. * * * Causes of the decay of learning. The Doctor. I shewed you, already, one great cause * * * ^ that was, where I shewed you that most men were of that opinion, that they thought learning enough to write and read: another cause is, that they see no prefer¬ ment ordered for learned men, nor yet any honour or estimation given them like as hath been in time past. But rather the contrary, the more learned, the more troubles, losses, and vexations they come unto. Abkaiiam Fleming. 1581. The Footpath to Felicitie, Which everie Christian must ivalke in, before he can come to the land of Canaan. By Abraham Fleming. At London, Printed by Henrie Denham etc. 1581. (12mo.) The above may be regarded as essentially an early plea for technical education. EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 677 In this volume is eontained: The ScJiooJc of SJcill, Or The Rule of a refornicd life: Digested into three sententious sequences of the A, B, 0. Wherein the iccaJce have their full measure of pure niilke, and the strong their just weighte of sound meate. By Ahrahani Fleming, Alatt. 7, 12. Printed at London hy Henrie Denham, dwelling in Paternoster roice, at the signe of the Starre. 15S1. The passages Cjiiotod are from the preface. The School of Skill consists of 20 pages, arranged in “ sententious sequences of the A, B, C ; i. e., verses taken from or adapted from the Scriptures, each verse beginning v/ith a fresh letter of the alphabet, the alphabet being run through three times. (J, U, and X are omitted.) Child training and house huilding. It is the custom of parents, disposed to train up their children in learning and knowledge of tongues, arts, and sciences : first in their infancy to commit them to some honest schoolmaster, under whom they might be taught the principles of their own natural tongue, and afterwards in tract of time, as their capacity increased, the rudiments of foreign speeches. For he that determineth to erect and build a dwelling-house, beginneth not at the roof, but at the foundation, otherwise, as it were a preposterous kind of attempt, so all the world would judge it fond and ridiculous. The valiant captain made a passiiig soldier hy training. Again, we see, and experience teacheth no less, that the expertest and val- iantest Captain that ever fought in field, was not a perfect warrior born, though peradventure there was in him some vehement inclination to martial policy and prowess, but first he had his slender beginnings, and simple trainings up, fit and convenient for the nature of his age, which trainings up in military knowl¬ edge and warlike activity continued, the learner becometh more skilful and courageous, and at last, by frequenting the field, and enuring himself to trials of valiantness, proveth a passing soldier. The school of skill. These principles or rules leading us to the knowledge and practice of a godly and upright life, I have thought good to call The School of Skill * * *. To esteem of them, as of acceptable treasures, and to order the course of life, according to their prescription and platform is an evident sign or token of good skill. 1584. W. Averell. A Dyall for dainty Darlings, rockt in the Cradle of Securitie. A Glasse for all disobedient Sonnes to looke in A Myrrour for vertuous Alaydes. A Booke right excellent, garnished with many ivorthy examples, and learned aucthorities, most needful for this tyme prese?it. Compiled hy W. Averell, Student in Divinitie, and Schoolemaister in London. Imprinted at London for Thomas Hackette, and are to he solde at his shoppe in Lumhert Streetc, under the Popes head loS.). 4to. Cockering fathers reproved. Draw near, you dallying Dads, that mar the minds of your children, by excessive and overmuch cockering ; behold the judgments of God, that pun- isheth you in those things that you chiefly love, because you make them your gods, who ought to be their guides, you adore them like saints, which should serve you like sons, you let them run at liberty which you ought to keep in straightly, you minister to their needless youth, which should labour for your needful age, you give them all things and deny them nothing, and yet you com¬ plain that your children are graceless, when you yourselves are not therein blameless. 678 EDUCATIOIS' REPOET, 1904. Adeianus Junius. 1585. The No7nenclafoi', or Remembrancer of Adrianus Junius, Physician, di¬ vided in two Tomes, conteining proper na^nes and apt temnes for all thinges under their convenient Titles, which within a feiv leaves doe follow: Written by the said Ad. Ju. in Latinc, GreeJee, French and other foreign tongues: and now in English by John Higins: With a full supplie of all such words as the last inlarged edition affoorded ; and a dictional Index, contci7i- ing above fourteene hundred principall words with their numbers dii'cctly leading to their interpt'etations: Of special use for all scholars and learners of the same languages * * *. Imprinted at London for Ralph New- berie and Ilcnrie Denham. 1585. Svo. Adrian Jiiiiiiis was born in 1511 or 1512 at Hoorn, in Holland. He studied at Haarlem and Louvain. He also studied physic in Paris and Bologna, where he took his doctor’s degree. Became physician to the Duke of Norfolk in Eng¬ land in 154.3. Lived in England some years. Compiled a Greek and Latin lexicon, to which he added above 6,5G0 words. By dedicating this work in 1548 to Edward VI he fell under the disiileasure of Rome, and his v'orks were placed in the Index Expurgatorius. He left England, but returned on the accession of IMary, and in 1554, on her marriage to Philip, wrote an epitha- lamium. Returned later to Haarlem, where he lived until 1573. In the siege of that year he lost his library and the MSS. of a, great number of works. Died 1575. One of his well-known works is : Adagiorum ab Erasmo Omissorum, Ccntnrkv octo ct dimidia. 1558. His other vrorks are principally commentaries on classical authors. The first edition of the Nomenciator was published Ludg. Bat. 15G7. The idea of the Nomenciator is clearly that of an encyclopedic vocabulary. Its difference, therefore, frcmi Bathe's “ Janua Linguorum ” is that the words are not arranged into sentences, and, further, its number of words is much more comprehensive. It was a book of wide circulation and infnience, and though not mentioned by Mr. R. H. Quick and Doctor Laurie there can be no doubt that it or others of its kind had a considerable direct influence on Comenius. It is the outcome of amazing erudition and research, the enoi-mous labor involved putting the ingenious and painstaking Janua (of Bathe) itself into the shade. The writing's of G2 Latin and Greek poets, 58 doctors, philosophers, and rustic writers, G2 historians and orators, 20 theologians, 13 jurists, and 52 grammarians, together with 44 others of the later Latin and Greek authors, have been ransacked to supply material for the names of things mentioned in this extraordinary book. In fact, tlie Nomenciator professes to supply the proper names and apt terms for all things, under their convenient titles in Latin, Greek, French, and English. It oiit-Comeniuses Comenius in its encyclopedic detail. There are 89 different subjects for chapters. In Comenius’s Janua there are 100, so that Comenius gets a better arrangement. There are many subjects in common, such as living creatures, animals, fishes, all kinds of food, trees, vegetables, apparel, buildings, parts of ships, tools, terms in whr, games, money, the ele¬ ments, God and spirits, handicrafts, trades, affinities, etc. Nothing which suggests itself to the mind of the compiler of this book presents any insuper¬ able difficulty in making a Latin name or description of it, whether the thing were of recent invention or, as one would suppose, so little important as never to have been named in Latin authors. The Latin name for all things is always forthcoming. Living Creatures, as we have mentioned before, ought to be painted, and none but those at the first which are knovm to children that begin to learn the EARLY EILGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 679 Latin tongue. Moreover, all those terms or words, whose things thereby signi¬ fied can be seen and painted, may be taken out of the Nomenciator of that most excellent man, Hadrianus Junius, or others ; provided that the exordium or beginning be made from those which are more knov/n. (Eilhardus Lubinus, in Samuel Hartlib’s translation in the True and Ready Way to Learn the Latin Tongue, ) ' Angel Day. 1586. ' The English Secretarie, Or Methodc of ivriting of Epistles and Letters: With A declaration of such Tropes, Figures, and Schemes, as either usually V -or for ornament saJce are therein required. Also the parts and office of a Secretarie. Devided into two ooohes * * * By Angel Day. 1607. First ed., 1586. Other editions, 1587, and five other editions are named up to 1614 (Diet of Nat Biog.). This treatise discusses the nature of epistles, their commodities and use, what is chiefly to be respected in framing of an epistle ; of the habits and parts of epistles, of the contents as common to all, of the divers orders of greetings, farewells, and subscriptions, of superscriptions and directions, and the divi¬ sions of letters. Then are given models of the different kinds of letters : Descriptory, laudatory and vitiiperatory, deliberative, responsory, hortatory, suasory, dehortatory, dissuasory, conciliatory, reconciliatory, petitory, com¬ mendatory, consolatory, monitory and reprehensory, amatory, judicial, excusa¬ tory, purgatory, defensory, expostulatory, exprobratory (e. g., touching ingrat¬ itude received), invective, comminatory, deprecatory familiar (nunciatory and narrative), remuneratory, locatory, gratulatory, objurgatory, mandatory; of figures, tropes, and schemes. The final section is of the parts, place, and office of a secretary. The special abilities and qualities which make a man a good secretary or confidential aman¬ uensis (for this is what Day seems to have in mind) are there laid down, and the consideration of these abilities and qualities seems to suggest an educational ideal quite as distinctly as the educational treatise directly so called. The secretary's education. After remarking on the necessity of dealing with deep and weighty affairs, Day insists that the secretary must have skill and knowledge accordingly. To this end it befitteth that he be well studied, especially in the Latin tongue. It is likewise convenient that herewithal he have a ripe and quick conceit, aptly to receive, what on a sudden shall be to him delivered, and that he retain with himself a sound and good memory, for the conservation of those things that unto his charge shall daily be committed. He ought for his own furniture and instruction to be a man not altogether unexperienced, to be well-languaged, to be sufficiently read in Histories o and antiquities and times passed, to have “ The following hooks on history reading are worthy of mention ; Thomas Blundeville. The true order and Methode of veryting and reading Hystories, according to the Precepts of Francisco Patritio and Accontio Tridentino, no less plainly than briefly set forth in our vulgar speach, to the great propte and cornmodiiye of all those that delight in Hystories. London. 1510. 8vo. The true Method of 'Writing and Beading Histories, according to F. Patricio and Accontio Tridentino (i. e. Francesco Patrizi and Jacobus Acontius). Translated hy Thomas Blundeville. Lond. IGl'h- 8vo. Degory Wheare, the first Camden reader of history in Oxford, published his De Ratione et Methodo Legendi Historias in 1623. The work Is best known in its English transla¬ tion by Edmund Bohun, 1694. Mr. W. P. Courtney in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (Vol. LX, p. 432) says that Wheare’s book was used as a, text-book at Cambridge until the beginning of the eighteenth century. My copy, dated 1698, has the title : The Method and Order of Reading both Civil and Ecclesiastical Histories, in which The most Excellent are Reduced 680 EDUCATIOIM' REPOST, 1904. notice, both by reading and conference, of the situations, customs, manners and conditions of men, cities, countries and commonweals, to have familiarity with strangers, and men of divers nations, whereby the better to be ascertained of their hnmonrs, behaviours, and dispositions ; and wisely to work unto himself a i)eculiar insight into their estates, counsels and jurisdictions, being therewithal wary, that this association with such kind of people work not unto himself, or the affairs wherewith he shall be credited any matter of prejudice. Richard Brathwait (?158S-1G73) wrote Some Rules and Orders for the Gov¬ ernment of the House of an Earle. Of this there was a reprint in 1821. In it there is a section on ; The Secretary, his Place. Brathwait says : He should be a man brought up in the universities, having studied both Logic and Rhetoric ; he is to understand the Latin and Greek Tongues ; also the Ital¬ ian, French, and Spanish, with other Languages, but also to speak and write welkin them, thereby he shall be the better able to discourse with other Noble¬ men’s men and Strangers. Learning of itself is not sufficient to make the ready man as a secretary. Even a man with a sound knowledge of Latin and Greek and with a laudable knowledge of foreign languages may not do well. And again, those of “ less skill and greater ignorance of learned knowledge” may have a “conceit to rise,” and may have a “ wit so prompt and capable of anything laid before them, as by and by there wanteth not (though in truth when they have done, they can not learnediy answer for it) neither invention nor imitation wherewith in very commendable sort to perform what them seemeth good on a sudden to deliver in writing.” Day’s conclusion is that to be a good secretary a man ought to be “more than ordinarily learned, with the greatest ability and per¬ fection and also every way adorned.” He requires birth, education, quality, disposition, conversation, and ability, “ to be meet for that purpose.” This recognition of general power and capacity is precisely the educational ideal which is missed so often in the distinctively educational treatises. When such a developed power is forthcoming and directed into a special channel we get the modern idea of technical education. And Day may be represented as offer¬ ing views on technical training, viz, the training of a secretary. Such a pre¬ sentment is not without its interest if we call to mind John Milton as the Latin secretary of the Commonwealth. No doubt, had Day lived after Milton he would warmly have claimed him as an example of the educated man who had fitted himself for the secretai'y’s post, though Day speaks of secretaries to indi¬ viduals — emperors, lords, and gentlemen. The following are examples of books of letters of the period. There are prob¬ ably many others of the same kind : Fleming, A. A PanopJie of Epistles; or a Looking GJasse for the Unlearned ; conteirning a Per- fecte Platforme of Inditing letters of all Sorts, to Persons of all Estates and Degrees; as icell our Superiors, os also our Eguolls and Inferiors ; used of the last and elo- quentest Rhetorieians that have lived in all ages, and have been famous in that Fac¬ ulties Gathered and translated out of Latin into English hij A. Fleming. B, L. 157G. 4to. into the Order in which they are Successively to he Read; and the Judgments of Learned Men, concerning each of them, Subjoin’d. There is an appendix by Nicholas Horseman “ concerning the Historians of Particular Nations, as well Ancient as Mod¬ ern.” And further, is added : “ Mr. Dodwell’s Invitation to Gentlemen to acquaint them¬ selves with Ancient History.” Matthias Prideaux. An easic and compendious introduction for reading all sorts of Histories, contrived in a more facile wag than heretofore hath been published; to which is added a Synopsis of counsel. This was published in 1648, two years after Prideaux’s death. It has been suggested that the hook was edited by his father, John Prideaux, Bishop of Worcester. (Diet. Nat. Biog., Vol. XLVI, p. 354.) EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION, 681 Fulwood, William. The Enimie of Idlencsse: Teaching a perfect platforme how to indite Epistles and Letters of all sortes * ^ * tpq ip'role divided into foure hookes: notv newly published and augmented, l>y W. F, H. Middleton, London, 1586. 8vo. Also 1621. W. I. A Speedie Poste, with certaine new letters * * * for the lielpe of such as are desirous to leanic to write letters, etc. (1629.) 4to. Serre, Puget Sieur de la. Le Secretaire de la Cour; on la Manierc d'escrirc selon de temps. Translated into English with a collection of Choice Epistles hy J. M. Load. 165lf. 8vo. The same, with additions, 1658, 8vo. Originally appeared at Paris, 162-1, 8vo. The Achademy of Complernenis, wherein Ladies, Oentlcwomen, Scholars and Stran¬ gers, may aecomodate their courtly practice with gentle Ceremonies ; complirncntall, amorous high expressions, and forms of speaking and writing of Letters most in fashion, with excellent similitudes, comparisons, fancies, and devices; ivith a Table resolving the most delighifull fictions of Heathen Poets. (Published before 1650.) Wm. London’s Catalogue. Sucli a book may be compared with Wit's Commomvealtli ; see p. G93. Wm. Kemp, or Kempe. ^.1590. Studied at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; graduated B. A. 1I58C, M. A. 1584. In 1581, master of the grammar school at Plymouth, where he stayed till 1604-5. Wrote, in 1587, “A Dutiful Invective against the most Heynous Treasons of Ballard and Babington : with other their Adherents latelie executed. Together with the Horrible Attempts and Actions of the Q. of Scottes ; and the Sentence pronounced against her at Fodderingay, Newlie compiled and set foorth in Eng¬ lish verse. For a New Yeares gifte to all loyall English Subjects, by W. Kempe.” 4to. The date of his death is unknown. 1588. The Education of children in learning: Declared hg the Dignitie, JJtilitie, and Method thereof. Meet to he hnowne, and practised as ivell of Parents as Sclioolemaisters. Teach a childe in the trade of his way, and when he is old he shall not depart from it. Prov. 22, 6. Fathers provoke not your children to wrath, but bring them up in learning and infor¬ mation of the Lord. Ephes. 6, 4. The rod and correction give wisdome, but a child set at libertie maketh his mother ashamed. Prov. 29, 15. Foolishness is tied in the heart of a child, but the rod of discipline shall drive it away. Prov. 22, 15. Imprinted at London hy Thomas Orwin, for John Porter and Thomas Guh- hin, 1588. 4to. 52 pages of text. I have sent you, dear friend, a little pamphlet, of the education of Children in learning, which is no fantastical nor idle toy, but a very profitable matter, and most necessary to be urged in this secure and licentious generation * * *. Where as the charge of teaching appertaineth not oiiely to a few of the learneder sort, namely, to schoolmaisters, we to make the argument more popular, have pre¬ fixed a necessary exhortation for all other sort of people, setting forth the dignity and utility of the matter with such holy and ancient histories, with such plain and sensible reasons, as may teach the unlearned with some delight, and not be tedious to those that are learned. Again, to satisfy in some part the expecta¬ tion of the learned, we have handled the method more mechanically, and adorned the whole work with some witty Greek and Latin sentences, englishing the same nevertheless in margent for the behoof of the unlearned. And as generally both sorts may peradventure think that the reading of it will be worth the labour, so almost every one of each sort in particular, may find somewhat for his purpose. For who is it of what state or degree soever, upon whom God hath not cast the care and charge, either of teaching, or of learning, or else of causing others to be taught and learned? G82 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. The dignity of schooling. Schools ore to be traced through three stages — the schools of the Hebrews, of the Gentiles or the school of humanity, and the school of Christianity. Adam “ no doubt did his duty in teaching his children.” “ Seth was a very godly and learned schoolmaster.” Noah was a ” doctor of righteousness and godly knowledge.” These, however, did not write down their learning, but Moses, “ the next renowned doctor in this school, cometh foadh with his pen and ink and writeth the laws and precepts of the living God.” Joshua was an “ active captain and teacher of his people and made unto them many pithy orations, and divided to every man the portion of his inheritance ; which thing also required knowledge in the Mathematical Arts.” The common school was “first instituted in Naioth (I Sam. 19, 18; 19, 20), whereof Samuel the Lord's Judge and Prophet was moderator and IMaister. Such an honorable man was the first public Schoolmaister in this school, whose scholars then, as the scholars a long time after him were called the sons of the prophets, because the benefit of their good instruction, which they received of the Prophet, their Mas¬ ter, was esteemed at no less price than the benefit of their begetting and birth which they had of their parents.” “ Concerning Eliseus there is mention made of an hundred Scholars that were under him in Gilgal and of the poor diet wherewith they were sustained.” John the Baptist “ was a visitor and reformer of the Colleges and also the last doctor in this School of the Hebrews.” So much for Kemp's method of illustrating the dignity of schooling. It will readily be credited that, on the same plan, he finds the treatment of the Gen¬ tiles — i, e., the Greeks and Romans — easy work. Kemp concludes this section witfi the following energetic passage ; Now then we have very hastily in respect of so copious a matter, travailed through these three Schools of the Hel)rews, of the Gentiles and of the Chris¬ tians, wherein tracing the dignity of learning and schooling, whether ye con¬ sider the setters forth and supporters thereof, or the teachers, or else the scholars, we have noted out unto you of all three sorts, besides God the prin¬ cipal Author, Kings, Princes, wise Counsellors, men of great estimation, virtue and godliness, generally in all these schools, and particularly also we have observed how every one doth excel in his particidar praise, namely, the School of the Hebrews hath the chief praise of most ancient and true godliness : the School of the Gentiles, of framing an artificial way and method to attain learn¬ ing by : the School of the Christians, of manifesting the true practice of all learning, referring.it to the right end. Now if by any means all these so honourable and godly personages should rise out of their graves and with their majestical presence appear unto us that live in this age, and in this country, and with their sage and eloquent tongues declare unto us, some, what pains and charges they have employed : some, what diligence and study, they have used in ])lanting and watering, in nourishing and cherishing of knowledge and learning, I suppose that many parents would hang down their heads for shame of their negligence, and many children and youth would lament their miserable estate and condition for want of good education. The ntility of schooling. It brings eternal salvation, doubles the quickness of the sight (by adding the sight of the mind), and lays for the commonwealth the foundations of pros¬ perity and safety (as to which see Plato). Kemp takes the opportunity to say: O therefore that this town [Plymouth] might now bring forth some young imps and buds of learning whose fruit would be sweeter than all baiiquetting dishes to feed the Commonwealth and Church of God, both here and in other places. For what great good would it do, not only to yourselves but to this Western part of our country, but also to strangers of other nations, which resort hither for earthly gain, when by this means they shall carry away heavenly treasures ; When they shall find, even in merchants’ shops, learning more plenti¬ ful than wares, sufficient to refute their errors and to instruct them in the truth and way to salvation? * * In what estimation therefore ye hold the glory EAELY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 683 of God, wbat account ye make of the salvation of jmiir souls, of tbe felicity of your country, at that price must ye esteem tbe planting of learning, and so great care must you have of tbe good education of your cliildren. The method of schooling : Duties of parents. I’arents, first, must enter cbildren in bonest actions and civil language, wbicb care must not be omitted any time afterwards. At 5 years of age be must be banded over to some Pbociiix “ that can teacb blm all tilings, framing bim to eloquence in talk, and virtue in deeds.” Great care is to be taken in choice of tbe teacher, and indeed previously as to bis nurses, and always as to bis play¬ fellows. Public, school teachers are to be preferred to tbe private teacher. Tbe parent must not ” neglect tbe ordering of bis child because be bath put bim in tbe bands of a master.” Jointly with tbe master tbe parent should pre¬ scribe “ a good order for manners and behaviour, for repairing home, for attend¬ ance, for diet, for apparel, for exercise in learning, etc.” Duties of the schoolmaster. Shortly, these are, to use tbe best way and order both in teaching and also in governing. All knowledge is taught by precepts of art and also by practice of tbe same pre¬ cepts. Tbe scholar, therefore, firstly, learns tbe precepts ; secondly, notes tbe examples of tbe precepts in unfolding other men’s works ; thirdly, imitates the example in some work of bis own; fourthly and lastly, makes somewhat alone without an example. This bolds for grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geom¬ etry, and any other art. First degree of schooling. Prosodia and ortbograpbia are learned first — are the first degree of teaching. Tbe artificial precepts in this faculty are tbe four and tvrenty letters and tbe table of tbe syllables. Next, these are practised by reading tbe catechism and primer. Each word should be learned and spelled perfectly. “ One word exactly learned v/ill bring more fruit than twenty words rawly passed over.” For the better confirming of the memory of words let bim learn to write when be is through tbe catechism. In this exercise of writing tbe scholar shall spend but two or three hours in a day at tbe most, employing tbe rest of tbe time in reading until be be about 7 years old. Method of teaching tcriUng. ' Tbe master shall teach bis scholar to write by “ precepts of bolding tbe pen, of forming tbe letters in due proportion, of joining them aptly together ; by prac¬ tice, of drawing tbe pen upon tbe figures of shadowed letters, then of writing without shadowed letters by imitating a copy, lastly, of writing without a copy.” Second degree of schooling. Grammar and languages. First form. (Each form may occupy a year.) Beginning of grammar in tbe Latin tongue. Latin reading. Learn by heart the parts of speech and their properties, as tbe derivation and composition of words ; tbe forming of numbers, cases, and genders in every declension of nouns; the forming of diminutives in substantives, of comparisons in adjectives: so the forming of numbers, persons, tenses, and moods in every conjugation of ail sorts of verbs. Learn tbe concordances of speech with examples. Second form {entered at 8 years of age). i Practise precepts of grammar, in expounding and unfolding tbe works of Latin authors. ^ Tbe Dialogues of Corderius and Castalion. (“Now, because cbildren learn first to talk familiarly with their fellows or others, dialogues are most easy for their capacity.”) 684 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Method of teaching. Tbe Master shall first read sensibly a competent lecture, then declare the argu¬ ment and scope of the author, afterwards English it either word for word, or phrase for phrase, as the property of both languages will permit. Last of all teach or cause another to teach the divers sorts of the words, their properties and syntaxes of speech. After three or four hours, the scholar should be exam¬ ined. The examples in the lecture are to be referred to rules of art. Then fol¬ low sentences by imitation ; afterwards, sentences without imitation. Third form {at age of 0 years). Harder Dialogues. Tully’s Epistles, edited by Sturmius. Note the principal phrases in a notebook. Then imitation Avith variety. Thus, after translating a letter from Cicero, write a letter from a father to his son. Practise compositions without imitation, both speaking and writing, in Latin ; e. g., lessons, orders in the scliool, dinner and supper, etc. Double translation. Fourth form {10 years of age). The same, with augmentations of length and hardness. Fifth form {11 years rjf age). Terence’s Comedies ; Tuliy’s Treatises, Of Friendship and Of Old Age ; Ovid de Tristibus. If the scholar be a Grecian, in this form he begins Greek gram¬ mar, to which he gives up the fourth part of his time. '(So, too, if he would be a “Hebrician.”) This is the end of the fifth form Avork and the tAvelfth year of the scholar. Third degree of schooling. Logic and rhetoric. Three years' study. Precepts concerning the divers sorts of arguments in logic. Tropes and figures in the first part of rhetoric. To this study one-sixth of his time is to be given, all the rest of the time to be given in learning and handling good authors ; e. g., Tully’s Offices, his Orations, Cmsar’s Commentaries, Virgil’s JEneid, Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Horace. Examples of hardest points in grammar, arguments in logic, tropes and figures in rhetoric. Axioms, syllogisms, and methods of authors to be noted. Also the rhetorical pronunciation and gesture fit for every Avord, sentence, and affection. Imitation to correspond — sometimes in prose, sometimes in A-erse. Composition Avithout imitation. Fourth degree of schooling. Arithmetic and geometry. The scholar can easily pass through these arts in half a year, and so before “ the full age of sixteen years be made fit to Avade Avithout a schoolmaister through deeper mysteries of learning, to set forth the glory of God, and to bene¬ fit his country.” The master's duty of governing. Consists in prescribing a good order both for manners and learning and in causing the same to be kept. ReAvards and punishments necessary : ReAvards : Praise is a bait to draAV to learning. Also the master may give “ trifles and gay things to such as shoAV any token of foi’Avardness, diligence, and Avittiness, or are victors in virtue.” According to Horace’s saying, “ Pueris dant crustula blandi doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima.” Holidays approved for good Avork. Punishments : Admonition, rebuking, punishment Avith the rod, or restraining of recreation, or the service of drudgery ; e. g., the SAveeping of the school. Worst of all, “ cutting off from the school.” 1592. The Art of Arithmeticlce in Whole Numbers and Fractions. In a more rcadie and easie method than hitherto hath been published. Written in EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 685 Latm hy P. Ramus: and translated into English hy ^yiUion^ Kempc. Imprinted at London hy Richard Field for Rohert Dextar divelling in Paules Church-yard at the signe of the Brasen serpent. 1592. 8°. Kempe dedicates bis translation to the Right Worshipful Sir Francis Drake. In this dedication Kempe asks who is there that can attain to a knowledge of his art, whatever it is, without arithmetic. It is useful in divinity, in civil polity, and “ in the seat of judgment the golden rule of proportion is the law of equity.” In physics, in astronomy it is clearly necessary. What is music [he goes on], in sounds, in harmony and in their spaces, con¬ cords, and diverse sorts, hut only arithmetic in hearing? Take away arithmetic, ye take away the merchant’s eye, whereby he seeth his direction in buying and selling ; ye take away the goldsmith’s discretion, whereby he mixeth his metals in due quantities ; ye take away the captain’s dexteritie, whereby he embattaileth his army in convenient order ; finally ye take from ail sorts of men, the faculty of executing their functions aright. Arithmetic then teacheth unto us matters in divinity, judgeth civil causes uprightly, cureth diseases, searcheth out the nature of things created, singeth sweetly, buyeth, selleth, maketh accompts, weigheth metals and worketh them, skirmisheth with the enemy, goeth on warfare, and setteth her hand almost to every good work, so profitable is she to mankind. Mulcaster, it will be remembered, says scarcely anything as to the teaching of mathematics. See page 654. Louis Leroy (Robert Ashley, Translator). 1594. Of the Interchangeahle Course, or Variety of Things in the Whole World; and the Concurrence of Amies and Learning, thorough the first and famousest Nations: from the heginning of Civility and Memory of man, to this Present. Moreover, whether it he true or 7io, that there can he 7iothing said, tohich hath tiot hecn said heretofore : and that toe ought hy our own Inventions to augment the doctrine of the Auneients; not con¬ tenting ourselves with Translations, Expositions, Corrections and Ahridg- ments of their tor it in gs. Written in French hy Loys le Roy called Regius: and translated into English hy R. London Printed hy Charles Yetswevit Esq at his house in Fleetstrcet near the Middle Temple gate. ISOlf. fol. R. A.=Robert Ashley (1565-1641). Born at Damerham, 7 miles from Salis¬ bury. At school under Hadrian Saravia at Southampton. Connected with several colleges at Oxford, but took no degree. “ Finding the practice of law to have ebbs and tides, he applied himself to the learning of the languages of our neighbours, to the end that he might be partaker of the wisdom of those nations, having been many years of this opinion, that as no one soil or territory yieldeth all fruits alike, so no one climate or region affordeth all kind of knowledge in full measure.” Buried in the Temple Church, London. This book, consisting of 261 small folio pages, is an elaborate history of knowl¬ edge and learning from the point of view of the sixteenth century. The trans¬ lator in his dedication says : This work is a comparison of this later age, with all antiquity in Arms, in Learning and all other Excellency. There was never any mighty Empire or Monarchy, Kingdom or Common-wealth but is here represented ; no famous Founder or Governor of State, no learned Law-maker, or worthy Warrior, but is here mentioned ; and each of them to the other in all conveniences and contrari¬ eties compared ; which being done by a man of great learning and judgment, to men of much business and employment * * * ^yJio have no time to fetch everything from the Fountain, search all Antiquity, and read the Histories of all nations must needs be much available ; and the pleasure thereof to all sorts of men accordingly answerable. 686 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. The aiithor thus siimmariierior, or equal to any of them. The work is divided into 12 books. Book xi deals with : The comimrison of the present irith former ages. This age is compared unto the former ages most famous in deeds of arms, con¬ duct of states, excellency of learning, perfection of workmanship, novelty of inventions, navigations never attempted heretofore, and discovering of new lands, unknown to Antiquity : to know wherein we are inferior or equal to the ancients, and wherein we ought to be preferred. First of all is conferred our modern Warfare, with the ancient Greek and Roman; Tamberlan is compared with Ninus, Sesostris, Cyrus, Darius, Alexander, Arsaces, Hannibal, Julius Cassar, Constantine, Attila, and Charles the Gt. Then foiloweth the comparison of our modern kingdoms, empires, monarchies, and commonweals, with the ancient. Of military nations, armies, battles by sea and by land, sieges and assaults of fortresses. Of navigations and discoveries of countries, perigrinations and voyages by land. Of the wealth of the present time, with that of the time past. Of the manners of this Age, with the former. Finally, of the learning of this Age with the ancients ; in philosophy, eloquence, law, policy, physic, poesy, astrology, cosmography, and the other mathematics. Then cometh the conclusion of the work, by which there is a vicissitude resolved' on in all matters ; And liow it is to be "feared, that I*ower, Wisdom, Learning, Sciences, Books, Industry, Work¬ manships and the Kiiowledege of the World being now come to so great excel¬ lency, should fall again : as they have done in times past. BooJc xii: The possihiUtg of increase even further of Jcnotvledge. Considering then, that the variable disposition of human things is to be ready to fall, when they are at their highest; and that virtue and vice are come to tiieir top and perfection ; doubting least among so many partialities and heresies (whereof the world is full) and the wars which threaten us on every side, that Learning might come to be despised ; and be as loosely left off, and neglected, as heretofore it hath been diligently followed and regarded: To the eflid to prevent such a mischief and to advise the studious to remedy it, as much as they may, I have added an Inquisition on the common speech of men, by which they have always maintained, and do yet maintain. That nothing c-aii now be said, which hath not been said heretofore. Wherein I endeavour to show, that there remaineth yet much to be said ; and that the truth hath not been thoroughly discovered, neither all knowledge forestalled by our forerunners : Admonishing the Learned, to add that by their own inventions, which is want¬ ing in the Scieiic-es ; doing; that for poskn-ity which antiquity hath done for us ; to the end, that Learning be not lost, but from day to day, may receive some increa.se. Speaking of the comparison of his age vrith antiquity in regard to learning, Leroy says : The greatest part of Teachers use but rehearsings and repetitions by rote, acquitting themselves lightly of their charges. They which write for the most part, do nothing but tie together, and all heap one on another Grammars, Rhetorics, Logics, Institutions, Introductions, Abridgements, Annotations, Cor¬ rections, Translations, Epistles, Orations, Eclogues, Dialo^ies, Common Places, Elegies, Odes, Vulgar rimes and such other versifications. Moreover v/e must learn out of books, in the schools, the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Arabian ; which were mother tongues amongst the ancients and they learned them from their cradle, when they began to speak : In which we must now con¬ sume much time, and the best of our age ; which were better employed in the knowledge of things, and understanding of the sciences. [Note that this is written before the time of Comenius,] Besides there is one inconvenience in learning, which is not small ; that they are all their life time brought up in the EAELY ENGLISH WRITEES ON EDUCATION. 087 shadow of schools, without knowing of their behaviour amongst men ; and without having experience of matters ; although knowledge without practice be imperfect * *. In the Mathematics [we have not at this day such emi¬ nent persons as] Euclid, Eudoxus, Archimedes and Ptolomeus : albeit there have been in them very excellent men of this age. For sithence they were extin¬ guished in Egypt, and left off by the Greeks, and Arabians ; they were never more famous than they are at this present: especially Astrology and Cosmog¬ raphy ; for the ancients scarcely understood the one half of heaven, of the earth, and of the sea, knowing nothing in the west beyond the Canaries ; and in the east beyond Catygare. At this day all lands and seas [sic] are known and sailed * ❖ * Cosmography^ and Astrology are so beautified, that if Pto¬ lemy, the father of them both, were alive again, he would scarce know them, being increased in such sort by the late observations and navigations. Regio¬ montanus is reputed the best mathematician of this age, and thought to be little inferior to Anaximander the Milesian ; or Archimedes the Syracusan. His master Pnrbaehiiis, the Cardinal of Cusa, and Copernicus (being Germans all of them) have excelled in these sciences. Also Jovianus Pontaiius hath taken great pains in Astrology being no less happy in prose than in verse ; and apt for any kind of writing. John Huarte (Richard Carew, Translator — 1555-1G20). 1594. Examen de Ingenios. The Examination of men's Wits. In which, hy discovering the variety of natures, is shewed for what profession each one is apt, and how far he shall profit therein. By John Huarte. Translated out of the Spanish tongue hy M. Camillo Camilli. Englished out of his Italian hy R. C. Esquire. London, Printed hy Adam Islip, for Richard Wat- Jdns, 1594. 4to. Dedicated to Sir Francis Godolphin : Good Sir, your book returneth unto you clad in a Cornish gabardine, which if it become him not well, the fault is not in the stuff, but in the botching tailor, who never bound Prentice to the occupahion and working only for his pastime, could hardly observe the precise rules of measure. Huarte’s own dedication is to King Philip of Spain, and he has also a Proem to the Reader of 8 pages. The text occupies 333 pages. Huarte's book was pub¬ lished in Spain, at Pamplona, not later than 1578, and was translated into Italian, and published at Venice, in 1582. The general position of the author is that “ Nature is that which makes a man of ability learn,” and that if a child have not the disposition and ability vrhich is requisite for that science whereimto he will addict himself, it is a superfluous labor to be instructed therein by good schoolmasters, to have store of books and to continually study it. Earliest edition in British Museum catalogue : Huarte Ravarro (Juan de Dios). Examen de ingenios * * * Pam¬ plona. 1578. 8vo. Later London editions of Carew’s translation, 1596, 1604, 1616. Examen de Ingenios: or the Tryal of Wits Puhlished originally in Spanish hy Doctor J. Huarte, and made English hy Mr. Bellamy. Lon¬ don. 1698. "Svo. The following are some of the contents of the book : That Nature is that which makes a man of abilitie to learne. How there may be assigned to everie difference of wit, his Science, which shal he correspondent to him in particular : and that which is repugnant and contrarie, be abandoned. How it may be prooved that the eloquence and fineness of speech cannot finde place in men of great understanding. How it is prooved that the Theoricke of Dixinitie appertaineth to the understanding, and preaching (v/hich is his practise) to the imagination. 688 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. That the Theoricke of the lawes appertaineth to the memoi-ie, aad pleading and judg¬ ing (which are their practise) to the understanding, and the governing of a common¬ wealth to the imagination. How it may he prooved that of Theoricall Phisicke, part appertaineth to the memorie, and part to the understanding, and the practicke to the imagination. By what meanes it may be shewed, to what difference of abilitie the art of war apper¬ taineth, and by what sig'nes the man may be knowen, who is endowed with this maner of wit. Teachers and taught. Maisters (for ought that I can gather) have none other olhce with their sehol- lers, than to bring learning to their remembrance, for if they have a fruitfull wit, they make them with this only to bring forth woonclerfni conceipts, otherwise they do but afflict themselves, and those whom they instruct, nor ever obtain their desires, and (at least if I were a teacher) before I received any scholar into my schoole, I would grow to many trials and experiments with him, untill I might discover the qualitie of his wit, and if I found it by nature directed to that science whereof I made profession, I would willingly receive him, for it breeds a great contentment in the teacher, to instruct one of good towardlinesse : and if not, 1 would counsaile him to studie that science, which were mostly agree¬ able with his wit. But if I saw, that he had no disposition or capacitie for any sort of learning, I would friendly and with gentle words tell him ; Brother, you have no means to prove a man of that profession which you have undertaken, take care not to loose your time and your labour, and provide you some other trade of living, which requires not so great an habilitie as appertaineth to learning. 77/s own experience. There were three companions of us, who entered together to studie the Latine toong, and one of us learned the same with great facilitie, the rest could never make any commendable composition ; but all passing on to Logicke, one of those who could not learne Grammar, proved in that art a principall Aegle, and the other two, in the whole, never learned one ready point ; then all three comming to heare Astrologie, it was a matter worthie of consideration, that he who could no skill of Latine or Logicke, in a few daies knew more in Astrologie than his maister that taught them, and the rest could never learne it. I then marvelling hereat, began forthwith to make discourses, and play the Philosopher hereon, and so I found that every science required a special! and particular wit, which reaved from that, was little worth in other sorts of learning. [Students will find benefit in leaving their homes to go to LTiiiversities], for the dandling of the mother, brethren, kindred and friends which are not of his profession, do greatly hinder his profiting. This is plainly seene in the scholers who are native of the cities and places where Universities are seated, none of which (save by great miracle) ever become learned. And this may easily be remedied, by changing of Universities, and the native of one citie going to studie in another. This faring, that a man takes from his owne countrie to make himselfe of woorth and discretion, is of so great irnportaunce, that there is no maister in the world who can teach him more, and especially, when a man sees himselfe (sometimes) abandoned of the favour and delights of his Countrie. * * * Little avails it that a dullard go to learne in the famous places of studie, where there is no chaire of understanding, nor wisedome, nor a man to teach it. A “ Maister ” must be sought “ who hath a direction and method in teaching.” [Some scholars teach their masters], for doubting and demanding wittily, they make him to understand and answer things so exquisit, as he himselfe never knew nor should have knowne, if the scholler with the felicitie of his wit, had not brought them to his mind : but those who can do this, are one or two at the most, and the dullards are infinit through which, it would do well (seeing this choise, an Examination of Wits for every science is not bad). In Chapter II the author states : All that which Galen writeth in this his booke, is the groundplot of this my Treatise, albeit he declares not in particular, the differences of the habilities which are in men, neither as touching the sciences which everie one requires in particular. Notwithstanding, he understood that it was necessarie to depart the sciences amongst yoong men, and to give ech one that which to his naturall habilitie was requisit, in as much as he sayd, That well ordered common EAKLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 689 wealths, ought to have men of great wisclome and knowledge, who might in their tender age, discover ech ones wit and naturall sharpnesse, to the end they might he set to learne that art which was agreeable, and not leave it to their owue election. * * * The Universities alwaies made provision of good teachers, endued with sound learning, and a cleere discerning wit, to the end that they may not instruct the ignorant in errours and false propositions. Every science should be studied “ with order, beginning at his principles, and passing through the midst to the end, without having matter that may presup¬ pose anything before.” The scholar should avoid confusion by learning one thing at a time. Lastly, “ Our understanding is not filled by the much which we read in little time, but by that which by little and little it proceeds to conceive and chew upon.” Ruarte's book is antiquated, and founded rather upon old medical theories than on educational experience. For instance, the author looks on the differ¬ ences of men’s wits as proceeding from the three qualities — hot, moist, and dry. For each difference of wit he contends there is a science correspondent, and ali others should be abandoned. The theory of divinity appertaineth to the under¬ standing, and preaching to the imagination. The theory of the laws apper¬ taineth to the memory, and pleading and judging to the understanding. The governing of a commonwealth relates to the imagination. So, theoretical physics goes with the memory and with understanding, and practice with the imagina¬ tion. The author then treats of marriage, the temperaments of men and women, and the probable type of children from difterent marriages. In the last section he treats of the “ diligences to be used for preserving children’s wit when formed.” He advocates care for aliment, discretion as to nurses, plenty of fresh air, not to sleep in a soft bed, nor be overwarm, or eat much meat. Richard Carew, sr., also translated the first five cantos of Tasso’s Godfrey of Bulloigne in 1594. For Camden’s Remains concerning Britain, in the second edition, 1G05, Carew wrote “An Epistle concerning the excellences of the English Tongue.” After dwelling on “ the Significance, the Easiness, and the Copiousness of English/' he comes to the topic of : The sweetness of our tongue. I come now to the last and sweetest point, of the sweetness of our Tongue, which shall appear the more plainly' if w^e match it with our neighbours. The Italian is pleasant, but without sinews, as a still fleeting water ; the French delicate, but even nice as a woman, scarce daring to open her lips, for fear of marring her countenance ; the Spanish majestical, but fulsome, running too much on the o, and terrible like the Devil in a play ; the Dutch manlike, but withal very harsh, as one ready at every word to pick a quarrel. Now we, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the Italian, the full sound of words to the French, the variety of terminations to the Spanish, and the mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch ; and so, like bees, gather the honey of their good properties, and leave the dregs to themselves. And thus when substantialness combineth with delightfulness, fulness with fineness, seemliness with portliness, and currentness with staidness, how can the language which consisteth of ali these sound other than most full of sweetness? It is interesting to compare this passage with that of Mulcaster, page 058. The often-quoted passage from Carew is in this essay, where he compares, for style. Sir Thomas Smith with Plato ; Ascham with Cicero ; Sir John Cheke with Demosthenes ; the Earl of Surrey with Virgil, and Shakspeare with Catullus. ED 1904 M - 44 690 EDUCATION" EEPORT, 1904. John Baptista Nenna (Wm. Jones, Translator). 1595. Kemiio. Or A Treatise of Wohility: Wherein is discoursed ivliat true Nobility is, ivitli such qualities as are required in a perfect Gentleman. Written in Italian by that famous Doctor and worthy 'knight Sir John Baptista Nenna of Bari. Done into English by William Jones, Gent. Printed by P. S. for Paul Linley, and John Flasket and are to be sold at their shop in Paules Churchyard, at the Signe of the blacke Beare, 1595. ■ (4to. 19G pp.) This translation bears commendatory verses from Edmund Spenser, Samuel Daniel, George Chapman, and Ang. Day. In this treatise the author holds that a man becomes noble by nobility of mind. He hesitates, if not declines, to say which is more excellent and noble, “ that which the doctors purchase by their learning or knights by arms.” The follov/ing is an interesting passage : Men and women equally noble by learning. Like-wise women are ennobled by their wisdom and learning. The knowledge of the sciences turned to the great glory and commendation of Cornelia the mother of the Gracchi, of Lelia and Hortensia, the daughters of Lelius and of Q. Hortensius, of Proba Valeria of Rome, and of infinite others. But weapons are not so fit for women * * *. To proceed further, I do altogether equal conqiosed nobility, both of the man and woman, and therefore I need not stand any longer thereon. Edmund Coote (/7. 1597), The following is taken from Mr. Thompson Cooper's account of Coote in the Dictionary of National Biography : Pensioner of Peterhouse, Cambridge, from 156G. Graduated B. A., 1579-80; M. A., 1583. Became headmaster of Bury S. Edmunds, Suffolk, 159G. Resigned, 1597. Subsequent history unknown. Dr. J. W. Donaldson, in his “ Retrospective address ” at the tercentenary commemoration of K. Edward's school. Bury S. Edmunds, 1850, thus refers to the ” English Schoolmaster The author's object seems to have been a very praiseworthy one — to promote a knowledge of the mother-tongue among those who were not likely to enjoy the advantage of attending such school as this was even in those days : and he did not lose sight of the wants of those who were trained up for Grammar Schools. He recommends ministers of parishes and master tradesmen to use the book, or get it used among their poor people and workmen. To the trades¬ man he says : ” Thou mayest sit on thy shop-board, at thy loom, or at thy needle and never hinder thy work, to hear thy scholars, after thou hast made this little book familiar to them.’' And in an earlier passage the same writer says : The scarcity of this little work, wliich must have been one of the commonest books in England for nearly one hundred years, may, perhaps, be explained by the liiiit in the preface, that it was necessary in those days to make provision for a total destruction of elementary books [Dr. D. does not explain why “ in those days” especially]. The author says; “I have so disposed the placing of my first book, that if a child should tear out every leaf so fast as he learneth, yet it shall not be greatly hurtful : for every new chapter repeateth and teach- eth again all that Y>mnt before.” From this remark we see that, in those days, there were more reasons than one for the repetition system which has lately been revived as a novelty by Ollendorff, and, no doubt, the young learners fully availed themselves of a liberty of destroying their enemy, for which the master himself had made such careful provision. Mr. A. J. Ellis refers to Coote's “ English Schoolmaster,” using an edition dated 1G73 (Chaucer Soc. Publication: “On Early English Pronunciation,” EAKLY ENGLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 69] p. 1024). He quotes a passage illustrating the pronunciation taught by the “ unskilful teacher.” 1596. The Englislie Scholemaister, teacMnge all Ms sclioUars of ivhat age soever the most easie, short and perfect order of distinct readinge and true ivrit- inge our Englishe tonge. Entered as above, so says the British Museum copy, from which the title-page of the first edition is lacking, on the Stationers’ Register, 18 Dec., 1596, to Jack- sou and Dexter. The following is a copy of the title-page to the thirty-first edition, 1662 ; The English EehoohMaster, Teaching all his Scholars, of what age soever, the most easie, short and perfect order of distinct Reading, and true Writ¬ ing our English tongue, that hath ever yet been hnoivn or puhlished hy any. And further also, teacheth a direct Course, hoio any unskilful person may easily both understand any hard English words u-hich they shall in the Scriptures, Sermons, or elsewhere hear or read: and also he made able to use the same aptly themselves ; and generally- whatsoever is necessary to he known for the English Speech: So that he tvhich hath this Book only needeth to huy no other to make him fit from his letters unto the Grammar School, for an Apprentice, or any other his private use, so far as concerneth English. And therefore is made not only for Children, though the first Book he nicer childish for them, hut also for all other, especially for those that are ignorant in the Latin tongue. In the next Page the Schoolmaster hangeth forth his Table to the view of all Beholders,, setting forth some of the chief Commodities of his Pro¬ fession. Devised for thy soke that wanfest any paid of this skill, hy Edward [s?c] Coote, Master of the Free-Scliool in St Edmonds Bury. Perused and approved hy puhlick Authority, and now the 31 time Im¬ printed with certain Copies to write hy, at the end of this Book added. London, Printed hy Wm Leyhurn, for the Company of Stationers, 1662. On the other side of title-page in the 1662 edition is an engraving of a school of 12 children, apparently boys and girls, in a prison-like room with very small diamond-paned windows. Editions are too numerous to mention. At any rate, one published at Dublin in 1673 is named the forty-second. (See Diet, of Nat. Biog., Coote.) The schoolmaster his profession. ' I profess to teach thee that art utteidy ignorant to read perfectly, to write truly and with judgment to understand the true reason of our English tongue, with great expedition and pleasure. I vcill teach thee that art unperfect in either of them, to perfect thy skill in few days with great ease. I undertake to teach my Scholars, that shall be trained up for any Grammar School, that they shall never err in writing the true Orthography of any word truly pronounced : which, what ease and benefit it will bring unto schoolmasters, they best know. And the same proffer do I make all other, both men and women, that now for want thereof are ashamed to write to their best friends, for which I have heard many Gentlemen offer much. I assure all Schoolmasters of the English tongue, that they shall not only teach their Scholars with greater perfection, but also they shall with more ease and profit, and in shorter time teach an hundred Scholars, than before they could teach forty. I hope by this plain and short way of teaching, to encourage many to read, that never otherwise would have learned. And so more knowledge will be brought into this laud, and more books bought than otherwise would have been, I shall ease the poorer sort of much charge they have been at, in maintaining their children long at School, and in buying of many books. 692 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Strangers that do now blame onr tongue of difficulty and uncertainty, shall by me plainly see and understand those things which they have thought hard. I do teach the first part of Arithmetic, to know or write any number. By the practice thereto adjoined, all Learners shall so frame and tune their voices, as that they shall truly or naturally pronounce any kind of style in their Prose or Verse. By the same practice children shall learn in a Catechism, the knowledge of the Principles of true Religion, with precepts of virtue and civil behaviour. I have made a part of a brief Chronology, for practising of reading hard words, wherein thou shait be much helped for the understanding of the Bible, and other Histories : and a Grammar-Scholar learn to know when his Authors both Greek and Latin lived and when the principal histories in them were done. I have set down a Table containing and teaching the true writing and under¬ standing of any hard English word, borrowed from the Greek, Latin or French and how to know the one from the other, with the interpretation thereof, by a plain English word : whereby the children shall be prepared for the understand¬ ing of thousands of Latin words before they enter the Grammar-school, which also will bring much delight and judgment to others. Therefore, if thou under- standest not any word in this Book, not before expounded, seek the Table. If I be generally received, I shall cause one uniform manner of teaching ; a thing, which as it hath brought much profit unto the Latin tongue, so would it do to all other languages, if the like were practised. Finally, I have given thee such examples for fair writing, whereby in every School all bad hands may be abandoned ; that if thou shouldst buy the like of any other (which thou shaft seldom find in England) they alone will cost thee much more money than I ask thee for my whole Profession- Method of the teaching. (Given in the preface.) To return to my teaching Tradesman ; if thou desirest to be informed how to teach this Treatise, mark diligently the directions given in all places of the Book, and as thy Scholar is in saying his lesson, mark wdiat words he misseth and them note with thy pen or pin, and let him repeat them at the next lecture, and so until he be perfect, not regarding those where he is skilful. And let his fellows also remember to appose him in their propositions [i. e., to put them to him when they question him. Coote has a chapter (Book ii, cap viii), “ How the Teacher shall direct his Scholars to appose one another.”] To Coote’s descriiAion of his method it is necessary to add that he employs the margin of each page to give directions to the master as to the best way of teaching, or the reason of teaching, the matter of the text. Example of Coote’s ernplogment of the margin of the page. (Taken from the second chapter, which treats of the practice of reading words of three letters.) This speech is made Boy, go thou to the top of the hill, and get me home the only of words taught Nag, fill him well, and see he be fat, and I will rid me not^^^to^ o1)serve^^ the of him, for he will be but dull as his dam ; if a man bid sense, being frivolous, well for him, I will tell him of it; if not, I do but rob him; but only to teach dis- jf j teacning. jaw-bone of him ill. The First Book is entirely (12 pp., 4to) taken up with spelling, in the follow¬ ing order : Words of two letters, three letters, three letters beginning with two consonants, four letters beginning with three consonants, syllables made of diphthongs, syllables of three letters that can end any word with two consonants (e. g., ark, erk, irk, ork, urk), harder instances of words of one syllable with three or four consonants. In the Second Book spelling is continued for five more chapters, in which words of more than one syllable are discussed. In the Second Book, however, instruction is given by means of dialogues (pp 13-36). Then follow : A short catechism, sundry observations for a Christian, a prayer, a thanksgiving before meat (and after meat), a prayer for the morning, for the evening, readings from the Psalms, some verses on good manners, entitled “ The Schoole-maister to his Scholars.” Then comes a paragraph on numeration, as an introduction to chronology. Finally a vocabulary of hard words. EAKLY ENGLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 693 On the last page are these words in an address to the reader : If notwithstanding my former reasons, then donbtest that thy little child will have spoilt this hook, before it be learned, thou mayest fitly divide it at the end of the second book, or thou mayest reserve fair the written copies, until he can read. If thon think me either for hardness of rule, or length of matter, unfit for children: plentiful experience in very young ones, (believe him that hath tried) doth daily confute thee. Therefore to dislike before thou hast either tried or diligently read, were either to be rash or unkind. Farewell. First edition, 94 pages, 4to. In the British Museum copy the written copy has been “ reserved fair ” by some parent, or at any rate it is removed. In the 1G62 edition, owing to closer printing, there ai*e only 70 pages, including the written copy. The following passage from the preface should be added to the foregoing account, as showing seme indication of — Elementary education in Coote's time. I am enforced [he says] of necessity, to affect that plain rudeness, which may fit the capacity of those persons with whom I have to deal. The learned sorts are able to understand my purpose, and to teach the treatise without further airections. I am now therefore to direct my speech unto the unskilful, which desire to make use of it for their own private benefit, and to such men and women of Trade, as Tailors, Weavers, Shopdveepers, Seamsters and such others as have undertaken the charge of teaching others. * * * [With this book] thou Shalt teach thy scholars with better commendation and profit, than any other (not following this order) teacheth. Nicholas Ling. ]597. Foliteupliuia. Wit's Conunonicealth * * * 4^ London, Printed hy J. R. for Nicholas Liny, and are to he sold at the West doore of Patties. 1597. 8 VO. By N. Ling. The book consists of a collection of epigrams on all sorts of sub¬ jects. The selection given below shows the view of the work of teaching from an outsider. Of school. Definition. A School is a nursery of learning, or the storehouse from whence the mind fetcheth instruction and riches, adorning the soul with mental virtues and divine knowledge. Tyranny is vile in a School-maister, for youth should rather be trained with courtesy than compulsion. Because youth by nature is wild, therefore should school-maisters break them by gentleness. That child is gross-witted, which being throughly school-taught, continues still barbarous. Women, in schools. Women ought to have as great interest in Schools as men ; though not so soon as men, because their wits being more perfect, they would make men’s reputa¬ tions less perfect. Women prove the best School-maisters, when they place their best delights in instructions. Children ought to be school-prentices, the space of two or three year. Two things are to be regarded in schools and school-maisters, first, wherein children must be taught, the next, how they should be taught. A school should contain four principal rudiments, that is. Grammar, Exercise, Music and Painting. Grammar is the door to sciences, whereby we learn to speak well and exactly. Education is a second nature, and the principles learnt in schools is [sic] the best education * * 694 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. If the royalest born creature have not his nature refined with School rudi¬ ments, it is gross and barbarous * * * Lions are tamer than men, if doctrine did not bridle them * * * Educatio est prima, secunda, tertia pars vitae, sine qua omnis doctrina, est veluti armata injustitia. There were many books of selections of the type of Wit’s Commonwealth. The following are examples : Meres (Francis). Witts Academy a Trcastirie of Goulden Sentences Similies and Examples. Set forth chiefly for the henefitt of young schollers. Printed * * * for B. Royston. Lon¬ don, 1636. 12mo. Meres (Francis). Wits Common Wealth. The Second Part. A Treasurie of Divine, morall, & Phy- losophicoll similies, and sentenees, generally nsefull. But more particularly ptih- lished, for the use of Schooles. IF. Stansoy. London, 163.'i. 12mo. Cotgrave (John). The English Treasury of Wit and Language, collected out of the best Dramatio Poems; methodically digested into common places * * * Lond. 1655. 8°. (pp. 311.) Cotgrave (John). Wits interpreter. The English Parnassus, or a guid to those admirahle aecompUsh- ments that furnish our English Gentry, in the most acceptihle qualifications of dis¬ course, or writings: The Mystery of Eloquence. Theatre of Courtship : Inditer of letters to he made. 1655. 8°. Wits recreation for ingenious head pieces, or a pleasant grove for ivits to tvalk in, of epigrams, 'tOO. epitaphs, 200. fancies a number, fantasticas abundance. 8°. Wm. London’s Catalogue, published before 1650. Richard de Bury. 1598. PJiUohililon liicliardi Dunelmensis. sive, De Amove Jihroriim. et Institu- tione biWiotliecce tractatus pulchervimiis * * * Omnia hwe Opere et Studio T. J. Novi. coil, in alma Aeademia Oxoniensi Socii * * * Ox- onice, Excudibat Josephus Barnesiiis 1598. 4to. (Written in Latin in 1344.) I take the following details from Mr. E. C. Thomas’s “ The riulobiblon of Richard de Bury” (London, Kegan Paul, 1888), a most elaborate and compre¬ hensive bibliography of Richard de Bury, together with preface, biography, text (collated from 28 MSS.), and translation. It is written with such a mastery of and enthusiasm for his subject that eveiyone desirous to know of De Biiry and his Philobiblon must turn to Mr. Thomas’s handsome edition for himself. The edition noted above is the first English edition. It had been printed pre¬ viously at Cologne in 1473, at Spires in 1483, and at Paris in 1500. In 1599 it reappears with an Epistola Dedicatoria to Thomas Bodley, the founder of the great Oxford Library. The editor was Thomas James. In 1832 it was for the first time translated by Mr. J. B. Inglis, and in 1888 Prof. Henry Morley in¬ cluded this translation in his Universal Library. Mr. Thomas’s translation into English in 1888 is the second which has appeared since De Bury wrote his book in 1344. In 1801 appeared the first American edition, with the text of the 1856 (Paris) edition, as edited by M. Cocheris, and the translation of J. B. Inglis, collated and corrected, with notes by S. Hand. Albany, 1801. 8vo. The Philobiblon is a book lover’s book. That it might have had an encourag¬ ing effect on bookish education is evident were it not that, as is certain, the book had so slight a circulation and is so seldom referred to. The genuine enthusiasm of De Bury for books and for book collecting is shown throughout, but the following passage from Mr. Thomas’s translation must suffice here (Chapter I, p. 163) ; EAELY Eiq-GLISH WEITEES ON EDUCATION. 695 Books as teachers. Finally we must consider what pleasantness of teaching there is in books, how easy, how secret ! How safely we lay bare the poverty of human ignorance to books without feeling any shame! They are masters, who instruct us without rod or ferule, without angry words, without clothes or money. If you come to them they are not asleep ; if you ask and enquire of them, they do not chide if you make mistakes ; they do not laugh at you if you are ignorant. O books who are alone liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve you faithfully ! by how many thousand types are ye commended to learned men in the scriptures given us by the inspiration of God. Count Hanniball Romei (J. Keper, Translator.) 1598. The Courtiers Acaclemie: Comprehending seven severall daycs .disconrses : icherein he discussed, seven nohJe and important arguments, worthy hy all Gentlemen to he perused. 1. Of Beaut ie. 2. Of Humane Love. 3. Of Honour. 4. Of Comhate and single fight. 5. Of NohUitc. G. Of Riches. 7. Of precedence of Letters or Armes. Originally written in Italian hy Count Hanihall Romei, a Gentleman of Ferrara, and translated into English hy I. JTleper?]. Printed hy Yalentine Sims. (1598. B. L. pp. 295.) The earliest edition of the Italian text in the British Museum is 1586 (Ferrara), but this is described as di nuovo ristampati, ampliati e con dilligenza corretti. Other editions : Venetia 1594, 1604 ; also in 1891, edited by A. Solerti, with an introduction entitled: '"Ferrara e la Corte Estense nella seconde meta del secolo ecimosesto:'' In the chapter on the Precedence .of Letters or Armes the “ twoo most princi- pall faculties ” are said to be — Understanding speculative, whose object is triieth, the other, practike under¬ standing, which is conversant about that good in humane opperations consist¬ ing ❖ * p>y meane of these two faculties, man acquireth two sorts of perfections : one of which is called Habite speculative, the other, Habite prac¬ tike. ^Habite speculative is no other but a knowledge of all those things, that comprehende the universall frame, the which, as they are of three sorts, so be there three severall speculative habites : seeing that some are by their owne proper essence, separate from sensible matter, as is the omnipotent and most excellent God, the Intelligences assisting the Celestiall Spheares, and those, which of the Metaphisicks themselves, are called Transcendentes, as ens, good, truth, the thing, and such like, the knowledge whereof, is deservedly called Wisedome : some again by their essence, are wholly drowned in sensible mat¬ ter, and with motion c-onjoyned, and these be the heavens, elements, and bodies mixed : the knowledge of these things, is called natural Philosophy. There be yet some other, which in effect can never be separate from sensible matter : notwithstanding naturally they are such, as by part imaginative, and witli the minde, they may be considered or imagined : Vvdthout consideration or imagina¬ tion of matter, and this is mathematical! knowledge, divided into Geometric, which handleth continuall quantitie, that is line, superficies and body: and arithraetike, beeing conversant about discreet quantitie, which is number : there bee further some speculative habites comprehended under these three heades, by the Logitians termed, sciences subalternall, or halfe sciences : foj- in respect of the subject, whereabout they are conversant, they participate of naturall knowledge, but considering the manner, by which they prove their conclusions, they are mathematical!, as those, that embrace mathematical! con- 696 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. elusions, for their beginning. Amongst these, is Astrologie, considering bodies, and motions celestial, the like also natiirall knowledge doing, but in a diverse manner : then prospective, which intreateth of visible line, Steremetrie, being employed touching solide bodies ; and musicke, respecting number harmonicall, with other such like ; And there be al the sciences and habites, wherewith intel¬ lect speculative is adorned, in investigating, and finding out of truth. Practicke habite, is no other, but the knowledge of all those thinges, whereof man is the beginning : and they be divided into two heades, active, and doing, part active, is a firme understanding of those thinges, which appertaine to the good government of himself, his house and finally of the common weale. The doing or performing habite, is that knowledge, which is called arte : this being divided into those mechanicall, and iiberall. But leaving apart mechan- icall art, as impertinent to a civil man, we wil affirme, that amongst Iiberall artes, Grammer is numbred, Rhethorike, Dialect, Poesie, Musicke, both of voice and instrument, painting. Architecture, and the art of Phisicke, and amiddest all these, we wil allot the principallest place to art millitarie, as of al other the most excellent, which by the Philosopher was placed in the number of artes, it having belonging unto it, all those conditions, which in an art are required, that is materiall subject, end, and the instrument, which to the end conduceth, neither wanting there also firm beginnings and principles wherewith every day, great souldiers serve their turn : materiall subject is battel, victorie the end, and armes the molument. There are all the perfections (most famous Queene) which may bring a man to his end, beeing feiicitie : of which no doubt, those are the most excellent and worthy of greatest honor, that more readily may make a man happy. ROtSEKT Caw DRAY. IGOO. A Treasuric or Storehout^c of Similies: Both pleasant and profitable, for all estates of men in generall. JS/eivly collected into Heads and Common¬ places: By Robert Cawdray. London, Printed by Tho. Creedc, dwelling in the Old Chaunge, at the Bigne of the Eagle and Chllde, near Old Fish- street e. IGOO. 4 to. Education of children. Like as fruitful fields for lack of tillage wax barren ; Or as trees being neg¬ lected either bring forth no fruit, or else the same unsavoury, without the dili¬ gence of grafting and pruning : Or as dogs be unmeet to hunt the horse, and oxen unapt to the plough, except man’s diligence be put thereto : Even so chil¬ dren would become wild and unprofitable, except by diligence and in due time, they should be fashioned and brought in order by good bringing up. Horse keepers and teachers. Like as noblemen and gentlemen are desirous to have a good and skilful horsekeeper, that can keep their horses well and they spare not to give great stipends to such : Even so how much more ought Christian parents to be desir¬ ous to have and maintain a good schoolmaster that might godlily bring up their children in virtue and wisdom. MUitary training and education. As Alexander the Great attained to have such a puissant army, whereby he conquered the world, by having children born and bred up in his camp, whereby they became so well acquainted and exercised with weapons from their swad¬ dling clothes, that they looked for no other wealth or country but to fight : Even so if thou wouldst have thy children either to do great matters, or to live honestly by their own virtuous endeavours, and not to gape unjustly for other men’s goods, but to be content with the blessing of God upon their labours, thou must acquaint them with pains-taking in their youth and so bring them up in the nurture and information of the Lord. There are thirteen other similes on the subject of the education of children. The schoolmaster. As it is the part of a good husband, to understand the nature and fertility of the ground, which he doth till : So it is the part of a good Schoolmaster, to discern the disposition and nature of his scholar. EARLY ENGLISH WRITERS ON EDUCATION. 697 The scholar. As a drop of water falling from the house-eaves, weareth and holloweth the hard stone; not by force, but by his [its] often falling; Even so a Scholar proveth learned, not by power or strength, hut by much diligence, and great reading. As Appelles became an excellent painter, because there was never a day, but he laboured himself to some learning : So in like manner, a Diligent Scholar, by daily applying of his learning, and often exercising of virtue, attaineth to perfect honour and virtue. There are five other similes on the subject of the scholar. c. IGOO. John Da ye. Peregrinatlo Scholastica or Learneiuges PiUgrimage. Containeinge the straundge Adventurs and various entertainemcnts he founde in his traveiles towards the shrine of Latvia. Meliora speramus: Composde and divided and derided into morall Tractates By John Daye fiomctimes student of Gunvill and Cains Colledge in Camhridge. This work was published privately at the Chiswick Press, 1881, by Mr. A. II. Bullen, from a MS. in the British Museum, numbered Sloane MS. 3150, a small 4to of 32 leaves, date unknown. In his introduction Mr. Bullen says : “ Day seems to have possessed in no ordinary degree the rare art of dis¬ engaging the mind from painful associations and bathing it in a stream of pleasurable feelings. In the winter of his age, battered and broken by neglect, Ben Jonson put forth the sweetest flower of his invention. Something of the graceful fluency and arch fancy that inform the Sad Shepherd may be found here and there in Day’s tract.” The date of his death is unknown. He wrote as early as 1593 and as late as about 1620. The discourse is divided into 20 Tractates. Prom Tractate 14 onwards is a sort of Pilgrim's Progress for learning under the name of Philosophus. The following are the titles : Tractate 14. Learning about to see his infirmity is dissuaded by Error in the borrowed habit of Alethe. Tractate 15. By following Error, Learning is cast upon the island Necessitas : what he saw there ; hov/ narrowly scapt the rock of despair ; came acquainted with Industry, who brought him out of the island and wished him to seek a service. Tractate 16. Learning's coming to Superbia's Court and Averitia’s City ; of the enter¬ tainment he found in both. Tractate 17. Learning goes to a suburb Justice and a country Vicar ; his entertainment and what it was. Tractate 18. Learning, notwithstanding the help of Industry, comes to Beggar's Bush ; the country described and the inhabitants ; where whilst he took a nap, he had a vision. Tractate 19. Learning meets Experience at Weeping Cross, who in a fountain, shovred him many strange marvels ; by his advice he sends Industry in search of Chronos and Alethe, and gives him the true solution of his dream. Tractate 20. Industry's quest of inquiry for Time : where he missed and at last found him : Truth enlarged. Experience shows him the right way to Latria's shrine ; et hie Peregrinationis Finis. The scholar in the city. At the name of scholar, they stopped their noises and cried Lord have mercy upon us ! that a scholar should have no more wit but to think he would find entertainment in the City * * * Being a scholar, and a poor one too, they had no use for him except it were once in a coronation to make a speech for the entertainment of a prince, a pageant at the instalment of a praetor, a set ora¬ tion for the constable, to give the sleepy watch their charge, or an apology for the churchwarden to excuse the picking of the poor man’s box ; and for those employments none so fit as the common chronicler. 698 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. Uis experience in the country. Pliilosopbiis next tries the country. Coming to a bouse, be ventures to approach tbe owner, wbo happens to be a justice of the peace. With difficulty be escapes being arrested as a vagrant. He then calls on tbe vicar. Tbe fol¬ lowing is tbe racy sketch of tbe vicar: Sir, you are very welcome (be says), and could my poor living afford it, I would make you better welcome. I love and honour scholars having served a full ’pi'enticesbip to tbe trade myself ; but as my honest neighbours here know, I have but a poor vicarage, which one Mr. Simon-Money, or more familiarly Simony, helped me to * And though I have no great store of Learning lying by me (for as you know, omnia mea meed porto is the old word amongst scholars), yet I have enough to read a marriage and burial, and if need be, to say a homily of a holiday * * * My honest parishioners are a company of turbulent mechanics, and yet so proud in their own conceit, I have much ado to please them; for but for reading one Latin word in an homily (and that was out afore I was aware to), some of them called me a papist and shun me as a puritan would do a cross, and never drunk above twice or thrice in my com¬ pany since. And therefore having neither occasion to use learning nor means to maintain it if I had it, heares the tother half can and so I take my leave of you. In the twentieth Tractate, Industry, are the places where he sought time. Hotv time is used at the universities. I found Time of much respect there. It was against a commencement, and there was such scrambling for Time as passed thought; one ready to proceed bachelor, was ])ut back because he wanted Time ; another to go out Master and he v/anted Time ; and many a good scholar that had learning enough was stayed for want of a little time, and some dunces that had too much time, though little or no learning, went out. There was much tugging for Time, he thought he should have been torn apieces amongst the seniors, and therefore stole out of their company to a sort of freshmen that had great need of Time indeed : who, for joy they had got him amongst them, sent for good cheer and wine to make merry with Time ; when falling awhiffing tobacco and drinking healths, they made Time sick. Whereupon thej' enticed him out to take the air ; and being hot some went to sv>dm at freshman’s boat, some at Paradise, and some in Barnwell Pool, some to Cherry Hinton; some to Hogmagog hills, but a great sort to Batts Folly : when Time seeing himself so much neglected, he in a pelting chaise left them. Samuel Daniel. lG02-b. Musophilus, or Defence of all Learning. 1G02-3? Samuel Daniel was born in 15G2 and died in 1019. His father and a brother were music masters. Though perhaps Daniel had nothing new to offer as to teaching or learning, liis enthusiastic and eloquent wmrds worthily proclaim the old love of learning and deserve to be recalled. As a teacher Daniel can not be spoken of very highly. His work of tuition, says Mr. Sidney Lee, was “ irk¬ some ” to liim. Mr. Lee quotes a letter written to Sir Thomas Egerton in 1001, in which Daniel says : “ Whilst I should have written the actions of men I have been constrayned to bide with children, and contrary to mine ovrn spirit, put out of that sense which nature had made my part.” Yet his pupil, the Lady Anne Clifford, seems to ha.ve been a girl of great intelligence and very interesting. The Messing of letters. O blessed Letters, that combine in one. All ages past, and make one live with all : By you, we do confer with wdio are gone, And the dead-living unto council call : By you tii’ inkhorn shall have communion Of what Vv’e feel, and what doth us befall. Soul of the world, Knowledge, without thee, AVhat hath the world that truly glorious is? EAELY ENGLISH WEITERS ON EDUCATION. 699 The Wlndness of the age. How mfiny tlioiisaiids never beard the name Of Sidney, or of Spenser, or their books? And yet brave fellows, and presume of Fame, And seem to bear down all the wmrld with looks? What then shall they expect of meaner frame. On whose endeavours few or none scarce looks? Do you not see these Pamphlets, Libels, Rimes, These strange confused tumults of the mind. Are grown to be the sickness of these times. The great disease inflicted on mankind? The infinitude of knowledge. Daniel suggests that if the learned obtained a better rev/ard for their labors : Then would the3^ [the Academies] onely labour to extend Their now unsearching spirit beyond these bounds Of others’ powers * * * Discoursing daily inore and more about. In that immense and boundless Ocean « Of Nature’s riches ; never yet found out, Nor fore-clos’d, with the wit of any man. In iiraise of the English language. Whenas our accents equal to the best, Is able greater wonders to bring forth : When all that ever hotter spirits exprest. Comes bettered by the patience of the North. And who, in time, knows whither we may vent The treasure of our tongue, to what strange shores This gain of our best glory shall be sent, T’ inrich unknowing Nations with our stores? What worlds in th’ yet unformed Occident May come refln’d with th’ accents that are ours? Or, who can tell for what great work in hand The greatness of our style is now ordain’d? What powers it shall bring in, what spirits command. What thoughts let out, what humours keep restrain’d, What mischief it may powerfully withstand. And what fair ends may therebj^ be attain’d. It may appear to be straying from the subject of writers on education to include especially this last quotation from Samuel Daniel, but to anj'one studj’'- ing the history of English education the direct call to the consideration and study of English writers, especially in the earlier stages, is a point of great importance ; first, directly in itself, and, secondly, iiidirectPv in the competitive position of the vernacular toward the displacement of the classics as the be-all and end-all of the subjects of educational discipline. The direct reference to the “ unformed Occident,” and the importance of the preservation of the integ¬ rity of English and honor for it, because of its indefinitely greater iiib’uence there, makes the passage one which should be better known than it is in both England and America, Michael de Montaigne (.John Flopho, Translator) . 1G03. The Essayes or Morall, PolitiJce, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo: Michaell de Montaigne, Knight. Of the nohle Order of St. Michaell, and one of “ Cf. Sir Isaac Ne\Yton : “ I seem to have been only a hoy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then tinding a smoother pehhie or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.” 700 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. the GentJemcn in Ordinary of the French King, Henry the third his Chamhcr. First icrittcn hy him in French. And noio done into English hy * * * John Florio. Lond. 1603. folio. Other editions : London, 1G13. fol. London, 1032. fol. London, ISSG (1885). 8vo. G. Rontledge & Sons. Edited by Henry Morley. London, 1889, 1890. 32mo. The Stott Library. London, 1891. 8vo. Sir John Liibboc'k’s Hundred Books. London, 1892-1893. 8vo. Edited by George Saintsbury in “ The Tudor Translations.” London, 1897. 8vo. The Temple Classics. In the International Education Series, volume 4G, Dr. L. E. Rector has put together the chapters in Montaigne which deal with education. These include translations : Of the education of cbiidren, Book I, Chapter XXV. Of pedantry, Book I, Chapter XXIV. Of the affection of fathers to their children, Book II, Chapter VIII. Of liars. Book I, Chapter IX. Book II, Chapter XVIII. Of habit. Book I, Chapter XXII. Of presumption. Book II, Chapter XVII. Of physiognomy. Book III, Chapter VIII. Of anger, Book II, Chapter XXXI. Of the art of conversation. Book III, Chapter VIII. Of idleness. Book I, Chapter VIII. Of experience. Book III, Chapter XIII. History, Book II, Chapter X ; Book I, Chapter XVI ; Book I, Chapter XX. Dr. W. T. Harris says in the preface : “ Montaigne stands for very much more as a literary man than as an educational reformer.” And again, ” Mon¬ taigne is a tonic or a sort of corrective against pedantry.” The first French edition of Montaigne’s Essays was published 1580-1588, John Plorio’s translation into English in 1G03. See also Prof. S. G. Laurie’s Montaigne as an Educationalist, in his Training of Teachers and other Educational Papers, page 231. OTHER WORKS OF JOHN FLORIO. A WorJde of Wordes; a most copious and exact Dictionarie in Italian and English, Collected hy John Florio. Lond. 1598. And in 1611 the 2d edition, entitled ; ” Queen Anna’s New World of Words.” The 3d edition was revised by Giovanni Torriano and published in 1G59 as Vocabolario Italiano e Inglese. Florio published also books of Proverbs : First Fruitcs, ivhich yeelde farniliar speech, merie proverhes, tcittie sen¬ tences, and golden sayings, also a perfect Introduction to the Italian and English tongues. T. Dawson, London, 1578. 4to. Second frutes to he gathered of twelve Trees of divers hut delightsome tastes to the tongues of Italian and Englishmen. To ivhich is annexed his Gardinc of Recreation, yeelding six thousand Italian Proverbs. Ital. and Eng. Printed for T. Woodcoclc, London, 1591. 4to. Works for Instruction in Italian. The following are amongst the books up to 16G0 for instruction in Italian. Thouias (William). Principal Rules of the Italian Grammar, with a Dietionarie for the letter under standynge of Boccace, Peirarcha and Dante * * * Newly corrected and ini- printed.— B. L. 2 pts. T, Powell, London 1562, 1567, 4to. First ed. 1550. EAKLY ENGLISH WKITERS ON EDUCATION. 701 Grantham (Henry), La G-rammatica di M. Scipio Lentulo da lui, in Latina Lingua Scritta et hora nella Italiana et Ingiese tradotta da Henry Orantharn, i. e., an Italian Grammar, written in Latin ly Scipio Lentulo, a Neapolitan, and turned into English. Lond. 1575. 8vo. 1587. 16mo. Rowland (David). A comfortable ayde for Schollers, full of variety of sentences, gathered out of [ihe work of] an Italian author {intituled in that tongue, Specchio de la lingua Latina) by D. Rowland. T. Marshe, London, 1578. 8vo. Hollyband (Claudius). Campo di fior ; or else. The Flowrie Field of four Languages of M. Claudius Desainliens, alias Iloliband; for the furtherance of the learners of the Latine, Frenchc, English, but chiefly of the Italian tongue, Lond. 1583. 16mo. Merhury (C). Italian Proverbs. 1585. Maraffi (Bartolommeo). A fine Tuscan historic called Ernalti & Lucinda, Engl, and It. The Italian Schoolcmaistcr etc. {C. Desainliens) 1597. 8vo. Also 1608. Torriauo (Giovanni). 2Tie Italian Tutor or a new * * * Italian grammar * * * to which is annexed A display of the Monasillable Particles of the language, by way of alphabet. As also, certaine dialogues made up of Italianismes or Niceties of the Language with the English to them. 2 pts. T. Paine, London, IGifO. 4to. Torriano (Giovanni). » Select Italian Proverbs: The most significant, very usefull for Travellers, and such as desire that Language. The same newly made to speaJc English, and the obscurest places xoith Notes illustrated, useful for such as happily aim not at the Language, yet would see the genius of the Nation. By Qio. Torriano * * * gyo_ Torriano (Giovanni), Della Lingua Toscana-Romana. Or, An Introduction to the Italian Tongue. Con¬ taining such grounds as are most immediately useful, and necessary for the speedy and casic attaining of the same * * * Lond. 1657. 8vo. (Mentioned by W. C. Haziitt.) CHAPTER IX. JUVENILE CRIMINALITY IN GERMANY. » [By Edgar LoeninG;, in Jabrbilher fiii* National-Oekonomie und Statistik, Jena, 1901.] Since the year 1882 the statistical bureau of the Empire has published succes¬ sive statements and reports on the criminality of juvenile persons over 12 but under 18 years of age. These do not give information on all important condi¬ tions necessary for forming an opinion, but they are sufficiently complete to show the increase of crime among youth. They contain a serious warning to the State and to society. It must be remembered that according to the German criminal code (par. 55) persons who commit a punishable act before the comple¬ tion of their twelfth year of age can not be legally prosecuted for it, and that according to paragraph 50 persons who commit a punishable act before the com¬ pletion of their eighteenth but after their twelfth year of age can be sentenced to punishment only if the court decides that upon commission of the act they possessed a full knowledge of their culpability. The imperial criminal statistics take into account only the sentencing of juvenile persons on account of crimes and transgressions against imperial laws. All violations of and punishable offenses against local lavjs are omitted in the summaries. Furthermore, the fol¬ lowing statements, taken from the imperial criminal statistics, do not include sentences pronounced for violation of military duty and transgressions against industrial laws which are not taken into question in the judging of juvenile criminals. Statistics 'show that -since 1882 the number of juvenile persons convicted has increased not only very considerably, but even in greater proportion than the number of convicted adults. It has also increased in greater proportion than the number of children 12 to 18 years has increased. The following table for the years 1882 to 1890, inclusive, furnishes the proof for this assertion : Table I. Years. Juveniles. Adults. IST umber sentenced. I'lumber sentenced to every 100,000 ju¬ veniles 12-18 years of age. Number sentenced. Number sentenced to every 100,000 adults. 1882 . 30,697 568 281, 141 1,068 1883. . . . 27,956 549 280,535 1,061 1884. . - . . . 31,319 577 293,666 1,103 1885 . . . . 30,654 559 290, 600 1,083 1886 . . . . 31,460 564 297,383 . 1,098 1887 . . . . . - . 33,068 575 298,152 1,096 1888 . . . . . . . 32,983 561 291,095 1,055 1889.. . . . . . . . 36,739 613 307,115 1,096 1890 . . . . . . 40,914 662 315,350 1,112 1891 . . 42,201 670 325, 236 1,143 1892.. . . . . . 46, 418 727 349,527 1,217 1893 . . . . 43,585 683 355, 792 1,223 1894 . . . . 45,238 711 369,206 1,252 1895 . . . . . . 44,114 698 375,988 1,251 1896 . . 43,962 697 376,961 1,239 “ Articles on similar subjects published in previous Reports of the Commissioner of Education : Education of neglected and depraved children. An. Rep. of 1889-90, p. 295. Reform schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden, An. Rep. of 1895-96, p. 158. Illiteracy in Europe, An. Rep. of 1897-98, p. 236. Children’s claim upon childhood. An. Rep. of 1899-1900, p. 810. 703 704 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Up to the year 1889 the finctnations of these figures are not very great, but from that year on crime has been on the increase among the young as well as among adults, to a much greater extent with the former, however, than with the latter. With the former, indeed, the increase is not steady. During the whole period the highest figure vras reached in 1892, in which year the number of those sentenced among 100,000 of the same age was 25 per cent more than in the year 1882. In the following years the number decreased, but did not fall belov,’ that of 1891. In the year 1890 the proportion of increase over 1882 was 22.7 per cent. The number of adults sentenced has also increased consider¬ ably since 1891. The highest figure was reached in 1894 ; the two following years show a slight decrease. Still the increase is not so large as with juve¬ niles. Compared with the year 1882, the number of those sentenced among 100,000 adults in the year 1894 increased 17.2 per cent, in the year 1890 the increase amounted to 10 per cent. For the succeeding years the absolute numbers can be obtained only from the statements for the year 1897 (Imperial Statistical Bureau, vol. 120) and from the quarterly statistical reports of the same bureau for 1899 and 1900, as the complete reports on crime for those years have not yet appeared. The fol¬ lowing statement refers to those sentenced for violations of the criminal code and other imperial laws. 1897. 1898. 1899. Adults _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 418,256 45,329 429,736 430,662 47,476 Juveniles Pet ween 12 and 18 years . . . . . . 47,975 During all these years theft ranks first among the punishable acts for which juvenile persons have been sentenced. Though the different years show great variations, still the number of cases of theft is about the same for 1896 as for 1882. Whereas in the latter-named year 344 among 100,000 juveniles were sen¬ tenced for theft, the number in 1896 amounted to 340. In 1888 the proportion decreased to 309 ; it rose to 397 in 1892. The considerable increase in the number of convictions of juvenile persons is, in the first place, due to the fact that sentences for assault have been pronounced in a great many more cases than formerly. In 1882 the number convicted among 100,000 amounted to 63 ; in 1896 to 130. The number of convictions for willful damage to property is also noticeably larger, having increased from 31 to 46 in every 100,000. If we sum up these punishable acts, proceeding mostly from brutal and violent disposition, as unlawful acts of violence, they form 64 per cent of the increase of criminality among juveniles. With respect to other violations and trangressions of which juvenile persons are guilty there is also an increase, but not enough for far-reaching conclusions to be drawn. It must not be forgotten, moreover, that in condemning juveniles a weighty factor is taken into consideration. As we have said, paragraph 56 of the criminal code says that juveniles can be sentenced only if the judge has determined that, while committing the act, they possessed a full knowledge of their culpability. With children, especially those under 14 years of age, such a decision is made with great difficulty. The psychical condition of children whose moral judgment is not yet matured must be investigated, and the judge’s subjective opinion has a wide scope in forming this decision. This is shown in the reports for the years 1894 and 1896, in the number of cases in which juvenile defendants were acquitted in the different provincial court districts on the plea of insufficient knowledge of their culpability according to paragraph 56 of the criminal code. JUVENILE CRIMINALITY IN GERMANY. 705 A comparison between the increase of criminality among juveniles and the extraordinary growth of the population in large cities is pertinent. Naturally the proportion of crime among children growing up in large cities and exposed to all kinds of temptation is larger than among those in the country and in small towns. Besides, punishable acts committed by juvenile persons are much more frequently brought into notice and legally prosecuted in large cities than in rural districts. The growth of population in large cities, therefore, alone explains an increase of juvenile criminality. This, however, can not be proved by statistics, as in the reports on criminality in the Empire the figures refer to provincial court districts, governmental districts, etc., but not to large cities separately considered. Even though the districts of Hamburg, Berlin, Nuremberg, and Munich are distinguished by a large percentage of juvenile criminality, they are outdistanced by the district of Zweibriicken, which contains no large city. Others, particularly rural districts, as Marienwerder, Posen, Bamberg, etc., nearly or quite surpass them. The provincial court districts of Cologne, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Stuttgart, and Colmar are among those which present the lowest proportion of juvenile criminality. Among every 100,000 inhabitants who had completed their twelfth but not their fourteenth year, and who had completed their fourteenth but not their eighteenth year, the following numbers were sentenced in the provincial court districts in 1896 : Table II. District. : Juveniles s Between the ages 12 and 14. entenced — Between the ages 15 and IS. Hamburg . . . 775 1,305 Zweibriicken . r. . . . . . 761 1,733 Berlin . . . 534 1,043 Naumburg . . . . . . . . . 483 9r>/ Posen . . . . . . . . . . 475 925 Marienwerder . . . . . . 440 1,169 Dresden . . . . . . . . . . 418 816 Breslau. .. . . . . . . 409 937 Nuremberg . . . . . . . 404 1,228 Bamberg . . . . . . . 400 975 Brunswick . . . . . . . 869 866 Stettin . . . . . . . ‘ _ _ _ 356 844 Rostock . . . . 344 739 Munich. . . . . . . . . 330 1,212 Hamm. . . . . . . . . . . . 321 679 Jena . . . . . . . . ... 306 l,0;5a Konigsberg . . . . . . ... 304 1,025 Celle ..... . . . 301 634 Darmstadt _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . 299 837 Augsburg . . . . . . . 284 988 Cassel. . . . . . . . 281 522 Oldenburg _ . . _ 277 553 Frankfort-on-the-Main _ _ _ _ _ 237 820 Kiel.. _ _ _ _ _ 236 508 Cologne . . .. . . 217 628 Stuttgart _ _ _ _ _ _ ... 217 72@ Karlsruhe _ _ . _ 176 931 Colmar . . . . 111 595 The great variations in the numbers relative to those who are between 12 and 14 years of age are partly explained by the fact that in the different dis¬ tricts the regulation of the criminal code that juvenile persons are to be acquitted if thej^ do not possess a full knowledge of their culpability is admin¬ istered in an entirely different manner for the class of children not yet 14 years old. In the whole Empire, during the years 1894 to 1896, 10.8 per cent of the children between 12 and 14 years of age brought before the court were ED 1904 M - 45 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904» 706 acquitted on the ground of paragraph 5G of the criminal code. The figures relative to the sepai'ate provincial court districts depart widely from this aver¬ age. Whereas in Brunsvcick the number of discharges or acquittals formed only 0.5 per cent, in Colmar it was 57-1 per cent; Cologne, 37.2 per cent; Hamm, 27.1 per cent, etc. In twenty-one of the twenty-eight judicial districts (see Table II) the number was below the average calculated for the Empire. There is no question that these great variations are attributable not alone to the differ¬ ences in intellectual development of the defendants, but also, and chiefly, to the different manner in which the courts, administer the legal provision of para¬ graph 56. The general opinion of those well informed on the' subject is that the crim- inal code has set the age for punishment by law too low — that the close of the fourteenth instead of the twelfth year of age should be decided upon. The criminal code assumes that responsibility is dependent upon the degree of mental development. Anyone whose intellect is so far developed that he under¬ stands the culpability of his actions is accountable or responsible to the law. “ The perpetrator must be able to understand that his duty requires the omis¬ sion of the special act, and that by its committal he exposes himself to punish¬ ment by the criminal law.” (Motives to the proposed criminal code of the North German Confederation, p. 73.) Proceeding upon this assumption, the criminal code admits that, as a rule, children have not attained this degree of mental development before the completion of their twelfth year. Those under 12 have been declared absolutely free from the responsibilty for criminal action. If this fundamental idea were correct, the question might be rai.sed whether this age limit be not too high, and whether, in Germany, the country of general compulsory education, children do not attain maturity of judgment sufficiently at about 10 years. Most children who have completed their tenth year understand that theft, assault, injury to property, etc., are criminal acts and entail punishment by law. But the thought of making the degree of mental development alone the standard is not right. The law makes adults responsi¬ ble for their acts, not only because it presui)poses their knowledge of the culpa¬ bility of their actions, but also because it presupposes with them a maturity of moral character which enables them to resist the impulse to perform an act contrary to law. Generally, however, children attain maturity of char¬ acter later than the degree of understanding required to recognize culpability of action. So long as this does not exist punishment of children by law is as unjust and injudicious as the punishment of a person of unsound mind who may be capable of considering the consequences of his acts, and recognizing their culpability, but who is unable to exercise free will because of the diseased condition of his mind. (Ci'iminal code, paragraph 5].) If a child has not attained the degree of intellectual judgment or moral development required by law of adults, and if he shows criminal inclinations, he stands in need of education rather than legal punishment. Experience has proved that this degree of moral maturity is not attained by children in Germany, as a rule, before the close of the fourteenth year. The nature of the case does not permit exhaustive proof. However, upon the ground of general experience, nearly all German States have decided upon the completion of the fourteenth year for the close of the term of school age, and evangelical parochial churches, as a rule, admit children to confirmation only after they have completed their fourteenth year. It is well known that the knowledge to be gained in elementary schools and required for confirmation in the churches can be obtained by most children in less time. But the term of school attendance must not be shortened, because the schools are not only institutions of learning, but also, and chieliy, of educa¬ tion or training; and because the church requires a certain degree of moral JIIYEOTLE ORIMmALITY IN GERMANY. 707 maturity it does not admit eliildren to confirmation before the close of their fourteenth year. In the statistics of crime for the year 1896 especial attention is given to- the criminality of children at the jige between 12 and 14. (Explanatory Statements, Vol. I, p. 64; Yol. II, p. 35.) In the three years, 1894, 1895, and 1896, the num¬ ber of convicted children between 12 and 14 (completed), like that of convicted children in general (up to 18 years of age), ha-d decreased somewhat. In these years it amounted to 8,215, 7,601, and 7,687, respectively, or 17 to 18 per cent of the total. Nearly all punishable acts committed by children of 12-14 are periTetrated against property (in 1896, 6,851 out of 7,686, or 89 per cent), and among these most were cases of theft (5,340). Other punishable acts on which sentence was passed by the courts were injury to property (549), receiv¬ ing stolen goods (375), pecailation (222), fraud (141), and assault or dangerous injury to the person (515). Just at this age, however, cases are very frequent in which children, in spite of their understanding the culpability of their acts, because of bad training and neglect, lack that maturity of moral character without which a free exercise of will in the sense of the law can not be presupposed. The judge who feels justi¬ fied in interpreting the law liberally will clear a child on the ground of deficient understanding, because he considers the infliction of legal punishment prejudi¬ cial to the child. On the other hand, the judge who feels bound strictly to fol¬ low the letter of the law will sentence a child, even though unwillingly. Chiefly to these circumstances are attributable the great variations in the number of discharged cases which ave decided in conformity with paragraph 56 of the criminal code in the different provincial court districts. In consequence the greatest care must be exercised in making use of statistics in forming an opin¬ ion on the criminality of children from 12 to 14 years of age. Of all the cases to which paragraph 56 of the code applied, during the years 1894 to 1896, more than half were of children who had not completed their fourteenth year (2,547 out of 4,774). But on the same grounds, statistics are likewise not a sure standard for judging the criminality of children from 14 to 18. The figures here- also show the greatest variation for the different districts, though the order of the districts changes accordingly as the arrangement is made with the older or younger class of children for a basis. (See Table II.) When younger children are acquitted because of deficient understanding under the provisions of paragraph 56, section 2, of the cotle, the court at once decides whether they ame to be returned to their families or placed in a reform school. Howexer, the statistics on crime give no information as to what per¬ centage of the number discharged in pursuance to paragraph 56, section 2, have been subjected to compulsory education (in reform schools) by decision of the couids. The statistics for 1899 of penal institutions and prisons, the adminis¬ tration of which belongs to the department of the interior of Prussia, contain a few statements concerning those who were subjected to reform school educa¬ tion in Prussia during that ^mar under the provisions of paragraph 56 of the criminal code, but do not give the total number of those who were acquitted under that paragraph. Happily the imperial statistics give this number for 1896. In that year 1,129 juveniles were .acquitted in Prussia on account of deficient comprehension of their culpability. In the year 1899-1900, the figures of which differ hut little from those of the year 1896, there were 323 sent to reform schools ; to these may be added 43 children arrested for begging, vagrancy, disorderly conduct at work, etc. (violations of par. 361 of the crim¬ inal code)., making a total of 366. Of these, 202 had not completed their lourteenth year of age. On March 1, 1900, there were in reform schools 1,718 juveniles, of whom 1,351 were boys and 367 girls. All these were sent there by 708 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. order of the criminal courts in pursuance of paragraph 5G of the code. The five State institutions of this kind held G08 of the 1,718 children ; 30G were in communal, religious, or private institutions of this kind ; 44 in families not their own, and 7G0 were apprenticed or in domestic service, but all were considered under “ Zwangserziehung ” (compulsory training). [See also Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education of 1901, chapter “ Education in Central Europe,” where the law relating to reform schools and compulsory training in homes is explained. — Translator. ] In judging of criminality and of the -efficacy of punishment in criminal courts, the number of juveniles who have been punished before, and their pro¬ portion to those punished for the first time are of especial importance. Statis¬ tics admitting of comparison date only from 1889. According to these the number of juveniles previously punished from 1889 to 189G rose from 5,590 to 8,31G, or from 152 to 188 in every 1,000 children sentenced. Consequently the number of those previously punished in 1889 formed 15.2 per cent, in 189G 18.8 per cent, of the total. Among those previously punished the number of those sentenced several times, in proportion to those punished only once before, shows no decided increase, though the figures vary for the different years. The following table shows the number of juvenile persons sentenced, out of every 1,000, once before or oftener : Table III. Sentenced before. Year. 1 time. 2 times. 3 to 6 times. 6 or more times. Total. 1889 . 95 33 22 2 152 1890 . . . . . . . 100 37 23 2 162 1891. . . . . . . . . 104 39 23 2 168 1892. . . . . . . . 105 39 26 2 172 1893 . . . . . . . 105 39 27 3 174 1894 _ _ _ 111 40 31 4 186 1895 _ _ _ _ _ 111 41 31 3 186 1890 . 110 40 34 4 188 It is to be remembered, furthermore, that those punished before their eight¬ eenth year of age often fall into criminal habits later in life and form no small percentage of inmates of prisons. Twenty-seven per cent (1,473 out of 5,324) of those confined in the penal institutions of Prussia in 1899-1900 had been sentenced to imprisonment before their eighteenth year of age. According to investigations made in Prussia in 1894 as many as 9,489, or 53 per cent, of the inmates of penal institutions had served three or more severe sentences of im¬ prisonment (in a jail, workhouse, or house of correction), for terms of which one was at least six months or longer. Of these, 8,789, or 93 per cent, were desig¬ nated as incapacitated from participating in any lawful social life, and of these 34 per cent had been imprisoned before they were :^8. (Motives of the Prussian bill for reformatory training of minors. Supplements to the stenographic reports of the transactions of the upper house of the diet, 1900, p. 28.) If any conclusions can be drawn from these statistical reports they prove that the threat of imprisonment does not lessen juvenile criminality, but rather tends to increase it. Of the 43,9G2 cases of juveniles convicted of crimes or violations of the law in 1896, 7,191 vrere fined, 9,104 reprimanded, and the remaining 27,667 sentenced to confinement. Of these latter, 62 were punished by mere detention, the others by imprisonment. In 5,524 cases the terms were less than four days ; in 4,921 between four and eight days ; in 6,851 cases between eight and thirty days ; in 4,560 cases between one and three months ; JUVENILE CEIMINALITY IN GERMANY. 709 in 4,863 cases between three and twelve months ; in 911 cases between one and two years, and in only 287 cases two or more years. A comparison of sentences in the years 1889 to 1896 shows that the courts are lately more cautious in pronouncing sentence of imprisonment upon the young and more frequently reprimand or line. In 1889 as many as 740 out of 1,000 convicted juvenile persons were sentenced to imprisonment ; this number decreased steadily to 631 in 1896. On the other hand, the number of sentences involving fine or reprimand per 1,000 during the same p>eriod rose from 107 to 162, and from 151 to 206, respectively. The reason for this is not so much that punishable acts of juveniles have become less serious or are judged more leniently, but that the courts have become more and more convinced of the use¬ lessness and even danger of short terms of imprisonment for young persons. The decrease is exclusively confined to imprisonment for terms from a day to three months. Whereas in the year 1890 as many as 482 out of 1,000 were sentenced to such short terms, the number fell to 391 in 1896. In fact it requires no proof that, as a rule, short terms of imprisonment exert a demoralizing infiuence on juvenile offenders. Paragraph 57 of the criminal code requires that juvenile offenders shall be confined in institutions especially arranged for this purpose. Tiiey must be protected against the evil influences that may be exerted by adult criminals over them. During the brief period which children spend in prisons, what is most necessary for them as regards their own interests, as well as the interests of the State, i. e., education and strengthening of their moral character, can not be afforded to them. When they are released they bear a taint which makes it difficult for them to obtain honest work, and consequently in many cases power of resistance to temptation and evil inclinations is weakened ; and in the institution itself, where there is a constant change of inmates, the sense of honor is blunted, and better instincts yield to the temptation and contagion of the worst. A brief intercourse is sufficient to make acquaintances which are kept up after the term of punishment is over. Statistics of crime do not record the transgressions (Uebertretungen) and sentences due to such. It may be positively asserted, hovvever, that the number of juvenile persons who are sentenced to short terms of confinement, not exceeding three weeks in case of children, for mere transgressions is very large, o There is no exaggeration in saying that serving short terms of imprisonment exercises a debasing influence upon youth and increases their criminality and their tendency to relapse. If tlie number of children sentenced by law more than once is on the increase, the law can not be cleared of being an accessory. Moreover, the educational and improving effect of fines and reprimands must of course not be rated too highly. In the case of school children and apprentices fines often affect the parents more than the children, and even when such is not the case, the thoughtlessness of youth quickly gets over the effect of an insignificant fine. In those cases in which a child has been induced to commit a punishable act through thoughtlessness or immaturity of moral character, while the moral germ is still untainted, the punishment of reprimand is often very effective and wholesome. In pursuance of paragraph 57 of the criminal code, this sentence can be pro¬ nounced only in very light cases and when the act is not a crime. If the act is a misfeasance, the court may have recourse to reprimand, as well when the same offense, if committed by an adult, is threatened with im]n*isonment alone as when it is threatened with imprisonment or fine. Statistics prove that the “The Germans distinguish three kinds of violation of the law: (1) Uehertretung, = transgression or trespass; (2) Vergehen, =misdemeanor or misfeasance, and (3) Verbre- chen, = crime. (Translator.) 710 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904 courts, in case of offenses punishable by imprisonment alone, incline toward reprimand, if the offenders are children. Simple cases of theft and receiving stolen goods are subject to imprisonment exclusively. (Criminal code, pars. 242, 258, sec. 1.) Out of 1,000 children sentenced for simple theft, 331 received a reprimand ; 401 received the same sentence for concealing stolen goods. Mostly all those who escaped with reprimand for stealing or receiving stolen goods are children under 14 years of age. In cases of violation punishable by imprisonment or tine, the courts have generally passed the sentence of fine in preference to that of reprimand. In 3806, out of 1,000 cases of damage to property, 428 were sentenced to fines and 263 to reprimand; out of 1,000 cases of assault and injury to the person, 526 were sentenced to fines and 155 to reprimand ; out of 1,000 cases of disturbance of the domestic peace, 288 were sentenced to fines and 122 to reprimand, etc. The total number of instances in which youthful persons are punished for an offense by reprimand is always very large. The supposition seems justifiable that the courts very often select this mode of punishment, not because they are convinced that the violation is thus atoned for, or that the punishment is effect¬ ive, but because they do not want to expose the perpetrator, who is often only a child, to the dangers of imprisonment and complete ruin, and because a fine, where it is permissible, affects parents rather than the wrongdoer. As justifi¬ able as this may seem, there is no doubt that simple reprimand does not alwa^ effect the desired result, and is not even felt as a mild punishment in cases where youthful wrongdoers are depraved and morally corrupted. In such cases reprimand is often ridiculed, and instead of being a punishment and an incentive to improvement tends to weaken the power of moral resistance. It is an exaggeration to conclude from the statistic-s on crime that the youth of the Oeriuan nation are morally degenerating and that German civilization is on the wane. It is true they disclose evils of national life which the criminal code has proA^ed insufficient to remedy, to the increase of which it has, in fact, contributed. The many causes AAdiy juA^enile criminality is on the increase dur¬ ing the present generation have been too frequently discussed to require pres¬ ent consideration. Nevertheless it must not be forgotten that it is impossible to prove by the statistics of crime Avhat the result of each of the various causes has been. Not only is the law administered by courts and the police force in differ¬ ent ways, and not only are statistics confined to violations and crimes, omitting mere transgressions (Uebertretungen), but also the other fact should be consid¬ ered that punishable acts committed by minors, such as assault, damage to prop¬ erty, even theft, are by no means in all cases in themselves proofs of degeneracy and moral depravity. On the other hand, a child is frequently morally corrupt before it commits a punishable act, or before any such act is discovered and legally prosecuted. Girls of the poorer classes liAung in large cities come under consideration in this respect. According to statistics criminality among girls is much less fre¬ quent than among boys. In the year 1896 only 19.8 per cent of the sentences pronounced referred to girls. The different judicial districts, of course, pre¬ sent A^ery great A’ariations. The proportion of female to male juA^enile persons sentenced varies from 3.3 per cent in the district of Waldshut to 40.7 per cent in the Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. In 41 of 90 districts it varies between 20 and 30 per cent. The large cities by no means take the lead. Berlin has a per cent of 26.5 and Hamburg of 22.4. In fact, the districts which contain no large cities (Dresden, with 32.8 per cent, forms an exception) present the highest fig¬ ures. In this case, too, it Avould be wrong to draw positive conclusions regard¬ ing the degree of depravity of girls in the different judicial districts from the JUVENILE CRIMINALITY IN GERMANY. 711 statistical reports. They give no information on the number of girls employetl in industry (factories and shops > who lose their virtue before the close of their eighteenth year, and thus fail into a moral degeneracy from which very few are ever rescued later in life. * * * The most important consideration in the. matter is that liability of children to punishment is made to depend not alone uix)n the full consciousness of guilt, but also upon a sufficient degree of moral development and maturity to justify responsibility before the law. The task of state prosecutors and jud,ges is thereby made very difficult. It is not, indeed, always an easy matter to deter¬ mine whether young persons have sufficient maturity of judgment to understand their culpability. However, in most cases, a properly conducted hearing will lead to positive information. There can be no doubt that children of sound mind who have completed the school course understand the culpability of such acts as form by far the largest percentage of the crimes and transgressions of youth, such as theft, fraud, peculation, and assault. But the case is altogether different in determining moral development and maturity. Outward indications by which it could be recognized do not exist. The accused may possess good schooling and fluency of speech, still his moral character may not be developed. The sur¬ roundings in which he has grown up, the examples set before him, and his whole previous conduct, must be investigated. The required maturity of moral charac¬ ter does not consist in being able to weigh the motives which impel anyone to commit a deed and the counter motives which impel him to desist. He who is capable of v/eigliing these motives correctly will not commit a punishable act ; his good motives will outbalance the evil. This applies to the jmung as well as to adults. On the other hand, if a wrongdoer is not conscaoiis of resisting motives, they not having existed for him, he does not possess the judgment nec¬ essary for understanding his guilt. Moral maturity, which in addition must exist in order to impute culpability, consists rather in the offender being able to judge the significance and consequences which a culpable act and its legal pun¬ ishment must have on his moral character and whole subsequent career, and in his being by education and training accustomed to resist temptation. As long as moral training is possible for a child, should he be found lacking it. such a child can not be considered legally responsible, because the most effective motive that prevents aiijmne from committing a culpable act is lacking, or lies dormant in him. In children under 14 years of age precisely this motive is in general dormant and unrecognized ; consequently the demand to defer the age for legal prosecution from the completion of the twelfth to that of the fourteenth year is well founded. Of course there are exceptions where even jmunger children have sufficient development of moral character and still commit culpable acts, because they are not able to resist wrongful impulses in single cases. The law can not take rare exceptions, however, into consideration, because, in the first place, the younger a child is the more difficult it is for a judge to determine whether it can be held legally responsible or not, and because with children under 14 jmars the harmful consequences which legal prosecution and a sentence of imprisonment entail on their development and future life outbalance the benefit of punishment by law. To define the criminal responsibility, in the above sense of the term, of chil¬ dren between 14 and 18 years of age, is naturally difficult, but not more difficult than the task before judges in other instances, when they are obliged to investi¬ gate the psychological conditions of those whom they are to judge. The objec¬ tion has been raised that adults deficient in moral and mental development often commit criminal acts for which they are nevertheless held legally accountable. “ It seems inconsistent,” some people argue, ” that proof of sufficient develop- 712 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. nieiit should be required for judging those under 18 and not those over 18 years of age. The claim that everyone over 18 y^ars possesses it does not bring about the degree of deveiopinent required. It were altogether wrong to create special privileges for juvenile criminals. Every person who has the ability to act and understand the natural consequences of his act should be held legally responsible. This capacity usually develops with the tenth year of age, and so that age should be accepted as the lowest limit for legal prosecution. The law must take into consideration that between the ages of 10 and 16, the usual period of adolescence, a certain sensibility and increased activity of the emotions and intellect exist which should affect the measure of punishment. The law must, therefore, give judges the right to punish children according to their discretion. However, they should not be allowed to exceed the term of two years’ imprison¬ ment for crime and six months for transgression. The trial could be made of allowing children to serve the sentence in a reformatory instead of prison.” It is notour purpose to examine these propositions, against which the most serious objections arise. It is evident that the objectors fall into the same error VvEich they attack. Conditions of increased sensibility, the greater activity of the emotions and intellect ascribed to the period of 10 to 16 years and justifying extensive privileges for youth at that age, are frequently found among adults as consequences of natural endowments and influences of the most varied events upon soul and body. In fact, they occur oftener among adults than among chil¬ dren who have completed their tenth year of age but who have not passed the period of puberty. And yet there are those who would justify leniency of judgment with regard to the young and deny it to adults. When the state refrains from criminal punishment in cases of children and youthful persons deflcient in mental and moral development so that they do not recognize the culpability of their acts nor appreciate the consequences of criminal punishment, the reason is that in such cases the purpose of punish¬ ment would be thwiirted, and the state in pronouncing its sentence would be acting contrary to its highest duty. So long as there is a possibility of develop¬ ing, by education and training, the moral character and power of resistance required to transform a young and immature pei’son guilty of a violation of law into a useful member of society the state should not make the task more difficult by punishment, but should provide for appropriate training to rescue juvenile wrongdoers from ruin. The age to which this possibility is confined varies greatly with individuals, and can not be determined by a general propo¬ sition for all. The criminal code presupposes that persons of sound mind who have completed their eighteenth year are sufficiently developed intellectually to distinguish between a guilty act and one not so, and can consequently recog¬ nize their culpability. They are fully responsible before the law. It can hardly be supposed that a person of sound mind, 18 years old, is ever so deficient in judgment as not to understand the culpability of his acts. Even if, as general opinion demands, tlie criminal code is changed in so far as to preclude from sentence juveniles having this understanding but lacking the necessary develop¬ ment of mind and character for comprehending the moral and social significance ot the culpable act and its punishment, this age limit will still be retained. In the majority of cases those who have passed it will possess at least sufficient development of moral character to be held accountable for their actions by the state. However, as most frequently happens, development of moral insight must not be confused with moral force. The measure of moral force i)ossessed by dif¬ ferent individuals varies greatly. It forms the vital essence of human character difficult to apprehend. Consequently it is also impossible to give an “ abstract standard of moral force ” by which that of individuals may be measured. The JUVENILE CRIMINALITY IN GERMANY. 713 state naturally requires a certain degree of moral force — the power to resist criminal impulses. However, all who commit culpable acts lack this measure of moral force, and just because it is wanting in them the state makes them legally responsible and condemns them. Maturity of moral character in the above sense of the term may be acquired and cultivated by education, of course to a variable degree. The comprehension to know that a common transgression of crime is not only culpable, but also morally reprehensible ; that it is a viola¬ tion of law and rebellion against social order which must be upheld ; that criminal punishment is not only an outward hardship, but that it also brands the wrong¬ doer, a fact which may have a momentous effect on his whole life, can be lacking in persons of sound mind and over 18 years old only in rare instances. In the rare cases in which an adult is as undeveloped as a minor without being dis¬ eased in mind the state can not withhold punishment, as punishment can no longer be replaced by education. The purpose of punishment, then, is to give the wrongdoer the insight and moral earnestness in which he has been lacking. This deficiency can only influence the kind and extent of punishment to which he must be sentenced. J . '■ vl s - .-r % ■ ■^-. 41/1 CHAPTER X. GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY OF THE HLINGIT LANGUAGE OF SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA. By William A. Kelly and Frances H. Willard. Training School, Sitka, Alaska. PREFACE. The authors are aware that the scientific orthography, in which the vowels have their continental sounds and the consonants their English pronunciation, is now in general use by ethnologists. But as this grammar is intended for colloquial use only, we have adhered mainly to the Websterian orthoepy and phonetic principles of spelling. To assist the student in acquiring the pronunciation of difficult sounds we have made use of a few extra diacritical points. ' The student should aim at mastery of the Illingit pronunciation. He must drill, drill, drill, until he acquires facility in intonation, enunciation, and pronunciation. The ear must be accustomed to hear and the tongue to express the native sounds, Hlingit is a harsh, guttural language, and requires much practice to train the organs of speech to new positions. The tongue is used 6rcadf/i-wise as well as length-wise. Go slowly from the easy to the hard. Do not attempt too much at first. Leave all hard words and forms of expression until a good command of easy words and sentences has been gained. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. I. Alphabet: key to prontinciation . . . 716 II. Nouns; Number, gender . 718 III. Declension of nouns . 719 IV. Proper nouns; pronouns . 722 V. Verbs . 725 VI. Conjugation of the verb “ to see” . 727 VII. Conjugation of the verbs ‘‘to work,” ‘‘to tell,” ‘‘to have” . 731 VIII. Conjugation of the verb ‘‘to love” . 737 IX. Conjugation of the verbs “to go ” and “to come” . 741 X. Adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections . 744 XI. The sentence, questions and phrases . 747 XII. Money values . 748 XIII. Hymns, portions of scripture, etc . 749 XIV. English-Hlingit vocabulary . 752 XV. Hlingit-English vocabulary . 758 715 716 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. I. — ALPHABET — KEY TO PEONUNCIATION. a c d e g Alphabet. h n u i o w j q X k s y 1 t z The letters b, f, rn, p, r, and v are wanting. Only the hard sound of g and c is used; viz, go, get, car, cat; k is always guttural. (For guttural sounds of g see opposite page.) Key to Peonunciation. VOWEL SOUNDS. English, Hling'U. а, as in ate, mate. ii, as in ark, arm. 4, as in senate. The mark ^ indicates the obscure sound of vowels, e, as in he, me. e, as in ten, hen. i, as in die, high. 1, as in police. I, as in hit, tin. б, as in old, hone. o, as in on, ox. II, as in use, tune. ii, as in up. hd, what; dd, enough. at, aunt; dh, yes. hen, water; se'iv, rain. she, blood; te, stone. y'l, whale; fi, garden. hit, house; jtn, hand. hd-dd^ (an interjection). u^dd, over there. w and y have the same powers as in English. DOUBLE VOWELS. English. au=ow in how. do as in too, room. do as in took, look. Ulinglt. an-kaii, lord, chief. goon, spring-water. hod, him; ha-gdd, come. e-e represents a prolonged sound of long e. It has no equivalent in English. Hlin- git example, ye-e, your, dd frequently forms the termination of certain guttural sounds, such as the German ch and guttural g's. This combination of sounds is indi¬ cated thus: CHOC g'^oo^ goo^ etc. Pronounce the guttural, but hold the lips in position as if to give the dd sound. Examples: szacii^^^, hat; sl-dg^oo^ bitter. CONSONANT COMBINATIONS. All the consonant sounds and their combinations occurring in Hlingit may be divided into four classes, viz: guttural, palatal fortis, dental fortis, and lateral fortis sounds. The true pronunciation of these sounds must be learned from a native, as there are no English equivalents. Guttural sounds, or sounds made by the root of the tongue and the soft palate, using little breath. There are six kinds of this class, and are marked as follows: k, k, 9, 9, q- GRAMMAR OF THE HLIHGIT LANGUAGE. 717 1. h as in ku~nush-gd6-dd^ , poor. ku-hlu-ydhV , a lie, falsehood. kfi-tuhl, pitcher. To form this sound the extreme root of the tongue is pressed gently up against the soft palate and the breath released with a decided click or snap. Lips apart. 2. k as in kd, man. kdUCj box, trunk. ek, copper. The root of the tongue is pressed hard up against the soft palate and the breath released with a soft, explosive sound. Lips apart. 3. '/i as in "hi, yellow cedar. ’he, burden, pack. 00 h, tooth, teeth. The diacritic mark ' indicates the rough breathing sound. This is a good examf)le of the guttural aspirate. The root of the tongue is relaxed a little, barely touching the soft palate, and the breath driven out forcibly, making a sound not unlike a snore. 4. g as in gun, look here. guncli, tobacco. gddch, wolf. g has not the sound of j, but the hard sound, as in go. This is the softest guttural that occurs in Hlingit. Contract the tongue until the throat cavity is tilled. Expel breath gently. 5. as in gdn, fire. gdc, valley. ge, mouth. This sound is not unlike the third guttural sound, ’h, except that the breath is forced out more slov.dy, making a harsh, rasping sound. 6. q as in qudn, inhabitants. nd'-qu, cuttle fish, squid. tkV-qu, berries, fruit. This sound is formed much like the second guttural sound k, except that the lips are held as if to sound q. Palatal fortis sounds, or sounds made by the middle of the tongue being pressed up against the roof of the mouth and the breath forced out between. There are three palatal fortis sounds, marked as follows: g'^, g', ch. 1. as in g'^dn, anger. apple. g^dog'^, paper, book. 2. g' as in eg' , brother (female speaking). ceg' , younger brother or sister. g'doncUs, potatoes. * 3. CH as in cud'-ddo, comb. CH^n, north wind. CHd'-nd, evening. CH is equivalent to the German cn in dcH. ch is equivalent to ch, as in church. Dental fortis sounds, or sounds made by the tongue being pressed against the teeth and gums, the breath being released v/ith a sharp, explosive sound. There are four dental fortis sounds, viz: dt, dj, dts, sz. 1. dl as in did, floor, board. dteg^, ice, hard. g'liddt, eggs. EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 718 2. dj as in djag' , eagle. djd’qu, long ago. hdddj, all gone. 3. dts as in dtsd, fragrance. g'vondts, potatoes. dtsu-dtse^, bird. 4. sz as in szlsd, sail, cloth. szdk, smoke. szec, black bear. Lateral fortis sounds, or sounds made by the tongue used breadth- wise, and the breath expelled along the sides of the tongue. There are four lateral fortis sounds, as follows: dl, dl, Id, tl. 1. DL as in DLdc, dress. DLt", blanket. «DL, salt. 2. dl as in dJdok, sore. dldk, finger. dliifc, land, country. 3. Id as in Hling'tt, person, people. Iddo, nose. Idi, don’t. 4. tl as in ildg', no. tldg'^, one. d-tldn, large, much. II. — nouns: number, gender. Number of Nouns. Nearly all Illingit nouns have two number forms, singular and plural, although in some instances the plural form is rarely or never used. The plural of nouns is formed by adding the sound g'^ to the singular. EXAMPLES. Singular. cutl, dog. doosh, cat. hit, house. yiiqu, canoe. ka, man. g^iidt, island. Names of parts of the body Plural. catlg\ dogs. dobshg\ cats. hitg^, houses. yaqiig^®®, canoes. kag^“° men. g''adtg'', islands. no plural form. EXAMPLES. shu, head. yir, face. jin, hand. gobs, foot. sliu, heads. yu, faces. jin, hands. gobs, feet. Singidar. Plural. GBAMMAR OF THE HLIHGIT LANGUAGE. 719 Names of relationship or kinship have no plural form, the pronoun Mis, they, being used with the singular form to distinguish the plural. EXAMPLES. Singular. Plural. ish, father. tlii, mother. lit, aunt. ciic, unde. ceg^, younger brother or sister. ish hiis, father they. tla hus, mother they. at hus, aunt they. cac hus, unde they. ceg^ hus, younger brother or sister they. ^ IREEGULAE PLURALS. The plural of some nouns is an entirely different word from the singular. EXAMPLES. Singular. yii-du-g^uat/s-g^do, boy. shat-g^uts-g''do, girl. shii-wiiU, woman. Plural. g^i-sa^-m, boys. shag^-sa^-nl, girls. shii^, ivomen. EXAMPLES OP NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. iint-ke-ni, multitude or congregation. kob''-oo^, community. yii^-tse^-nat^, mammals. Such nouns as Illingit, people, liat, fish, 'kob-duh-u-yu-iiu-hu', star, etc., may be used ill either a singular or plural sense. Gender. Correctly speaking, there is no grammatical gender in the Hlingit language. Such nouns as kd, man, cdc, uncle, and eg', brother, are, perforce, of the masculine gen¬ der; such nouns as shdivut, woman, at, aunt, and dldg', sister, are of the feminine; such norms as hit, house, ydqu, canoe, and gau, bell, are of the neuter or common gender. The feminine gender of animals is designated by the word shech, meaning female, gdb-wu-cdn, deer, shech gdo-wu-cdn, doe, cddl, dog, shech cdtl, bitch. A difference is made in the words ‘ ‘ brother ’ ’ and ‘ ' sister, ’ ’ according as they are used by a man or by a woman. 1. Male speaking: hdon'h, brother (elder), dliig^, sister. 2. Female speaking: og', brother. shut'h, sister (elder). III. — DECLENSION OF NOUNS. Generally speaking, nouns are inflected in three declensions, distinguished by the ending of the genitive singular, and, in some instances, by the final letter of the stem; except when the final sound is preceded by oo or do, all nouns ending in guttural, palatal fortis, dental fortis, and lateral fortis sounds; all nouns ending in ch, sh, c, s, n, and t^ end in I in the genitive singular. 720 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Nouns are declined in seven cases, viz vocative, ablative, and locative. Examples op Nouns of Singular. Nom. hit. house. Gen. hit-i. of a house. Dat. hit-t. to a house. Acc. hit. house. Toe. - Ahl. hit-ch. hy a house. Log. hit-g^. at or on a house. Nom. hen. water. Gen. hen^-i. of water. Pat. hen-t, to ivater. -.4cc. hen. water. VOG. Ahl. hen-ch. hy ivater. Log. hen-g\ on or in ivater. Nom. catl. dog. Gen. catl-i, of a dog. Pat. catl-t. to a dog. Agg. catl. dog. Toe. chii catl. 0 dog. Ahl. catl-ch. hy a dog. Log. catl-g\ at a dog. Nom. tin, town. Gen. tin-i. of to wn. Pat. iin-t. to town. Agg. iin. town. Toe. - . Ahl. iin-ch. hy toivn. Xoe. an-g\ at town. Nom. as. tree. Gen. tis-i. of tree. Pat. iis-t. to tree. Alee, iis, tree. Yog. - . Ahl. iis-ch, hy tree. Log. tis-g'', at tree. Nom. DLtic, dress. Gen. DLiic-i, of dress. Pat. DLac-t, to dress. Agg. DLiic, dress. Toe. - . Ahl. DLiic-ch, hy dress. Log. DLac-g\ at dress. Nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, THE First Declension. Plural. hitg\ houses. hitg^-i. of houses. hitg^-it. to houses. hitg\ houses. hitg'-ich. hy houses. hitg^-ig\ at houses. No plural. catlg\ dogs. catlg^-i. of dogs. catlg^-it. to dogs. catlg\ dogs. chii catlg\ 0 dogs. chatlg''-ich, hy dogs. catlg^-ig\ at dogs. iingb towns. iing^-i. of towns. ting'' -it. to towns. ang\ towns. ilng^-ich. hy toims. ang^-ig\ at towns asg\ trees. iisg^-i. of trees. tisg^-t. to trees. asg\ trees. iisg^-ich. hy trees. asg^-ig\ at trees. DLacg\ dresses. DLticg^-i, ejf dresses. DLacg'^-t, to dresses. DLacg\ dresses. DLacg'^-ich, hy dresses. pLacg^-ig\ at dresses. a The vocative case is used only in addressing persons or animals and is distinguished by chd, 01 bMore properly the instrumental. GRAMMAE OF THE HLINGIT LANGUAGE. 721 The ablative case is often used as the subject of a transitive verb. EXAMPLES. Cdtl-ch uo-im-lui' = A dog ate it. by dog (it) ate. Cdtlg^-icli od-ivulid' = Dogs ate it. by dogs (it) ate. Kd-cli od-wii-don' = A man shot it. by man (it) shot. ShdwuV-ch ivdd'-dtO/ = A woman found it. by woman (it) found. Second Declension. Except when preceded by oo or do, the genitive ending of nouns ending in single vowels is yi. Singular and plural. Norn, shu, head or heads. Gen. sh;i-3’-i, of head or heads. Dai. shil-t, to head or heads. Acc. sliii, head or 1 Leads. Voc. - . All. shii-ch, hij head or heads. Loc. shii-g^, at head or heads. Singular. Norn, ti, garden. Gen. ti-yi, of garden. Dai. ti-t, to garden. Acc. ti, garden. Voc. - . AJjI. ti-ch, hy garden. Loc. ti-g^, at garden. Plural. tig\ gardens. tig^-i, of gardens. tig^-it, to gardens. tig\ gardens. tig^-ich, hy gardens. tig^-ig^, at gardens. For no apparent reason the yi. is dropped in the genitive plural of ti. Such irregu¬ larities occur frecjuently. In many instances, doubtless, these changes are made for the sake of euphony; other changes are due to the natural growth of the language. Singular and plural. Nora, il'ha'', paddle or paddles. Gen. u'hiU-yi, of jKiddle or paddles. Pat. u'hii-t, Acc. u'ha, T oc. - . Abl. u'hii-ch, Loc. u'ha-g\ to paddle or paddles, paddle or paddles. hy p)addde or paddles, at paddle or paddles. Singular. Norn. DLe, hkinlet. Gen. DLe-yi, of hlanket. Pat. DLe-t, to hlanket. Acc. DLe, hlanket. Voc. - . A hi. DLe-ch, hy hlanket. Loc. DLe-g^, at hlanket. ED 1904 M - 46 Plural. DLeg'', blankets. DLeg^-i, of blankets. DLeg'^-t, to blankets. DLeg^, blankets. DLeg^-ich, by blankets. DLeg'-ig^, on blankets. 722 EDUOATIOK EEPOET, 1904. Thikd Declension. The genitive singular of nouns ending in oo, oo, or au; of nouns ending in guttural palatal fortis, dental fortis, and lateral fortis sounds, j^receded by oo or do, is do Singidar. Nom. nod, fort. Gen. nod-do, of fort. Bat. ndd-t, to fort. Acc. nod, fort. T oc. - . Ahl. ndd-ch, Loc. noo-g' by fort, at fort. Plural. Plural not used. Singular and. plural. Nom. hldd, iiose or noses. Gen. hlod-do, of nose or 7ioses. Bat. hldd-t. to nose or 7ioses. Acc. hide. 77080 or 770ses. Voc. - . Aibl. hloo-ch. by nose or noses. Loc. hldd-g\ at 77 0se or 7ioses. AAm. dtau. feather or feathers. Gen. dtau-dd. of feather or feathers. Bat. dtau-t. to feather or feathers. Acc. dtau. feather or fec(the7'S. T oc. - . AM. dtau-ch. by feather or feat he7''S. Loc. dtaii-g'. 071 feather or feathers. Nom. booh or boohs. Gen. g-ddg^dd, of booh or boohs. Bat. g''ddg''-t, to booh or boohs. Acc. g^ddg'. booh or boohs. T oc. - . Ahl. g^oog^-ch. by booh or boohs. Xoc. g'ddg^-g^. on booh or boohs. AAm. dd'h. tooth or teeth. Ge7i. oc/h-dd. of tooth or teeth. LJat. dd'h-t. to tooth or teeth. Acc. dd'h. tooth or teeth. T oc. - . Abl. oo'h-ch. by tooth or teeth. Loc. dd'h-g^. on tooth or teeth. TV. — PROPER NOUNS — PRONOUNS. Proper Nouns. NAMES OF PERSONS. The Hlingits have no surnames, the family crest serving for all jmrposes of identi fication. Family names are inherited and handed down for generations. Nearly all names have a meaning, and usually refer to the family crest or totem. GEAMMAR OF THE HLINGIT LANGUAGE. 723 The nominative, dative, ablative, and locative cases of geographical names are in common use, the vocative case being used only on ceremonial occasions. Peonouns. DECLENSION OF PEESONAL PEONOUNS. Pronouns are declined more or less like nouns. The personal pronouns are — Singular. First person^ 'Hiit, I. Second p)erson, wa-e, thou. Third person, hod, he or she. Singular, Nom. 'Hut, I. Gen. u'h, of me. Bat. u h-eU, to me. Acc. 'hut, me. Voc. - - . Ahl. 'ha-ch, hy me. Loc. u'h-eg'^, in me. Singular. Nom. wa^-e^, thou. Gen. e, of thee. Bat. e-eU, to thee. Acc. wa-e^, thee. Voc. - . Ahl. wa-ech^, hy thee. Loc. e-eg"^^, in thee. Singular. Nom. hod^, he or she. Gen. ddd^, of him or her. Bat. dod-et^, to hwi or hen. Acc. hod^, him or her. Voc. - . Ahl. hoo^-ch, hy him or her. Loc. ddd-eg^^, in him or her. Plural. od-hiin^, ive. ye-whan, you. hiis, they. FIEST PEESON. Plural. dd-han', we. ha, of us. hii-eU, to us. odhiin, or ha, us. odhiin^-ch, hy us. hii-eg^^, in us. SECOND PEESON. Plural. ye-v/han, you. ye, of you. ye-eU, to you. ye-whiin^, or ye, you. ye-whiin^-ch, hy you. ye-eg’'^, in you. THIED PEESON. Plural. hiis^, they. hus^-dod'^, of them. hirs-dod-eU, to them. hus^, them. hus'-ch, hy them. hus-dod-eg^^, in them. The i^ronoun it is similarly declined. Nom. iV, it. (Uttered with raising inflection.) Gen. u^, of it. (Uttered with falling inflection.) Bat. ii-eU, to it. Acc. u^, it. Voc. - - . Ahl. lU-ch, hy it. Loc. li-eg^, in it. 724 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. POSSESSIVE PEONOUNS. From the genitives of the x>ersonal pronouns are formed the possessive pronouns — u'h^, rny or mine. e\ ihij or tJiine. doo'', his or hers. li^, its. ha\ our or ours. ye\ your or yours. hiis^-ddd^, their or theirs. Nouns qualified by a possessive pronoun must be in the genitive case, e. g. : Dob hih-i gii-wbohl-i^. The door of his house. IJ'li ciltl-i shii-yi^. My dog's head. The possessive pronoun is followed by the genitive, except in words referring to kinship or parts of the body. Examples: ir'li hiD-i, 7ny house. e catl-i^, thy dog. dob dbbs4d-i, Jier cat. huS"dbb u-'hid-yi, their paddles. EXERCISE. Translate into Illingit: Our father. My head. Your brother (masculine). Your brother (feminine). Her book. Its feathers. The dative and ablative cases of nouns modified by a possessive pronoun prefix the genitive ending i to the case ending thus: li'h catl-ich bb-wii-juk. my by dog {ti) teas hilled. dob hit-it 'hwa-gobt. his to house I went. Translate into English: hiis dob ti-yi. li'h g^bbg^-ob. ii'h ish hit-1, dob tlii kooc-bb. ti'h ceg^ dbbsh-i. DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOUNS. Singular. Plural. yii or ha, this. yil or hii, these. yu or wa, that. yu or wa, those. Yd refers to objects or persons near by. Hd refers to objects or persons a little farthef away, but has not quite the same value as y u or ivd. yii hitg\ these houses. yu kii, that man. wa shiiivut, that u'ornan. ha ciitlg', these dogs. ya ii'h yet, this my son. EXAMPLES. GKAMMAR OF THE HLIHGIT LANGUAGE, 725 1. All. 2. Any (objects). 3. Another. 4. Any (persons). 5. Few. 6. Many. 7. Some. 8. Each. 9. One, or one’s. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1. Dju'hl-du-cuU. 2. Dju-da-kob-ii-su^. 3. DjiU-gob^-niF-iF. 4. Dju-a-ddo-su^. 5. Dju-yiF-yu-gdb-adF, 6. Shu-yu-di-han^. 7. tJ-'hdo-a. 8. Tlug^-gil. 9. Ka. EXAMPLES. Kii ilt, one’s aunt. Dju'hl-du-CLit yu hjLtg\ all those houses. Dju-dii-kob-a-sii yii ddbshg, any of these cats. Dju-gdo-nu-a gu’w-diin, another horse. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. A-su, who. A-ddb-su,« whose. A-ddb-su, lohom. Dii-kob-a-su, u'hich. Dii-su, what. EXAMPLES. Who is that? A-su^ wa? What is this? Dii-siF yii? Whom do yon want? A-ddb^-su^ e-tob-v/iFsi-gdd? What do yon want? Dii-su^ e-tdo-wiF-si-gdd? Which do yon want? Da-kob-ii-sii e-tdb-wiF-si-gdd? V, — VERBS. 1. Verbs are rare in the Hlingit language. Verb phrases are the principal parts of speech and are conjugated as verbs. 2. The ground form from which the verb starts is the third person, singular, but, to avoid confusion, the English form of conjugation is retained. 3. The three persons in each number are distinguished by the pronominal prefix only, expressed as a v/hole or in a modified form. 4. In nearly every verb or verb phrase, the personal pronoun is expressed, par¬ tially expressed, or implied. The whole pronoun is rarely used except in the third person plural. In some cases only a sound or syllable of a personal pronoun is pres¬ ent in a verb or verb phrase: As, Yd^-ji-hu-ne' , I work. This phrase is formed by the union of the noun yd-jt-ne, work, and the pronoun '^Hut, I. It will be noticed that the t is dropped in the personal pronoun. 5. When special emphasis is required, the regular form of the personal pronoun is used either at the end or beginning of a verb or verb phrase: As, ydn-e-goot^ , thou walkest; wd-e ydn-e-gobt' , thou thyself walkest. a In a sentence, the first two syllables of this word precede the noun; the last syllable, sit, follows the noun; As, A-ddb yil-gdo' sil-yd? Whose canoe is this? 726 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. For the sake of emphasis also the ablative case of nouns and pronouns is sometimes used as subject of a transitive verb: As, e-yu-ten', thou seest; ivd-dch e-yu-ten^, thou thyself seest. Literally, by thee thou seest. 6. When the object of a verb is a personal pronoun, it is prefixed or inserted in the verb phrase, as — Ilus-hu-si-^hun. Them I love=I love them. IIu8-hut-sthun. They me Iove=They love me. 7. There is no verb io he. The nearest- api^roach to it is the verb yd'-yu-te — It remains, it abides. 8. Auxiliaries. — Words corresponding to the English uill^ shall, may, might, do not exist separately, but are implied in the conjugation of the verb. 9. Conjugation. — Hlingit verbs seem to have one form of conjugation only. 10. The verbs have voice, mood, tense, number, and person. 11. Voice. — The voices are three: Active, which in transitive verb phrases represents the subject as acting upon some object, as Gdo-wu-cdn "hwd-oon' — I shot a deer. IMiddle, which represents the agent as acting upon himself, as SlVhuA-di-don' — I shot myself. Passive, which represents the subject as acted upon by some other agent, as Iliit-ivdo-cldo-wu-don' — I was shot. 12. Moods. — The moods are six: Indicative (fact), subjunctive (possibility), opta¬ tive (expressing a wish), imperative (command), infinitive. 13. Tense. — The tenses are five: Present, imperfect, future, perfect, and pluperfect. 14. Number. — There are two numbers — singular and plural. 15. As in English, verbs are distinguished as transitive and intransitive. 16. Form. — By the use of certain particles a verb may be modified into the — (1.) Progressive form by the use of the particles yll and ydn. (2.) Interrogative form by the use of the particles gi, ugl, and gdoslie. (3.) Negative form by the use of the particles hlild and tldhl. (4.) Emphatic form by the use of the particle '/TV-yii-te-yI, {thou art) having. Ddd-je-yiE-yu-te-yf, {he is) having. U'h-je-yac^-gua-ti, {I shall) behaving. E-je-yac^-gua-tf, {thou shall be) having. Ddd-je-yac^-gua-ti, {he shall be) having. U'h-je-ya^-wdd-te-yf, (/) having had. E-je-ya^-wod-te-yf, {thou) having had. Ddo-je-ya^-wdd-te-yf, {he) having had. Present. Ha-je-ya^-yu-te-yf, {we are) having. Ye-je-ya^-yu-te-yf, {you are) having. Hus-ddd-je-ya^-yu-te, {they are) having. Future. Pla-je-yac^-gua-tf, {we shall be) having. Ye-je-yac'-gua-ti, {you shall be) having. llus-ddd-je-yac'-gud-tl, {they shall be) hav¬ ing. Perfect. IIa-je-ya^-^Ydd-te-y^, {we) having had. Ye-je-yfE-wdo-te-yi, {you) having had. Hus-ddd-je-ya^-wdo-te-yf, ( they ) having had. POTENTIAL MOOD. Future. U'h-je-yan^-gua-te, I might have. E-je-yan^-gua-te, thou mightst have. Ddd-je-yan'-gua-te, he might have. Ha-je-yan^-gua-te, we might have. Ye-je-yan^-gua-te, you might have. Hus-ddd-je-yan^-gua-te, they might have. Pluperfect. lJ'h-je-yan''-gua-te-yin^, I might have had. E-je-yan^-gua-te-yin'', thou mightst have had. Ddd-je-yaiF-gua-te-yin^, he might have had. Ha-je-yan^-gua-te-yin^, we might have had. Ye-je-yan^'-gua-te-yin^, you might havehad. Hus-ddd-je-yan^-gu4-te-yin^, ihey^ migld have had. GRAMM AE OF THE HLINGIT LANGUAGE. EXAMPLES OF THE VERB “ TO HAVE.” 737 Da h si-te ii li jm. Da h si-to doo jin. Da h si-te e jin. IDIOMATIC PHRASES. Tii'O are my hands. Tti'o are Iris hands. Tu'O are your hands. I have two hands. He has two hands. You have tW'O hands. IN ACTUAL POSSESSION. Hli^-ta u h-je-woo'. Hlitii e-je-wdd'. Hlitii doo-je-woo'. Dii-su^ e-je-wdd^? IDIOMATIC E dliig'' Hgi^ kdd-dsi-te? Hil Gu-na h-i^ kod-dsi-te. A'a-qu 'hii-od^ I Hit ugl^ Gyu-do^? I Knife I have. I have a knife. Knife you have. You have a knife. Knife he has. He has a knife. What you have? Y"hat have 3"OU? PHRASES. Your .sister {f) she Kves. Have you a sis¬ ter? Our Saviour, He lives. We have a Saviour. Canoe I own. I have a canoe. House {?) you oivn. Have you a house? Note.— In English the verb to have is often used in the place of to own. This is never the case in Hlinglt. VIII. — CONJUGATION OF THE VERB “ TO LOVE.” Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Singular. Hu-si- hirn^, I love. E-si-'hun^, thou lovest. U-si-'hun^, he loves. Hu-su-'hiin''-in. I was loving. E-su- huW-in, thou wast loving. U-sii-'hun^-in, he was loving. Cac-qua-su-'hun^, I shall love. Cac-ge-su-'hun^, thou shalt love. Ca-u-goo'h-su-'hiin^, he shrill love. 'Hwa-si-'hiin^, I loved. Yi-Si-'hiuV, thou lovedst. U’w-si-'hun, he loved. 'Hwa-su-'huiE-in, I had loved. Yi-su-'hiiW-in, thou hadst loved. U-woos-'hun^-in, he had loved. Present. Plural. Tdo-si-'hiin^, we love. Ye-si-'hun', you love. Hiis-ii-si-'hun', they love. Imperfect. Too-su-'hun^-in, we were loving. Ye-su-'hun''-iH, you were loving. Hus-us-'hun'-in, they were loving. Future. Ca-gu h-tdo-su-'huii'', we shall love. Ca-gu'h-ye-su-'hiin^, you shall love. Ca-hus-u-gdo'h-su-'hun'', they shall lov( Perfect. Wdo-too-si-'hun^, ive loved. Ye-si-'hun^, you loved. Hus-u’ w-si-'hun', they loved. Pluperfect. Woo-too-su-'liiin^-in, we had loved. Ye-su-'hun^-in, you had loved. Hus-u-wdos-'hun^-in, they had loved. ED 1904 M- 47 738 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. Gu'h-sii-'him^-iU, if Hove. Ge-su-'hini^-ni, if thou lovest. tJc-sii-'hun^-ni, if he love. SUBJUNCTIVE SrOOD. Future. Gu-tdo-sii-'hun^-ui, if we love. Gu-ye-sii-'hun^-ni, if you love. Hus-uc-su-TiuiF-m, if they love. Gu-su-'hun^, love thou. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 1 Gi-sii-Tiun^, love ye. INFINITIVE MOOD. 'Hu-su-'hun^-i, {me) to love. E-su-'hiinM, {thee) to love. U-su-'hun'-i, {him) to love. Present. Too-su-'hun^-i, (ris) to love. Ye-sti-'liun^-i, {you) to love. Hus-us-'hun^-i, {them) to love. Perfect. 'Ilwa-sii-'hun^-i, {me) to have loved. Yi-su-'huiF-i, {thee) to have loved. tJ-woos-'huiF-i, {him) to have loved. Wd6-tdo-su-'hun''-i, {us) to have loved. Ye-sii-Tiiin'-f, {you) to have loved. Hus-u-wdos-'hunM, {them) to have loved. Future. Cac-qua-su-'liiiiF-i, {me) to he about to love. Cac-ge-gu-'huiF-i, {thee) to be about to love. Ca-u-go6'h-su-Tiim^-i, {him) to be about to love. Ca-gu'h-tdo su-'hun^-i, {us) to be about to love. Ca-guTi-ye-sii-Miun^-i, {you) to be about to love. Ca-hus-u-go6Ti-su-'huiP-i, {them) to be about to love. PARTICIPLES. 'HiU-sP-'hun^-i^, {I am) loving. E-si^-Tiun'-i^, {thou art) loving. XJ-si^-'hun^-i^, {he is) loving. Present. Too^sU-'hu.n''-P, {we are) loving. Ye-sU-'hun'-i^, {you are) loving. Hus-ii-sP-'hun^-i^, {they are) loving. Future. Cac^-qua^-su^-TiiuF, {I am) about to love. Cac-ge-siF-Tiun', {thou art) about to love. Ca-u-goo'h-sii^-Tiun^, {he is) about to love. Ca^-gu'h'-tdo''-su''-TiuiP, {we are) about to love. Ca^-guTi''-ye-siU-Tiuri^, {you are) about to love. CrP-hus-u-gdoTi^-siP-'hun', {they are.) about to love. Perfect. 'HwiV-si^-Tiun'-F, {!) having loved. Yi-si^-'hun^-i^, {thou) having loved. IJ’w-si''-'hun^-i^, {he) having loved. IVdo'-tdo^-si^-'hun^-i^, {we) having loved. Ye-sU-'hun'-i'', {you) having loved. Hus-u’ w-sU-'hun^-i'', {they) having loved. GRAMMAE OF THE HLINGIT LA]^^GUAGE. 739 OPTATIVE MOOD. Present and future. Gu-ku-sii-'hun^, let me love. I Gu'h-tdd-sii-'huiP, let us love. U-gu'h-su-'hun^, let him love. | Hus-u-gii'h-su-'huiP, let them love. POTENTIAL MOOD. Goo-qua-si-'litin^, I might love. Gii-gi-si-'liun^, thou mightst love. IJ-gdo'h-si-'liun^, he might love. Future. Gu'h-tdo-si-'hun^, me might love. Gii'li-ye-Si-'hun^, you might love. Hus-u-gdo'h-si-'hun^, they might love. Pluperfect. Gdd-qua-su-'hun^-in, I might have loved. Gu-gi-sii-'huiP-in, thou mightst have loved. tJ-gdd'h-su-'hun'-in, he might have loved. Gu h-tdo-su-'hun^-in, ice might have loved. Gu'h-ye-su-'hun^-in, you might have loved. Hiis-ii-gdo'h-su-'hun'-in, they might have loved. Passive A^oice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Ilut-doo-dsi-' liuiF, lam loved. E-ddd-dsi-'huiF, thou art loved. Doo dsi-diuiP, he is loved. 'Hut-do'os-'hun^-in, I was loved. E-ddos-'hun''-in, thou weH loved. Dods-'hiiiF-in, he teas loved. Present. Ha-ddd-dsi-'him'', ive are loved. A'e-ddo-dsi-'hun^, you are loved. Hus-doo-dsi-'liiin', they are loved. Imperfect. Ha-ddds-'hun^-fn, ive were loved. T'e-doos-'liuiF-in, you were loved. Hus-doos-'hun^-in, they were loved. Future. Ca-'iiut-gu'h-ddos-'iiiin'', I shall be loved. Ca-e-gu'li-ddos-'liun^, thou shall be loved. Ca-gu'h-dods-'hun^, he shall be loved. Ca-ha-gii'h-ddds-'iiun', we shall he loved. Ca-ye-gn'h-ddos-'huiF, you shall be loved. Ca-lius-gu'li-do6s-'hun', they shall be loved. Perfect. Hut-wod-ddd-dsi-'iiuiF, I was loved. E-woo-doo-dsi-'liun^, thou wert loved. Wdo-ddd-dsi-'hun^, he was loved. Kii-wdo-dod-dsi-'liun^, ive were loved. Ye-wdo-ddo-dsi-'liun', you ivere loved. Hus-wdo-ddo-dsi-'huii', they ivere loved. Pluperfect. 'Iiiit-wdd-ddds-'iiun''-in, I had been loved. E-wdd-ddos-'hiin^-in, thou hadst been loved. AVod-doos- liun'-in, he had been loved. Ha-wod-dods-'hun'-in, we had been loved. Ye-wdd-ddds-'hun^-iii, you had been loved. Hiis-Tvdd-dods-'liiin'-in, they had been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The words oosh (if) and noocm (when) are used to express the subjunctive mood; e. g., diiit-dbb-dsih hwd-dosld , if I am loved; diut-dobs- hun-nbbeni, when I am loved. 740 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. INFINITIVE MOOD. 'Hut-do6s-'hun^-i, {me) io he loved. E-ddos-'liun^-i, {thee) to he loved. Ddds-'hun''-!, {him) to he loved. Present. Ha-ddds-'hun''-i, {us) to he loved. Ye-ddds-'hun^-i, {you) to he loved. Hiis-d<5ds-'him^-i, {them) to he loved. Future. Ca-'hut-gu'h-ddds-'liun''-i, {7ne) toheaho^it to he loved. Ofi-e-gu h-ddds-'hiin^-i, {thee) to he ahoid to he loved. Ca-gu'h-ddds-'hun''-i, {him) to he about to he loved. Ca-ha-gu'h-ddds-'hiin''-i, {us) to he about to he loved. Ca-ye-gu h-dods-'huiF-i, (you) to he about to he loved. Ca-hiis-gu h-dods-'hun^-i, {them ) to hced/out to he loved. Perfect. 'Hut-wdd-dlace, ii-da^. j to rvhat p>lace, goo-da^-su''. 3. ADVERBS OF TIME. vjhen, guat^-gen-si'P, guat’e-sii. now, ye-dfiP. where, goo-dtu-gan'-siP. jmesently or by and by, hli-szb. already, da. just now, dju-ya-sob^. ji rst, shbb-g^iP-nu'l/. next after, yi-nii-da^. 4. ADVERBS This class of adverbs is formed by addii illustrated in the following table: finally, at length, wii-nu-ne^-su'. often, always, all the time, dju-tluqu. never, tlahl. rigid OAvay, djii-ug^. sometimes, wiin-gu-nen. last, iP-da. tlten, iigiP. OF MANNER. ig dan or yuh to a noun, meaning like, as Table of derivatives. Noun. Verb (third person singular). goodness wickedness anger honor sorrow wisdom pride happiness industry hlOosh-C g'an ka-ya-ti-woo-ne' too-woo-'ne'qu yil-koos-g^' tooc-hlu-g6' too-woo-su-goo' too-hlil-szak yu-g'a'. tlahl'-oosh-g'e'. g'ant'-oo-wu-nooc'. kii-ya'-u-woo-wu-na'. doo-too-Avoo-yu-ne'qu. ya-koo-dsi-ga'. tooc-hli-ge'. doo-too-woo-si-goo'. too-hll-szak. Noun. Adjective (partieiple). Adverb. goodness wickedness anger honor sorrow Avisdom pride happiness industry yh-g'a'-yi hlooshi-g'a'-yi g'ant'-oo-Avil-nooc-do ka-ya'-ti-Avoo-wti-nP-yl too-woo'-vti-ne'qu-oo ya-koo-dsi-ge-yi tooc-hli-ge-yl tOO-WOO'-Sl-gOO'-AVOO too-hli-sziik-I g'^-dfin'. hloosh-g'C-dan'. g'iln-dan. kii-ya'-u-woo-ne-dan'. tob-woo'-ne'qu-dan'. ya-koos-ge'-dan'. tooc-hhi-ge-dan'. tdb-Avoo'-su-goo'-dan'. too-hlu-szilk-dan'. GRAMMAR OE^ THE HLINGIT LANGUAGE. 747 Affirmation and negation. yes, iih''. | no, tlfig'. Interrogative Particles. For a full list see Verbs, progressive form. SiL is an interrogative jDarticle used with adverbs of place and time and with inter¬ rogative pronouns. Negative Particles. not, tlahl (denial). I don't, hli (contraction of hWd). not, hlihl (prohibition). | Prepositions and Conjunctions. This class of particles is limited to a few separate forms. Their place is generally supplied by adverbs and by the moods of the verb, kii, and. | dduh', and then. Interjections. of astonishment, tla-gob! hau! sze! ha-do! of pain, u-gu-nii! hob! ofivarning, ii! of joy, he! ^ of understanding, u-hob! guii! wa-doo! of disgust, E ! of impatience, dob ! of coniemjA, ! bb of calling, na! gun! of shame, da! serves you right, huch-gua! XI. — THE SENTENCE —QUESTIONS AND PHRASES. The Sentence. 1. In Hlingft a verb phrase frequently supplies the entire place of an English sentence. 2. The natural order of a sentence is, (1) object, (2) subject, and (3) verb, although this order is not always followed. Words to be emphasized are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. ' Questions Well, what do you want? How are you? What is your name? Who is that? What is this? AVhat did you say? Do you hear? Do you understand English? Where do you live? Let me help you. When will you come to see me? I am tired. I thank you very much. Pardon me! Keep in shore. sm Phrases. Hail, dasii^ e-tbb-wa^ si-gbb? W ii-su^ e-yu-te? WiP-siP e-dbb-wii-siUqu? A-dbb-su/-yii? Dii-su^-ya? Wii-su^ ye-yu-kii? E-yu-u'lV-ch gi^? English gi'' ge-yu-u h^-ch? Gbbg^-su/ yV-e-yu-te? E-et^ kii-du-she. Guat-gen-siP u h-ce-cun^-dac-ge-gbbt^? 'Hut-wob-di cnwetP. Tlu h gob-nil’ hl-chesh^ ya^-ye-yu h-si-kii. Djti adiV yiV-nu-bb! Yiln da. 748 EDUCATION REPORT, J904. Keep from shore. I understand. The north wind is blowing. Who was that? Whom do you want? Which do you want? Where did these things come from? I went to his house. The dogs follow him. Is that right? (Reproof.) Come in! AVhat’s the news? Fine weather! That will do! Let us sing. Let us pray. Listen to me. Jesus loves you. Christ died for us. I want to be baptized. Do you believe in God? I believe in Him. Duk da. Ahob. Hdon woo dob wii nbbk. A dob sfC-yu? Adob'-sii e^ tbb wiC si gob? Dii kob ii-su^ e tob wii si gob? Gbb-duTi lit sii-wa? Dob hiC-i da-Tiwii-gobt. Catl shob wbb gobt. Ayuh lik wa? Na’hl-gobG Wii-siU shcu-doo’hl-nec? Kbb-ti^-cu-diin^! Da-iC-wa! Ut-gii' h-t Tweyi iy-th ird Psa Irn . 1. Dici' An-kau' 'hiit-hlii-tin'-i-'h-si-te, tlahl' tsdd dii-su' u'h-tdd-\vii'-gd6‘h-si-gdd'. 2. Szdd-yii’h'-yu-te-yi cu-yii-m' ii'-yun-cii' w-si-ii-yi-ya'g^ 'hut-dds-'hc'’ch; 'hiit- ji-nu-tiin'ch hlcdd-di-na'-koo g(idn gii-yii'h-da'. 3. TJ'h-yu-hii-yi' kdo’h-us-godt’ch': yii-g'a'-yi koo-dd li-yi'li' yii-nu-iit da yic'-da 'hiit-ji-nii-tun'ch dod sii-yi' tdd-wii'-dii'h'. 4. A, djdd-god-nii' ii' kdd-cu’-w-dji git-i iiu-iiu' giic-i' iiii'h yuc-quti-gddt', dju-iiii tirdil' dii-kdd ’hlddshi-g'a'-yi-tit' sii' ii' cii-tic gaahl 'ha dl': ha u'h-en yii-ne lit'-ich; E yii-ye-tsii'-gii-yich 'hiit-tw-hli-tsen. 5. U'h-yii-nii-yi' wak-she-yeg'" u'h-giis ut-cii'h'-yu-ne-shech; giiDL'’ch 'hiit-she- hlii-mch'; u'h gdd'-g^a-yi u-ga'-nii'h cii-nuhl-wiiDL'-iiodch.^ 6. Ha gdi'gii, djii-wii'-ye-cod-wiiDL'-su' kod-'liii-ste-yi', E g'a-yi' kii E tod-hlii-iin-i' u'h-ciig^' yiic'-gua'-te': kii Dici' An-kau' hiti'-yeg^ ya''hut-gdd-gua-te' dju-tla'h. GRAMMAR OF THE HLINGIT LANGUAGE. 751 The Ten Commandments. I. lilihF tsoo u'h dtak’g^ An-kau'-wdo'h ut-ye-hlu-ya'h-jLk'. II. Hlihl cod-te^ya yi-hlu-ya'h-ik^, dju-diit yu-ha-yU su^, djoo dicF-dii'h^ lit/, djoo ya' di-ye^-dulF iiU, kii djoo aoL^ tu-ye-du'h^ liU: hlihk li-ya-dcV DLiit-cu'h ye-du- CHodn-ik^, ka hlihl u-je-yis^ ya-je-nak^: ha 'hiiU, ye An-kau', od-iit-yu-ne-qu do An- kaii^-wdd'h 'hut-si-te, ha li ish^ litis'' hlddsh-ga^-yF giig^^ 'hid woo-'hu-je-ndoch djdd niisz-ci a ka djoo da-gooh ii wddsh-e-ti'lF yan-dii-wiit 'hut-shi-g^un-i. Wddsh-e-ti- ytihg^i; ii-dti'li ti'li-tdo-hlu-an-i^ kod-ii ti-wak-shi-yeg^ ya'-da-'hii-na^-nddch shii-yu- di-han-i ant-ke-ni^, 'hut-si-'litin-i ii kii ii'h yu-gti-tun^c-i dldong-cut' iihl-tiii a. III. HIihF yii-kti-ti'h^ ye-hlti-ya'li-ik^ ddd sii-yF Dici^ An-kau', ye An-kaiF; tlahh Dici^ Aii-kau^-wddch djii-ii-drU-yac^-guid-dd u hh3dsh-g''a-yi^ ddd sii-yF yti-kti-ti'h' iihl-ye'h ii. lY. IJ-ciiY-ye-su-nu-te Sunday, hlddhl-tddc-daiY yi-'hlu-tiii^. Tla-doo-shdo^ ytic-ye gii^- nti'lY yii'h-m-sii-ne ye yiV-ji-na-yY kii djtihi-du-cuY ye-diit tiU: ha dd'h-ii-ddo-shdo' ii yiic-ye kdda Dici Aii-kau, ye An-kau^, ytic-ye-yi'h^ si-te: tictit’ hlihl dii-kdd yid-ji-ne sii yiV-di-nfik^, djoo ye-whiin^, djoo ye yeU, kii djdd ye se^, ye kY-cdd-kun''-nii-yi ka djdd ye shiiwiit^-cdd-kiin^-nii-yi, kii djdd ye cniis-i^, kii djdd ye nahl-ig''^ ya^-yii-te-yi gdd-nu-yu-quiin^: ha tla-ddd-shdo'' yiic-i^e giU-nti'h^ Dick An-kaik-wddch yiin-wdd- hli-ye'tk dick kii yii'' DLut’c^, yik aoL^ kii djiihl-dti-cuk u-cik ya^-yu-te-yi-iik, ii-du'h dii-'hii-ddd-shdd'' ii yiic-ye cut wdd-dli-sii^: uch Dici An-kau-wddch ivddhli-ga''’w- dti'hu-ddd-shdd^ ii yiic-ye kii u’ w-hli-tddc-tsdd'. Y. A"e ish^ kii ye tlid' gu-yii^-u-yu-gl-nY, ii-gik Dick An-kaik, ye An-ka,uk-wddcli ye- jet dd-wu-te-yi OLiikcug^'' yec-gua-yiidk ye kdds-te-yk. Illihk ke-juk"-'hik. YI. Illihk ye-toos-gook'. YII. YIII. Illihk ti-ye tau^-wook. IX. Illihk ye 'hddn-i-hlingik dii-dii'h^ sh’ kii-ylhk-yShl-'hik. X. Hlihk ye diddn-i-'hlingit hitk dii'h^ u-cl-dti-nddg'-ddk, hlihl ye 'hdon-i-hlingik shtik ye-tdd-wii-dds-gddk kii djdd kii-ddo-cdd ktin-nii-yi, kii dj-tun (impera¬ Crab Szau' tive) Cradle Dtobc Cloud k-do-gilsz Cranberry Kash-cii-ha'-gdo Coal Dtobdj-te Crazy (man) Cu-nfi-shob'-szati Coat Ci-na-fit' Cripple ’Hlfi-kfich'-c Cock Ga-szu-wil' Crooked (it is) C6w-ji-tCg Cod (fish) Sziig' Cross (of Christ) Cfi-nast (corruption of Coffin kii-dii-ca-di' English) Cold kdo-su-fidt' Crow Dtsu wha’hl Collar Su-dii; u-su-gdb' Crumbs Ut-cfi-ga’hl-tl Comb cnfi'ddb Crutch Wob-tsil-gii' Come here Ha-gdb' Cry Ga'h Comet Ce-wa-ka-wdb-CHdb-dsf' Curious Cfi-sl-ya/ Comfort, to T(X)-’hlvi-tla Curly Cou-dll-cdbdj Comforter kii-tof) ’hlu-tla-woo Current Hiit Communion (Lord’s I)ici An-kau fit 'hii-yl' Custom (old) Tlfi-gob-kdbs-te-yi' Supper) Cut, to Ut-wdo-CHiish (with a Confess, to A’fin-fit-cfi-wob-nec knife) Consider, to Ut-da-yfi-tcX)-tfinc' 1). Dance U-DLfl'h Dirt Dja'-g.Ib Dangerous Cob-' h 1 i-' had^'-shfi n' Dish SZ!g' Dark (it is) koc)-cou-jl-glt' Dizzy Da-yii-kbb-gfit'-ch Daughter Se' Dog Call Day Yiic-ye Dollar Dfin'na (corruption of Dawn ke-ge English) Dead Wbb-na (is dead) Door Gfi-hiit' Deaf TIlkw’hl-fi'h'-ch Dream Jbbn' Death Ku-nfi Dress DLilC Deep Gii-dlan Drink, to Ut-dii-nfi' Deer Gob-wfi-ciin Drowned Hen'-ch ya’w'-sl-ne Defense kil-yl-na-hat'-l Drum Gan Descend Yii-wbb-gbbt Dry CHbbc Devil Tllbbshi-ke-yi-iit' sziitl' Dust Cu-dun'-ja Dinner Yfic-ye-ut-'ha-yi' E. Ear Gbbc' Englishman Can-jbbch-wan' (corn;p- Earth Dlilf'c tion) Easy Tla’hl'-bb’hl-dse Enough Da' Eat, to Ut-'hfi Evening CHii'na Ebb, to Ahl-nfi-’hlan' Everlasting ’Hldb-na'h Fgg Gua'dt Evil ’Illbbsh-kC Elbow Dte'-shbb Eye ka-wiik Empty ’Hl’cbb-dfi-fit' F Face kii-yii' Fear, to U-cdb’hl 'hfidf' Faith Ut-k-fi-hen; Feast kdo-eg' Fall, to Wbbs-get Feed, to kii-gYh'-ut-te'h Far Nii-hla' Feel, to Dbb-'hua-nbbc (I felt) Fast Tla-qu' Fence Kfi-nii'-hfin' Fat TI; wbb-dll-nitl (heisfat) Fight, to kbb-’hlu-gau Father ish Find, to Ut-wdb-dta ENGLISH-HLINGIT VOOABULAKY Finger ka-dlak Food ka-gu-'hun-iit' Finished (it is) Yun-dd-wu-ne' Fool (See crazy) Fire Giin Foot kil-gdos Fish 'Iliit' Forehead la-ciik Flag An-qua-yi; cunnil Forget U-cut'-e-su-gil-’koo Flame Gun-yu-DLoddt' Fox Nii-gu-sza' Flesh Die Free Dldoth'-du'h' Flood kesz' Freeman dk'i-tuqu-kil' Floor Dtii'-cik Friend ka-'hodn-F Flour Su-qu-nan' cu-CHooc Frog CHiCH'-dj Fly, to Yan-du-kiii' Frost Cu-CHwan Foam ■He’ hi Frying-pan Cdd-sddz'ea-yf\t Fold, to Ut-cu-’hlu-kwa'-dt Full Sha-wii-hic' Follow ka-iF'h-wdd-gddt Fur ‘Ilau G. Garden Ti' Gold Goon' (corruption) Gather, to Wddsh-c ii-d a'-y a'-ti t-d ii- Good Yu-ke-yi nH'' Grand father ’Illl-’hl-koo Girl Shat-kuts'-kdd Grand mother ’Hli’hl koo Give, to kii-jcH-ut-wdo-tF Grass Sobk Gladness Tod-wod-su-gdd' Grave (tomb) kil-da-ca-di' Glass in'; idt'-ch Green Szod Go, to Wdd-gddt Gun do'na God Dici An-kaii H. Hair Shu-'liii-woo' Heel kii-ga-tu'qu Half U-shob-wdd' Hell Dlye' Halibut Chiitl Help, to kdb'h'Y1u-she Hand lia-jin' Hide, to U-wdb’hl-sen Handle Ut-SUCH-oo'-tl Hill Gooch Hang (to be hanged) Ast-wdd-ddos-yak Hip kil-kiich' Hang Y u'h-da k-y u- wdd-a'h Hold, to Ut-ddo’hl-shut'-l Happy Too-wdb'-si-gdb'-wdo Horn Ut-sha-dl' Hard ’Hli-dse' Hot Ya-wu-dtil' Hat SzaCRoo' House Hit' Hate kdb-shu-kan Hunger Yiin Head kil-shu' Hunt, to Yu-nc'qu (it hurts) Hear, to kdbddo-ti'h'-yi Hurry! Tlii'qu Heart kii-ta g' Husband ka-'hdb'h' Heaven Dici Hymn Shi' Heavy Yu-du’hl Ice i Dtcg Intestines Ut-nas-i' Idle (lazy) oos-cii Iron Gu-yasz'; ik-yasz' Inside Na’hl Island Giidt' Interpreter ka-gu-cu-nec-1' Itch Ch-CRwatl J. Jade Szdd-t(5 Jealous db'-ut-ne'qu Jail Gu-yasz'-da-cu-hit'-l Joy Tdb-wdb'-su-gdd Jaw kJ-giisz Jump, to Ca-wdc)sh-kan' K. Kerosene Szena'-tdo-e'h-l' Knee kii-co Kettle kwatl' Kneel Yvln-tdt'g-wcm-tsoo' Key Cvi-teg'-il Knife ’Hli'-tii Kick, to kdb-wdb-tsrdi Knit Cus-ne' Kill, to kdb-wdb-jak Knock, to Cu-du-gua’hl’-sz King salmon Dtu' Know, to Ut-wdbs-cdb' Kiss, to ka-gat'-yii-wdbs-u' 756 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Lace Cii-gfi'-dii Life koos-tl' Lake A' Light Ch gun' Lame ’Hlh-kuch'-c Liniment ka-dil-niisz-i' Lamp Szena' Lip ka-kti-’hldb' Land dlut'-o Listen, to kil-gat'-wdos-ah Laugh Ut-shdbk Lock, to Ut-gat'-cu-wdo’hl-tag' Leaf Cvi-yan-i' Log *Hau (drift-log or fallen Learn, to Shtob-ut-cob’hl-gdoc'-ch tree) Leather Ut-ciiush'-tl Long Yu-yudt' Left (side) Szudt'-nu'h-ti' Look, to U-wob’hl-gan Leg kii-guts'^ Lose, to kdot-ht-wob-geg' Leggins (leather) Guan' Loud ’Hli-gaii Leprosy (sores) Dlobk Love kdb-su-'hCin' Liar kii-’hlu-ya’hP szatl Lumber Ch-gilsz'-ti Lice Wosz' Lungs ka-cil-gdb' Lid Ut-yun-ildt'-u-nl kl. Maggot Woon Miracle kii-ya'-kobt-wob-ne-yi- Maiden Shat-k yii'-ji-ne' Make, to Ut-’hlu-ya'h Missionary kbb'-ut-’hlu-tbb'-wdo Mamma Tie' Mittens Tsag' Man ka' Money Dbn'nii (dollar) Marry, to U-woo-shtl' Month Dis' (moon) Mast Szis'a-tdb-as-P Moon Dis' Master kii-szatP Morning Dtsbo-tiit Mat (grass) Gilch (see carpet) Mosquito Ta'-gti Mate U-ya-yP Moss Szi-g(-ga Measure, to Ut-dob-cil-yl' Mother Till' Meat Die Mountain Shil Medicine Nii'qu Mouse Coo-dtsen Melt, to Ch-wdb'hl-’hla Mouth G6' Messenger kob-ga'-nh-gdot-i' Mud kdbdl-c Midnight Tilt-yen Multitude Ant-kc-nl' Milk DLil-tdb-'hun' ; Muscle Die (flesh) Mind kii-tw-wob' 1 Muslin Gdbg'-szl'sii N. Nail Tw-hil'-yi Nest Coot' Nail (finger) kii-'haqu Net Ga-wdb' Naked Cu’hl-dii-gu'qu New Yes' Name Sii Night Tat Neck kii-’hli-deg' Noisy 'Hli-gau Needle Tii'-gUDL Nose kil-’hldb' Negro Dtbbdj'-kii' Now Ye-dut' Neighbor kii-'hobn-i-’hlingit'-i Nurse Yut'-su-hiln'-I 0. Oar U-'hii'coo-du-yudt' Ouch! bb! Ocean Adl (salt) Owl Dsis' koo Oil E'h P. Paddle U'hil' Patch Te' Paint Ne'-guaDL' Pay (indemnity) ka'gi Pale dfa’hP Peace Goo-wu-ciin; cti-yaPL' Pan Gu-yasz'-szig' People ’Hlingit Pants Tdb-ku-ta’hP Person ’Hlingi’t Paper (see book) G'dbg' Pig Gbb'-shbb; shu-clin'-ga Paralyzed ’Hloo-\vhuch'-c (R) ENGLISH-HLINGIT VOCABULAEY. 757 Pilot-bread GiltP Play tJsh-cod’hl-yiit' Pillow Shu-yat Pocket Gh’hl-tdditus-cti-gua’hl' Pin Ge'-guuDL' Poor ku-nush-gdd-da' Pincers Yu-kdb'-dsa Prayer Gu-giig' Pinch kdo-dtsik’t Preach, to Sh-ch’hl-nec Pilje Szek-dil-cat Provision ka-gu-'hun-ut'-l Pitch kobg' Ptarmigan Ciig Pity Tobs-gu-na'h Push, to Ca-kdo-wdd-godk Plate Szig' Q. Quarrel Du-kiin j Question, to ka-gh wdd-v.'ddsz' Queer Gu-si-ya' i: 1. Rice Raft X ‘Hii-nusz' CodCH Rag Ut-szaDL-1 Rich ’Hlu-na’hl'-'h Rain SC’-w' Right (side) She-nii'h-u' Rat Cdo-dtsen Ring, to Gua’hl (imperative) Raven Ya’hP Ring Dl^k-cu-ces' Raw ’Hli-shisz'-k Ripe Yun-ca-wu-dta' Razor kii-yu-yg'h'-a River Yh'h-ca-wu-da-yi-hen' Read, to Du -tod' Road Da Ready, to be Yun-kdd-wdd-n6-yi' Roll, to Ut'-ut-cii-wdo-guatP-i' Red Giin Rope Tig Relative kii-en il Rough Cu-si-guch’oo Remember, to Ut-’cut-ka-sfi-te'-yP Round Tod’hl-djun'-yii'h' Rest Wdd’hl-siP Rubber Sze’hP Ribs kii-szodk-do Run, to Wdd-shcCH s. Sail Szis'ii 1 Snow Dlat Salmon •Hcit' 1 1 Soap dosz'-ii Salt Adl 1 ! Soft Cu-shi-guaDL'-shim' Sand DLa'’ w Son Yet Saw CHush'-ii ; Song (see hymn) SM Scissors kii-shu-CHiish'-a j Sorrow Tdd-wdd'-ne'qu Scream Cu-du-gah 1 Soul ka-yuc-gua-ha'-yil-gdo Seal, hair Tsil 1 South ICH-ce', da-ce' Seal, fur Goon' Speak, to Yu-gu-tune' Servant Coo-kfui'-a Spirit (see shadow) ka-yu-hii-yi' Sew, to Du-kasz' [ Spirit (Holy) ’Hldo’ht-I-todc-dd, Ka Shade Che'-gi yfi-hii-gl' Shadow ka-yii-ha-yp Spoon Shft’hP Shaman i'h-dt Stairs Dsiit Sharp Yil-kudts' Stand, to Y’lin-wdd-hau Shirt kod-dusz' Star kdo du‘h-u-yu-nu-hil^ Shoes Te’hP Steal, to Ut-tiin' Sickness Ne'qu Steam Gu-qu'-ja Sin ’Hld6sh-k6' Steer, to Yu-wdo’hl-iit Sinew Tus Step, to Cu-wdd’hl-yfisz' Sing, to trt-shi Stockings DLe-guan Sister (elder) Shvit'h (female speak- Stomach ^ii-yu' ing) Storm (wind) U-you-dl-te (it blows) Sister Dliig' or dlak (male Strong Hli-tsen (he is strong) speaking) Study (see read) Dii-tdd' Skin Dodc Suddenly Dju-yuk'oo-dh'h' Sky Gddsz' Summer kob-tiin Sled CHidta-yat Swallow, to Ut-wdb-ndd'dt Sleep Tti Sweep, to Wdo-du-CHe'dt Smell, to Ut-is-neg' Sweet ’Hll-nddc-ts (it is sweet) Smile, to tjt-cti-nrx)ts-‘h Swim, to Ush-cdo-du-dla-ja Smoke Szak Swollen Wdb-di-kuch (it is swol¬ Sneeze, to U’hl-dtsts' CHuii len. 758 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. T. Table Nti-da'qu Tide kes'z Tail DLet Tie, to Ut-cil-wbb-dbbg' Talk, to Yu-gu-tun'c Tired (he is) Wdb-di-CHwbtl' Tell, to Cu-nil-nec (imperative) Tobacco Gilnch' Tent Szlsa-hit' Toes ka-gbbs-dZ^k Thank you Gob-nil ‘hl-chesh' Tongue kii-DLbbdt Thick Ya-qu'-si-cac Tool Ut-shil-gbbn'-l' Thimble fZ/ek-shhnil-ut' Tooth kii-bb'h Think, to Yu-tdb-tun'c Towel Yil-gufin'-a Thread (see sinew) Tils' Trade Dil-hbbn Throat ka-Tila-cil-chbog' Tree As Thunder CHiltl Truth Ga-ga-ilt' U. Umbrella Ca-dil-klnch-szacii'oo 1 Upright Cin-dil-choon' Understanding Da-ya-ilt-kbb-shdb-sil-gf' 1 Urinate, to U-’hiobg' Vacant Tla hl'-db-dil-kiit' (it is i Village An vacant) Voice Se' Vein Tedt 1 Vomit, to i’hl-kdb' v:. Walk, to WbbHh-cat'-Avdb-du-gbbt Wind bbCH'-jil Want, to k a-tdb-wii'-ut-sil-gbb' Window ■Hi-wak-1' Warm Yil-dta Wing Cich' Wash, to Dil-dbs'z-c Winter Tiiqu' Water Hen' Wolf Gooch Wave Tet Woman Sh;i-wilt' Weather kdb-ti' Wood DLbb-wdb' Wet (it is) Wdb-di-d/ilk' Word Yil-kil' Whisky Nan Work Ya'-jl-ne' White Dhlt (snow) Write, to Cilsh-CHet Wife Shut' Y. Year (winter) Tii'qu Yet Djil-iin Yellow Djak-jin-dil-yi'-yu'h' You Wa-e' Yes Ah Young Yes' (new) Yesterday Tilt-ge' hlingIt'-english vocabulary. A' (rising inflection) Lake A-nil'h-kdbc-dobs-hadt'- A' (falling inflection) Yes ye' Cemetery A-da'-nil-bb Excuse Ant-ke-nb' Multitude Adl Ocean (salt) As Tree, or trees Adt Cold As-dii Trunk of tree An Village (town) As-dii-she-yi Branches An-cu-j'eh'-a Plane As-gob-tbb Forest An-da-bbnii Cannon Ashilt Steel-head fish An-dii-tobch Ant, or insect Ast-wbb-dbbs-yak To be hanged An-da-ya-gti-db' Boat At Aunt An-dob-ka-u' Scales At-lan Large, very much An-kau An-qua'-yi Lord, chief Flag . A-yil'h-b'-wa-gwu'tl To capsize 769 HLINGIt' -ENGLISH VOOABDEAEY. Cac Ca'cllti'-dii-yasz Ca-du-kineh szaciroo Cag' Ciig' Cagdo' Ca-kdo-wdd-godk Can'-i Ca-nu-gdot' Ca-shlsli' Cast Catl Ca-u-'h^goo'li tit' Ca’w dsl-glt' Ca-j^a-nddc-ch-ut Ce' Cec' Ceg' Ce-jiu-kiis Ce-jin-ut-du'kle Ces Get' Chiic CHil'-ddd Cliaii CHii'-iia Chas CHat-cu' CHatl Chatl CHdoc CHa/tl-tii-ga-yi Che gl Chen CHlCH-dj CHld-tit CHdoc cnddd-st' CHdon Chod-nat CHOdtS Chech Chii-ctiu CHudta-yat Chun CHti-qu CHush-a CHwa CHwiis-da Clch Cich 'h-ii-nti-gat Ci-na-ht' Cin'da Cin'da-CHod-nat Da' (rising inflection) Da' (falling inflection) Da' (rising inflection) Da' (falling inflection) Da-du-shddch Da-ce G Uncle ! Seagull (gray) > Umbrella Forehead Chicken (grouse) ; Lungs To push Brother-in-law or sister- in-law To ascend ! Alder Barrel i Dog I Bedstead To awake | Chair : Knee I Abreast Younger brother or sis- ■ ter Five yards ' Five pounds Bracelet Orca (whale killer) Skeleton Comb i Mother-in-law Night, or evening Pink or humpback sal¬ mon i Breast (chest) Thunder ; Dried halibut Big sand fly i Shade Fly (house) ; Frog j Broom i Dry ■ Smouldering coals North wind Arroiv (sharp-pointed) Cinnamon bear Porpoise i Hay or dead grass ‘ Sled I Odor I Beach Saw i Bachelor Burlap Wing Rainbow Coat Upward Duck (mallard) Cin-dti-choon Clfidt Clilg'-dis Cliig-ta’qu' Clag'-yu’k-ye ClbTi-dta Cdd-CH Cdd-CHe-dii Coo-CHe'-da Cdd-dja'-dta Cdb-dtsen Cdd-hll-'hadr-shtin-i Cdb-han-tl Cook Gdd-ktin-a Coon Cddsh-da Coot Cob te' ya Cu-can Cti-CHwa'h Cu-CKwaii Cu-dag' Cu-dtig-a Cu-dtig-a-yat Cu-du-guahl-sz Cu-dun'-ja Cu-gu-da Cu-gtin' Cu-g'usz'-tl Ctihl-da-gu'-qu Cti’hl-szach-k Cu-hll-szbbCH-db' Ctihl-tehl-k Cu-jukoo Cu-ka-djii-dl Cu-nast Cu-nu-dtfi Cfi-nu-nec Cu-nu-shdb'-szat-l Cush-CH-et Ctish'-CHet' Cu s hl-gua D L-shti n Cu-si-g'fa-CH™ Cu-si-ya' Cus-na Cu-sun Cu-tCg-a Cix-tit' Cu’w dj 1-teg' Cu’W' dll cdbdj Cii-wdbhl-yasz Cu-wbot ' Cu-yaDL Cu-yan-1 Dag'-ga-ddb-gtig' ‘h-t^ Da-nii-qu Da^na-shbb-ya'h Dan Da-wii' Da-wii-'tu-ye-dta'-yl Upright To lick with the tongue One moon One year, one winter One day Red cedar boards Rice Writing or print Pen or pencil Ball Mouse or mice Dangerous Orphan Pit Servant Hem Otter (land) Nest Totem pole Yarn Cranberries (high) Hoar frost Shame Pestle Mortar Knocking Dust Veil or netting Light Lumber Naked Bareheaded Sour Barefooted Adept Tattoo marks Cross Huckleberries (high) Tell (thou) Drunkard, or crazy Calico, or print To write Soft Rough Queer To knit Waist Key Covering Crooked Curly To step Beads Peace, or calm Leaves Altar Talisman, or charm 50 cents’ ivorth Seaweed (English dulse) Checkers Checker board Enough Road, or path Please Ermine Bathing Oceanward 760 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904, Da-ya-koo-gut'h Dizziness Ddd His, hers, its D:l-ya-iit-koo-shoo-su-ge' Knowledge, or under¬ Dooc Skin standing Ddoc Cotton tree Dig or deg Back Doo-nah-DLac Chemise Dici An-kau Lord, or chief; God Dddsh Cat Dis Moon Ddd-oz Soot Di'-ye' Place of honor, oppo¬ Ddot Hiccough site entrance Ddo-wii-cu' Snuff Di-ye' Below Dsiis Thongs DjciDL Pale Dsat Steps, ladder Djag' Thimhlebcrries Dsis-kco Owl Djiig' Eagle Dsdd-na Missile D jag-1' Index finger Dsiin'-tl Flounder Djag'-jinnI Yellow Dtii Board Dja-qu Long ago Dtii-cil Floor Djen Braid of hair, hair rib¬ D til-goo Wart bon Dtah Fishhook for trout Djet-gii' Skate Dtiin Woof Djdo More Dtiiu Long feather Djdd-da'h Both Dtii-wuk' Goose Dju-iin Yet Dteg' Ice, hard Dju-gdd-nu-a Another one Dte-shdd Elbow Dju'lil-dti-cut Everyone, all Dti Heat, sweat Dju-tltiqn Always Dti-cu' Alongside Dju-yu-g'(5d Right away, quickly Dtls-qu Moose (llAc Dress Dtddc Cradle Dlii-dti-dan' Sidewise Dtdddj Charcoal, black Dlag Wet wood Dtdodj-kii' Negro Dlag' Sister (male speaking) Dtdodj-t6 Coal dl&k Finger Dtsiich Ground hog dZak-cu-cea Finger ring DtGii-yi Fragrance fdak-shii-na-ut' Thimble Dts-hin' Muskrat Dla-k\vil-dj Wild rhubarb Dtsdo-tiit' Morning Dlat Snow, white Dtsod-tiit-I-ut-'ha-yl Breakfast Dlat-ka White man Dtsii-whl'hl Crow Dlat•sha-^vtit' White woman Dtu King salmon dZa-tiiqu-ka' Free man Dtu-coT)-na'-yI Baby, infant DLa’dd Sand Du-iic Weaving, basket Die Meat, muscle Du-CHicdt-qu Sweeping DLe Blanket Dh-gilt'-ge'-ya' Humming bird DLe-g'aan Stockings, socks Dii-hdon Selling I) Let Tail (of mammals) Dii-kiin Quarreling BLOOC Tyu salmon Du-kasz' ■Sewing DLdddt Tongue Dii-nCiqu-sz Halibut fishing. DLdddt-tlak Snake, or serpent Du-nuqu-szi Orion Dl(X)g-tl Worm Du -do' Buying dlod'k Sore rXi-ddsz'-c Washing DLdd-wdd Wood Du-saqu Breath Dldd-wdd-ahu‘hl Wooden spoon Du-shddch Bathing Dlut-c Country, land Dti-tdd' Reading, counting Do! Interjection Don'nii Dollar (corruption of English) E. Ek' (rising inflection) E 1 Thy, thine On the beach E! Exclamation of disgust E'k (falling inflection) Copper Ech Reef, or rock Ek-niidj' Brass E'da Phosphor es (in water) En-ii Relative E-e-t^ Your seat En-wdd Food taken from a feast Eg' Brother (female speak¬ Et Room ing) Et-cii' Inner room Eg' Call, hallooing Et-1 In its place E'h Oil, grease HLIKGIT -ENGLISH VOCABULAEY 761 G. G'a Peninsula G'ddDL Buttocks Ga' Is that so! G'oodl Whirlpool Gac Canyon G'ddDL-dan Excitement (iil-ch Woven mat Gdd-dusz Shirt Gii-CHoo Ducks G'ddg' Paper, book G'a-DL Silence G'dcig Gum, pitch, resin Ga-DL Clams Godg'-ii Cup, dipper Ga-DL Hair oil, skunk cabbage Gdd'h Rabbit Ga-dlan Deep water Gdo'h Slave G'adt Island Gddk'-shdd-tdb Corner G'ag' Apple Goon Fur seal Gag Leanness Goon Cold spring G'agii Really, honestly Gdd-nil'-shish' Molasses (corruption of Gii-g'oo Herring eggs English) Ga'h Weeping G'dondts Potatoes Gak Lynx Gddn-'ha Abalone shells Gak Gray fox G'ddn-sd' How much, how many Gan' (rising inflection) Out of doors Gdd-nu-'hl-chesh' Thank you Giin' (falling inflection) Smoke hole Gdd-nu-ka Some one else Gan Fire, red, sun God-nu-ut Something else GHln Anger God-nti-yn-ciuan Strangers G'as Waterfall Gods Feet G'ash Thigh Gods-ddlkl Toes Ga'sh-g'do Blue jay, navy blue Gddsh Thumb Giisz Foundation posts Gddsha' I don’t know Gilt Silver salmon Godsh-til-ka Gorilla Ga-ta' Trap Gdds-tac Soles of feet Giitl Hard-tack, tree fungi G'ddsz' Whip (for weapon) Ga-td-qu Heel, or heels Gddsz Sky Gau Bell, drum, time Gddsz-gl-quan White men Ga-wdd' Seine (net) Gdo'tl Arrow (blunt) Ge Bay Gdd-wu-can Deer G6 Mouth G'uadt Eggs Gee Stern of a boat Gua'hl Bag Ge-g'uaDL Pin Guahl-a Dagger Ge-hen-i Saliva G'uahl-'h Fern root (edible) Gehl-ja' West wind G'u'-da File Ge'hl-ja-tlan Strong wind G'u-deg'-l Cork (stopper) Gen Totemic painting in a GuDL-dil-ya'-yl Snipe house Gu-gil Edge G'es Swelling, boil GCi-gan Sun Gesli Kelp Gu-hat Door G'e-sha' Pail, bucket Gu'h-dod-god' Rabbit skin Get' Squall Gu'hl-scaz Squirrel G'l Haunch Gun Firewood G'l-dat Skirt piece (dancing Gu-na'h-i Saviour costume) Gtineh Tobacco GIdl Cliff, precipice Gun-eti Ashes Gidla Grindstone Gun-ten-ya-qu Steamer Gi-dOn Stand \ip Gun-yu-dldddt Tongues of fire, blaze Gin-cha'-yl Roses Gu-qu'-ja Steamer G'I-san-1 Boys Giisz Jaw Gddc Ear Gusz-du-tag' Chewing Gddc' Go ahead ! GuAv diin Horse (Chinook) G Odell Wolf Gu wddhl Doorway Gooch Hill Gu-yasz Iron, steel G'ooch Marten Gu-yas'z-da-cd-Mt'-i Jail, prison Gdo-cu-jash Earrings H. Ha' Our, or ours ■Ha War, Avarriors Ha But 'Ha-cd-Avat Long oars Ha' This (demonstrative Ha-da' This Avay (adv.) pronoun) Ha-da That AAmy (adv.) Ha' What? (ansAver to call) Had? Dung 762 EDUCATION SEPOET, 1904. Hu-dtii 'Hii-iiiisz' 'Hii-qu Hiisz Hiit 'Hat' (rising inflection) 'Hiit' (falling inflection) 'Hau' (rising inflection) Hau 'Hii-wak-i Hii-wii'sa He! 'He 'He-ni/ He-gi' 'He-hr Hen 'Resh' He-ya' 'Hi' Hi’h'-ch Hit' HIt-cu' Hit-ci\-dta-yl Hit-tu-e-ti 'Hi-wak'-i Hla-cii-chddg Hla-goo Hla'h Hlah-1 Hlii-kiisc Hle’hl-kao Hll That one Raft of logs Nails (finger) Nausea Current Fish Hair, or fur Log (floating) Fallen tree, log Window Certainly Exclamation of delight Burden, pack Shoulder Slime (on fish) Indian doctors’ pay Foam Water Rash Exclamation of impa¬ tience Yellow cedar Frog House Roof Shingles House foundation Vv'indow Throat (outside) Red paint for face Dead tree, blasted Flabby Seaweed Grandmother or grand¬ father Don’t Idt'-ch I'hdt Glass Indian doctor Jii! Ja'-jl Jl-'lnln-tit Jin Jin-ciit Jin-di Keep still, hush Snow shoes Weapon Hand, or hands Ten Sleeve kii' (rising inflection) kii' (falling inflection) kii' (falling inflection) Ka-cu-cnwan kii-da-cat-l Kiidf kii-du-gdo kii-en-il-hiis Ka-g'»“ kii'-gboc'h kii-gobs kii-gdos-e-tl' Kii-goos-gdosh kii-gti -cti-nec-1' ka-gu-'hiin-ut'-I kii-gvits ka-nii Man One’s own And (conjunction) Flowers Coffin, dead house Thin It’s skin One’s relatives A cut from a knife Man alone Foot (its) Footprints Large toe Interpreter Provision Leg (its) Awl i J. K. Hli-aDL Hli-deg Hli-giis Hli-gau Hll-hl Hlingit Hli-ndbc'-ts Hli-obs Hli-sa-yi Hli-shisz'-k Illi-ta Hli-tobch Hli-tsen Hloc)' Hldf)-cu-n.ti 'Hldbdt Hloog HI dbg 'anil Hldbhl Hldb'hl-jinnl Hldbn Hldb-nfis Hl-szilti-shawut 'Hob 'Hobd-tii 'HdcVh Hdbn'h 'Hbbn-i' Ilbbts'-il-nbo Huch-gfia Hun 'Hull Hus ’Hut in-ge-shii ish J 1-shu-gbbn Jobe! Jugii Jun Jun-wdb Kii-na-woo' Ka-na-wbb-gfi'-da Kiis kiish ka'-.shan kash-efi-hii'-gdo kashu-CHush'-d Kas-shbb-wdb Kasz Aa-sz-ook-oo kii-te ka-tbb-wdb-u-cdb-a-qu- iit Ka-yfis-da-kfi-htit-l ka-5ulc-gud-ha'-yti-gbb kii yu-hii-yi kdbdl-G Salty Nape of neck Unlucky, unlawful Loud Negative particle The people, a person Sweet Mischievous Famous, well known Raw Knife Fresh (meat or fish) Strong Nose Minor sorcerers Eels Urine Handkerchief Fire weed Vest Bark of spruce or hem¬ lock Nose ring Widow Among Adze Husband Elder brother (male speaking) Friend Native whisky Serves you right! Standing Near They, or them I, or me Bottle Father Tools Begone Sling Dream Sheep Corpse Burial feast Yard Hip Oid man Cranberries (low) Scissors Half a yard Stick-splinter Its rib Chin (his) Temptation Prison The soul Shadow, spirit, picture Mud, earth HLIISGIT -ENGLISH VOCABULARY 763 kooclil-dii Shovel kdd-od Inhabitants k od-du'h-u-yu-nti-liu ' Star, or stars Kou-od-wod Home or homes kod-eg' Feast Koo-sii-adt A cold kdd-eg'-l Invited guests koo tiiii Summer Kodg' Witch kdo-ti' Weather koo-gii-nu-gddt-i Messengers sent to in¬ Kod-tle''-ta' Shovel (large) vite Kil-ne'q-da-kd-hit'i Hospital kdo-gtisz Fog Kil-nush-gu-da Poor kdd-goosz kdo’h-da Cloud or clouds Backward ku-qu Basket N. Nil' Clan Nequ Sickness, pain Nil One familj'' Ne'-quaDL Paint Na-cnan Chilkat blanket Nesz Sea urchins, syphilis NaDL Basket used for packing Nod’ Fort Nag Marble Node Breeze Nagfi-szil Fox Ndde-she-yan Mink Nahl Boom Ndd'-dtun-i Palate Nii'hl-a Far off Nddg' Shells or porcelain Nfihl-ye Inside a room Nod' h -do' Rectum Niiq Halibut bait Nd(:)k't Grouse (male) Nil- qu Medicine Nu-dil-qu' Table Nil-q?! Devil fish Nu'hoo Halibut hook Na'-(7repared by the schoolgirls in the forenoon serves for dinners to such pupils as would not get a proper meal at home. In some places poor children get their meals quite free; in several others they them¬ selves have to contribute about a penny toward the cost. The scliool kitchens, the earliest of wdiich in Sweden were established in 1882 by the Lars Ilierta’s memorial foundation on the initiative of Mrs. Anna Hierta-Eetzius, have proved serviceable. School baths. — For a long series of years baths and swdmming lessons in the summer months have been arranged for common school pupils, both boys and girls, in the largest towns in Sweden. Eecently school baths have been arranged even in winter. Special bathrooms have been erected in certain schools, and the children there can get a warm bath every third or fourth week. Making use of such baths is general, though voluntary. This regulation has proved highly beneficial to the children’s cleanliness and health. Vacation colonies. — In many of the larger towns it has become customary during the last few years to send poor children who are specially delicate or weak into vacation colonies for the summer, there to regain health and strength. These colonies, which are kept in the country, usually in the vicinity of woods and water, are generally superintended by male or female teachers. They were started in Stock¬ holm in 1884, and between 1885 and 1900 356 colonies, of altogether 8,751 children, have been sent from that city, exclusive of similar colonies provided for by certain industrial companies for children belonging to their wmrkmen or by others. Every colony consisted of about 27 children on an average. The average number of days during which each child was kept amounted to 60.2, and the daily total cost per child came to about 15 cents. The effects of such colonies on the children’s health have been eminently satisfactory. Local systems. — The foregoing account applies to the actual state of things in gen- 774 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. eral. For certain places, however, the character is slightly different. In Stockholm and Gottenborg, for instance, matters pertaining to the common schools are not managed by the church assembhes, but by the town council. Illiteracy. — With regard to the results of the common school teaching it may be mentioned that in Sweden at the present day practically all the young men enrolled as conscripts are able to read, the slight exception of about 1 i>er 1,000 arising from a few Finns from the extreme north. Of course the last word is not said in merely stating that reading is a general accomplishment. It will be found that out of all the conscripts in 1900, 69.8 per cent could read fluently and 30.2 per cent fairly well. There is thus still a large field for progress even with regard to such an elemental^’' subject as reading. That such progress is being made is proved from the fact that in 1875 only 52.4 per cent of the military received certificates of good skill, but, on the other hand, in 1900, as we have just mentioned, 69.8 per cent. The expends of common schools are not met by the pupils, but entirely by public grants. The burden of these expenses falls partly upon the school districts and partly on the State. The school district is bound to erect and support school buildings, pro¬ vide tliem with furniture and the materials of instruction, and attend to heating and cleaning; moreover, it must provide the teacher with the statutory allowances in kind and a salary as laid down by law; it also is bound to contribute a yearly fee toward pensioning him. As far as salaries are concerned, it is to be deserved, however, that the district generally is reiinbm’sed by the State with two-thirds of its outlay for salaries. IMoreover, the State contributes toward establishing pensions a sum which at the present time amounts to about $150,000, and it defrays the expenses for the training colleges for common school teachers and also for the inspection of common schools. In the total expenditure for popular instmction, the higher common schools and the schools for the abnormal, the State contributes about 30 per cent. The amount of donations for common school purposes amounted in 1898 to somewhat above $1,500,000. Table 3. — Expenditure for the common schools. « Popula- Total ex¬ Per inhabit¬ ant. Heads of expenditure. lion. penditure. Salaries. Houses. Material. Other. 4, 407, 000 5,117,000 $2, 053, 458 6, 190, 197 $0.47 1.21 $1,366, 058 3, 517, 262 $440, 588 1,562,282 $51,653 90, 680 $195, 159 1, 019, 973 o Including- training colleges for teachers, people’s high schools, schools for the abnormal, and also grants for pensions, the total expenditure amounted in 1900 to nearly $7,000,000 (see p. 767.) EDUCATIONAL SLOYD. Sweden takes an important part in the movement wliich, directed against exclu¬ sive brain tvork at school, strives to make systematically arranged manual work an important element of mtional education. A Swedish educational sloyd system ha.s been devised and worked out, and afterwards adopted in many other countries, lx)th in and out of Europe. In 1877 the Riksdag voted about $4,000 for the promotion of sloyd instruction for boys. At the time there were some 80 schools where such instraction was given, and each school received an annual grant of $20, wdiereas the number of cla,sses which during 1900 were in receipt of such grant amounted to 3,490. This instruc¬ tion is not, as a rule, compulsory, nor is it of necessity that a system regulated in every detail be adopted. The total of the grant paid by the Government to those schools where sloyd instruction is imparted to boys w^asin 1900 about $70,000. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 775 By ^‘Swedish educational sloyd” is meant the system of instruction and the method worked out at the Niias Sldjdlarareseminarium, where most of those Swedish male and female teachers who impart instruction in carpentering have received their ti'ainmg- Sloyd is also taught at all training colleges for male common school teachers. The Naas Slojdlarareseminarium (director, Otto Salomon) was founded 'by August Abrahamson (1817-1898), proprietor of the Naiis estate, situated 30 kilometers from Gottenborg, and it is supported by his munificent donations. The instruction is free. Of the 3,346 students from 1875 to 1900 Sweden furnished 2,493, England 331, the United States 72, Finland 65, Norway 62, Scotland 58, Denmak 57, Netherlands 37, Eussia 34, Austria 26, Germany 24, Hungary 17, Italy 16, and nineteen other countries 53. Sloyd instruction for educational purposes is in Sweden taught chiefly to boys from 10 to 14 years of age, and that is the reason why at Naas the slo3'd instruction has been limited to slo\"d carpentry, as bemg the most suitable for pupils of that age. In some schools, however, cardboard and metal slojnl, turner}^ and wood carving are also taught. The educational sloyd claims its place at the schools as an element of general education. Its object is not to train cabinetmakers or other artisans. Its aim is, on the other hand, the moral, intellectual, and physical development of the pupil by teaching him orderhness, attentiveness, and perseverance, bj^ training his eye to see better and his hand to work better, and, above all, by giving, together with gjnnnastics, a healthy counterbalance against one-sided bookwork. “Quality, not quantity,” is the motto of pedagogical sloyd, for which reason it does not require of children man}' and large pieces of w'ork, but the greatest possible accuracy in arriving at a result, which is gained by beginning with comparative!}^ sim.ple models and by only gradually, in progressive order, passing on or to more complex work. With a good form from an esthetical jx)int of view the objects made must unite a practical purpose, and thus in order to strengthen the bond between the home and the school hardly any articles but those likely to prove useful, either to the children themselves or to their parents, are, as a rule, produced. Articles of pure luxury are altogether excluded. WOUKSHOPS FOE CHILDEEN. On April 4, 1886, the board of the Institution Lars Hierta’s memorial fund, at the initiative of one of its members, Mrs. Anna Hierta-Eetzius, voted means for the establishment of workshops for children; i. e., “a kind of day schools, where an opportunity is given to poor children during their leisure hours to occupy them¬ selves in a useful way, learn practical work and various trades. ’ ’ The first workshop w^as opened on January 25, 1887, in the parish of Adolf Fredrik, at Stockholm, Similar institutions have been started in the space of a few years in all the parishes of the capital, each with a special board to organize the instruction and superintend the work, etc. A central committee, to which every board elects one member, manages the common eoiicems, publishes annual reports, arranges classy for teachers, lends models for work, etc. Poor children from 7 to 14 who are not looked after at home are received in the workshops on the proposal of the common school teachers and are taught there from 11 a. m. to 1 p, m. (the youngest children) and from 5 to 7 p. m. (the older ones). The former get their dinners, the latter their suppers, as a remuneration for the work. The cost for the dinner is from 2 to 3^- cents, that for the supper from four- fifths of a cent to 2 cents, per child. The staff of teachers consists partly of voluntary, partly of paid, lady teachers and of artisans skilled in their professions. In 1902 the number of voluntary lady teachers amounted to 62 and that of paid teachers to 82. The workshops are managed at a very small cost. They are supported by subven¬ tions from the town council and parish grants, by private gifts, and by sale of the 776 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. children’s work. The income at the annual joint sale of this amounts to from $1,300 to $1,900. The annual grant from the town council for all the workshops of Stock¬ holm amounts to $6,700, that of the parishes from $80 up to $320 for each shop. While the object of the sloyd pursued at the schools is chiefly a pedagogical one, the work at these shops aims more at manual skill and practical usefulness. The boys are taught brush making, fretwork, wood carving, basket work, joinery, tailor¬ ing, cobbler’s work, and metal work. The girls make slippers, sew shoes, chip plaits for hats, and baskets; besides, they weave, make dresses and underclothes, etc., and also learn to mend their own garments. In the parishes of Klara and Ostermalni the shops are combined with a school kitchen; in all the shops the children help in the kitchen and assist in sweeping and dusting the rooms. The children are also allowed to take home material for sundry easy work, which they do at home and for which they are paid out of the means of the workshop; their wages are put into the post-office savings bank for them. On such home work, which is highly in demand among the children and given as an encouragement and reward only to the good and most industrious, they can earn from $2 to $5 a term. The average cost for each child in the workshops of Stockholm was during the first ten years $3.67 per annum, but has somewhat increased these last years. Tlie number of children in the 14 workshops of Stockholm is from 60 up to 225 in each. Workshops have been started also in other Swedish towns and villages, at present reaching the number of 51. They are organized on the same principles as those of Stockholm. At their foundation they get for the first setting-up a grant of from $200 to $250 from the Institution Lars Hierta’s memorial fund. During the sixteen years that have elapsed since such workshops began the moral and educational value of manual training has been proved. The good results of the work have also become obvious and are generally acknowledged. In the capital alone about 1,600 of the poorest children have in these workshops during their leisure hours found a refuge where they are put to a useful occupation instead of roaming about in the streets and markets and being exposed to the temptation of begging and pilfering. The workshops, where the children, besides enjoying motherly care and education, acquire manual skill and quickness of perception and learn useful trades, have proved one of the best preventive means against the vagrancy and criminality of the young. Thousands of children, among whom many come from the worst of homes, have thus been brought into safety without having had to be taken from their parents and put into orphanages or reformatory or industrial schools. Concerning the workshops and the activity displayed in them, minute information is imparted in a work published in 1897 by Mrs. Anna Hierta-Eetzius. EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVE AND NEGLECTED CHILDREN. Schools for the deaf and dumb. — A statute passed on the 31st of May, 1889, puts Sweden in the forefront of European nations in respect to the education of deaf- mutes. According to this law, the education of deaf-mutes is a i:»ublic concern within the purview of the county councils, nevertheless with important assistance from the state, which also exercises a certain superintendence over it. This instruction, moreover, is obligatory. The school age is from 7, and continues for eight years from the time the pupil first enters the school. Private instruction is subjected to the control of the public school boards. For the official education of deaf-mutes Sweden is divided into seven districts, each with its board and one school at the least. Every district determines its own detail arrangements, which admits of multifarious developments in mutual competi¬ tion, productive of excellent result. The need of greater unity, liowever, has been THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 777 felt in certain practical cpiestions, and to meet this need plans have been prepared by delegates from the various boards, esi^ecially touching the teaching staff, their salaries and pensions. At every school there is a trial class of one year, where the children are examined as to whether they can be advanced to the articulation-method division, which is the main feature of the school, and implies that the pui^il learns to speak, and also to read the spoken language from the lips of others. Those who can not are placed in the class for writing methods, w'hich teaches the finger alphabet and writing, or in that for the method of signs, which embraces gestures, supplemented to a greater or less extent by writing and the finger aljihabet. But even children who are taught according to the articulation method are divided into groups according to their ability of following instruction — a regulation which constitutes one of the corner stones of the Swedish organization of teaching deaf-mutes. The Swedish deaf and dumb schools are establishments on a large scale (counting, as a rule, a hundred pupils or more), with newly erected, expensive buildings (to a total value of more than $530,000), and excellent educational appliances. In four dis¬ tricts the school consists of a single building; in one district each of the three divisions of the school has its separate building, and, finally, two districts have located their dif¬ ferent divisions in different towns. In five districts the whole school has the features of a boarding school — i. e., the pupils enjoy both board and lodging in the school itself; in one district the school is partly a day and partly a boarding school, and in one it is exclusively a day school. The instruction is coeducational for boys and girls (a feature peculiar to the Scan¬ dinavian, German, and Anglo-American deaf and dumb school), and it is carried on during forty weeks in the year, and comprises the usual common school subjects. The boys are in addition taught sloyd, tailoring, and shoemaking; the girls, sewing, weaving, and household management, and, in one school, even cookery. Some schools teach both boys and girls gardening. Pupils that have left the school may, as far as possible, revisit the school for a week or so every year; and at one school attempts have been made to start a con¬ tinuation course for such visitors, which has succeeded well and been gratefully attended by the deaf-mutes. Only two of the former private schools now exist, one of which takes deaf and dumb idiots that are capable of some instruction. The total number of pupils in the public and private schools amounted in 1902 to 803, 610 of whom were taught according to the articulation method, 142 according to the writing, and 49 according to the signing method. The number of classes is 112 and of teachers 111 . 51 of whom are men and 60 women. There is a training college for such teachers at the Manila * school in Stockholm. There are, besides, for deaf mutes who are over age, two establishments, with a total of about 60 pupils. These establishments will gradually become unnecessary as compulsory instruction is enforced. The cost of the instruction and support of deaf-mutes amounted in 1898 to about $147,000. The State makes a grant of $67 for every pupil and the county councils defray the rest. According to law, parents or guardians (or poor-law authorities) may be made to pay a yearly fee ($13 to $26) for each pupil; but some authorities have not availed themselves of this right. The total number of deaf-mutes in Sweden, according to the census of 1890, amounted to 5,307, or 110.9 to every 100,000 inhabitants — on the whole, an uncom¬ monly large figure. Of late there has even been some inconsiderable increase. There is a little school at Venersborg for blind deaf-mutes. It is the only one of its kind in the world. The institution was opened in 1886 by Mrs, Anrep-Nordin, who continues the direction of the school. The number of pupils since the com¬ mencement amounts to 28, while the number is still 14, of which total, however, 778 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. but 6 are blind deaf-mutes^ the remainder ]>eing blind, with a complication of other bodily or mental defects, some being blind idiots. The method used in the teaching of these children is the ‘‘writing method,” as it is called, together with the employ¬ ment of the finger alphabet, and writing with raised letters. Two of the children have shown a high degree of intelligence and ha\^ been benefited by the instruction in a marvelous way — ^nay, have even been taught to speak. The school home at present enjoj’s an annual government grant of $1,300. The fee paid by the pupils is $107 per year, half of which is usually provided by the respective county councils. S<:hools for the blind. — In 1879 the teaching of the blind was intrusted to a special institute for the blind. Started at Stockholm, it was removed to its new building at Tomteboda, in the neighlx)rhood of the city, in 1888. But the institute alone could not take the 200 blind children of school age (from 7 to 17) . Two preparatory schools were required for their preliminary instruction. One of these was established at Yexio in 1884; the other was united to the institute, and came into operation in 1899. The preparatory schools are each capable of receiving 40 pupils, the institute at least 100. For those who have lost their sight at a more mature age there has been, since 1884, a school of arts and crafts in Kristinehamn, where the pupils receive gratuitous instruction in reading and writing, as well as in certain trades, such as brush ami basket making, l3ut must themselves defray the cost of their board. Ea,ch pupil, however, receives a contingent of the government subvention for this purpose. By the law about institutions for the blind and a statute for them, both passed on May 29, 1896, the instruction of the blind became obligatory from the beginning of 1899. A child is received into the preparatory school at the age of 7 to be pre¬ pared, by a four years’ course of instruction, for entering the institute, where its education will be continued and fiiiishelind, and such students while there enjoy stipends from the treasury. The institute receives an annual grant of $670 to i:)rint books for the l)lind. Nearly all literature for the blind is now i')rinted in Braille type. The annual expenditure of the State on the education of the blind at present amounts to about $25,000, exclusive of grants for buildings. Besides the above, three institutions for the adult blind are sustained by private benevolence. At the census of 1890 the total number of the blind amounted to 3,948, 1,992 of whom were above 60 years of age. The frequency of blindness (82.5 ]>er 100,000 inhabitants) has on the whole diminished of late years, owing to improved medical treatment. Schools for idiots. — Idiots were the last of the abnormal children for whose educa¬ tion provision was made in Sweden. The first school — a private one — w^as opened THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 779 at Skofde, in 1866, by Miss Emaniiella Caiibeck. At the present time there are 36 institutions (all homes) — some of them schools (for children capable of instruction), others working homes (for pupils who have left school), and others, again, asylums (for those incapable of instruction). These institutions are supported by societies, county councils, and private people; moreover, the State grants |67 for every teach¬ able idiot in the schools, and |270 for each pupil at the working homes. The whole number in charge at the above institutions amounts to 889; small institutions of this kind being preferred, none of them contains more than about 80 pupils. The majority of such institutions are managed by women, and these do all the teaching, except in gymnastics and wood carving, because women, owing to their gentler and more patient temperament, are considered best fitted for instructing idiots, which occupa¬ tion tries these qualities. Working homes were erected when it was found that pupils who had left the schools could not stand the humiliation of associating with workmen normally gifted. Working homes for male idiots are usually located in the country, and there the patients are emplayed with great success in agriculture and gardening. Under able superintendence they prove in a 238rfectly satisfactory way their ability to j^erform the rougher labors of farming and cattle tending. Homes for female idiots are generally located in towns, and the wards contribute toward their own sup]3ort by weaving (in which art many attain a considerable skill), knitting, sewing, and lace making, etc. There is an asylum on a small scale attached to nearly evei\y school. Up to the present time, though, very little has been done in Sweden for this dei:>artment of idiot management. For providing an efficient staff of teachers for idiots a training college has been conducted in Stockholm since 1878 at the School for Feeble-minded Children, with accommodation at the'present time for 8 puj^ils, who undergo a two years’ theoretical and practical course of training. The training college is sup2)orted by the State at an annual cost of |3,200. The total number of idiots in Sweden, awcording to the census of 1890, amounted to 7,619, or 159 2)er each 100,000 of the 2302)ulation. Proba,biy this figure is a trifle too high though. For times gone Ijy the reports show a much smaller x^roportion, but they may underrate real conditions. The number of idiots of school age is about 2,000. ^YorMng schools for disabled g)^ople. — In Gottenborg there was organized, as early as 18*85, an “Association for Assistance to Disabled People.” Means were collected and the school was opened on October 5 the same year. The number of jDuj^ils has, from the beginning of the school till the end of the year 1902, amounted to 195. Of these, 23 were entirely in want of one arm, 27 j^aralyzed in one arm in consequence of disease, the others had different bodily defects, which made it difficult for them to be engaged7in any trade. The school makes a point of giving the disabled i:)eople an industrial education. Instruction is given in joinery, turning, shoemaking, basket making, brush making, and wood carving for the male pu23ils; linen sewing and art needlework, lettering, weaving, and stockinet knitting for the female puj^ils. As soon as the work is salable the pii^)!! has hitherto received full vrages; the school has only taken pay for the material and run the risk of the work not l)8ing sold. Desti¬ tute puj^ils a,re given free dinner at the school. Free baths are given, and an o^ipor- tunity is afforded to the most sickly to spend six weeks in the country in summer. In Karlskrona, on the initiative of a i^rivate person, a little school for disabled people was opened in 1886. In 1887 the Association for Assistance to Disabled People in Skane was organized, and a working school was opened in Ilelsingborg. In 1890 a home, intended to hold 40 73U]3ils, was built, but this number has never as 780 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. yet been received, owing to the lack of sufficient means. In 1891 the “Society in Aid of the Deformed and Infirm” was established in Stockholm. In 1892 its work- ing school was opened; now also a “home” for part of the pupils is connected with the same. The pupils who need orthopedic treatment receive it at the general orthopedic clinic of Stockholm. Nothing has yet been done on the part of the State to facilitate the instruction and care of disabled people, so it is almost entirely from the neighborhood in the imme¬ diate vicinity of the schools that pupils can be received. people’s high schools — workmen’s institutes — UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. During the last decades, numerous efforts have been made in Sweden for the pro¬ motion of knowledge also among the adult population of the lower classes of the community, or among others who either through their trade or profession are pre¬ vented from attending the regular schools. These efforts have taken form, partly in the so-called “People’s High Schools” and in the kindred “Workmen’s Institutes,” both of which institutions have originated on Scandinavian or Swedish ground, and partly in the so-called “University extension” movement, according to a pattern received from England. To this has of late years lieen added a great activity in pop¬ ular public lecturing, which is being embraced with a steadily growing interest, and is arranged for by associations specially formed for the purpose. People's high schools (Folkhogskolor) are institutions which only exist in the three kingdoms of Scandinavia and also in Finland. Their purpose is to furnish adult members, especially of the peasantry, with an education at once civil, patriotic, and practical. There are now 30 of these schools. People’s high schools are all located in the country. Most of them now have build¬ ings of their own, with residences for the teachers and a certain number of pupils, the rest of the pupils living in adjacent houses. Gymnastic halls are provided in some schools, and are also used by the people of the neighborhood for meetings. Most of the schools were originally private enterprises, but nearly always supported by grants from the county councils and agricultural societies, as well as the State. No special courses of instruction are fixed, and there is no examination on leaving. Youths of 18 — the average age is from 20 to 22 — having passed through the national school and bringing a certificate of good conduct are received as pupils. There is no entrance examination. In 1900 the total number of pupils was 774. The instruction given covers a period of one or two years, the first and second of which, however, greatly differ in character, so that the majority of students only go tlirough the first course. According to the average of certain larger and older- established schools, the following subjects were studied as a first year’s course during the session from November, 1897, to April, 1898, viz: Swedish language 186 hours, history 80, geography 57, politics and municipal law 56, rural economy 22, natural science and hygiene 120, arithmetic 85, geometry, land surveying, and leveling 45, bookkeeping 47, architectural drawing and drawing tools 68, writing 46, singing 46, and gymnastics 69 hours, to which may be added reading aloud literary works, discus¬ sions, assemblies, and, in some schools, sloyd. Tlie second year’s course, which has more of a professional stamp, embraces, in addition, farming, rearing of domestic animals, and forestry. At 12 schools the second year’s course is arranged on the lines of a thorough school of agriculture, with a special State grant toward defraying the costs of instruction. The State has made grants to people’s high schools since 1872. The total amount was raised by the Riksdag of 1900 from |15,000 to $32,000. At the present time there are also people’s high school courses for women. As already mentioned, the courses for men are held in the winter session from Novem- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 781 ber to April. It naturally occurred to the authorities to fix on the summer for women’s classes. A beginning was made at the people’s high school at Hvilan in 1873, and the plan has since been more and more generally adopted. As a rule, these courses are directed by the manager of the men’s school and his wife, with the assistance of the necessary number of the other teachers and of specially appointed female teachers. The total number of female scholars in 1900 was 614. The age is generally between 18 and 20. Instruction is given in the Swedish language, history, geography, natural science, hygiene, and domestic economy, arithmetic, bookkeeping, writing, singing, and several kinds of needlework and weaving. Workmen' s institutes, located in the towns, offer to the working classes there popular lectures and opportunities for instructive reading. The first institute of the kind was established in 1880, in Stockholm by A. Nystrom, M. D. The lectures at it have chiefly pertained to history and natural science. After the i3attern of the Stockholm institute, others of the same kind have been organized in several other towns. Lecture courses. — Of late years an important and steadily increasing activity has been exercised in Sweden by a great number of lecture associations of various kinds. The work has in some cases been entered upon by societies founded for other pur¬ poses, as workingmen’s associations, trade unions, temperance societies, et cet. ; but generally special associations have been founded for the purpose of arranging popular scientific lectures. In a marked degree this movement has of late years been promoted by the establishing of central offices procuring lecturers; by means of these ofhces a considerable unity and a better organization have been brought into the work. The oldest of these central offices is the one for southern Sweden at Lund (since 1898), from which in the year 1902 more than 900 lectures were ordered to be delivered by about 50 different lecturers at 75 places. The costs for these lectures Avere at first defrayed by the fees of the society mem¬ bers and by subAmntions from the respective communities and county councils, but nowadays to a considerable degree also by State grants. For 1902 the Govern¬ ment thus disbursed a total of $17,000 to 123 different lecture institutions, but as petitions for subvention were sent in by no less than 56 other recent associations, which, however, had to be refused for want of sufficient disposable means, the Gov¬ ernment presented a proposal to the Eiksdag to increase the annual supply to $27,000, Avhich also Avas granted. For State subventions to be granted it is enjoined that the respective associations provide as large an amount as the State, and that political and religious controversies or debates be excluded from the lectures. The interest in these lectures has been constantly increasing, but of course it is as yet manifesting itself very differently in different parts. In the thinly populated country districts there are many difficulties to be overcome. Summer courses at the universities. — After the model of the Englisli ‘ ‘ university exten¬ sion ” moA^ement, there has annually, since 1893, during the latter half of August, been given a course of lectures of a fortnight’s duration at Upsala and Lund alternately, for people who are not able to profit regularly by academical instruction. The num¬ ber of partakers has in Upsala averaged nearly 400, of whom about two-thirds Avere male and female common school teachers. 782 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. 2. Secojndaey Education. ETiider tliis head come the public schools for boys supjiorted by the State, as well as the jirivate schools of the same standing, and also the higher schools for girls., which in range of instruction closely approach the former. PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOE BOYS. Aim mid number of the public secondary schools for boys. — According to the public school act of November 1, 1878,, still in force, it is the object of the secondary schools to give a civic education beyond that imparted by the common schools, and also to impart that scientific knowledge which is to be further developed at the university or the higher special schools. During the school year 1902-3 the entire number of public secondary schools as supported by the State amomited to 82. Those containing nine classes are called higher or complete secondary schools; those containing five or three classes, lower secondary schools, and those containing less than three classes, pedagogies. During the school year 1900-1901, 36 schools had nine classes, 1 six classes, 38 five classes, 1 four classes, 2 three classes, and 1 two classes. Of the 36' schools, 25 have both the lines, classical and modern, complete; 7 only the classical line (3 having a modern line in the sixth class), and 4 only the modern line. All, with four exceptions, have both lines in tlie fourth and fifth classes. The number of students in a section of the five lower classes must not exceed 40. But as parallel sections often occur in the same class, there are higher scdiools with 600 or 700 students, and lower schools with 300 or 400. All the public secondary schools are located in towns and cities. Administration. — The public secondary schools, like most of the educational insti¬ tutions of the country, come under the ecclesiastical department. Within each diocese the bishop is the superintendent (eforus) of its public schools; for schools not located in the cathedral city he appoints as his representative an inspector. At the head of every public school there is a principal (rector), who is appointed by the Government from among the aiiplicants for a definite term of years — usually five. Besides his duties as head of the school the principal has a certain amount of teaching to do and is responsible for the school finances. The principal is assisted in the performance of his duties by the faculty (larare- kollegiet), consisting of the teachers of the school, presided over by the ‘‘eforus” or inspector, if he is present, otherwise by the principal. The faculty determines u2>on questions of teaching, school discixiline, finances, etc. Instruction. — The school year begins at the close of August and extends over 36 weeks, with a week of Easter and half a week of Whitsuntide vacation. The actual nuuiber of school weeks is thus 34|, Hence the school year is in Sweden consider¬ ably shorter than in most other European countries. Thus it is in Denmark 4.3, in Prussia and Austria 42, in Erance 41, and in Norway 38| weeks. A complete school course is calculated for nine years of work, distributed over seven classes, of which the two highest (VI and VII) cover each two years. The first class is the lowest. The four highest classes are called, respectively, the lower sixth (VI: 1), the upper sixth (VI: 2), the lower seventh (VII: 1), and the upjier seventh (VII: 2). THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 783 Table 4. — Time schedule for the imhlic secondary schools. Subjects. Lines. 1. II. III. IV. V. VI: 1. VI: 2. VII: 1. VII: 2. Hours per week. Religion . All. 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 21 Swedish . All. 5 5 6 4 3 2 2 2 2 31 History and geog- All. 4 5 6 4 4 3 3 3 3 35 raphy.?> Philosophy V . All. 1 1 2 C. 7 7 6 6 7 7 40 Ca. 6 6 6 6 24 German . Ca. 6 7 6 4 3 2 2 2 2 34 Cb.M. 6 7 6 4 3 1 1 1 1 30 K.np'l i.t;h Cb. 3 3 2 2 10 M. 6 6 3 3 3 3 24 "R’rpnf'h Ca. 3 4 4 3 3 17 Cb. M. 3 4 4 4 4 19 Mathematics . Ca. 4 5 5 5 4 3 3 3 35 Cb. 4 5 5 5 4 4 • 4 5 5 41 M. 4 5 5 5 4 6 6 7 7 49 Natural history cl Ca 2 2 2 3 3 12 Cb. M. 2 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 16 Pbysip.s . - - - C. 1 1 2 2 6 M. 2 2 3 3 10 Chemistry . M. 2 2 2 2 8 Pprimnnsbip All. 2 2 1 5 Drfl.winp' . Ca. 1 1 1 1 1 5 Cb. 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 • 1 11 M. 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 17 Composition ^ . All. 3 3 6 Total . All. 27 SO 30 30 30 32 1 32 31 31 273 a Roman numbers denote classes. Ca = classical line A (with Greek); Cb = classical line B (without Greek); M=modern line (the classical and modern lines do not diverge till in the fourth class; and. the division of the classical line takes place in Class VI: 1). ^'Special hours are given to geography in Classes I-IV, resp. 2, 2, 3, 1, and 1. c Psychology and logic. riZoology (I-IV); botany^ (II-V); physics, astronomy (IV); chemistry, geology (V). e Swedish composition in the class. In Classes I-III all tlie students have the same courses. 'With Class IV the school branches into two lines: The classical line (Latinlinien) with Latin, and the modern line (Reallinien) without that language. In Classes IV and V, however, the differ¬ ence in the curriculum of the two lines only touches a few subjects, inasmuch as the seven hours Latin and the one hour dratving on the classical line correspond to six hours English and two hours drawing on the otlier; the courses in history are, more¬ over, somewhat different, so that the two lines can not be taught together in that subject. In Class VI; 1 greater differences appear in the two curricula, and at the same time the classical line is subdivided into twm sections — Section A, with Creek, and Section B, without Greek. The teaching extends over five to six hours daily. Instruction in singing, drilling and gymnastics, military drill (obligatory), and also instruction in English (volun¬ tary) for students in the A section of the two highest classes, and in drawing and instrumental music for boys who desire to learn them, takes place at times outside the regular curriculum, often in the afternoons. Instruction in singing, obligatory to all students with ear and taste for music, in the lower live classes, but optional in the higher classes, must not occupy over two hours a week. Gymnastics is taught in all classes half an hour every day, or, if this is not feasible, at least in such a way that not less than three hours of instruction in the week is given to every division in gymnastics. Sometimes pedagogica,! gymnastics are replaced by running games con¬ ducted under the teacher’s sujiervision and guidance, preferably in the open air. Military drill, replacing gymnastics, for the boys in Classes VI and VII, extends over five weeks at most at the beginning of tlie autumn term, for altogether sixty hours; during this period the principal may arrange with the teachers for a diminution in 784 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904, the number of school hours for those classes to the extent of from seven to twelve hours a week.« In later years obligatory vacation tasks have been assigned to the students during summer vacations. The subject and extent of these tasks, which are the same for all pupils in the same class, are determined upon by the principal toward the close of the spring term. Nevv pupils are only entered at the beginning of a term. All who apply for entrance must be at least 9 years of age, and they must all pass a special exam¬ ination, unless they only change schools, and present satisfactory certificates. The requirements for entrance into the first (i. e., lowest) class have been established by « Under date of December 22, 1904, Mr. Lagerstedt has communicated to this Office the following • particulars relating to the proposed reform of secondary education in Sweden; The secondary schools of -Sweden are the direct continuation of the monastery, cathedral, and town schools, which were already in existence in the earlier yjart of the middle ages.' The development of these schools since then naturally includes a long series of reforms and changes, each one more or less reflecting the time in which 'it occurred. In the month of May in this year (1904) the Swedish Rigsdag made a decision to carry through a reform, which probably is one of the most important ever effected with regard to the secondary schools of Sweden. The chief features of this reform are as follows: At present the complete secondary scliools have a continuous course of nine years, following upon a course of three years in the common schools. Hereafter the complete secondary schools will con¬ sist of a lower modern school of six years, and of a higher “gymnasium” of four years. The “gym¬ nasium,” however, is not a direct continuation of the modern school, but continues from its fifth class, which makes the complete course of the individual pupils extend also hereafter over a period of nine years. Outside of the complete schools, consisting of both modern school and “gymnasium,” in the larger cities, it is the intention to establish in a number of smaller cities only modern schools of six years. The modern school course, as well as that of the present secondary schools, is a continuation of a previous common school course of three years. Pupils who have gone through the modern school undergo a final examination, which, if duly pa.ssed, is to entitle them to certain privileges, for instance (as it will in all probability be ordered), that they be received as apyjrentices in the telegraph or postal service department, etc. At some places the modern schools may be arranged on the plan of coeducation of boys and girls. This is a very important innovation, being the first instance of the Government in Sweden establish¬ ing coeducational schools for the secondary education. The common schools have always been coedu¬ cational. This decision was preceded by a very careful investigation and gathering of information regarding coeducational schools, the experiment that had been made in that direction, their effect on the pupils, etc. Such information was gathered from the United States, as well as other countries. The four year “gymnasiums,” as proposed, are of two dift’erent kinds, namely, “ Latin gymnasiums” and “modern gymnasiums,” and are concluded by an entrance examination to the university. This examination is, in the main, the same as at present, and gives the same privileges, including entrance to the iiniversity, etc. In the Latin gymnasium opportunity is presented for those who so desire to study Greek. A very important change for the gymnasiums is that the students during their last two years are allowed a certain liberty in choosing their subjects of instruction. They may be entirely relieved from pursuing one or two subjects in order to enable them to study other subjects more thoroughly. One of the most important features of the new reform, perhaps the most important of them all, is the curtailing of the study of the classical languages in the secondary schools. Hereafter Latin will be studied only during the last four years previous to the entrance examination to the university, and the Greek language only during the last two years. At present the Latin language is studied during six years and the Greek during four years. The commencement of Latin is consequently postponed for two years. It is now about thirty years since the study of Latin, on the initiative of Gunnar Wen- nerberg, the poet and composer, at tliat time cabinet minister and chief of the ecclesiastic depart¬ ment (education department) , was reduced from 8 years to G. The classical languages in our country, as well as in other countries, are consequently being ever more and more forced backward from their dominating position. Their retrogression is also manifested by the smaller number of pupils that apply themselves to the study of them. In the Swedish school exhibit in St. Louis there were some graphic charts exhibited, showing this very clearly. It might be seen from these, for instance, that while during the year 1875, 85 per cent of all pupils in the sixth and seventh classes (the last four years) studied Latin, and only 15 per cent belonged to the modern line, this condition gradually changed, so that in 1901-1903 only 47 percent studied Latin, wffiile 53 per cent belonged to the modern line. In 1871, 50 per cent of all the pupils in the above-mentioned classes studied both Latin and Greek, while in 1901-1903 only 15 per cent of all the pupils studied the two languages. An important measure decided upon in connection with the new reform is the institution of a superior board for the secondary schools of the country, consisting of five members, to which board affairs hitherto managed immediately by the ministry of education or by the chapters of the dio¬ ceses are going to be handed over. In conclusion may be mentioned the names of two men who were most instrumental in establish¬ ing the reform, the 'main features of which have just been given. They are Mr. Carl von Friesen, at present cabinet minister and chief of the ecclesiastic department (the education department), and Prof. Ernst Carlsen. The former was, before becoming minister, principal of a higher public sec¬ ondary school in Stockholm and vice-chairman of the committee appointed by the Government, whose suggestions are the foundation of the reform now adopted. The latter was professor of a higher secondary school in Gothenburg. It was on his motion that the Rigsdag of 1899 made the decision which is the foundation of the present reform. He also was a member of the above-men¬ tioned committee. A short time ago he was appointed by the Government chairman of the first superior board for the secondary schools of Sweden. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE SWEDEN. 785 law, and were modified to some extent (1894) in order to make it easier to pass from-^ the common schools to the public secondary schools. At the close of every spring term a general promotion to higher classes takes place- throughout the school. All students considered worthy of it are moved up without special examination to the next class. The others may, if they wish, present them¬ selves for examination at the beginning of the autumn term, being then moved up if that examination results satisfactorily; this category usually embraces some 20 per cent of those who a.re promoted. A boy who has spent two 3mars in a class without, promotion is, as a rule, excluded from the school. Table 5. — Number of students in the 'public secondary schools for boys. Average for autumn terms. Whole number. Classes I-III. Classes IV and V. Cla.ssesVI; 1-VlI; 2. Classes IV-VII: 2. Total. Per 10,000 inhab¬ itants. Clas¬ sical line. Modern line. Clas¬ sical line A. Clas¬ sical line B. Modern line. Clas¬ sical line. Moderiii line. In 1875 . 1876-1880 . 1881-1885 . 1886-1890 . 1891-1895 . 1896-1900 . In 1900 . 12, 717 14, 376 14, 986 14, 507 14, 914 16,578 17,479 29.1 31.9 32.5 30.6 30.9 32.9 34.2 6,844 7,393 7, 094 7,116 7,840 7,818 8,141 1,928 2, 159 2, 364 1,897 1,700 1,619 1,514 1,356 1,593 1,626 1,874 2,467 2,921 3,242 1,303 1,307 1,263 910 701 825 784 893 1,183 1,848 1,843 1,523 1,561 1,668 393 741 791 867 1,183 1,834 2, 130 4,124 4,649 5, 475 4, 650 3,924 4,005 3,966 1, 749 ■ 2, 334: 2, 417 2, 741- 8, 650.- 4, 755 - 5, 372' Every year, some time between April 15 and June 21, an examination of students; reporting themselves for it is held at the various public secondary schools. This iS' the final or university entrance examination. The examination is conducted under the control and supervision of “censors” temporarily appointed by the Govern¬ ment, as a rule from among the university professors. The examination is partly written, partlj^ oral. The written examination takes; place several weeks before the oral, and lasts from four to six days, the same at all schools. The papers are determined by the chief of the ecclesiastical department on the basis of suggestions made by the censors. The candidates who pass the- written examination are entitled to enter also for the oral. As a rule, to gain the:; university entrance certificate, a student must pass satisfactorily in all subjects. This final examination is required for entering not only the universities, but also^- various higher special schools, such as the military school, the veterinary institute,,, the pharmaceutical institute, and others. To enter the technical high school this; examination is not necessary, though it entitles to such entrance, provided it has; been passed on the modern line. So likewise the final secondar}" school examina¬ tion, without being required, yet entitles the student to enter the State railroad,, postal, or telegraph service, and it is required for entering the customs service. The annual examination of the various classes at the close of the spring term, ta* which the principal issues a public invitation, together with his annual report, is- only to be considered as an exhibition before the public, a solemn completion of the- work of the year, before summer vacation, and has no connection with the promo¬ tion of the students to higher classes on the ground of meritorious work, which has^ already been made previously. Students. — As seen in Table 5, it is_only in recent jmars that a marked increase iir. the number of public school students is noticeable. A significant discrepancy between the various lines is clearly seen, the modern line having gained in attend¬ ance, while the classical (especially the A line, with Greek) has lost. ED 1904 M - 50 786 EDrCATIpI^- EEPOKT, 1904. Table 6. — Number of graduates f rom the secondary schools {i. e., number v:ho passed the university entrance examination). Average for the years — Total number. Per 100,000 inhab¬ itants. From— Students in State schools belonging to — Matriculated at universi¬ ties. 6 Men. Women To¬ tal. State schools. Private .schools.a Classi¬ cal line 1 A. Cla.ssi- !cal line B. Modern line. TO- tal. In per ceiit.c 1871-1875 . 612 2 614 14. 36 557 57 i 65 430 70. 0 1876-1880 . 570 4 574 12. 75 470 104 266 137 67 376 65.5 1881-1885 . 773 11 784 17.02 665 119 1 268 263 134 509 64.9 1886-1890 . 760 27 787 16. 60 658 129 1 209 327 122 462 58.7 189] 1895 . 665 27 692 14.33 575 117 145 285 145 350 50.6 1896-1900 . 801 49 850 16. 89 701 149 169 273 259 369 43.4 n Students from accredited private institutions, 1896-1900, average 87, and private students average 62; of these 149 students, 21 belonged to the A line. 72 to the B line, and 56 to the modern line. b The Caroline Institute and the private universities of Stockholm and Gottenborg, inclusive. c Percentage of the total number of graduates. Of the total number of students entered at the public secondary schools, ordinarily only about one-fourth reach the final examination. During the quinquennial period 1893-1897 the average yearly number of students leaving these schools without tak¬ ing the university entrance examinations was 1,833. Of these, 531 entered commer¬ cial life or commercial schools; 225 engaged in industrial pursuits of various kinds; 214 entered private schools or engaged in private study; 137 entered technical schools; 109, agricultural schools; 85, schools of navigation, etc. Above 20 per cent gave no information regarding their future career, while of those that gave such information 83 per cent engaged in j^ractical pursuits or entered practical schools. The number of students having passed the university entrance examination is seen in Table 6. Also here no very marked increase is shown in later times, and the period 1881-1885 presents the maximum. The number of students entering the universities has decreased both relatively and absolutely, as is also shown by Table 6. Thus were matriculated at the universities during 1871-1875 as many as 70 per cent of all that graduated, but during 1896-1900 only 43 per cent. This is owing to the ever-growing demands of practical life. The mean age of students passing the university entrance examination from the public secondary schools between 1876-1880 was 19.96 years. Gradually this age has decrea.sed, so that during 1891-1895 the average w'as only 19.26 years. Teachers. — At the public schools there are, apart from the principals, three cate¬ gories of teachers with fixed ai^pointments, viz.: («) lectors (in the higher schools only), who possess higher attainments, draw a higher salary than the others, and are required to teach chiefly in the upiier classes; (5) adjuncts (or ‘’colleagues” in lower schools), who possess lower attainments, draw a lower salary than the lectors, and are required to teach chiefly in fhe lower classes; exercise masters, who give instruction in drawing, music, gymnastics, and military drill. The total number of teachers during the school year 1899-1900 amounted to 1,022, viz. : 79 principals, 207 lectom, 529 adjuncts and colleagues, and 207 assistant masters. Thus there was one teacher for every seventeen pupils. . Besides these teachers, there were 252 crxercise masters. Tlie number of teaching hours a week required of a principal at a higher public school is 12-16, of a principal at a lovrer school 20-24, of a lector 18-22, and of an adjunct or “colleague” 24-30. In the lowest class instruction is given, as far as feasible, by a single teacher; in the next three higher classes likewise by one or two, or at most four. From the fifth class upward, the system of one teacher for each subject or grouji of subjects prevails. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE SWEDEN. 787 The qualifications for becoming teachers in the public school are as follows: As regards theoretical knowledge, lectors are required to have gained the doctor’s degree in the philosophical faculty at a university. Adjuncts, etc., only the “can¬ didate’s” (master’s) degree in the same faculty. As regards imactical experience, both lectors and adjuncts must have passed a jjrobationary year (Profar). The appointment of teachers is in the hands of the chapters (in Stockholm in those of the two boards of directors); against their decision complaint may be lodged with the Government. As is the case with the majority of Swedish officials, public school teachers wuth fixed appointments can not be removed unless upon judicial trial and sentence. The salaries of the regular teachers are .apportioned in five gradations. Five years of service entities to ]3romotion to a higher gradation fi’om the next lower. A lector’s salary thus rises from $670 to $1,206 and an adjunct’s from $402 to $938. Ever since the year 1883 the Eiksdag has annually granted an increase of salary to the extent of $134, which must be added to the above figures. The Eiksdag has, more¬ over, since the year 1901 granted the teachers, as well as most other State officials, an extra increase of 10 per cent of their salaries. The principals receive at the higher schools at first $1,206, and after ten years of service $1,340; in addition they are provided wuth a house, or with the rent for a house, and enjoy the above- mentioned increase of $134. When a teacher has attained an age wdiich, added to his years of service, makes up the number 100, he obtains a pension — 80 per cent of his salary, ¥7idows and children receive considerable sums in ]:>ensions out of a fund to wdiich fixed contributions are annually made by the teachers. During the school year 1899-1900, 27 positions (in drawing and music) in the public secondary schools w^ere occupied by women. Finances. — Every town where a i>ublic school is situated is bound to provide, free of cost, a site for the schoolhouse extensive enough to jirovide space for the games and open-air exercises of the boys. In certain cases the towns are also under obliga¬ tion to build and keep the schoolhouse in repair; in other cases, again this duty falls upon the building funds of the schools and of the diocese. AVhere these have not proved sufficient the Eigsdag has occasionally made a special grant to meet the Wyants. The Swedish school buildings may in general be said to fulfill, in a high measure, the requirements of practical utility and elegant appearance. The cost of some recent school buildings (including their fitting-up, but not their site) has amounted to the following figures: The Norrmalm Classical School at Stockholm, $226,000; the Modern School in Gottenborg, $145,000; the school at Vexj5, $85,000; the Modern School in Stockholm, $210,000, and so on. All students, except such as are unable to do so, or those transferred from other secondary schools, pay a matriculation fee of about $2.50. They also- pay a small term fee, from which, how'ever, poor and at the same time promising boys may be partly exem]3ted. The entire yearh^ amount paid to the school by each student not exempted from any part of the fee is $8. This income is used for the purchase of light, fuel, and school material, for prizes, and for the building reserve fund. The State expenditure for the public secondary schools for bo7vs of Sweden amounted in 1900 to $1,025,000, or 20 cents per inhabitant and $59.50 per student. With the contributions of the communities (for schoolhouses, aid to the teachers for their rent, etc. ), and of the special school funds, the total expenditure for public schools probably amounts to about $1,250,000. PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS — COEDUCATIONAL SCHOOLS. In consequence of the small fees demanded in the public schools, private enter¬ prise in higher education has met with considerable difficulties, and the number of 788 EDUCATION EEPGET, 1904. private schools is still small. At present there are only five private schools for boys entitled to furnish university entrance certificates, viz, two in Stockholm, two in Upsala, and one in Lund. Of these, two are coeducational. The main income of these schools, as well as of various smaller institutions with fewer classes, consists of the students’ fees; ,yet some of them also receive State grants. Such grants amounted for 1900 to $9,380. Aside from the two coeducational institutions referred to, Vvhich are complete sec¬ ondary schools, there are some twenty other coeducational schools where the instruc¬ tion is about the same as in the public five-class schools. Of these there are three in Stockholm. The others are found, for the most part, in smaller towns or places of greater industrial activity, more important railroad centers, etc. The coeducational schools of Motala and Iledemora may hold final examinations entitling the boys to enter Class VI; 1 of the public schools; the coeducational school of Falkenburg m.ay likewise examine for Class IV. SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS. Secondary schools for girls are of recent date in Sweden. With the exception of tlie Wallin school ( Wallinska skolan) in Stockholm and the Kjellberg school (Kjell- bergska skolan) in Gottenborg, which were founded during the thirties, they all came into existence during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Before that time girls were taught at home liy governesses or sent to boarding scliools. The Higher Training College for Lady Teachers was estalfiished at Stockholm in 1861 for the purpose of training teachers both for the school and the family, and in 1864 was opened the State Secondary Normal School for Girls, which is connected with the training college and forms a practice school for its students. With the exception of these two establishments, all the higher schools for girls in Sweden are private institutions. The Higher Training College for Ladg Teachers comprises three one-year classes, in addition to which there is an optional fourth year course. The number of students in each of the obligatory classes is generally 25. In order to obtain admission to the college the applicant must have completed the age of 18 and have passed an examination testifying that she has attained the standard of knowledge which corre¬ sponds to a complete course at an eight years’ secondary school for girls (vide below). Of the entire number of hours given in the obligatory classes, about 32 per cent are devoted to the French, German, and English languages; 24 per cent to religious instruc¬ tion, the Swedish language, history, and geography; 23 per cent to mathematics, natural science, and hygiene; 8 per cent to pedagogics and the methods of teaching, and 13 per cent to singing, drawing, and gymnastics. Some of the subjects are, how¬ ever, optional. The fourth course of the college is intended particularly for the training of specialist teachers. Each student, therefore, receives instruction only in those subjects which she herself chooses. All instruction at the college is free of cl large, and poor and deserving pupils receive small scholarships from the State. The normal school comprises three preparatory classes for children of 6 to 8 years of age, eight regular classes, and a continuation class, the last chiefly intended for instruction in domestic economy. The pupils of the school pay annual fees, ranging from $20 in the lowest class to $49.50 in the highest. In the continuation class the fee is $27. Of the entire number of lesson hours in the eight regular school classes, 24 per cent are devoted to the French, German, and English languages; 33 per cent to religious instruction, the Swedish language, history, and geography; 15 per cent to mathematics, natural science, and hygiene, while no less than 28^ per cent are allotted to writing, drawing, singing, needlework, and gymnastics. Some of the subjects are, however, optional. In connection with these institutions a school of domestic science was opened in 1893, the pupils being not only those of the continuation class of the normal school, THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. ?89 but also others who Vvish to qualify for becoming teachers of domestic economy in secondary schools for girls. Private schools. — The entire number of these schools is about 120, having altogether about 13,000 pupils. Started by private persons or associations, or by communities, they have had perfect freedom to develop in various directions, but have, at the same time, suffered from a lack of guidance and control, and, moreover, often felt the stress of money difiiculties. These disadvantages have not remained unnoticed. In 1875 the State made them a grant of |8,000, which grant afterwards became annual and at various times raised, until now it amounts to $93,000. The conditions for enjoying the advantages of this grant are mainly that a certain number of pupils be instructed free of cost or at reduced terms, that the school in question submit to the control of the ecclesiastical department, and that the community or private per¬ sons contribute a sum at least equal to the grant made by the State. This annual grant is not to exceed $800 for each school, or for schools instructing in domestic economy at most $938. A^ present 103 schools enjoy such grants from the State, their combined number of pupils attending the regular classes being 10,694 (besides perhaps 3,000 in the preparatory classes). The fees pcvid are very different, varying from. $11 to $40 in the lowest classes and from $29 to $67 in the highest, all per annum, the classes preparing for university entrance charging even more. In ^'iev/ of the virtually free instruction given to boys in the State secondary schools, these fees must be considered very high. Several of the private schools for girls have their own school buildings, others are compelled to employ ordinary dwelling houses, which, especially from a sanitary point of view, often leave much to be desired. The length of the ordinary school course varies, but is generally seven to eight years. The number of schools with seven or with eight classes is about the same. Some few schools have only five or six classes. Almost all schools have two or three preparatory classes, in which, with but few exceptions, boys also are taught. About twenty schools have one or more continuation classes. The subjects of instruction are chiefly the same as in the State Normal School for Girls, one or more additional subjects being, however, introduced into some schools. Very varying is the position given to the different subjects, especially as regards foreign languages. In most schools French is the fundamental language, in others German. During the last few years though there seems to be a tendency to make the French and German languages change places, several schools having of late made German the fundamental language. English is usually the third language taught, though in some schools it ranks second. The continuation classes are formed for various purposes and therefore very differ¬ ently arranged, some being intended to prepare for university entrance or for admis¬ sion to the Higher Training College for Lady Teachers, others to train teachers, or to give the pupils greater insight into various subjects. The university entrance exami¬ nation can be passed at five of the schools for girls (four in Stockholm and one at Mahno). The right of passing this examination was given to women in 1870. At first very few availed themselves of this right, but during each of the last three years the number has been 50 or more. In most of the schools there are both men and lady teachers. The men, who, with few exceptions, are teachers also in the State secondary schools for boys, give comparatively few lessons, and are paid per hour. The salaries paid to lady teachers are, as a rule, very low, especially considering the demands made on them. On an average they do not exceed $270 per annum. Most head mistresses get but $320 to $400, besides residence and fuel. A raising of the salaries has, however, in 1902 been decreed by the State as a condition for the receiving of State grants. There are two institutions for pensioning lady teachers. 790 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. 3. Higher Education. Sweden has two State universities, viz, in Upsala, founded 1477 (the oldest in Scandinavia), and in Lund, founded 1668, chiefly with a view to promote a closer union of the provinces then newly acquired from Denmark with the rest of Sweden. Both universities are thus, as in England, located in country towns. To make up for the lack of a State university in Stockholm, the capital, private munificence has there established a private university; the same thing has been done also in Gotten- borg, the second city of Sweden. Besides this, there has existed in Stockholm since 1815 a medical faculty, the Caroline Institute, founded and supported by the State. THE STATE UNIVERSITIES. Tlie universities established by the State are, as already mentioned, tlie two com¬ plete universities of Upsala and Lund and the Caroline Institute in Stockholm, the last named formiiig only a medical faculty, the greatest of its kind in the country. Like the other State schools, these institutions also range under the ecclesiastical department. According to statutes of January 10, 1877 (with some amendments, 1891), the highest superintendence of the universities and the Caroline Institute is exercised by a chancellor appointed by the King on the nomination by electors from the three institutions. The chancellor watches over the observance of the statutes, issues instructions respecting the administration of the finances and estates of the univer¬ sities, and recommends finally and officially in questions of appointments, and, on the whole, in all such measures concerning the universities as are sulnnitted to the decision of the Government. He does not receive any salary, but is entitled to appoint a salaried chancellor’s secretary for his office. The representative of the chancellor, and in certain cases an intermediate authority between him and the local academical authorities, is the vice-chancellor, whose office is filled at the University of Upsala by the archbishop and at the University of Lund by the bishoii of the diocese of Lund. The immediate care and supervision of all that concerns the university is exercised by its rector, who is elected for two years at a time by the greater consistory (cf. below ) from among the professors in ordinary, and may be reelected. In the absence of a rector, the ofhce is exercised by a vice-rector who is elected in the same way and for the same length of time. The rector is assisted in the government of the university by the two academical consistories, in which he is the chairman. The greater consistory consists of all the professors in ordinary, and has the care of all the more important affairs of the university, proposes candidates for the filling of vacant professional chairs, grants stipends, etc. The lesser consistory consists, besides the rector and vice-rector, of five other members who are elected for three years. It has to enforce the observance of the prescribed regulations respecting the lectures and examinations, execute the disciplinary authority of the university, etc. There is also a finance committee for the administration of the purely economical affairs of the university. According to the statutes at present in force (c'uifirmed 1876, altered 1891) the teachers of each of the two State universities are distributed with respect to the dif¬ ferent sciences they represent upon four faculties, viz, the faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The last named is further divided into two sections, viz, the section of humanistics and that of mathematics and natural sciences. Each faculty or section consists of its ordinary and associate professors, who every academ¬ ical year, from among its members, appoint a chairman, called “dean.” The degrees conferred by every faculty are those of candidate, licentiate, and doctor. Doctors of divinity, however, are named liy the Government, without examination. Besides, certain civil-service examinations are passed in the faculties of theology and law. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 791 Professors at the universities are either ordinary or associate, of which the latter have smaller salaries and are not entitled to a pension. There are also permanently appointed laboratory assistants in the various medical and scientific laboratories, an astronomical assistant for each of the observatories, and an assistant in the theological faculty. Besides these, an indefinite number of docents can be appointed for each professorship. The practical instruction in modern languages is given by lecturers. Special teachers, called “instructors,” are appointed for the teaching of gymnastics, music, and drawing. Aiypointments. — Vacant professorships are filled either on application or by direct appointment. In the former case the position must be publicly announced vacant. When candidates, within a prescribed limit of time, have applied and presented their testimonials of competency, the respective faculty or section, upon the written argu¬ mentation of at least three specialists in the subjects concerned, express themselves regarding the fitness and relative competency of the applicants. Then the greater consistory proposes three of these applicants for appointment in the order of their relative merits. Against this recommendation an appeal may be made to the King. After the vice-chancellor and the chancellor have expressed themselves, the jippoint- ment is made by the Government. But if there is a prospect of acquiring for the vacant professorship a scientific man known for extraordinary skill, the respective faculty or section may, before the place is joublicly declared vacant, by a majority of two-thirds of its members, determine to offer him the position. -In such a case the method of procedure is simplified by sending the recommendation of the faculty, together with the opinion of the greater consistory and of the vice-chancellor, to the chancellor, who presents it, together with his own opinion, to the Government for decision. Laboratory and observatory assistants are appointed in a simiiar way, only that the chancellor makes the final appointment. Docents are appointed by the chancellor on application, or on recommendation by the professor concerned, after the faculty or section in question has given its opinion. The above system of promo¬ tion being, in many cases, considered antiquated, the Government has appoinded a committee to propose reforms, and this committee has recently (1901) submitted its report, recommending various changes in existing conditions. The total number of teachers at the universities and the Caroline Institute amounted in 1900 to 289, of whom 76 were professors in ordinary, 56 associates, 20 laboratory and astronomy assistants, lecturers, etc., and 137 docents. Of the 132 ordinary and associate professors, II belonged to the faculty of theology, 15 to the faculty of law, 48 to the faculty of medicine, 31 to the humanistic section of the faculty of philoso¬ phy, and 24 to the section of mathematics and natural sciences of ‘the same faculty. Of the whole number, 61 belonged to the University of Upsala, 49 to the University of Lund, and 22 to the Caroline Institute. The salary of the professors in ordinary is $1,608 (with an advance of $134 after five years of service, raid another after ten); of the associates, $1,206, likewise with the two said advances. Assistants in the medical faculties receive $1,206, those in the philosophical faculties and observatories $804. The docents have no fixed sala¬ ries, but the State has established for their benefit a number of docent stipends of $402 and $322, which, on the recommendation l)y the respective faculty, are given by the chancellor to deserving docents for a period of three years, subject to exten¬ sion. The university lecturers in modern languages each receive a yearly fee of $536. Ordinary professors (but not associates) are entitled to a pension of $1,206 to $1,474 on attaining 65 years of age. This latter amount is given to those who have held their professorship ten years at least. In some cases the Biksdag has granted a pension of $804 to associate professors. Widows and children of deceased pro¬ fessors (ordinary or associate), as well as those of any deceased official of the uni¬ versities, receive pensions from special pension funds, to which every official must contribute. 792 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The academical year begins September 1, and is divided into the autumn term (September 1-Becember 15) and the spring term (January 15-June 1). Both the ordinary and the associate professors are, as a rule, bound to lecture publicly on their science one hour four days a week. All public instruction, whether by lectures or seminary exercises, is free of charge, but the private instruction given for the most part l.iy the docents is paid for. The courses of stud ij are at Swedish universities unusually long. On an average six to eight years are required for the degree of licentiate of philosophy, seven years for the candidate’s degree in lawq nine years for the candidate’s degree in theology (for the ordinary examination for holy orders five j^ears), and for licentiate’s degree in medicine as much as eleven years. In part, this condition of things depends upon the coinprehensive studies which are required, but in part also upon the somewhat unpractical arrangements in regard to teaching. Attempts have been made during the last few years to find a remedy for the latter defect by the establishment of the so- called prop?edeutical courses for the preparatory examinations, and at present a royal committee is busy with working out a plan for the reorganization of the academical examinations. Students. — To matriculate at the university a student must have passed the uni¬ versity entrance examination (the final examination at a higher state secondary school). Every student must belong to one of the nation societies, or “landskap,” into which the body of students has l>een divided from olden times for the promotion of industry and morality and for mutual aid. At Upsala there are 13, and at Lund 12 “nations,” each comprising in the main students from special parts of the country, and each under the control of an inspector chosen by the society itself from among the ordinary pwofessors of the university. At Upsala these societies usually have their own houses (clubs), and the disposal of pretty large funds; at Lund the stu¬ dents possess in common a large building called the academical society’s building. Tlie part played by the nation societies in Swedish student life has been notably great and important. Table 7. — Number of university students in Sweden.^’' Period. Mean population. Average number of s' tudents, terms. autumn and spring Upsala. Lund. Caro¬ line Insti¬ tute. Stock¬ holm, c Got- ten- borg. Total. Per 10,000 in¬ habit¬ ants. 1870 . O 1,403 454 54 1,911 4.59 1871-1875 . 4, 274, 000 1,554 542 82 2,178 5.10 1876-1880 . . . 4, 500, 000 1,448 612 153 2,213 4.92 1881-1885 . 4, 605, 000 1,660 807 253 40 2,760 5.99 1886-1890 . 4, 742, 000 1,825 889 375 46 3,135 6.61 1891-1895 . 4,832,000 1,564 728 380 50 32 2, 754 5. 70 1896-1900 . 5, 032, 000 1,495 637 326 47 59 2,564 5.10 1900 . 5,117,000 1,449 642 294 40 67 2, 492 4.87 1902 . 5, 187, 000 1,497 688 i 298 55 81 2,619 5. 05 a According to G. Enestrom, and to “Report on the School Que.stion,’’ by N. Hojer, A. Lindhagen, and S. Boije. " bln Stockholm. oThe private University of Stockholm. The number of university students in Sweden during the years 1870-1902 is found in Table 7. As may be seen, the total number has varied very much. The decline of late years must be partly ascribed to a decrease in the number of matriculated students, but partly also to a more rapid completion of required courses. Among the total of 2,529 students in the autumn of 1900, 276 belonged to the theological THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE SWEDEN. 798 faculty, 443 to the law faculty, 514 to the medical, and 1,296 to the philosophical, in which last number are included students preparing for the preliminary examinations Intherto required for entrance into the three other faculties. Among the students of 1903 (spring) there were 89 women. The total expenses amounted, in 1902, at the University of Upsala to S272,000; at the University of Lund to $152,000, and at the Caroline Institute to $66,000, or, altogether, to $490,000. Of this amount, the universities supplied part from their own funds, viz, the University of Upsala, about $121,000; the University of Lund, about $40,000, and the Caroline Institute, $6,000. As may thus be seen, these establish¬ ments possess considerable private means. PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES. As already mentioned, two such establishments, called IlOgskolor, have been founded of late years, viz, in Stockholm and in Gottenborg, of which tlie former commenced its work in 1878 and the latter in 1891. The higher direction of the affairs of these institutions is contided to special boards of directors under tiie super¬ intendence of the chancellor of the State universities. The institutions are placed under a Government control, the University of Gottenborg from its beginning, that of Stockholm only since 1904; the statutes are confirmed by the Government and the presidents of the boards are appointed by the same authority for such a time as in each case maybe decided. The directors determine, within the amount of money available, what offices shall exist at the university, and the salaries attached to them. The directors have also the power, after hearing the reports of the council of teachers and selected specialists, to appoint professors, either after application or directly; but the appointment must be submitted to the approval of the Govern¬ ment. Docents are appointed b)' the board upon the recommendation of the coun¬ cil of teachers and after chancellor’s hearing. (A) The Universiiij of Stochholm (Stockholms llbgskola). The board of directors is constituted in the following way: As aforesaid, the Government appoints 1 mem¬ ber, viz, the president, tlie Swedish Academy also chooses 1, the Academy of Sciences 2, and the town council of Stockholm 2; the rector of the university is a member ex officio, and the eighth member is chosen by the 7 before mentioned. The immediate direction of the institution is exercised by the rector (chosen by the council of teachers for two years at a time), and by the council of teachers, consisting of the ordinary teachers or their temporary substitutes. At present only the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences has been established. Besides, there are professorships in the history of art and history of literature, and lectures have been given in history, political economy, and other subjects. No examinations have been hitherto passed at the university. Its work has been exclusively in the interest of scientific investigation and education. A"et recently a proposition has been made to secure the privilege of examining for university degrees, which may be decided upon by the Government early in 1904. In the autumn term (1903) there were at the university 9 ordinary jrrofessors, 3- temporary teachers, 15 docents, and 7 amanuenses. Of the professors 3 received $1,876, the others from $1,608 to $1,206. Teachers who have reached 65 years of age and been in the service of the university for at least thirty years have a right to a pension amounting to 70 or 80 per cent of the salary at the time of resignation. The academical year of the university begins September 1 and is divided into two terms (September 1-December 15 and January 15-June 15). The professors must give two public lectures every week, and impart the instruction and directions neces¬ sary for the pupils’ studies. Most of them are also directors of some scientific insti¬ tution. During the years 1901-1903 the average number ot students amounted to,. 794 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. respectively, 47, 55, and 58, and the corresponding number of attendants to 82, 64, and 102. (B) The University of Goitenhorg (Gdteborgs Tiogskola), having from the beginning placed itself under CTOvernment control (statutes of 1889 confirmed by the Govern¬ ment), has, in consequence of this, received (in 1893), within certain limits, the right of holding examinations for university degrees. The board, consisting of nine directors, is appointed in the following manner: The president, as mentioned al)ove, is nominated by the Government for such a time as in each case may be decided, 4 members are chosen by the town council of Gottenborg, 1 by the lloyal Society of Science and Literature in Gottenborg, 1 by the directors of the Gottenborg Museum, and 1 by the ordinary members of the united staffs of the higher classical and modern secondary schools of Gottenborg, all (excepting the president) for three years at a time; the rector of the university is a member ex officio. xVt present only such teaching is carried on as can be considered as belonging to the faculty of humanistics. Those partaking of the instruction are partly regular students, who have been matriculated after passing the common uni¬ versity entrance examination, and partly specials students, wlio by permission of the different teachers, and on i')ayment of special fees, attend certain lectures or exercises, and partly auditors, who attend the i^ublic lectures free of charge. The number of regular students at the university, during the spring term of 1903, amounted to 85, of special students to 117, and of auditors at the public lectures to 1,576. 4. Technical Education. Technical education at the present moment holds a very high position in Sweden. With regard to the considerable distances, it were, however, to be desired that schools for elementary instruction within this department became more numerous than now is the case, and also the higher institutions stand in need of being enlarged. Higher scientific instruction in technical subjects is imparted at the Technical High School in Stockholm and at the higher division of Chalmers’ Polytechnical College in Gottenborg. In the second rank follow the lower division of the above-mentioned Chalmers’ College, the five technical colleges mentioned further on, and a special technical school at Eskilstuna. A multifarious instruction and education are offercxl at the Technical School in Stockholm; finally, there are about forty lower technical schools in smaller towns. The Technical High School includes special divisions for: (A) machine design and mechanical technology, with a triennial or quadrennial course, or else naval engineering; (B) electrotechnics; (C) chemical technology, with a triennial course; (H) mining, divided into classes for mining mechanics, with a quadrennial course; metallurgy and smelting, with a triennial or quadrennial course, and mining proper, with a triennial or quadrennial course; (E) architecture, with a quadrennial course and the instruction so arranged that the ])upils after three years’ study have the right to proceed with their studies at the Academy of Arts, and (F) civil engineering, with a c|uadrennial course. The total number of regular and special pupils was, during the years 1896-1902 (spring terms), respectively 305, 277, 283, 309, 360, 373, and 393. The number of graduates, during the years 1896-1902, was, respectively, 107, 67, 79, 88, 87, 89, and 96. An institution for the testing of materials, with a director of its own, was established in 1896 in connection with the mechanicai laboratory. Its object is to test metals, building stone, cement, and above all the strength of various building materials; and such tests are made also for the public according to fees and regulations fixed by Government. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 795 Chalmers' Pohytechnical College in Gottenborg is divided into a lower division with a triennial course; and a higher division with a triennial course and subdivided into five sections or professional schools: One for mechanics, one for electrotechnics, one for technical chemistry, one for the art of building, and one forming a special school for shipbuilding. The number of students during the spring term of 1903 was 431. The Jive technical colleges impart both theoretical and practical instruction in the elementary branches of technical knowledge to those who intend to devote them¬ selves to industrial pursuits. The course of instruction covers three years; the school year consists of thirty-six weeks. The minimum age of entrance is fixed at 14. The admission examination embraces Swedish, mathematics, history, and geography. Youths who have passed the fifth class of a State secondary school with certificates of knowledge in these subjects, are exemi^t from the admission examination within a space of two years after leaving the college. The admission fee is $2.50; the term fee, $2.50 at most. The instruction is at each of these schools imparted by 4 lectors, a workshop foreman, and a certain number of associate teachers. The number of pupils amounted during the spring term of 1903 to 416 in all the five schools together. According to the statutes in force, the instruction shall comprise: Mathematics, viz, (a) arithmetic, algebra, planimetry, stereometry, the theory of series and loga¬ rithms, ifiane trigonometry, and the first principles of analytical geometry; (6) descriptive geometry, together with geometrical drawing; (c) practical geometry, surveying, leveling, wfith drawing and field exercises. Mechanics: (a) The laws of the equilibrium and movement of bodies; (6) the theory of mechanics, machine drawing and design of simple machines and parts of machines; (c) mechanical tech¬ nology. Natural philosophy: Experimental physics wfith reference to the most important applications of that science in industries. Chemistry, inorganic and organic, wfith laboratory w'ork and chemical technology. Mineralogy and geognosy. Swedish and German, English or French, according to the final decision of the dif¬ ferent boards of directors. Bookkeeping and the science of commerce. Building: freehand drawing and modeling; work in the workshops. Gymnastics and exercise of arms. The Technical School of Eskilsiima, opened under another name in 1855, w’as enlarged in 1872, and w^hen, in 1888, the town council had voted a grant to a pro¬ fessional school for finer cutlery and metal industries, these establishments w^ere united in 1890 under the present designation. In the older division, the Sunday and evening school, the instruction embraces: IMathematics as at the technical colleges, wfith the exception of the first principles of analytical geometry; mechanics, natural philosophy, and chemistry, as at the tech¬ nical colleges, chemical technology excepted; Swedish, wfith composition; German or English; copy writing; freehand drawing and modeling; bookkeeping, to meet ^ the requirements of industries; building. In the professional school for cutlery and metal industries: Freehand drawing, wfith the principles of style; modeling; wnod carving; engraving; metal casting; enchecsing; embossing; etching; galvanizing; forging; filing, and turning. The Technical School of Stockholm, opened as a private school in 1844, has since been often enlarged and reorganized, and finally, in 1860, became a State school. It w'as thoroughly remodeled in 1878 and 1879, when its activity w^as restricted wfithin the limits of purely technical instruction, and when a higher industrial art school and a professional building school w’ere added. The instruction of the higher industrial art school has been grouped in twm sections — one for industrial arts (wfith five pro¬ fessional divisions), the other a training school for teachers of drawfing, wniting, and modeling. In 1890 was added a professional school of mechanics wfith seven profes¬ sional divisions. 796 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. The school work is carried on in five head departments: (I) The technical evening and Sunday school, (II) the technical school for females, (III) the higher industrial art school, (IV) the professional building school, and (V) the professional school of mechanics. Besides, instruction is imparted in the principles of style, art needle¬ work, professional and decorative painting, photography, form anatomy with drawing, a course for electrical fitters, and gymnastics. During the school year 1901-2 there were 2,171 students, a considerable number, testifying strongly to the importance of this school. The number of teachers was 92, of wliom 32 in ordinary. At present a i“)lan is being worked out with the purpose of a further extension and comprehensive changes in the organization of the school, chiefly by dividing it into several educational institutes in different parts of the city. Finally there are the lower technical schools — at present 41 in number — whose activity varies according to the special branches of industry prevalent in the districts where they are located. They are supported mainly by the communities of these places, but stand under State inspection, and also receive State grants, in 1900 to a total amount of $16,000. In 1900 the number of teachers at these schools was 293 and that of the pupils 6,817, of whom 1,275 were females. 5. Swedish Gymnastics. The Swedish gymnastics derive their origin from Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839). Before Ids time, it is true, interest had been awakened in favor of a more thorough exercise of the body, but there existed nothing of gymnastics in the present sense of the term. According to Ling’s idea, the selection and kinds of exercises must be grounded on the requirements of the body itself. The body itself is consequently the object of, as well as the principal instrument or implement for, the performance of the work to be done. In many exercises, however, external implements are also needed, and these have been devised with exclusive regard to obtaining a good result from the neces¬ sary exercises. Through the correct use of the implements it becomes increas¬ ingly possible to limit more precisely the form and the scope of action of a movement. This limitation has been called localization, sometimes isolation, to distinguish it from a combination of forces which is also necessary to obtain the effect desired. Such combination has been called synergy or cooperation. What has been done after Ling’s death for the consummation of Ins work has been, for the most part, effected by his immediate successor, Gabriel Branting (1799-1881), and by his son, Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886). Hjalmar Ling represented by very strik¬ ing drawings, made by himself, thousands of forms of movements, and he formed a collection of these and arranged them, in harmony with his father’s plan and views, according to their effect on the organism, into different classes. Ten classes of gym¬ nastic movements are thus shown to exist. Some of these may with advantage be further subdivided into two or more groups. He also drew up lists of mo\ ements suited to different ages, and rendered possible pedagogical gymnastics in common schools and in female education. The movements in each of the above-mentioned classes have been arranged in progression according to the degree of effort they call forth. In practice, movements calling for about the same degree of effort should, out of all the classes, be arranged together for a programme of exercises — a so-called “day’s exercise” — for daily use. A number of movements requiring less exertion should be inserted among the specific ones from each class so as to fill out the day’s exercise into a complete set of gym- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 797 nastic exercises. It is, namely, requisite that every part of the body and the organs in general should receive each its needed share of the day’s exercise, which, as a whole and in detail, must be accommodated to the degree of development of the pupils. The number of pupils practicing at one time, which is sometimes rather large, must therefore be divided into several smaller sections, so that those Avho have attained the same degree of development may T)ractice together. That a sufficiently great effort may be called forth, and at the same time overstrain¬ ing prevented, the arrangement of the movements in the day’s exercise should, moreover, be such as constantly to j)romote an equilibrium between respiration, the action of the heart, and muscular work. This is obtained by making the movements act upon the provinces of the different vessels alternately, so as to increase or relax the circulation to and from various parts of the body. In connection with this the rate of breathing must by turns be increased and slackened, while the breathing itself is drawn deeper. Besides the various movements with their different effects a means to this end consists also in a gradually increasing exertion in the day’s exercise up to rather beyond the middle, after that in decreasing the exertion more rapidly toward the end; and when the whole day’s exercise has been gone through both the action of the heart and the breathing ought to be strong and deep but calm. The great expectations which Ling entertained in regard to the Central Gymnastic Institute are being regularly and surely realized. The institute has, during its ninety years’ existence, developed to a very considerable extent. All teachers of gym¬ nastics, women as w’ell as men, are trained there for all the educational establish¬ ments throughout the country, thus also for the military schools. For this purpose there are a one-year, a two-year, and a three-year course for men and a two-year course for women. The three hrst-mentioned courses follow one another imme¬ diately and are preparatory each for the next; the third year’s course is devoted exclusively to instruction in subjects for training in medical gymnastics. The num¬ ber of pupils at the institute has so increased that at present it amounts to about 115, of whom 55 are women. In all the State secondary schools of at least five classes in the Kingdom there are well-lighted and airy gymnastic halls, in which the exercises are conducted by teach¬ ers trained at the Central Gymnastic Institute. According to the statutes in force, every pupil whom the physician has declared sufficiently strong must practice gym¬ nastics at least half an hour daily, besides which the pupils in the sixth and lower seventh classes must have two hours’ instruction per week in fencing. In all the training colleges for common school teachers a staff of equally well- trained leaders is employed to conduct gymnastic exercises for the future teachers, who, during their four-year course, are also trained to teach gymnastics in the com¬ mon schools, where gymnastic exercises are a compulsory subject. Also at the peo¬ ple’s high schools the introduction of gymnastics has begun in earnest in spite of the entirely private character of those establishments. Ten of these have now their own gymnastic halls. Besides, there exist in the larger towns privately organized gym¬ nastics at so-called gymnastic clubs, as well for women as for men; also for individ¬ uals who do not belong to any organized association, but practice gymnastics only for the benefit of their health. In the army and navy the same system is applied in schools of all grades, for recruits, corporals, noncommissioned and commissioned officers. Lastly, it may be added that everywhere in Sweden the Ling system is followed. CHAPTER XII. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1903. Great Britain and Ireland, constitutional monarchy; area, England and Wales, 58,188 .square miles; population, 82,526,075 in 1901. Scotland, 29,820 square miles; population (estimated, 1899), 4,281,850. Ireland, 82,583 square miles; population (estimated, 1896), 4,5:i5,5]6. Information on education in Great Britain in previous Reports. Title of article. Detailed view of the educational system in England . . Religious and moral training in public elementary schools, England and W ales _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Brief view of the educational system, with current statistics _ Educational system of Scotland . . . . Elementary education in London and Paris _ _ _ _ _ Brief view of systems of England and Scotland, with current statistics and comparison with 1876 (England); 1830 (Scotland) _ . Pi-ovlsions for secondary and for technical instruction in Great Britain _ Educational system of Ireland . . . . . . . Elementary education in Great Britain and Ireland, 1892 . . . . . Technical instruction in Great Britain . . . Elementary education in Great Britain _ _ _ _ _ _ Religious instruction under the London school board . . . . Great Britain and Ireland, educational statistics and movements, 1898 _ Educational systems of England and Scotland, with statistics and movements, 1898-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . The English educational bill of 1896 . _ . . . . Education in Great Britain and Ireland, 1895-96, with detailed statements of the development of the English system . . . . Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Statistics, legislation, 1870-1897 . . Elementary education in London... . . . . . . . . Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Recent measures pertaining to the administration of the system: to the improvement of the teaching force; the extension of the curriculum— Proposals respecting secondary educa¬ tion— Universities and university colleges . . . Brief conspectuses of the systems of elementary education in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, with cuiTent and comparative statistics — Details of the current movements in England, with especial reference to recent legislation— Review of recent university movem.ents . . Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Current statistics; statistical re¬ view, 1870-1899— Board of education; organization and scope— University movements . . . . . . . . . . . Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Statistics, current and retrospective; measures affecting; higher grade and evening schools— Status of secondary education— Statistics of universities and university colleges— The Gjivern- ment Education Bill, by E. Lyulph Stanley— A National System of Jtiiduca- tion. by Cloudesley Brereton— The Royal Commission on tne State of Uni¬ versity Education in Ireland, paper by Judge O'Connor Morris _ _ Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Current statistics— Elemental-:/ edacation (England); retrospective statistics; the education law of 1902, reactionary and progressive tendencies; text of the law; opinions on, James Bryce, M. P., London Times; D. C. Lathbury, T. J. Macnamara— Historical survey of secondary education in England, with statistics and typical pro¬ grammes— State of secondary education in Scotland and Ireland— Higher education in Great Britain and Ireland; statistics and current notes . . Education in Great Britain and Ireland: Current statistics — The English sys¬ tem as organized under the law of 1902; passive resistance to the law; the new law for London, text and criticism of— Secondary and technical educa¬ tion as affected by the la. w— Retrospective tables— Scotland: Statistics — Sec¬ ondary and technical education— Universities and university colleges in Great Britain — Ireland: System of national education; secondary and tech¬ nical education; the university problem . . . . Report of— Pages. 1888-89 78-111 1888-89 438-457 1889-90 287-248 1889-90 187-286 1889-90 268-280 1890-91 125-134 1890-91 185-150 1890-91 151-164 1891-92 97-104 1891-92 105-187 1892-98 203-208 1892-93 208-218 1893-94 165-185 1894-95 257-273 1895-96 79-121 1895-96 123-135 1896-97 3-14 1896-97 15-27 1897-98 133-167 1898-99 3-65 1899-1900 1167-1204 1900-1901 939-1008 1902 1001-1067 1908 227-271 799 800 EDUCATION EEPOKT; 1904. TOPICAL OUTLINP. Current educational statistics, Great Britain and Ireland. — Elementary education, Eng¬ land. — Brief conspectus of the system as organized under the law of 1902. — Progress in the application of the new law. — Detailed statistics of elementary schools. — Code or regulations for elementary schools authorized hy the board of education and to go into effect in 1905. — Chronological epitome of the history of the elementary school system. System of pmblic education, Scotland. — Brief conspectus of the system. — Comparative statistics of elementary education. Education in Ireland. — Brief conspectus of the system of national education, vrith sta¬ tistics current and retrospective. — Proposed reform of the system. — Preliminary investi¬ gations (1) by special inspectors appointed to inquire into the status of schools aided by the intermediate education board; (2) by inspector appointed to inquire into the condi¬ tion of elementary schools. — Report of the latter. — Status of higher education in Ireland. Investigations relating to physical training and physical deterioration in Great Britain. Summary of current educational statistics — Great Britain and Ireland, Sources of informa¬ tion. Statesman's Year¬ book, 1904. OflBcial report, 1903-4.. Statesman's Y e a r - book, 1903-4. Official report, 1903-4. . Statesman’s Y e a r - book, 1904. Official reiiort Institutions. England and Wales. Universities; Oxford (22 colleges, 5 halls, and noncollegiate students). Cambridge (17 colleges, 1 hos¬ tel, and noncollegiate stu¬ dents)., Durham (1 college of arts, 1 medical college, 1 college of science. London a . . . Victoria (2 colleges) _ _ Birmingham . . Liverpool _ _ _ University of Wales (3 col¬ leges). University colleges . University colleges for women. Elementary day schools _ Night schools - - - Training colleges for elementary teachers. Scotland. Universities: Aberdeen . Edinburgh _ _ _ Glasgow - . . . St. Andrew’s (3 colleges) _ Glasgow Technical College _ Elementary daj^ schools . Higher grade schools . . . Training colleges for elementarj^ teachers. Ireland. Universities: Dublin . . Belfast, Queen’s College . . Cork, Queen’s College . . Galway, Queen’s College . . University College, Dublin _ Elementary day schools . . . Training schools for elementary teachers. Date of re¬ port. Regis¬ tered students or pupils. Profes¬ sors or teachers. Expend¬ iture. 1903 3,570 1903 2,900 1903 1,831 98 1903 &6,083 934 1903 1,914 123 1903 814 94 1903 667 115 1903 1, 495 155 1903 c 6, 871 259 1903 468 1903 1903 5,975,1:17 657,594 $63,897,365 1903 814 64 1903 2. 990 114 1903 2, 178 119 1903 546 91 im 374 1903 1903 785,473 4, 548 20,166 6,854,375 1903 1,385 1903 938 80 1903 342 41 1903 199 24 1903 97 22 1903 180 20 1903 741. 795 1,090 13, 144 6,439,817 a London University includes 6 colleges of arts and science, 6 theological colleges, 1 college of agriculture, 1 technical college, 12 medical schools, and the London School of Economies. b Also 443 evening students; the statistics of the medical schools included are incomplete, c Day and evening. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 801 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND - DRIEF CONSPECTUS OE THE SYSTEM AS ORGAN¬ IZED UNDER THE LAW OF 1902. The system of public elementary education in England is in the process of transition from the basis established by the law of 1870 to that of 1902, which went into operation March 26, 1903. The new conditions established by the law of 1902 relate almost exclusively to the local administration of schools. The provisions of the law of 1870 and subsequent amending laws are continued in force, excepting so far as they are explicitly annulled by the law. Local authorities. — The local authorities in charge of elementary schools are county and countj" borough councils, replacing the former elected school boards, and having general charge of (1) board schools, henceforth to be known as council or provided schools, and (2) voluntary (i. e., chiefly church) schools, to be known as nonprovided. The county and municipal councils become the local agents for the disbursement of the Government grant for elementary education The councils are further empowered to raise the additional moneys required for the maintenance of elementary schools by local taxes, which are henceforth to be applied to both the provided and the nonprovided schools. The educational functions of the councils, excepting that of raising school money by taxation, may be delegated to education committees constituted under schemes formed by the respective councils and approved by the board of educa¬ tion. « Every scheme for the formation of an education committee must provide for the appointment by the council of a majority of the members of the com¬ mittee and for the inclusion of women in the committee. Where the local education authority is a county council all public elementary schools must have a body of managers, to be constituted by the local authority. In the case of nonprovided (i. e., church) schools, these managers must include foundation managers, not exceeding four (excepting in special cases), and managers appointed by the local authority, in the proportion of tv^m to every four f 0 11 n d a t i o n ni a n a g e r s . The managers of a nonprovided school must carry out any directions of the local education authority as to the secular instruction to be given in the school, including any directions with respect to the number and educational qualifica¬ tions of the teachers to be employed for such instruction, and for the dismissal of any teacher on educational grounds ; but if the managers fail in these respects, then the local education authority shall have the power themselves to carry out the direction in question as if they were the managers ; but no direction given under this provision shall be such as to interfere with reasonable facilities for religious instruction during school hours. The managers of the school must also provide the schoolhouse, free of any charge to the local authority, and keep the schoolhouse in good repair, and make such alterations and improvements in the buildings as may reasonably be required by the local education authority. It is expressly provided that the local education authority shall have power to inspect nonprovided schools, and that its consent shall be required to the appoint¬ ment and dismissal of teachers, head teachers excepted; but the councils -may not withhold consent to the appointment nor interfere with the dismissal of " Central authority substituted by law of 1899 for the committee of council on educa¬ tion. In the reorganization of the department of education Mr. R. L. Morant becomes secretary to the board of education, replacing Sir G. W. Kekewich, who resigned the position November, 1902. On the 12th of May, 1903, Mr. Michael E. Sadler res’gned the position of director of special inquiries and reports, which he had held from its establishment in 1895. In .Tune following Dr. II. F. Heath, academic registrar of the University of London, was appointed to the vacant directorship, ED 1904 M - 51 802 EDUCATION KEPOET^ 1904, teachers on religious grounds. Moreover, in nonprovided schools “ assistant teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed, if it is thought fit, without refer¬ ence to religious creed and denomination. [Head teachers appointed independ¬ ently of the local authorities are naturally chosen on denominational grounds.] In any case in which there are more candidates for the post of pupil teacher than there are places to he filled, the appointment shall be made by the local education authority, and they shall determine the respective qualifications of the candidates by examination or otherwise.” Religious instruction.*— In provided schools no sectarian instruction is al¬ lowed. Nonprovided or denominational schools are prohibited by a conscience clause from forcing religious instruction upon children whose parents object to the same. Coinpulsorg school attendance. — The provisions with respect to compulsory school attendance are unchanged. Every local authority is obliged to make by-laws under which the upper limit of age for compulsory attendance must not be less than 12 years, and at the discretion of the local authorities may be raised to 14 years. Sources of support for clcnientarg schools. — The Government grant, which furnishes at present very nearly half the support of elementary schools, is applied on the same conditions to provided and nonprovided schools. The bal¬ ance of the support for both classes of schools is provided by local taxes. In the case of a nonprovided (i. e., denominational) school in which fees have hitherto been charged the local authority shall, “ while they continue to allow fees to be charged in respect of that school, pay such proportion of those fees as may be agreed upon, or, in default of agreement, determined by the .board of education and tlie managers.” Free tuition. — In the third schedule of the law it is declared that “the duty of a local education authority under the education acts ISTO to 1902, to provide a sufficient amount of public school accommodation, shall include the duty to pro’S'ide a sufficient amount of public school accommodation without payment of fees in every part of their area.” Definition of elcmeutanj school. — The law declares that — The expression “ elementary school ” shall not include any school carried on as an evening school under the regulations of the board of education. The power to provide instruction under the elementary education acts 1870 to 1900 shall, except where those acts expressly provide to the contrary, be limited to the provision in a ])ublic elementary school of instruction given under the regulations of the board of education to scholars who, at the close of the school year, will not be more than 16 years of age: Provided, That the local education authority may, with the consent of the l)oard of education, extend those limits in the case of any such school if no suitable higher education is available within a reasonable distance of the school. Higher elementary schools are organized for the purpose of providing more advanced instruction than can be given in the ordinary elementary schools for children between 10 and 15 years of age who are certified by an inspector of the board as qualified to profit by such instruction. The special object which they have in view is to qualify the children taught in them to enter any of those callings in which scientific methods have to be employed, Vfith this intention the course of instruction, though not exclusively scientific, is based on science, and all the scholars are trained to make accurate measurements and to perform and record simple experiments. One foreign language and elementary mathe¬ matics are included in the curriculum, while careful attention is given to drawing. The course of instruction extends over four years. The 66 training colleges for elementary school-teachers (20 for men, 32 for women, and 14 for both men and women) under inspection by the board of education and in receipt of Government grants are also included under the general head of elementary education. EDUCATION IN GEEAT BEITAIN AND lEELAND, 803 Higher education. — The local education authorities are empowered — ■ To supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary, and to pro¬ mote the general coordination of all forms of education, and for that purpose shall apply all or so much as they deem necessary of the residue of the liquor duties under section 1 of the local taxation (customs and excise) act, 1890, and shall carry forward for the like purpose any balance thereof which may remain unexpended, and may spend such further sums as they think fit : Pro- vided, That the amount raised by the council of a county for the purpose in any year out of rates (local taxes) under this act shall not exceed the amount which would be produced by a rate of 2d. in the pound, or sucli higher rate as the county council, with the consent of the local government board, may fix. Government inspection. — The Government supervision of elementary schools is maintained by an inspectorial service, which has been reorganized in connec¬ tion with the general changes in administration consequent upon the passage of the law of 1902. The official report says: Hitherto there has been a senior chief inspector in charge of the metropoli¬ tan division and 11 chief inspectors, of whom nine were in charge of the other divisions of England and Wales, and the other two were inspectors of training colleges. The chief inspector, who under the new arrangement takes the place of senior chief inspector, is not attached to any district or division, but has general control over the whole inspectorate of elementary schools and is the channel of communication between the inspectorate and the board. The officers hitherto known as chief inspe*c-tors will now be entitled divisional inspect¬ ors. They will, as before, be eleven in number, and each of them will be in charge of a geographical division conterminous with the area of a group of local education authorities. Each divisional inspector will be, to a large extent, responsible for the inspection of the training colleges within his divi¬ sion. He will be required to supervise in a more specific and effective man¬ ner than has hitherto been the case the work of all the district inspectors in his division, and the district assigned to him for his direct inspection will be smaller than that hitherto intrusted to a chief inspector, in order that he may have time for canning out the increased duties incident to the responsibilities of his post. He will be expected to make himself acquainted by frequent personal visits with the work of each of the inspectors of his division and to hold periodical conferences with all his inspectors, upon which he will fur¬ nish reports to the board through the chief inspector in regard to any mat¬ ters which seem to suggest the desirability of administrative changes. Simi¬ larly the chief inspector will visit each divisional inspector as frequently as possible, and will also hold periodical conferences vfith them as a body, in order that he may be able to place at the disposal of the board the best infor¬ mation and advice which the inspectorate as a whole is in a position to afford. The administration of the board will be largely guided by the expert advice given them in the full sense of the responsibility involved and with full knowl¬ edge of local circumstances by the body of inspectors. It is also expected that the local authorities, or, in particular, the local edu¬ cation committees, will come into close relations with the inspectors and will be guided, in a measure, by their expert knowledge of the school conditions of their respective areas. The inspectorate thus organized pertains to elementary schools exclusively. The similar service for the higher grades of schools that the new law has brought in relation with the central authority has been pro¬ vided for temporarily, but will probably be organized on a permanent basis in the near future. PROGRESS IN THE APPLICATION OF THE NEW LAW. In order to understand the current record of elementary education in England it is necessary to bear in mind the radical changes made in the administration of education by the law of 1902, as indicated in the above epitome of the law. It is also desirable to keep in mind the relation of the law to previous legislation on the same subject, which relation is indicated by the appended chronological epitome of the principal events in the development of the system of education. 804 EDUCATION REPOKT_, 1904. From tbe report of the board of education (central antbority) for 1903-4 it appears that rapid progress bas been niade since 1902 in giving effect to tbe new law. On August 1, 1904, it bad come into operation in every area of local edu¬ cation authority with tbe exception of six, and in these areas tbe days for its adoption bad been fixed, m.aking it sure that by tbe end of September tbe law would be operative in all. Thus, one of tbe main purposes of tbe law-, namely, a reduction in tbe number of local authorities responsible for education has been accomplished. In tbe place of about 800 school-attendance committees and over 2,500 school boards there are now 328 educational authorities (municipal and county councils) for tbe country outside of London. 'Pbe concentration of local authority in a single body in each area bas brought a large number of elementary schools, which w^ere formerly isolated units, under one and tbe same direction as an integral part of tbe local school pro¬ vision. Tbe education law for London, bearing date August 14, 1903, wmnt into effect May 1, 1904, at which time tbe London county council became tbe authority for education in tbe metropolis, excepting as regards certain minor provisions for W’bicli tbe appointed day wms October 1. Thus educational administration in tbe metropolis bas been brought into unison with that of the rest of tbe Kingdom. With reference to tbe general effects of these recent acts, tbe official report calls i)articular attention to tbe fact that they have made it possible to deal with tbe various forms of educational activity as parts of a coordinate whole in each area and that they have already brought within “reasonable distance of solution ” problems wdiicb could not be solved until such relations were estab¬ lished. As to tbe spirit in which tbe local authorities have entered upon tbe wmrk, tbe report states that they “ are carrying out their responsible duties, not merely with energy and good will, but with tact and consideration toward tbe various bodies with whom they wmre brought into relation.” Special difficulties arise in tbe local conduct of education in England from causes peculiar to tbe dual system of schools — i. e., public and private. Tbe newdy constituted local authorities have been brought into conflict with tbe governing bodies and teaching staff of the latter class of schools in a few in¬ stances ; fewer, however, than was anticipated. For tbe most part tbe questions in dispute have been amicably adjusted. Tbe board of education bas encountered some difficulty in respect to tbe appointment of foundation managers of private schools. Tbe total number of applications received for action in this respect amounts already to 11,538. Tbe power of grouping schools under one body of managers conferred by the law of 1902 upon tbe local education authorities bas been exercised so far as reported in respect to 514 council schools and 278 voluntary schools. It is believed that grouping bas really been effected in many more cases. Tbe efforts to deal with endowments applicable to elementary education, a task which also devolves upon tbe local education authority, have disclosed tbe fact that many of tbe endownnents are not necessarily restricted to elementary education, but may be used to foster higher grade schools. Tbe law of 1902 (section 8) also provides that — w^bere tbe local education authority or any persons propose to provide a new’’ public elementary school they shall give public notice of their intention to do so, and that appeals may (wdtbin three months after tbe notice is given) be made to tbe board against tbe proposal by the managers of any existing school, by tbe local education authority, or by any ten ratepayers in tbe area concerned, on tbe ground that tbe proposed school is not required or that a school of a different character would be better suited to meet tlie wants of the district. In deciding on any such appeal tbe board are directed by section 9 of tbe act to EDUCATION IN GKEAT BKITAIN AND IRELAND. 805 have regard to the interest of secular instruction, to the wishes of parents as to the education of their children, and to the economy of the rates. The following report of appeals and decisions in this respect is interesting as an indication of the impartial spirit in which the cases have been treated : Notices under section 8 have been received from — t Local ed¬ ucation authori¬ ties. Other persons. Total. New schools . . . . . - . . 338 75 413 Enlargements . - . . . . . 64 39 103 Transfers . . . . . . . 244 3 247 Total . - _ _ _ - 646 117 763 The following new schools and enlargements have been sanctioned: Council schools. Church of England schools. Roman Catholic schools. Total. Num¬ ber. A.ccommo- dation. Num¬ ber. Accommo¬ dation. Num¬ ber. Accommo¬ dation. Num¬ ber. Accommo¬ dation. New schools _ 136 71,225 5,231 15 1,978 3 335 154 73,538 6,434 Enlargements _ 20 9 1,073 1 130 30 Appeals have been received against 40 proposed voluntary schools, of which 8 have been successful, 10 unsuccessful, 2 withdrawn, and 20 are awaiting con¬ sideration. Appeals have been received against 32 proposed council schools, of which 5 v/ere unsuccessful, 4 withdrawn, and 23 are awaiting consideration. In 9 cases it has been necessary to hold public inquiries for the decision of appeals under section 8. The proceedings were in most cases of considerable public interest, and although the questions raised were novel and involved a careful balancing of conflicting considerations, the board have not felt any serious doubt as to tlie manner in which they should be decided. STATISTICS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Table I. — Nmnber of elementary schools, by classes and accommodation in each class. Classes of schools. Number of schools. Number of scholars for whom accom¬ modation is pro¬ vided. 1902. 1903. 1903. 1903. National Society or Church of England . 11,711 458 1,056 1,043 11,713 448 1,062 1,030 2.813,978 183,673 403, 064 322,887 2, 8.26. 755 178, Of 2 405.515 315.516 Wesleyan . . . . . . Roman Catholic _ - . British and other schools . . . Total voluntary or nonprovided schools . . Board or council schools. . . . 14,268 5, 943 14,253 6,011 3,722,427 3,003, 247 3,725,868 3,069,629 Grand total _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 20, 211 20, 264 6,725,674 6, 795,487 From the foregoing table it will be seen that the accommodation in public elementary schools increased by 69,813 places beUveen 1902 and 1903. Of this increase, a little more than half (36,806 places) is due to new schools that have been placed on the list for Government grants. The number of board or council schools — that is, schools under public management — was 518 greater in 1903 806 EDUCATIOi^ EEPOKT; 1904, than in 1902. Of this increase, 28 schools (10 Church of England, 3 Wesleyan, and 15 undenominational) are schools transferred from private to public con¬ trol. It is further noticeable that the Roman Catholic and Church of England schools are the only classes of schools under private management that show increase during the year. The former number 6 additional schools and 2,471 additional places; the latter, 2 additional schools and 12,777 additional places. Table II. — Enrollment and average attendance for successive years 1897-9S to 1902-3. Year. Scliolars on registers at end of j^ear. Average attendance during year. Percent¬ age of average attend¬ ance to numbers on reg¬ isters. Number over 3 years of age. Increase. dumber. Increase. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 189r-98. . 5,572,868 5,650,434 5,682,887 5,758,143 5,975,127 4,-565.831 4, 646, 713 4,673,205 4,741,954 4, 899, 815 5,047,129 81.93 82.24 82.23 82. a5 83. 31 84. 47 1898- 99- . . 1899- 1900 . . 1900- 1901...- . 1901 2 . . 1902-3.--. . . 77,566 32, 453 75, 256 123,135 93, 849 1-39 . 57 1.32 2. 14 1.60 80, 882 26,492 68, 749 157, 861 147,314 1.77 .57 1.47 3.'33 3. 01 As pointed out by the official report, the fluctuations in attendance shown by the above table will be better understood by observing the number of children on the registers between 7 and 11 and over 11 years of age, as shown in the following table ; Table III. — Classification of elementary pupils hy age periods. Age 3 to 7. Age 7 to 11. Over 11. Year. Number. Increase (, + ) or decrease (-). Number. Increase. Number. Increase. 1898 . 1,805,672 1,834,889 Per cent. 2, 424, 112 2, 446, 790 Per cent. 1,-34.3,084 1, 368, 755 Per cent. 1899 _ _ _ _ -fl.62 0. 94 1.91 1900 _ _ _ _ 1, 832, 438 - .13 2,475,993 1.19 1,374,456 .42 1901 . . . . . 1,829,348 - .17 2,499,225 .94 1,429,570 4. 01 1902 . . . . . . . 1,839,267 + .,54 2,520,684 .86 1,521,327 6.42 1903 _ _ _ 1,858,590 +1. 05 2,538,692 .71 1,577,845 3. 72 The report observes in reference to the above statistics of enrollment by age periods, that — The number of children between the ages of 7 and 11 has increased steadily, though the rate of increase has tended to become smaller ; and that the fluctua¬ tions are mainly in the numbers of children over 11 and under 7 years of age, respectively. (1) The number above the age of 11 has increased very considerably in the three years from 1900 to 1903. There can be no doubt that this is mainly due to the act passed in 1889 to amend the law respecting the employment and education of children, and perhaps partly also to the provisions in the ele¬ mentary education act of 1900 authorizing local authorities to extend the upper limit of compulsory school attendance from the thirteenth to the fourteenth year of age. The effect of this latter act, however, is mainly to be seen in the increased regularity of attendance, the per cent of average attendance to en¬ rollment having risen from 82.3 in 1900-1901 to 84.5 in 1902-3. (2) The number of pupils between the ages of 3 and 7 shows an actual decrease between 1898-99 and 1900-1901, while the increase in 1901-2 is very small. The board have no knowledge as to the reason of this, but it is possible EDUCATION IN GKEAT BKITAIN AND IKELAND, 807 that it may have been due to the South African war. The withdravval of a number of men from the country led to removals of their families, and the younger children may have been kept at home instead of being sent temporarily to new schools. If this is the case, a very large increase may be expected in the year 1903-4 as compared with 1902-3. The figures may also point to an increasing tendency for children not to attend school until the legal age (7 years) is reached. The war also may have been the cause to some extent of the diminution of the rate of increase in the number of children over 11 in the year 1899-1900, as many children may have been compelled to leave school prematurely in conse¬ quence of the diminished means of subsistence in their families. Special attention is also called in the report to irregularities in the statistics for successive jmars due to the use of the terms “ infants ” and “ older schol¬ ars.” These terms refer to the classification of children for the payment of the Government grants and not to the classification for purposes of instruction. In certain small schools the grant on the average attendance of infants is paid as if they were older scholars, and they are then counted as such for statistical purposes. Hereafter this confusion will be avoided by counting as “ infants ” for statistical purposes all children who are under instruction as infants. The ordinary age of promotion from the infants’ department or class is between 7 and 8 years, but there has been a steady tendency to lower this age. This tendency has been partially checked since 1900, in which year the regula¬ tions introduced the ” block grant ” and allowed more subjects to be taught in the infant schools. Table IV. — Number and proportion of children in infant schools and schools for older scholars at specified dates. Year. Infants. Older scholars. Percentages of to¬ tal number of scholars. Number. Increase. Number. Increase. Infants. Older scholars. 1898 . . . . . 1899 . . . . 1903 . 2,008,721 2,028,008 2,044,902 Per cent. a 0.99 } a. 20 3,564,147 1 3,621,766 1 3,930,225 Per cent. ca.62 } « 2. 06 38.04 / 35. 90 t 34. 22 63. 96 64. 10 65. 78 a Avei’age annual increase. The tabulated statistics include the schools classified as higher elementary. These number 29 with accommodation for 9,124 pupils, an enrollment of 8,230, and an average attendance of 7,839. The following statistics summarize information with respect to schools pro¬ vided for by the elementary education law (blind and deaf children) of 1893: Schools for blind and deaf children. Year ended Aug. 31— Schools and infditutions for blind children. Schools and institutions for deaf children. Number. Accommo¬ dation. Children on reg¬ isters. Number. Accommo¬ dation. Children on reg¬ isters. 1899 . 40 1,795 1,390 61 3,530 2,787 1901) _ _ _ _ _ _ 40 1,815 1,463 62 3,586 2, 794 1901 . . . . . 40 1,8:31 1,488 63 3,665 2,807 1902 . . . . . . . 38 1,654 1,379 61 3,560 2, 834 1903 .... . . . . 40 1,739 1,453 60 3,579 2,803 808 EDUCATION EEPOET; 1904. The official report presents the following statements with respect to meas- nres for increasing the efficiency of tlie class of schools included in the above table : The school authorities vcho make provision for the education of blind and deaf children are now consolidating small schools into larger ones, to which they are empowered to convey children from a distance at the cost of the rates [local taxes] when the parent is unable to bear the charges of conveyance. Better classiiication of the children, improved organization, and, consequently, more successful teaching may be expected, and in London these results are already apparent. There is also a tendency to replace day schools by small boarding institutions. The children are thereby placed under better care and have improved op])or- tunities for drill, games, and a more regular life. More continuous attendance at instruction is also possible in institution schools, and the progress of the scholars is greater. The future lives of these children are very largely influenced by the educa¬ tion they receive, and the fact that 75 per cent of the blind and 50 per cent of the deaf i)opulation of this country are shown by the census of 1901 to be with¬ out occupation, indicates the importance of the industrial training of these chil¬ dren. The usual school courses of manual instruction require to be supple¬ mented by higher industrial work, and it is worth notice that several local authorities are now doing this. At the Anerley Institution for older deaf boys advanced vcoodwork, tailoring, and bootmaking are being taught under ap¬ proved educational schemes. At Linden Lodge and Elm Court, blind schools for elder boys and girls, respectively, similar schemes are in use. Manchester, Stoke, and Doncaster schools for the deaf, and Birmingham, Leeds, and Shef- fleld schools for the blind give instruction of a similar character. An important departure in the work of educating the blind and deaf has been recently taken by the establishment of schools for children who are not only Iflind or deaf, but are also otherwise defective. For example, at Homerton very useful work is done by the school for feeble-minded deaf mutes, and at Clapton a school has been recently opened for blind children who are mentally defective. An innovation in all blind and deaf schools during the past year has been the introduction of a progress book showing by half-yearly entries the progress of each child in elementary attainments, manual work, character, good habits, and l)hysical powers. Some of the institutions for the blind, in their attempt to deal with the indus¬ trial side of the work, have, through the local education authorities, applied for power to give education other than elementary. In one case sanction to the proposal has already been granted. Table V. — Classification of teachers, number and jn oportion in each class. Year Certifi¬ cated- teachers. Assistant teachers. Pupil teachers, including probation¬ ers. Total. c Percentage of'total teachers. « Certifi¬ cated. Assist¬ ant. Pupil. 1890. _ _ 62,085 30, 2a3 33,349 125,667 49.4 24.1 26.5 1900 _ 64,058 32, 426 30,991 127,485 50. 24 27.3 23.5 1901 . . . 66, 149 34, 716 28,002 128,867 51.3 26.9 21.8 1902 _ 67,813 36,265 29,218 133,296 50.9 28.8 21.9 ('Not including additional women teachers first employed in 1880 (numbering 17,588 in 1902). Table VI. — Relation bettveen number of pupils in average attendance and num¬ ber of adult teachers. Year. Average attendance during year. Certifi¬ cated teachers in employ¬ ment at end of year. Total number of adult teachers in employ¬ ment at endof year. Children in avera.ge attend¬ ance to each cer¬ tificated teacher. Children in average attend¬ ance to each adult teacher. 1899-1900.. . 4,673,205 4.741,9.54 4; 899, 815 5,047,129 64,009 66, 101 67,768 70,886, 113,986 118, 821 121,666 126,977 73. 01 41.90 1900-1901 _ 71.74 39. 91 1901-2 . . . 72. 30 40.27 1902-3. . - . . . - . . 71.20 39. 75. EDUCATION IN GEEAT BEITAIN AND lEELAND, 809 Table VII. — Average annual salaries of certificated teachers. Year. Masters. Mistresses. Average salary of — Percentage in receipt of salaries over £300. Average salary of— Percentage in receii)t of salaries over £200. Princi¬ pal teach¬ ers. Assist¬ ant teach¬ ers. All teach¬ ers. Princi¬ pal. All teach¬ ers. Princi¬ pal teach¬ ers. Assist¬ ant teach¬ ers. All teach¬ ers. Princi¬ pal. Ail teach¬ ers. 1870 . £94 109 121 121 120 122 125 “128 .'8' £57 65 73 74 76 81 84 1875 . . 1880 . . . 1.05 1.56 2.01 1.97 1.97 1.9 6.51 l.:34 1.68 1.93 1.85 1.9 1885 . . £132 134 138 144 145. 7 147.5 £90 90 98 102 2.11 2.95 3. 21 3.54 3.6 3.8 £79 83 88 94 95.7 97.1 £63 66 73 76 2.05 2.75 3. 51 :3.95 4.1 4.2 1890 _ 1895 _ 1899 . . . . 1900 . 1901 . . . . . 86. 5 Table VIII. — Expenditure on public elementary education {England and Wales),. 1871-1902 {current and capital). (a) u 2 xn ■ (b) •f' G 03 -SI ^ ® 03r^ O ega ^ o P O (c) pH O (d) ilc a> o3-g .s^l ce,d ^ 'Sort O CC-.-I 03 JH p, ^ tM IS 03 O CO 2 P-:; (e) |S OT3 O PI (/) 03 03 PI ® rg ,Q PI il OrO CO ((/) § o 1.8 pi d 03 03 5 !5J) 4 P d ?-i'P 5.2 .a (70 £§^3=1 PI Pi , I lb 5 (0 nd db 03 S 03 03 2x3 P( G ^5=^ * ■-3 ® S-2 -43 d 03 dX3 p., PS 2 S - s 187L... 1872.. .. 1873.. .. 1874.. .. 1875.. . . 1876.. .. 1877.. .. 1878.. .. 1879.. .. 1880.. .. 1881.... 1882.... 1883.. .. 1884.. .. 1865.. .. 1886.. .. 1887.. .. 1888.. .. 1889.. .. 1890.. .. 1891.. .. 1892.. .. 1893.. .. 1894.. .. 1895.. .. 1900.. .. 1901.. .. 1902-3.. £71,184 182, 491 251,908 373, 859 588,845 868,418 1,108,316 1,328,275 1,486,250 1,579, 752 1.772.263 1,837,566 1,990,162 2,207,806 2,354,006 2,545,492 2,641,554 2,631,433 2.666.264 2,968,096 3,331,473 3, 462,356 3,619, 167 3,732,345 3,987,790 5,557,537 6,331,811 6,243,692 £509,262 581,014 642, 650 709, 712 799,387 878, 757 290,564 918,390 913,550 905, 612 897, 279 893, 796 891,346 913, 525 933,959 917, 080 923,985 932,403 941,748 945,114 962,113 980,342 960,012 969, 553 1,000,993 £530, 446 743,505 894,556 1,083,571 1,388,232 1,747,175 2,028,880 2,246,665 2, 399, 800 2, 485, 364 2, 669, 542 2,731,362 2,881,508 3,121,331 3, 287, 965 3,462,572 3,565,539 3, 563, 836 3,608,012 3,913,210 4, 293, 586 4, 442, 698 4,609,179 4,721,895 4,988,783 £546, 607, 699, 826, 948. 1,049: 1,154: 1,292: 1,392, 1,452, 1,530, 1,607. 1,684: 1,759: 1,818, 1,840. 1,862. 1,890: 1,932: 1,969, 2,000. 1,3,‘so: 393: 360: 342, 126,867 351.197 594,153 909, 815 338, 352 797,067 183,789 539, 280 792, 089 9:38,156 209,471 :3;39,250 565,595 880,620 106,544 302,854 427,581 454,373 540, 619 882,242 294, 262 763, 103 002,440 082, 425 331,683 £600 63, 487 861, 458 1,539.111 1,4:35,989 1,462,956 1,821,330 1,500,163 1,083,6:36 1,090,258 982,151 975, 245 850, 051 1,171,288 1, 198, 364 691,601 4:3a, 462 401,114 574,828 377,397 574,064 949,076 914, 5:39 1,557,885 1,889,362 £441. 441: 441, 441, 441. 441: 441. 441: 441: 441, 441, 441, 441, 441. 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, £1.588, 1.855, 2, 896, 3.890, 4; 213, 4,701, 5,446, 5.480, 5; 316, 5,469, 5,623, 5, 755, 5. 856, 6,493, 6,746, 6, 435, 6, 299, 6,296, 6,556, 6, 700, 7,:309, 7,153, 6,358, 7,081, 7,642, 8:34,123 876,;380 7,165,934 7,123,052i 2, 150, 797 £927,524 1,117,878 1,246, 851 1,341,089^ 1,496,471 1,642,283. 1.897.350 2,191,017 2,348,704 2,529,572 2, 6.36, 936 2,824, 462 2,866,260 3, 135,843 3,285,227 3, 746, 633 3,511,654 3,606,868 3,684,192 3. 741.351 4; 185, 142 6,092,:36G. 6,495,841 6, 6.50, 969 6,96:3, 279 8,973,871 079, 686 89,339,404 " The law of 1S70 authorized school hoards to borrow money on the security of local taxes (rates) for the building of schooihouses. Up to the 1st of April, 1001, the educa¬ tion department had sanctioned loans to the amount of £41,624,464 (.^208,122,320). The- new accommodation thus furnished is sufllcient for 2,788,120 children. The estimated cost per child is thus about £14 18s. 7d. ($73). The department has also sanctioned loans to the amount of £132,998 to 10 school board, s for providing accommodation for 729 blind and deaf children, and also £26,818 18s. to o school boards for providing accommo¬ dation for 390 defective children. ^ The grant for this year does not include the grant from the science and art depart¬ ment, which is no longer applied to elementary schools. 'Phis grant, now limited to so- called higher schools, amounted in 1902-3 to £649.702. The Government grant to train¬ ing colleges, not included in the foregoing totals, was £231,989. 810 EDUCATION' EEPOET; 1904. Table IX. — Summarized statistics for specified years. 1870. (Revised Code.) Year ending August 31— 1876. 1830. 1900. 1903. Schools (institutions) inspected by Her Majesty’s inspectors _ _ - . V oluntary schools. _ _ _ _ Board schools . . . . . . . Departments under separate head teachers in those schools _ _ _ Scholars for whom accommodation is provided _ Percentage to estimated population Scholars on the school registers _ Percentage to estimated population Scholars in actual average attendance « . Percentage to estimated population V Percentage to scholars on the school registers . . . Average attendance for payment in infant schools and classes _ _ Average attendance for payment in schools for older scholars _ Average attendance of scholars who earned grants upon examination in class sub j ects _ _ _ _ _ Scholars qualified for grant in specific subjects _ _ _ _ _ Number of departments in which sing¬ ing was taught: By ear. . . . . By notes . . . . . . . Number of schools in which were taught— Military drill . . . . lilanual instruction . . . Science _ _ _ _ Physical exercises... . . Half-time scholars . . . School libraries . Savings banks . . . . . Certificated and provisionally certifi¬ cated teachers . . . . . Assistant teachers _ _ _ _ Additional teachers . . . . Pupil teachers . . . . . . ‘ ‘ Annual grant ” . . 8,281 8,281 12,061 1,878,584 8.80 1,093.059 7. 68 1,152,389 5.21 08.08 12, 467 1,262 14,304 £562, 611 14,273 12,077 1,596 20, 782 3, 426, 318 14. 13 2,943,774 12. 08 1,984.573 8.10 67.42 16,823 3,815 1,056 201,284 23.053 3,173 543 32,231 £1,316,864 19. 419 14, 743 4,676 29, 339 5, .539. 285 18.84 4,804,149 16.34 3,717,917 12. 64 77.39 1,107,805 2, 632, 7:31 2,492,918 78, 611 13,0.54 16,227 1,414 175, 437 ~ 4,401 2,498 46, .539 21, 784 5,210 29,610 £3, 326, 177 20, lo-a 14,409 5,691 31,234 6,509,611 20.28 5,686,114 17. 71 4.666,130 14. .53 82. 06 1,478,211 3,2:30,2.30 3,227,985 330, 815 4,577 26, 638 2.838 1,708 1,229 9, 675 89,036 8,114 7, 133 64,038 32,4:36 17, .512 29,393 £4,911,26^ 20,158 14,275 5,878 31,372 6,681,295 20.54 5,881,278 18.08 4,788,400 14.72 81.41 1,480,023 2,290 29,077 6,437 1,749 8,504 7,071 67,813 36,265 17,588 29,218 £.5, 275, 883 o The years selected, with one exception, were characterized by the passage of laws organiz¬ ing or rnodifying the system. The year 1890 marked the close of two decades under the Forester law and also brought to an issue the efforts that resulted in the law of 1891, providing for the remission of school fees. CODE (regulations) FOE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR 1905. One of tlie most important measures of the bo.ard of education during the year under review was the issuing of a new code® or ])ody of regulations determining the conditions under which an elementary school may share in the Government grant. As compared with former codes, the present code has been greatly simplified ])y the omission of all matter relative to the instruction and training of teachers, which subjects are dealt with in separate regulations. The course of study, which was formerly presented in two parts, one including obligatory subjects and the other subjects which might be taught under appropriate circumstances, is now presented as a coherent whole with directions as to minimum and maxi¬ mum refiuirements. The present code proposes also a change in the basis on which the Government grant is distributed to the schools — a change which it is believed will have ex¬ cellent results when it is universally applied. Under this new scheme, which does not go into full operation until after July 31, 1905, the principal part of the Government grant will be allotted on the basis of average attendance, ffs pro- " This code was prepared under the immediate direction of Mr. It. L. Morant, secretary to the board of education, who has given great attention to the subject of chief impor¬ tance in the code, namely, that of the com s"e of study. EDUCATIOIn" m G^EAT BKITAm AA^D lEEI.AKD. 811 vicTecl by the regulations of 1895, but the distinction between infant schools and schools for older pupils is done away with. In lieu thereof the rate of the grant per capita is graded by the ages of pupils. This change, it is hoped, will tend to prevent the transfer of children from infant schools to the schools for older pupils for the mere purpose of securing larger grants. Many of the regulations comprised in the code relate to matters peculiar to the English system. The following citations embody previsions having a wider bearing : INTEODUCTION TO THE CODE. General purpose of elementary seltools. — The purpose of the public elementary school is to form and strengthen the character and to develop the intelligence of the children intrusted to it, and to make the best use of the school years available, in assisting both girls and boys, according to their different needs, to fit themselves, practically as vrell as intellectually, for the work of life. With this purpose in view it will be the aim of the school to train the chil¬ dren carefully in habits of observation and clear reasoning, so that they may gain an intelligent acquaintance with some of the facts and laws of nature ; to arouse in them a living interest in the ideals and achievements of mankind, and to bring them to some familiarity with the literature and history of their ovrn country ; to give them some power over language as an instrument of thought and expression, and, while making them conscious of the limitations of their knowledge, to develop in them such a taste for good reading and thought¬ ful study as will enable them to increase that knowledge in after years by their own efforts. The school must at the same time encourage to the utmost the children's natural activities of hand and eye l^y suitable forms of practical work and man¬ ual instruction, and afford them every opportunity for the healthy development of their bodies, not only by training tbem in a]3propriate physical exercises and encouraging them in organized games, but also by instructing them in the vrprk- ing of some of the simpler laws of health. It will be an important though subsidiary object of the school to discover indi¬ vidual children v.dio show promise of exceptional capacity, and to develop their special gifts (so far as this can be done without sacrificing the interests of the majority of the children), so that they may be qualified to pass at the proper age into secondary schools, and: be able to derive the maximum of benefit from the education there offered them. And although their opportunities are but brief, the teachers can. yet do much to lay the foundations of conduct. They can endeavor, by example and influ¬ ence, aided by the sense of discipline which should pervade the school, to im¬ plant in the children habits of industry, self-control, and courageous persever¬ ance in the face of difficulties ; they can teach them to reverence what is noble, to be ready for self-sacrifice, and to strive their utmost after purity and truth; they can foster a sti’ong respect for duy^g and that consideration and respect for others which, must be the foundation of unselfishness and the true basis of all good manners ; while the corporate life of the school, especially in the play¬ ground, should develop that instinct for fair play and for loyalty to one another which is the germ of a wider sense of lionor in later life. In all these endeavors the school should enlist, as far as possible, the interest and cooperation of the parents and the home in an united effort to enable the children not merely to reach their full development as individuals, but also to I)eeome upright and useful members of the community in which they live and Avorthy sons and daughters of the country to which they belong. Articles of the New Code. Chapter I. — Course of instruction, syllabus, and time-table. 1. The education given in every public elementaiw school should be based on a graduated course of instruction, suitable to the age and capacity of the scholars, in the following subjects : (1) The English language, including speaking with correct pronunciation, reading aloud with intelligence and clear enunciation, writing, oral and Avritten composition, and grammar. At each stage recitation of pieces of literary merit should be practiced. (2) Arithinetic, including practice in oral and Avritten descriptions of the processes used. 812 EDUCATION EEPOET;, 1904. (3) Knoivledgc of the common phenomena of the external irorld, with special reference to the formation of a habit of intelligent and accurate observation, and to the application of that habit — in conjunction with simple forms of experiment — in the daily life and surroundings of the scholars. (4) Geography, advancing from first notions to an outline knowledge of the chief physical features of the earth, and specially of the British Isles, and the British dominions beyond the seas. (5) History, comprising a general knowledge of the great persons and events in English history and of the growth of the British Empire. (G) Drawing, including drawing from actual objects, memory drawing, and brush drawing, together with other simple hand and eye training. (7) Hmging, which should, as a rule, be taught by note and should include practice in proper breathing. (8) Physical exercises, according to an improved system. (9) Plain needlework for girls, including in the later years lessons in cut¬ ting out. Hec also Article 4. It is desirable that as far as possible subjects (1) to (6) should be taught in relation to each other and with reference to the surroundings of the children. The instruction should afford frequent opportunities for the practice of oral and written composition. Part of the instruction of infants should be given by means of appropriate and varied occipiations, and to a less extent the same methods should find a place in the teaching of the younger scholars (article 3). Instruction in his¬ tory and geography need not be given to infants. One or more of the above subjects of instruction may be partly or wholly omhted in any class in which the board are satisfied that there is good reason for the omission. 2. The instruction under article 1 must be in accordance with a syllabus which the inspector may require to be submitted to him at any time. The board ]uay require the modification of any portion of the syllabus which is considered unsuitable. The syllabus should show the amount of time allotted to each subject and should ordinarily provide for a full year’s instruction, but that year need not be identical with the school year (article 27) or with the educational year adopted for any special subject (Schedule III, rule 1). 3. The classification of scholars for instruction under article 1 should not be based on a precise separation according to age ; but scholars who, at the close of the course of instruction for the year, will not have completed their seventh year should generally be regarded as “ infants.” Other scholars should gener¬ ally be regarded as “ younger scholars ” until the close of the year of instruc¬ tion in which they complete their eleventh year, and afterwards should gener¬ ally be regarded as “ older scholars.” 4. Instruction in the following subjects (for which special grants are made on conditions specified) may also be given to scholars in the upper classes under the regulations prescribed, where adequate equipment and efficient teachers are available : For boys, handicraft, gardening, and (in schools in seaport towns, with the special consent of the board) cookery. For girls, cookery, laundry work, dairy work, and household management. 5. One or two subjects other than those named in articles 1 and 4 may often be taught with advantage to older scholars. The inspector will satisfy him¬ self (1) that any subject thus taken is suitable to the age, circumstances, and capacities of those scholars who take it; (2) that it can be taken without inter¬ fering \yith the general course of instruction; (3) that it can be efficiently taught, and (4) that the instruction will be given in accordance with a suitably graduated scheme. G. Instruction may be given in religious subjects, but no grant is made in respect of such instruction. (Section 97 (1), elementary education act, 1870.) 7. The time during which instruction is given in each subject taken uiuler this code, whether at the school or elsewhere, must be entered in the time-table and is subject to the approval of the inspector on behalf of the board. The time-table must be open at any reasonable time, except the ordinary school hours, to the inspection of the parent of any scholar attending the school who makes a written application to see it. The time-table must be kept itermanently and consi)icuously affixed in every schoolroom. (Section 7 (2), elementary education act, 1870.) EDUCATIOl^ IN GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 813 Chapter II.- — Teaching staff. THE HEAD TEACHER. 8. Every school or department must have a head teacher, who should be held responsible for The general control and supervision of the instruction and discipline. I A school may consist of one or more “ departments,” and, for the purposes of this code, 5 the board have power to determine whether any part of a school is or is not a depart- il ment. 9. The head teacher must be a certificated teacher, except in the following cases : (a) The head teacher of a school with an average attendance of not more than 50 scholars may be a provisionally certificated teacher. (&) The head teacher of a school with an average attendance of not more than 40 scholars may be an uncertificated teacher provided the inspector reports (1) that such teacher is specially qualified to take charge of the school in question and (2) that the school is so circumstanced that it is difficult to obtain a certificated teachei* (c) The head teacher may, with the special approval of the board, be a retired army schoolmaster recommended for that purpose by the war office. If a school or department which is already on the annual grant list is kept open and the registers are duly marked, grants will be payable in respect of any period (not being more than three months exclusive of the ordinary school i holidays) between the leaving of one and the coming of another head teacher I qualified under this article. THE STAFF. 10. The school or department must have a sufficient and suitable staff. The ” staff ” of a school or department consists, for the purposes of this code, of all the teachers whose employment in the school or department is recognized by the board (see articles 11 and 15). In considering the sufficiency and suitability of the staff the board will have regard to the arrangement of the premises for teaching purposes, the number of children in attendance, their organization and proficiency, the nature of the approved course of instruction, the qualification of each member of the staff, and his suitability for the work assigned to him. « 11. In order to be recognized on the staff of a school or department a teacher other than the head teacher must (with the exceptions named in the two follow¬ ing paragraphs) be a certificated teacher, a provisionally certificated teacher, or an uncertificated teacher. (a) For the present supplementary teachers and pupil-teachers may be recog¬ nized on the staff, and provisional assistant teachers and probationers who have obtained recognition before August 1, 1904, may continue to serve under the regulations of the provisional code, 1903, and to form part of the staff of the school or department. (&) Where vacancies in the office of any teacher other than the head teacher occur in the course of the school year and are duly reported to the board, young persons may be employed temporarily as monitors in place of the teachers causing the vacancies and may be recognized temporarily as part of the school staff, each monitor being accepted as equivalent to a pupil-teacher. Such vacancies must always be supplied by the appointment of duly qualified teachers as soon as possible and in no case later than the first day of the next school year. (c) No person who is a member of, or is employed otherwise than in teach¬ ing by, a local education authority, school board, or school attendance commit¬ tee, as the case may be, can, as a rule, be recognized as part of the staff of any school within the area of such authority. id) No person who is a clerk in holy orders or the regular minister of a congregation can be recognized as part of the staff of a school or department for the purposes of this code. 814 EDUCATIOIT REPOET; 1904. 12. (a) In DO case will a staff be considered sufficient if it is not at least equivalent fcr tiie average attendance measured by the following scale: Children in average attendance. 'The bead teacher - 50 Each assistant teacher certilicated _ GO Each assistant teacher (iincertiticated or provisionally certificated) _ 45 Each supplementary teaclier _ 30 Each provisional assistant teacher _ 80 Each pupil-teacher _ 30 Each probationer _ 20 The above scale must not be understood to indicate that a school thus staffed is necessarily efficient. In every case the circumstances of the individual school will be considered in relation to the educational conditions of the area, and the sufficiency of the staff thus tested will be a condition precedent to a grant. a (h) For the purpose of article 32 the following scale is substituted for that given in (a) above: Children in average attendance. The head teacher _ 40 Each assistant teaclier certificated _ 40 Each assistant teacher (iincertificated or provisionally certificated) _ 30 Each supplementary teacher _ 20 Each provisional assistant teacher _ 20 Each pupil-teacher _ 20 Each probationer _ 10 infants’ divisions. 13. An infants’ division with an average attendance exceeding 50 must be under the charge of a certificated teacher of its own, and an infants’ division vrith an average attendance exceeding 30 must be under the charge of a teacher over IS years of age approved for the purpose by the inspector. No grant will lie paid in respect of any period longer than three months (exclusive of the ordinary school holidays) during which the division has been Avithout such a teacher. If a department contains both infants and other scholars, the infants taken together form the “ infants' division.” SIZE OF CLASSES. 14. The grant may be withheld if it is found that the number of scholars habitually present at any one time under the instruction of any teacher or teachers exceeds by more than 15 per cent the number for which such teacher or teachers is or are equivalent, according to the scale of article 12 {a). CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. 15. All teachers must be employed under written agreements, except that in the case of a school provided by a local authority a teacher other than a pupil- teacher may be employed under a minute of the authority. ((?) Any agreement or minute of appointment dated on or after August 1, 1904, under Avhicli a teacher other than a pupil-teacher is einployed in a public elementary school, must include, either expressly or by reference to this article of the code, one or other of the alternative clauses set out below : The board will not recognize, as part of tbe staff of a school or department, any teacher other than a pupil-teacher unless this condition is complied with. Clause (1). — The teacher shall not be required to perform any duties except such as are connected with the work of the school, or to abstain, outside the school hours, from any occupations which do not interfere Avith the due per¬ formance of his duties as teacher of the jiublic elementary school. Clause {2). — The teacher shall not lie required to perform any duties except such as are connected Avith the Avork of the school and Avith the instruction of pupil teachers and ]irobatloners, or to abstain, outside the school hours, from any occupations which do not inteiffere Avith the due performance of his duties This article does not apply to Greenwich Hospital or to marine schools. EDUCATION IN GEEAT BKITAIN AND lEELAND. 815 as teacher of the public elemental^ school or with the instruction of pupil- teachers and probationers. (Z>) Clause (2) must only be included if the teacher is required to instruct pupil-teachers or probationers who are not receiving instruction in a center recognized by the board. In other cases clause (1) must be included. (c) Subsection (a) of this article does not apply to marine schools or to schools which are attached to institutions in which children are boarded and lodged. (d) The agTeements of pupil-teachers must conform to the regulations for the instruction and training of pupil-teachers. Hi Chapter III. — Premises, accommodation, and equipment. 17. Before placing a school on the list of schools in receipt of annual grant and before recognizing any enlargements or alterations (other than minor alterations as defined below) of the premises of a school already on that list, the board must be satisfied by the submission of plans, drawn in accordance with the prescribed requirements, that the building rules are complied with. The recognized accommodation, or maximum number of scholars in average attendance for which the premises are suitable, will be determined by the board, in the case of new buildings or of alterations or enlargements, from the approved plans. ❖ * IS. As a condition of retaining a school on the list of schools in receipt of annual grant the board may, from time to time, require such alterations as may, in their opinion, be necessary to secure that the premises shall be safe in case oi fire, shall have suitable and sufficient sanitary and cloak-room accommodation for the scholars in attendance, shall be capable of being properly lighted, warmed, drained, and ventilated, and shall be adequate, and suitably arranged for the instruction of the children in attendance according to their age. Tlie recognized accommodation of a school may from time to time be revised by the board, and there shall in no case be less than 80 cubic feet of internal space and 8 square feet of internal area for each unit of the number of children in average attendance for which the school is recognized. 19. The number of scholars in average attendance should not exceed the recog¬ nized accommodation, and if the inspector finds at any visit to a school that the premises and offices are not kept in a clean and healthy condition, or that any room is habitually used for a larger number of scholars than that for which it is passed by the board, he will at once report accordingly. 20. The board maj^ from time to time require provision to be made for the ade¬ quate and suitable equipment of the school with desks, furniture, books, maps, and other apparatus of elementary instruction. Chapter IV. — Inspection and reports. 21. Every public elementary school is inspected from time to time by the board. An inspector may visit at any time any public elementary school or place v/here the scholars of a public elementary school are receiving instruction under the code. A school must have been visited by an inspector during the course of any period for which grant is claimed ; but the state of the school will not necessarily be the subject of a detailed report each year by an inspector. 22. The inspector, where he considers it desirable, may hold an oral or written examination of any class in the school on the work done in the class since the commencement of the current year of instruction. Such examination, when held, will be arranged by the inspector after consultation with the head teacher, and after consideration of any examinations which have been held during that period by the head teacher or the teacher of the class ; and the inspector will confer with the head teacher as to the length of notice desirable before the examination is held. 23. Any report of an inspector, and any remarks made thereon by the board for communication to the managers of the school, must as soon as received be copied verbatim into the log book and signed by the correspondent. 24. The term “ inspector,” where used in this code, means exclusively one of Ills Majesty’s inspectors of schools or any other person employed by the board for the purpose of insi^ection. 816 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. Chaptei? V. — Exchequer grants in aid and annual grant list. 25. There is annually voted by Parliament, for the purposes of elementary education in England and Wales, a sum of money to be administered by the board of education, in this code referred to as the “ board.” From this sum are paid ; (a) The special aid grant payable under section 10 of the education act, 1902,® regulations for the payment of which can be obtained by local education authorities. (&) The fee grant payable under the elementary education act, 1891. (c) The ” annual grants ” in respect of individual public elementary schools [as provided for specially]. * * * The board’s decision as to the fulfillment of such of these conditions as are not directly imposed by act of Parliament, is final and conclusive so far as regards the payment of grant. ^ * GRANT ON ACCOUNT OF AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. 31. For school years ending on or after August 31, 1905, grants v/ill be payable at the following rates subject to article 30 ; (a) Fifteen shillings for each unit of the average attendance of children between 3 and 5 years of age; 20s. for each^unit of the average attendance of children between 5 and 12 years of age ; 25s. for each unit of the average attend¬ ance of children between 12 and 15 years of age. (h) If the total average attendance of a department containing both infants and other scholars does not exceed 45, the board may make an additional grant of 2s. for each unit of the average attendance. SPECIAL GRANTS TO SCHOOLS IN AREAS W ITII SMALL POPULATIONS. 32. Where the population of the parish" in which any public elementary school is situate, ot the population within 2 miles, measured according to the nearest road from the school, is less than 500, and there is no other public ele¬ mentary school recognized by the board as available for that parish, or that population, as the case may be, the board may make a special grant, in addition to all other grants, at the rate of £10 a year if the said population is not less than 300, at the rate of £20 a year if the said population is less than 300 and exceeds 200, or at the rate of £25 a year if the said population does not exceed 200; provided that in each case, as to £10 a year, no grant under this article is jiayable in respect of any period during which the staff has not satisfied the con¬ ditions of article 12 (h), subject to the conditions of articles 9 and 11 (It) as to vacancies. * * * “ Section 10 of the education act, 1002, is as follows: Aid grant. 10. (1) In lieu of the grants under the voluntary schools act, 1897, and under section ninety-seven of the elementary education act, 1870, as amended by the elementary educa¬ tion act, 1897, there shall be annually paid to every local education authority, out of moneys provided by Parliament — (a) A sum equal to four shillings per scholar; and (b) An additional sum of three halfpence per scholar for every complete twopence per scholar by which the amount which would be produced by a penny rate on the area of the authority falls short of ten shillings a scholar : Provided, That in estimating the produce of a penny rate in the area of a local education authority not being a county borough, the rate shall be calculated upon the county rate basis, which, in cases where part only of a parish is situated in the area of the local education authority, shall be apportioned in such manner as the board of education think just. But if in any year the total amount of parliamentary grants payable to a local edu¬ cation authority would make the amount payable out of other sources by that authority on account of their expenses under this part of this act less than the amount which would be produced at a rate of threepence in the pound, the parliamentary grants shall be decreased, and the amount payable out of other sources shall be increased by a sum equal in each case to half the difference. (2) For the purposes of this section the number of scholars shall be taken to be the num¬ ber of scholars in average attendance, as computed by the board of education, in public elementary schools maintained by the authority. For “ parish ” read “ school district ” (elementary education act, 1870, secs. 4 and 10) in the case of areas where the education act, 1902, is not operative. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 817 GRANTS FOR SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 34. If courses of instruction in the subjects named in article 4 are given according to specified regulations, grants are payable at the following rates in respect of scholars who have within the respective educational years for those subjects made the required attendance : Rate of grant for each scholar iclio has made the required attendance. Shillingsi Cookei-y - 4 Laundry woi'k - 2 Dairy work _ 4 Gardening (longer course) - 4 Gardening (shorter course) _ 2 Handicraft _ For household management the rate of grant is 9d. for every complete ten hours of the aggregate number of hours of attendance made in the educational year. Not more than 230 hours’ attendance in the educational year may bs included in the aggregate for any one girl, in respect of this subject. 35. If the board are satisfied that by reason of an approved change in the edu¬ cational year or the closure of a school under medical authority, the satisfaction of the minimum attendance requirements in the case of cookery, laundry worlo dairy work, gardening, or handicraft has been prevented, they may pay a grant at a rate proportionate to the part of the course completed, the minimum requirements being correspondingly reduced. The grant for household management in a similar case shall be payable with no reduction in the rate, provided that the teacher has given a due proportion of the minimum number of hours of instruction required in a full course. ^ Chapter VI. — Higher elementarg schools. The other articles of this code are applicable to higher elementary schools, except s<§. far as a contrary intention appears from the terms of this chapter. A public elementary school may be recognized by the board as a higher ele¬ mentary school under the following conditions : 38. (1) Before a school can be recognized as a higher elementary school a. curriculum and time-table must be submitted for the approval of the board and such other information as the board may require must be supplied. The curriculum must be approved by the board, and must show that a sufiicieucy of science instruction, both practical and theoretical, is provided for in each year. (2) The premises must be specially equipped for practical instruction, and must be recognized by the board as suitable for the purposes of a higher ele¬ mentary school. (3) The school must be shown, to the satisfaction of the board, to be neces¬ sary, having regard to the circumstances of the particular locality. (4) The school must be organized to give a complete four years’ course of instruction apjiroved by the board. 39. (1) A child proposed for admission to a higher elementary school must (a) be not less than ten years of age at the date of admission; (b) have, as a rule, been for at least two years under instruction at a public elementary school, and (c) be shown to the satisfaction of the inspector to be qualified to profit by the instruction offered in the higher elementary school. (2) Scholars newly admitted into a higher elementary school must, except with the express sanction of the inspector, commence with the first-year course ; but this rule does not apply to scholars who are receiving instruction in a school at the time of its conversion into a higher elementary school. (3) The inspector must be satisfied of the fitness of any child to continue or to be promoted from one year’s course to another in a higher elementary schooL (4) The number of scholars in a higher elementary school will, as a rule, be limited to about 350, except in the case of a school of science, or a school under the secondary school regulations of the board, being converted into a higher elementary school. 40. (1) Attendances may not be recognized in a higher elementary school for any scholar who is upward of 15 years of age. (2) No scholar may remain in a higher elementary school beyond the close of the school year in which he or she is 15 years old. But scholars who are ED 1904 M - 52 818 EDUCATION KEPOKT; 1904. receiving instruction in a school at the time of its conversion into a higher ele¬ mentary scliool may remain with the sanction of the board of education. (3) No scholar attending a higher elementary school may attend an evening school or class under the regulations of the board. (4) Separate registers must be kept for the higher elementary school, and no grant may be received from the board in respect of a higher elementary school in addition to the grants named in article 42, with the exception of the fee grant and the special aid grant under section 10 o of the education act, 1902. 41. (1) The teaching staff of the school must be approved by the board as capable of giving the instruction provided in the school curriculum. The recog¬ nition of a teacher will not be continued if the inspector is unabie to report favorably on his or her qualifications. An assistant teacher engaged to teach science must i'>ossess a special qualification recognized by the board. Supple¬ mentary teachers and pupil teachers will not be recognized on the staff of a higher elementary school. (2) Persons recognized under previous codes as head or assistant teachers may continue to be so recognized, subject to the favorable report of the inspector, (3) No member of the teaching staff, unless with the ])revious approval of the board, may undertake duties not connected with the school which may occupy any part whatever of the school hours. (4) The numbers of a class should be, as a rule, confined to thirty-five, and may not exceed forty. There must be a teacher for every class, and a laboratory should be, as a rule, in charge of a teacher of its own. 42. The grants made for higher elementary schools are as follows : Higher scale. Lower scale. First year . . . . . . . . . . . s. 35 s, 31 Second year - . . . - . . . 47 43 Third year . . . . . . . . . . . 65 55 Fourth year . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 90 73 The board shall decide which, if either, of these grants shall be paid, in the case of each year’s course, after considering the report and recommendation of the inspector upon each of the following foiu* points : (a) The suitability of the instruction to the circumstances of the scholars and the neighborhood, (l>) The thoroughness and intelligence with which the instruction is given. (c) The sufficiency and suitability of the staff. (d) The discipline and organization. The inspector will recommend the higher grant unless he is unable to report favorably upon the school under these heads. The sum named in this article is in each case the amount of a year’s grant for each unit of average attendance ; but for the purpose of reckoning the aver¬ age attendance at a higher elementary school an attendance shall mean attend¬ ance during two and a half hours. Chapter VII. — Aticndance, school meetings, etc. 43. “ Attendance,” for the purpose of ascertaining the average attendance of a school other than a higher elementary school, shall be reckoned exclusively in accordance with the following regulations : (a) No attendance may be reckoned for any scholar under 3 or over 15 years of age or for any scholar while habitually employed as a monitor : (7>) For each infant present at secular instruction during one school meeting for a period of not less than one hour and a half there will be reckoned one attendance ; (c) For each scholar other than an infant scholar present at secular instruc¬ tion during one school meeting for a period of not less than two hours there will be reckoned one attendance; and (d) For each such scholar who is a half-time scholar there will be reckoned, in addition, half an attendance, subject to the following limitation ; The total of the additional attendances allowed in the case of any half-time See footnote p. 81G. EDUCATION IN GEEAT BKITAIN AND IKELAND. 819 scholar shall not exceed such a number as will, when added to the number of his two-hoiir attendances during the school year or portion of the year which has elapsed since he became a half-time scholar, exceed three-fourths of the number of the school openings in the corresponding period. The term “ half-time scholar ” means a scholar certified hy the local authority to he employed in conformity with the hy-laws, or, if not subject to the by-laws, in conformity with the elementary education act, 1876, or any other act regulating the education o£ children employed in labor, and in either case recognized by the board as a half-time scholar. The term “ local authority ” means the local education authority acting under the education (London) act, 1903, or under I'art III of the education act, 1902, where that act is in operation, and elsewhere the school board or school attendance committee, as the case may be. 44. In making up the minimum time constituting an attendance there may be reckoned — (1) Any time occupied by instruction, according to the approved time-table, given to the scholars elsewhere than at the school, in one of the subjects named in article 4, in drawing, in science, in physical exercises, or in any other subject specially recognized by the board for the purpose of this article. (2) Any time occupied by visits paid during the school hours, with the sanc¬ tion of the inspector, and under arrangements approved by him, to places of educational value or interest, prov ided that the whole time spent at such place or places be not less than one hour and a half ; but not more than twenty attendances made up of such visits shall be reckoned for any one scholar in the same school year. (3) Any time occupied by a central examination (other than for labor cer¬ tificates) attended by scholars with the sanction of the inspector, provided that the time allowed for examination be not less than one hour and a half. (4) Any time occupied in attending at a training college or center for pupil' teachers for the purpose of model or criticism lessons. The minimum time constituting an attendance must include an interval of ten minutes for recreation, and, if the meeting be of three, or, in the case of infants, of two and a half liours’ duration, the interval may be fifteen minutes. 45. The school or department must have met not less than 400 times in the school year. (a) if in consequence of a change of school year the grant is payable for a period other than twelve months, or a school has only been on the annual grant list for a period forming part of a school year, the number of meetings required under this article is to be altered in proportion to the length of the period. (b) If there has been a closure under medical authority, or for anj^ other unavoidable cause, the number of meetings required is proportionately decreased. (c) In making up the required number of meetings there may be included, if necessary, the number of meetings which would ordinarily have been made during times when the school premises were temporarily used, under section G of the ballot act, 1872, for an election, or under any other statutory power. In the case of Greenwich Hospital School and marine schools tliis article will not be applied. 4G. The “ average attendance ” of any section of a school or department for which a separate return is necessary, for a school year or any other period for which a grant is payable, is the quotient of the total number of attendances made during that period, divided by the number of meetings during such period, a fraction of a unit being ignored or reckoned as an additional unit according as it is or is not less than one-half. TRINCirAL DATES IN THE HISTORY CE THE SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, ENGLAND. 1833. First grant (£20,000) made hy Parliament for elementary education in England and "Wales to he administered by the national and British foreign school socie¬ ties (.annually renewed). , 18-38. Committee of House of Commons appointed to investigate the education of the poorer classes. 1839. Committee of council on education established : annual grant increased to £30,000. 1846. Minutes issued by council on education recognizing definitely denominationai schools and denominational training colleges for teachers ; pupil-teacher system recognized. 1847. Commission of inquiry into education in Wales. 1858-1861. Duke of Newcastle’s commission on state of popular education. 820 ilDUCATION RSrOET;, 1904. 1861. Code (Lowe's) issued establisbin" system of payment by results (i. e., of examina¬ tion of individual pupils). 1870. Elementary education act (Forster's) passed. 1876. Amending act passed establishing the compulsory principle and creating school attendance committees for its enforcement in districts having no school board. 1880. Law obliging local educational authorities to make by-laws for the enforcement of compulsory school attendance. 1891. Law providing for an extra grant for schools remitting tuition fees. 1893. (1) Law making 11 years the minimum age for exemption from school attendance, and requiring an examination in a grade not lower than the fourth for every child seeking exemption from school attendance; (2) law authorizing school boards to make special provision for the elementary instruction of blind children and of deaf and dumb children. 1897. Law providing a special grant for the benefit of “voluntary” (chiefly denomina¬ tional) schools at the rate of r>s. per capita of average attendance; also authoriz¬ ing the federation of voluntary schools and the allotment of the grant at the discretion of the governing bodies of the federations. 1899. (1) Law (defective and epileptic children's act) “empowering local educational authorities, at their discretion, to establish special schools or classes for mentally or physically defective children and special boarding institutions for juvenile epileptics;” (2) law raising the minimum age for exemption from school at¬ tendance from 11 to 12 years; (3) creating a board of education to replace “ the education department and the science and art department, providing also for the transfer to the new board of certain powers exercised by the charity commis¬ sioners with respect to educational trusts and endowments, and for the transfer to the board of the educational functions of the board of agriculture.” Further, the law authorizes “ a consultative committee, to be constituted by an order in council, consisting of persons qualified to represent the views of universities and other bodies interested in education for the purpose of framing, with the ap¬ proval of the board of education, a register of teachers and of advising the board of education on any matter referred to them by the board.” The law also authorizes the board “ to inspect any school supplying secondary education and desiring to be so inspected.” 1900. Law authorizing local authorities to extend the upper limit of compulsory attend¬ ance from the thirteenth to the fourteenth year of age. 1902. Law reorganizing the national system of education, abolishing elected school boards, and transferring their duties to county and municipal councils. (London excepted.) 1903. Law reorganizing system of education in London on the lines of law of 1902. Auxiliary legislation. — 1889-1891 : Technical instruction laws authorizing county coun¬ cils to levy a tax not exceeding a penny in the pound for the support of technical schools. 1890 : Local taxation, customs, and excise law, placing the surplus of the liquor duties at the disposal of county councils, with the privilege of apply¬ ing the same to technical instruction. Principal measures relative to curriculum of elementary schools as determined hy the specified codes {the code is a lody of regulations annually issued, and as it receives the sanction of Parliament it has the same force as the laivs). 1882. The policy of payment upon results modified by introduction of a merit grant at the rate of Is. to 3s. per capita on the basis of average attendance. 1893. Evening schools recognized as continuation schools and a wide choice of subjects permitted. 1895. For the system of annual formal examinations the substitution of two annual visits by the inspector, to be made v.nthout notice ; average attendance recognized as the basis for the distribution of nearly the whole Government grant for ele¬ mentary schools. 1903. Code greatly simplified and the curriculum unified and strengthened. SYSTEM ■‘of public EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. Brief conspectus of the system. — The system of education in Scotland was organized by a law of 1872 on a basis similar to that of the English system as regards support from the public treasury and the Government inspection of EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 821 schools. Scotland had, however, a system of public schools dating from a law of 1G9G, which required that a school be established in every parish. The coun¬ try was thus prepared for a system of universal school boards as provided for by the law of 1872. The law differed also from the English law of 1870 in that, following the traditions of the old parish system, it made provision for both elementary and secondary schools. The latter did not share in the treasury grant, but by subsequent laws were allowed support from local taxes. AVhereas compulsion has been gradually introduced into the English system, the Scotch law made education compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 and 13 (raised to 14 in 1883), or until a certificate of exemption should be secured. The standard or grade for exemption was made the fifth (law of 1878) ; the age for exemption is 12 (law of July, 1899). A law of 1901 strengthened the compulsory measures without, however, chang¬ ing the age limits. Religious instruction in the schools of Scotland was left to local authorities, with the simple restriction of a conscience clause making the attendance of children at the religious exercises optional with the parents. A grant in lieu of fees (law of 1889) has had the effect of making the schools practically free schools. By the regulations for 1899-1900 a standard of attainment — that of the merit certificate — was fixed, which \vas regarded as the satisfactory outcome of an ele¬ mentary school course. The merit certificate— called also the leaving certificate — ■ of the elementary school entitled the holder to exemption from further attendance upon school. Under these circumstances it was found desirable to increase the requirements for the certificate, and in 1903 a sup])lementary course was arranged, which candidates for the merit certificate were obliged to pursue at least one year. At the same time the requirements for transfer to a secondary school were arranged on a somewhat different basis. The supplementary course must provide for the instruction of the pupils according to a well-graduated scheme in the follov.ing subjects: English (including history and geography), mathematics (including arithmetic), at least one language other than English, and science and drawing, according to a scheme approved for the leaving-cer¬ tificate examination in these subjects. In 1885 the Scotch education department arranged for the inspection of endowed and other secondary schools applying for the service. In 1888 the department established a leaving certificate for students who, on the completion of a course of secondary studjq pass the certificate examination. The number of secondary schools inviting inspection in 1903 was 94, of which 32 were higher class public schools, 24 endowed schools, and 38 private schools. The number of candidates for the leaving certificate in 1888 was 972 ; in 1903 it was 19,509. A large number of university and professional authorities accept the certificate in lieu of such preliminary examinations as are held under their direction. Through the service of inspection and examination the secondary schools of Scotland have been brought into close relation with the education department. Under the local taxation (customs and excise) act of 1890, and other acts providing for the application of public funds to secondary and technical educa¬ tion, the local authorities expended for these purposes in 1901-2 the sum of £58,407 ($292,035). March 27, 1904, a bill to amend the education laws of Scotland was intro¬ duced into the House of Commons. Like the English law of 1902, it pertained chiefly to the local control of schools ; in particular the bill proposed to make the county or county district the unit of local administration in place of the parish. The bill was, however, withdrawn at the close of the session. 822 EDUCATIOlsr KEPOKT^ 1904. Comparative statistics of elementary education in Scotland. 1873. 1880. Estimated popiilatioia 3,39.5,802 3, 705,314 Xurnber of schools _ Departments: Day _ _ Higher grade . . . Evening continuation .. Accommodation : Day schools _ _ Higher grade _ Evening continuation schools { not c o n - nected with day schools) _ Number on the registers: Day schools _ Higher grade schools... Evening continuation schools _ Average attendance: Day scholars _ Eligher grade scholars.. Evening continuation scholars . . Number of teachers: Certificated . . . Assistant . . Pupil . . . Queen’s scholars in train¬ ing colleges a . Queen’s students ^ . Current expenditures . 1,979 2, 133 . 68' 281,688 213,549 3,653 2,566 "'s' 642 7:29 3,064 3,377 "■“277' 602,054 1,381 5:34,428 20, 279 404,618 14,297 5,330 444 4, .582 892 '$4,'i2:2,'879 Y ears. 1899. 4,109,275 3,W 3,405 . 'i9i' 714,865 420 664,466 16,5:24 512,690 11,036 7, 745 1,:320 3,883 861 1900. 4,-324,944 3, 135 3,592 31 952 893,842 9,292 1901. 4,472,000 3,141 3,609 34 1,032 911,398 ■ 9,721 1903. 4, .571, 0.30 3,149 938,009 10,299 5,064 753,287 3, 271 8:2, 190 628,089 2,940 4.3,962 10,845 2,418 3,926 10,574 763,903 3,518 87,599 6.33,104 3,270 47,002 11,268 2,606 4,035 780.818 4,-548 664, 741 4,548 12,195 2,555 4,165 1,250 110 c|7,436,752 1, 360' i:i2 C$9,063,215 1,385 193 C$9,609,970 o Termed King’s scholars in training colleges since the accession of Edward VII. b Termed King’s students since the accession of Edward VH. c For day schools only. EDUCATION IN IREI.AND. System of national cdncatlon {elementary) . — Tlie system of national educa¬ tion in Ireland dates from 18.31, when a board of commissioners for education was created by the Government. In 184.5 the board was incorporated by royal charter, and in 1861 a supplemental charter was granted, under which 10 mem¬ bers must be Roman Catholics and 10 Protestants. The board is composed always of representative men, who adliere to the policy of strict impartiality in religious matters. One member of the lioard of commissioners, the resident com¬ missioner, is a salaried ofiicer. He is the official head of the education depart¬ ment, 5Yith offices at Dublin. Ujion him rests the responsibility for carrying out the details of the system of national education and also the administration of the Government appropriations for the same. The schools under the supervision and fostering care of the board are supported ]>y State and local funds. They may be denominational schools (i. e., Roman Catholic or Protestant) or mixed in respect to religion, but the rights of parents in tlie matter are strictly guarded by a conscience clause in the school regulations, which provides that no child be allowed to attend a religious exercise of a denominalion other than his own, exce])t upon the written request of the parent. Grants to aid in building schoolhoiises are allowed by the commissioners, but must be proportioned to the amount raised locally. The State pays also the larger proportion of the salaries of teachers, requiring a minimum annual EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 823 augmentation from local funds of £12 ($60). Altogether the State bears about 04 per cent of the annual expenditure for the schools. To avoid religious complications the State proA'ides the text-books for secular branches, which are issued at a small cost to the pupils. For purposes of Government supervision the country is divided into 60 dis¬ tricts, which are grouped in 6 divisions, each in charge of a head inspector. Under these are 29 district inspectors, 7 unassigned inspectors, and 10 inspect¬ ors’ assistants. Inspectors and their assistants are appointed upon examination testing their scholastic and professional qualifications. Local civil authorities have no control over the schools. The local managers of schools, who are generally clergymen, come into direct relations with the board of commissioners. Tliey appoint and dismiss teachers and arrange the details of the school work. Of a total of 2,936 managers in 1902, 2, .363 were clerical. The commissioners have direct control of a special class of schools called “ model schools,” for which they provide the buildings. “ These schools, as their name indicates, are intended to afford models of the l)est methods of instruc¬ tion and organization, and to serve as practice schools for students in training colleges or normal schools.” They numbered SO in 1902, with an enrollment of 8,969 day pupils, included in the enrollment given in the table below, A compulsory school law was passed in 1892, but it has been imperfectly enforced, and Ireland still stands below the other divisions of the United King¬ dom in respect to school attendance, as is shown by Ihe most recent statistics. These give the following rates of attendance to eni'ollment : Per cent. England _ 82.3 Wales _ 77.9 Scotland _ _ 85.2 Ireland _ ^ — - 70. 8 Convent and monastery schools afford a large part of the provision for elemen¬ tary education, and receive, under certain conditions, aid from the Government. The number of such schools fulfilling the conditions for aid reported in 1902 was 373, with an enrollment of 110,769. The schools of the Christian Brothers form a large part of the provision for elementary education, especially in the cities, where their schools are both numerous and flourishing. Their system of education has taken deep hold upon the people, and they number among their former pupils tiie most influential men in every city and large town of Ireland. For the training of teachers for the national schools there are one national and six denominational normal schools, which receive grants in aid from the Government. They report 1,090 students in training in 1903. Of the 13,144 teachers employed in the national schools in 1903, 57.2 per cent had received professional training. Provision for agricultural instruction is an important feature of the national system. Instruction in the theory of agriculture is compulsory in all rural schools for boys in the fourth, fifth, and sixth classes, and optional for girls. Complaint is made that the instruction in this branch has been altogether too bookish ; recent efforts are directed to putting it on a practical basis. The commissioners maintain also two model agricultural schools, and in 1897 they reported 38 school farms in connection vrith elementary schools and 116 schools having school gardens attached. t; 82'4 EDUCATION ESPOKT, 1904. The folloAving tables summarize the principal statistics of the national ele- iiientary schools for the years named : Year. Number of schools in operation. Average number of pupils on rolls. Average daily at¬ tendance. Percent¬ age of average daily at¬ tendance to average number on rolls. 1888 . 8,196 846,533 493,883 58.3 1892 . . . 8,403 815,972 495,254 60.7 1898 . . . . - . 8,651 808, 467 518, 799 64.2 1899 . . 8,670 796, 1&3 513,852 64.5 1900 . . 8,648 770,622 478. 224 62.0 1901 . . 8,692 754,028 482,031 63.9 1902... . . . . . 8,712 747, 864 487,098 6g.l 1903 . 8,720 741,795 482,489 65.0 The elementary schools are classified with respect to religious denomination as unmixed, i. e., attended by Roman Catholic children exclusively or by Protestant children exclusively, and mixed schools, which are attended by Roman Catholic and Protestant children. The tendency to diminish the number of mixed schools is indicated by the percentages of such schools at different dates, as follows ; Per cent of mixed schools. Per cent of mixed schools. 1878 . . 56.5 1897 . 38.4 1882 . 54.0 1902 34 3 1887 . 49.4 1903 . 33.1 1892 . . . . ■ 45. 6 Number and classification of teachers in 18S7 and in 1903. TEACHING FORCE. 1887. 1903. 1887. 1903. Principals; Males . . 4,672 3,278 4,656 3,599 Junior assistants . . Manual instructresses _ 44 . . 11 560 Females . . Work mistresses and in- f p.n.r^Ti 539 .502 Tnfpl 7,950 8,255 X U Let i - .... - Temporary assistants: Males . . . Assistants: 59 5 Males . 867 1.088 Females . . . 91 23 Females . . 2,341 2,699 T’nf.n.l 150 28 Tr.tnl 3,208 3, 787 Temporary work mistresses 27 1 Total principals and assistants . 11,159 12,042 Gross totals . . . iT,'^ iM44 The payment of pensions for national school teachers was provided for in 1870 by an act of Parliament. Expenditure on schools and teaching staffs. — According to the report of the commissioners for the year ending December 81, 1903, the aggregate annual expenditure on the schools from all sources, including Parliamentary grant, school fees, and local subscriptions, amounted to £1,287,903 9s. lid., as shown in the following table. This would give an average of £2 13s. 114d. for each child in average daily attendance during the year. EDUCATION IN GEEAT BEITAIN AND IKELAND. 825 The income was derived as follows : (a) From state grants: £ s. d- Grant for primary education _ 1,210,524 17 7 ( & ) From local sources : Subscriptions and endowments, etc. (toward £ s. d. incomes of teachers) _ 20,253 1 6 Subscriptions toward repairs, etc _ 55, 05G (> 7 School pence _ 2, 132 4 3 - 77,438 12 4 Total annual income of schools from all sources _ 1,287,903 9 11 Rate per pupil from («) state grants _ 2 10 8^- Rate per pupil from (b) local sources _ 0 3 3 Rate per pupil from all sources _ 2 13 11^ In addition to the expenditure for the maintenance of the schools, as above stated, the sum of £25,303 11s. 7d. was paid out of rate for board of public works for buildings, repairs, etc., of vested schools, and £29.347 2s. 9d. con¬ tributed from local sources tovmrd the erection of iiew buildings, etc. Grants are made to evening schools in which instruction in the subjects of the day school programmes may be given to persons over 18 years of age and to children unable to attend day schools. There are now upward of 1,300 even¬ ing schools, with about 20,000 pupils, and the state expenditure upon these has come to over £20,000 in one year, according to latest returns. Secondary and technical education. — An intermediate education board was established in 1878 for the examination of intermediate or secondary pupils. In 1902 the number of candidates for examination was 8,379 (0,087 boys and 2,292 girls), as compared with 9,073 in 1898 and 0,952 in 1881. There was paid to the managers of the schools the sum of -$287,505 (£57,513) on the results of the examination. The annual income of the intermediate education board is made up of the interest on a Government fund of £1,000,000, placed at the disposal of the board, which yielded in 1903 interest amounting to £27,500 ($137,500), and a sum from the Irish share of the customs and excise duties, which averages about £50,000 ($250,000) annually. Technical instruction in Ireland is controlled by the department of agri¬ culture and technical instruction, which has an advisory board of technical instruction. The income of the department consists of an annual appropriation of £100,000 and the interest on an original endowment of £205,000. The depart¬ ment aims at the coordination of its work with that of other educational author¬ ities, and in 1901-2 its programme of experimental science was adopted in 152 secondaiy schools, with 0,412 science pupils. Central institutions under the department are the Royal College of Science, Dublin, and the Metropolitan School of Art, the former of which is being, and the latter is about to be, reor¬ ganized. Throughout Ireland technical instruction is being organized under the councils of county boroughs, urban districts, and counties. In Dublin and Bel¬ fast in 1902 there were upward of 4,000 students attending the technical schools of the councils. The department is required to appropriate £55,000 annually for technical education. Of this amount £25,000 is allotted to county boroughs and £30,000 for similar purposes elsewhere, the equivalent grants being con¬ tinued for three jmars to institutions which had formerly received them. Proposed reform of the national system of education.--The national system of education briefly outlined above is not satisfactory to the Irish people them¬ selves nor to the Government, The mere fact that the system is not of indig¬ enous origin deprives it of the hearty support of the people, and it is now clearly 82G EDUCATION .EEPOET; 1904. recognized by” those in authority that radical clianges are needed to adapt it to existing conditions and nicdern demands. Under this conviction the English Government has recently ordered special investigations of the various divisions of the work. In 1001 a corps of special inspectors was appointed to investigate and report upon the schools aided by the intermediate education board of Ireland. The report of this commission gives detailed information with respect to the schools specified and offers suggestions as to needed im])rovements. In 1904 a special investigation of the elementary schools of Ireland was ordered by the Government and the task committed to Mr. F. II. Dale, His Majesty's inspector of schools, under the board of education. Mr. Dale was instructed in particular to report how the “ typical Irish elemen¬ tary day sciiools compared v.nth similarly circumstanced public elementary schools in England as regards premises, eqiiir)ment, staffing, and instruction, and to what causes deficiencies in economy appear to be chiefly due.” The investi¬ gation as thus outlined was carried out very thoroughly and systematically, and Mr. Dale’s report gives full information upon all the ]>oints specified. The emphasis placed upon the comparison between Irish and English schools indi¬ cates very clearly the intention of the Government to raise the former to full equality with the latter. At present, a^s Mr. Dale's report inakes clear, the Irish town schools are inferior to tlie English in respect to all the particulars named, excepting only the qualifications of the teachers themselves. Here Ire¬ land has an advantage over England in the requirement that the head teacher of every school should be trained; furthermore, only adult teachers are recog¬ nized in Ireland as part of the school staff. The Irish monitors, unlike the English pu]ffl teachers, have no responsibility with respect either to teaching or discipline. Until a very recent date the salaries of Irish teachers wore inferior to those of their English confreres, but recent regulations have improved the financial condition of the former. The greatest drawback to the efficiency of the Irish system is declared by IMr. Dale to be the failure to devolve any financial responsibility on the locality, or to pro’^ade sufficient inducement to persoiis of position and education to take part in the work of school management. It is noticeable that a remedy for this evil suggested by Mr. Dale is in the line of the recent reform of school administration in England. In order to create wider local interest in the schools lie advises that they be grouped ” under some respon¬ sible authority to which the distrilmtion of the state grant could be intrusted subject to supervision by the central office.” The ‘‘model schools,” which form so marked a feature of the national system in Ireland, are not, according to Mr. Dale, fulfilling the purpose indicated b^' their title. In his opinion these schools might, however, be developed on the same plan as the higher elementary schools of England, and thus meet the urgent demand for the means of prolonging the education of pupils who are able to con¬ tinue their stiulies up to about 10 years of age. It is evident from the two investigations above referred to that many essen¬ tials of a comiirehensive system of public education have already been provided in Ireland, but in their present form they lack coordination, efficient direction, and unified purpose. Mr. Dale lays special stress upon the need of the ‘‘ closest cooperation between the boards of national, intermediate, and technical educa¬ tion, respectively.” On account of tlie absence of any local educational author¬ ity in Ireland, ” it appears to be specially necessary,” he says, “ that the pro¬ ceedings of any one of the central boards should be conducted with constant ref¬ erence to the possibility of satisfying, without damage to its own aims, the needs of the other branch of education.” The problem of educational administration in Ireland has thus, it appears, EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 827 reached the same stage as the corresponding problem in England and in Scot¬ land. So far no measure has been advised for the needed unification and reform of the Irish system, but events indicate speedy action in this respect. Higher education. — The oldest institution for superior instruction in the island is the University of Dublin (Trinity College), chartered by Queen Elizabeth. Besides the arts faculty, schools of law, divinity, medicine, and engineering are comprised in this foundation. Roman Catholics were not permitted to take degrees in the university until 1793, when the disability was removed by an act of Parliament. Eighty years passed before they were allowed recognition in the election for fellowships or for scholarships on the foundation of the college. Meanwhile, in 1851, a class of nonfoundation scholarships was established which were not restricted to any religious denomination. The final abolition of “ tests,” excepting in the case of professors and lecturers in the faculty of the¬ ology, was accomplished by act of Parliament in 1873, through the direct efforts of Mr. Fawcett, at that time postmaster-general. It is needless to say that Dublin University enjoys a ])restige which even those who have suffered from its intolerance in the past recognize with pride. Until 1850 the University of Dublin was the only body in Ireland authorized by law to confer degrees. In 1849 three institutions, called Queen's Colleges, were established by the Government at Coric. Belfast, and Galway, respectively, for the avowed purpose . of maintaining purely secular instruction. In pursuance of this purpose the colleges vrere organized with faculties of arts, engineering, law, and medicine, tlieology being excluded. Parliament voted the money for buildings and equip¬ ment, and an annual appropriation of £7,000 ($34,000) for eacli foundation. In the following year the work was completed by the creation of the Queen's Uni¬ versity in Ireland, empowered to conduct degree examinations for the students of the Queen’s Colleges. In 1879 this foundation was abolished and the Royal University created in its place. The examinations and degrees of this uni¬ versity are open to all candidates, women included. Alexandra College, founded in 1866 for the higher education of women, prepares woineii for the degree examinations. The fellows of the Royal University may be required to teach matriculated students of the university in educational institutions ap])roved by the senate. The following are the approved institutions : Queen’s College, Belfast ; Queen’s College, Cork ; Queen’s College, Galway ; Catholic University College, Dublin (now known as the University College, Dublin) ; Magee Presbyterian College, Londonderry. There are two other important institutions concerned with , higher education in Ireland, namely, the Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical College of St. Patrick, Maynooth, and the Royal College of Science, in Dublin. The Catholic majority have for many years complained that the existing uni¬ versity system does not make satisfactory provision for the higher education of Catholics, and a royal commission was recently appointed to inquire into the present condition of the higher, general, and technical education available in Ireland outside Trinity College, Dublin, and to report as to what reforms, if any, are desirable in order to render that education adequate to the needs of the Irish people. No further action has as yet been taken by the Government, but the report of the commission, which advocated full university advantages for women, gave a new impetus to the efforts for admitting women to Trinity College. These 828 EDUCATION KEPOET^ 1904. efforts were ])rouglit to snccessfiii issue the present year when the board of Trinity College passed a resolution, subsequently sanctioned by the King, which admits women to all degrees of Trinity College in arts and in medicine on the same terms as men. INVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO PHYSICAL TRAINING AND PHYSICAL DETERIORATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. Problems of school administration which for more than a decade have absorbed public attention in Great Britain to the neglect of other educational Interests having been disposed of for the time at least, questions pertaining to the improvement of the young are now exciting chief interest. Among these questions that of the physical condition of the children of the masses has been uppermost during the current j'ear. A royal commission on physical training in Scotland, appointed in 1902, pro¬ duced startling evidence of the low physical condition of scliool children in the classes where food is scanty and the living conditions generally bad. The report of the commission is convincing on this point because of the extent and thoroughness of its investigations. Not less than 1,200 children (i. e., GOO in Edinburgh and GOO in Aberdeen) were examined by two well-known physicians — Dr. Matthew Hay, professor of forensic medicine. University of Aberdeen, med¬ ical officer of health, Aberdeen, and Dr. W. Leslie Mackenzie, medical inspector for the local government board of Scotland, In order to insure that the children examined should represent fairly the aifferent social grades of the population, schools were selected “ from the poorest and most crowded districts of each city, from the middle-class districts, and from the better-class districts.” The examinations were undertaken witli special reference to the fitness of the children for the physical exercises required in the school and the effects of those exercises upon the children, but incidentally the investigation showed also the relation between the physical condition of the children and their capacity for the ordinary school work. The superior capacity of the well-fed children over the underfed for effort of all kinds was conclusively p]*oved. The conclusions reached by Doctor Mackenzie are tluis summed up ; “ First. The large number of serious and minor diseases directly and in¬ directly affecting physical efficiency and mental efficiency constitutes an over¬ whelming case for a medical inspection of school v?hildren, “ Second, The facts as to physical exercise at the various schools demonstrate that a primary condition of any good result from increased p'hysical training is adequate food and adeipiate clothing. “ Third. No systematic exercise ought to be practiced or enforced without a preliminary medical exami)iation of the vital organs, to insure that irreparable damage shall not result. “ Fourth. That exercises should be organized, not as at present according to the code standard in which the child is studying, but strictly in accordance with health, physical development, and vigor.” As a result of the rejiort of the investigation bf the commission on physical training a committee was appointed by the education department of Scotland to investigate the systems of physical training in use in schools and to draw up a “ model course of physical exercises ” suitable for children of school, age. The outcome of the work of this committee is an extensive report « setting “ Report of the interdepartmental committee on the model course of physical exer¬ cises, 1904. EDUCATION IN GBEAT BEITAIN AND IKELAND. 829 forth the genera! purpose and method of their investigation, together with an extensive syllabus of physical exercises which they offer as capable of adapta¬ tion to schools of various classes. The introduction to this syllabus has a uni¬ versal value because of its lucid and discriminating discussion of the purpose and essential features of a system of physical training adapted to the use of school children. The report of the Scottish commission on i^hysical training which v/as pub¬ lished in March, 1903, excited widespread attention and was one of the causes that led to the appointment, in September, 1903, of an interdepartmental com¬ mittee to inquire into the causes of the alleged deterioration of certain classes of the population in England, “ as shown by the large percentage of rejections for physical causes of recruits for the army and bj^ other evidence, especially the report of the royal coimiiission on physical training (Scotland), and to con¬ sider in what manner the medical profession can best be consulted on the sub¬ ject with a view to the appointment of a royal commission, and the terms of reference to such a commission if appointed.” The committee was instructed to determine the steps that should be taken to furnish the Government and the nation at large with periodical data for a com¬ parative estimate of the health and physique of the people ; to indicate the causes of such physical deterioration as does exist in certain classes, and to point out the means by which it can be most effectually diminished. The investigations of this committee had a much wider range than the condi¬ tions of school life. They endeavored, indeed, to probe all the influences that tend to degeneracy in any one of its various forms. The public health, as is shown by the investigation, is open to many influences, but by no channel can it be approached so readily or with such wide-reaching effects as by that of the school, and by no other means can the causes of decadence be so successfully attacked. To quote the report:® “In a country without compulsory military service the period of school life offers the State its only opportunity for taking stock of the physique of the whole population and securing to its profit the con¬ ditions most favorable to healthy development. It has been shown in the first part of this report hov/ the occasion may be utilized in furtherance of the objects of an anthropometric survey, and it remains to be considered what are the con¬ ditions of school life adverse to physical well-being, and how the opportunities which it presents can be made to realize the best results for the rising genera¬ tion at, perhaps, the most sensitive period of its growth.” The committee were agreed that the general effects of school life are not prejudicial to health. They cite in this connection the testimony of competent witnesses, in particular Doctors Eicholz and Niven as to the civilizing influence exercised by the school during the last thirty years. “ The untamed savagery characteristic of certain types has disappeared,” they say, “ but popular opinion required educating on such elementary though important points as the seating of children, the arrangement of light, and the supply of fresh air. Evidence was given of children being kept too long at desks which do not fit them, in an atti¬ tude of strained attention, either writing or with their eyes concentrated on a blackboard, which, if the class happens to be a large one, perforce occupies a position in which some have a difficulty in seeing it. Very young children are sometimes observed sleeping in postures calculated to develop curvature, and infant occupations are criticised as often much too fine for their eyesight. It was also alleged that the eyes of scholars often suffered from the effects of a strong cross light and that defective ventilation counted for a great deal among the unfavorable circumstances with which children had to cope.” Report of the inierdc-parfmental committee on physical deteiioration, 1904, p. 9. 830 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. Witli respect to tlie schools for children of tender years the committee express the opinion that “ infant schools as conducted in urban districts can no doubt be worked to the great physical advantage of the children attending them, but there is evidence that a handful of small children in a rural school necessarily suffer a good deal from neglect or are taught under conditions from which no advantage can be derived.” Several witnesses tvere quoted as opposing the admission to school of children under 7 years of age. In particular, Sir John Gorst, former chief of the education department, expressed the opinion that this should be the rule for all country children, and he supported his opinion by the example of Switzerland, which is, he said, “perhaps almost the best educated country in the world. They do not let their children come to school till they are 7. They run about in the villages and mountain sides, and they are often employed in looking after cattle, goats, and so on. They do not go into school at all till they are 7 years old, and therefore when they do go to school they are sturdy and strong and their observation is awakened.” The various schemes proposed for promoting the physical well-being of school children all emphasize the need of medical inspection for schools. On this point the committee consider “ that a systematized medical inspection of school c-hildren should be imposed as a puidic duty on every school authority, and they agree with the recommendation of the royal commission on physical training (Scotland) that a contribution toward the cost should be made out of the parliamentary vote.” The question of the feeding of school children was thoroughly canvassed by the committee, who present the evidence relating to this subject under the following heads : “(a) The extent to which underfeeding prevails at present. “(?)) Existing voluntary methods of providing food. “(c) Proposals in regard to the more systematic feeding of school children.” As regards the first point, the committee were convinced that a large number of children habitually attend school ill fed. The alleviation of this evil has been left thus far to private efforts, confined for the most part to the larger cities. On the part of the persons engaged in this work “ there was,” says the report, “ a general consensus of opinion that the time lias come when the State should realize the necessity of insuring adequate nourishment to children in attendance at school ; it was said to be the height of cruelty to subject half-starved children to the processes of education, besides being a short-sighted policy, in that the progress of such children is inadequate and disappointing; and it was, further, the subject of general agreement that, as a rule, no purelj^ voluntary association could successfully cope with the full extent of the evil. Even those witnesses who were inclined to think that its magnitude had been much exaggerated did not question the advisability of feeding, by some means or other,, those children who are underfed, provided it could be done quietly and without impairing parental responsibility. The only witness who appeared absolutely to dissent from that view was the Bishop of Ross, who, vchile admitting an enormous number of underfed children in Ireland, deprecated that it would weaken the sense of self-respect and self-reliance both of parent and child.” The following citation from the report summarizes the information presented before the committee as to the existing agencies for supplying food to under¬ fed school children : '‘‘Existing rolunfanj methods of providing food. — There has not been a great amount of definite evidence on the voluntary agencies in existence. As regards London, Doctor Eicholz mentioned the following agencies which spend about f d.lCO per annum collectively : London Schools Dinner Association, Mr. G. R. Sims, Referee Fund, Destitute Children’s Dinner Society, East Lambeth EDUCATIOISr IIT GREAT BRITAIET AND IRELAND. 831 Teachers’ School Dinner Association, Southwark Children’s Free IMeals Fund. The work of these agencies has been coordinated, so far as the board schools are concerned, by the joint committee on underfed children, which has worked under the regis of the school board.” The committee express the opinion that ; 340. In regard to the sum contributed by the parents. Doctor Eichholz said that it amounted to 5 per cent in the case of the London Schools Dinner Asso¬ ciation, and 25 per cent in the case of the Destitute Children's Dinner Society. 341. Mr. Libby, who is secretary to the East Lambeth Teachers’ Schools Din¬ ner Association, gave a description of the working of the free-meal fund in connection with the association. Tiie fund has I)een running about tv.'elve years, and is conducted on business lines ; it is worked by the teachers through the attendance officers, and careful inquiries are made as to the circumstances of each family before a child is given a meal. There are breakfast centers and dinner centers. A child can be given a pint of vegetable soup and a piece of brown bread and a piece of cake at the cost of Id. About 2 per cent of the children pay the full Id., some pay part of the cost, and the rest nothing ; not more than 7 or 8 per cent pay anything at all ; but Mr. Libby thought this small percentage was due to the thing not being sufficiently vrorked. In spite of the fund there are still many undei^fed children, because there is not sufficient organization ; it is difficult to get sufficient organization by voluntary methods. 342. Mr. .1. B. Atkins, the London editor of the Manchester Guardian, gave a description of the free feeding system in Manchester. There the funds are derived entirely from voluntary sources ; but the school )>oard recognized the charity and the teachers helped in distributing the food, etc. The movement has grown steadily, and in 1902, 1.39,000 free dinners were given, at the cost of a little over £400. In this case also the circumstances of the family are carefully investigated by the attendance officers, but no attempt is made to recover payment from the parents. 343. In Glasgow Doctor Chalmers said there is an institution called the “ Poor Children’s Dinner Table,” by means of which the condition of every child is inquired into, and meals are given to the underfed ; the system is very comprehensive apparently, so that ” no child in Glasgow ought ever to go to school starving,” but no detailed account was given to the committee. Sir Frederick Maurice, hov/ever, referred to the Glasgow system and stated that the difficulty as to parental responsibility had tliere been solved by means of a very thorough system of investigation, and that the applications for gratuitous food have diminished rather than increased. 3-14. Free meals are given in Edinburgh to about 2,000 children, but the evidence given by Doctor and Mrs. I^Iackenzie makes it doubtful whether this number by any means exhausts the number of children who are underfed. 345. The most complete scheme described was started by the late Mr. George Dixon, and has now been in operation for twenty years in Birmingham, with Doctor Airy, H. M. I., as chairman of the organization. In considering the principles on vdiich they would act it was decided in the first place that only those should be helped who could expect practically nothing if it was not given to them ; and secondly, that only such a meal should be given as would not compete in any way with the meal which could be provided even in a very l)Oor home. It was next decided that cases for help should be selected with the greatest care. This is done by three different people — by the head teacher of the school, by the class teacher in whose class the boy or girl is, and by the visiting officer. The cooperation of these three, Doctor Airy states, has been so successful that he dees not believe there has been 5 per cent or anything like it of abuse. The number of children fed in normal times is 2,500 and the plan pursued is thus described ; “ We began with ten centers. We had large coppers for soup at ten centers, to which the children came from all outlying schools. The school board allowed us in each of those centers to canvas off some 20 or 30 yards of playground, perhaps 5 yards wide, and the cooking was done at one end. There the soup, a good lentil soup with some animal stock, and the bread and jam, were prepared. The process vras simply this. MM had to do everything to simplify matters. It had to be a rough business, but it was an effective one. The children come, and form file, and then they vralk up, and as they walk u]i they take a spoon out of a basket and go up to where the voluntary helpers are distributing the soup. They take their bowl of .soup and go on to benches on the other side of the canvassed shed and sit down and eat their soup. The moment they have done 832 EDUCATION EEPOET;, 1904. they put their basin and spoon into another basket, and as they go out they take a large slab of bread and jam, and eat that in the street. The school board allowed us to do this without any rent, and they gave us the gas. Then the cooking of those meals is done by paid labor, but the distribution is done by the voluntary help of ladies at each center. There is a rota at each center and there are two ladies who attend each day. Our manager I will refer to directly— he is a most capable, suggestive man. We were very much distressed at the fact that the children would come a mile or a mile and half to eat this poor dinner, and they would come through slush and snow and wet, and we wanted to prevent that. A system of baskets was invented. There is a system of baskets at present in use by which the soup can be kept absolutely hot for more than an hour. I have tried it at both ends, and I find it is almost as hot as when it comes out of the copper. We reduced the number of centers to four or five, and now all the outlying schools send their baskets with a paper saying^how many dinners they want. Those dinners are put into the baskets at a quarter to 12 or 12 o’clock, and then the staff of the school help in distributing the meals at that school.” 340. The committee have thought it worth while to print this part of Doctor Airy’s evidence in the body of the report because of the remarkable economic fact with which he concludes : “ We give that dinner, a large bowl of soup — in fact, they have two or three bowls if they like — and a large slab of bread and jam, for less than a halfpenny, and in that expense is included £150 or £100 a year to the manager.” 347. lie attributed this result (1) to the concentration of the population that has to bedielped, (2) to the good will and assistance of rhe local authority, and (3) to the organizing skill of “a heaven-born manager,” a retired naval officer, and to the cooperation of volunteers. In addition to those dinners, which pro¬ vide for some 24 per cent of the children of school age, breakfasts, consisting of cocoa, milk, and bread, are supplied by the bounty of a private individual to the necessitous children in about 20 schools in Birmingham, as Doctor Airy believed, under similar conditions. The testimony of the teachers is unanimous that the system pursued enables the children to do the ordinary school work, and they report that the difference is perfectly extraordinary. The committee express the opinion that— in a large number of cases voluntary organizations with the support and over¬ sight of the local authority are sufficient for the purpose, and as long as this is so the committee would strongly deprecate recourse being had to direct municipal assistance. 360. Circumstances, however, do arise which call for more immediate aid, and in which the sciiool authority, taking into account the difficulty in the way of home provision of suitable food and the number of children who attend school habitually underfed, are willing to provide regular and sufficient meals, and in such cases the committee agree with the opinion of the royal commission on physical training (Scotland), that “ the preparation and cooking of these meals, where it is found necessary to provide them, ought to be regarded as one of the charges incident to school management.” 361. By a differentiation of function on these terms — the school authority to supply and organize the machinery, tlie benevolent to furnish the material — a working adjustment between the privileges of charity and the obligations of the community might be reached. 362. In some districts it still may be the case that such an arrangement would prove inadequate; the extent or the concentration of poverty might be too great for the resources of local charity, and in these, subject to the consent of the board of education, it might be expedient lo permit the application of municipal aid on a larger scale. As a corollary to the exercise of such powers — whicli should be by scheme sanctioned by the board — the law would have to be altered so as to furnish means, as was suggested in evidence, to compel the neglectful parent to take his full share of responsibility, and the committee are sanguine that a few prosecutions to this end would have a most salutary and stimulating effect. CHAPTER XllL HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AS AFFECTED BY THE LAW OF 1902.« TOPICAL OUTLINE. The law of 1902 in its relation to “ hi^Oier " education. — Present status of secondary schools in England. — Regulations for secondary schools issued by the board of ediv cation for 1905. — Statistics of higher ” (i. e., secondary, technical, and evening^ schools. — Action of local authorities in respect to “ higher education.- — Provision for secondary education in ShetEeld and in Liverpool as set forth in reports by Mn Michael Sadler. — Secondary education in London as disclosed by special investiga tions in 1892 and by Mr. Sidney Webb in 1903. — Chronological epitome of move¬ ment in England for organizing secondary education. THE LAW OF 1902 IN ITS RELATION TO HIGHER EPUCAFITON. The education law of 1902 marks an important stage in tlie development of the English system of public education. As regards elementary education, the provisions of the law and its operations for the two years that have elapsed since it took effect have been considered in the preceding chapter. The law., however, reaches much further than this limited field. It recognizes the public responsibility in respect to the provision of schools of a higher grade than the elementary and places upon local authorities definite obligations in this mat¬ ter. Hence, with the exception only of the education law of 1870, it is the most important measure ever adopted hy the Government in the interests of public education. The term “ higher education ” as used in the lave of 1902 corresponds in part to the term “ secondary ” as used in this country ; but under the heading,, “ Higher education,” the English law contemplates a variety of institutions, namely, secondary schools distinctively recognized as such, science and art schools receiving Government grants, and evening schools, covering collectively a wider range than the secondary schools of the United States. The local authorities for higher education are the same as for the elementary schools — i. e., county and borough councils, a provision which makes it pos¬ sible to correlate and equalize the educational provision in each administrative area. As stated in the brief epitome of the law already given,'' the councils are authorized to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary. For this purpose they have at their disposal two sources of revenue, namely, (1) the surplus of the liquor duties as provided by a law of 1890, (2) revenues from " For previous articles on the higher (i. e., secondary and technical) schools of England see index on p. 799. ^ For full provision respecting the powers conferred upon the local authorities with respect to higher education see Parts II and IV, law of 1902, published in the Commis¬ sioner’s Report for 1902, pp. 1018, 1024, 1025 ; for epitome of these provisions see p. 80S of the present Report. ED 1904 M - -53 833 834 EDUCATION REPORT; 1904. local taxes (rates) which they may levy for the purpose. Thus the law pro¬ vides for the increase of the means of “ higher education,” while careful also to conserve whatever has been already achieved in this direction by municipal or private effort. The measures adopted by the local councils for carrying out these provisions of the law must have the approval of the hoard of education, which also has organized a service of inspection for the higher school. Furthermore, the board exercises a general control over the whole work through the regulations (codes) defining the classes of institutions that may he recognized as higher and determining the conditions upon which thej^ may have a right to Govern¬ ment inspection or to Government grants. It will he seen that in dealing with this department of education the law limits itself to matters of general administration and scholastic classification, leaving all further responsibility to the local authorities. In the two years that have elapsed since the passage of the law little more has been done by the board of education in this matter than to formulate the regulations above referred to and take over- the work formerly in charge of the science and art department and the educational duties of the charity commissioners. The councils, upon whom the more onerous task devolves, have done little more than arrange for the continuance of the evening schools, formerly under the school boards, and investigate the actual status of their respective areas in regard to the supply of secondaiy schools and higher institutions. To complete this survey it will therefore be necessary to consider (1) the regulations issued by the Government for secondary schools distinctively recognized as such; (2) the summarized report of schools under Government inspection or aided by Govern¬ ment ; (3) accounts of the preliminary investigations in specified areas. For the better understanding of the situation as regards the existing schools which are or may be aftected by the new measures, the considerations specified are here introduced by a brief account of secondary education quoted from an official statement prepared for the St. I^ouis Exposition. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. In spite of many warnings as to the necessity for the organization of secon¬ dary education, up to the present day the relations of public authorities, both central and local, with secondary schools have been much less close than those with elementary education. The secondary schools may be divided into four classes: (a) The public schools (i, e., the seven principal schools, viz, Eton, Vviiichester, Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury) dealt with by the ])ublic schools act of 1868 and certain others popularly associated with them; (b) the endowed schools (i. e., the endowed secondary grammar schools administered under the endowed schools act of 1869) ; (c) schools estab¬ lished and controlled by local authorities; (d) schools carried on by private enterprise. It is hardly possible to give an exact definition of a public school, but the term includes all the most important older foundations which maintain very close relations with the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge. They are mainly, though not exclusively, boarding schools, and thus are differ¬ entiated from the endowed schools, which, though admitting boarders, have a strong local connection. Educationally, the endowed schools were under the control of the charity commissioners, whose powers in this respect have now been transferred to the board of education. These powers included that of making schemes for the general conduct of such schools, and for organizing administra¬ tive inspection to see that these schemes were properly executed, but they did not include any authority to grant financial assistance. This defect was to some extent remedied by the action of the science and art department, whose grants could be earned by schools complying with their regulations. Both from this source and from "the funds administered by the county councils under the technical instruction acts, considerable financial aid has been given in recent years to secondary schools. In many places there probably still exists a considerable deficiency in this grade of education, but the duty of providing a HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 835 fitting remedy is laid by the act of 1902 iiix)n the new authorities. It may be noted that the greatest part of the provision of girls’ education is still made by private enterprise. Hitherto no special qualifications have been demanded of secondary teachers. High academic qualifications unaccompanied by any professional preparation have sufficed to open the best posts in the teaching profession to men leaving the old universities. But with the establishment of the register of teachers under the act of 1899 this state of things will cease. After the present transi¬ tory arrangements have been withdrawn, no teacher will be able to be placed on that register without affording proof of distinct preparation for the practice of his profession. In the matter of secondary education, Wales has received a different, and, as some maintain, a preferential treatment. It was unusually poor in endowed schools, and the opportunities for secondary education were few. Through the disinterested zeal of one or two individuals, a bill was introduced into Parliament in 1889, and carried with the support of the Government. By this act the treas¬ ury undertook to pay to each county and county borough a subsidy not exceeding in amount the sum raised by local rates for the purposes of intermediate educa¬ tion. Through the operation of this act within a very few years the principality has been provided v/ith an excellent system of secondary schools. For the maintenance of an equal standard of attainment throughout the country, a sys¬ tem of inspection and examination has been established, and placed under the control of a central board, to which each county and county borough sends dele¬ gates. This organization has been allowed to retain its full powers under the act of 1902. KEGULATIONS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS ISSUED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION FOR 1905. In the regulations respecting secondary schools issued in 1903 the board of education were careful to define the limits of secondary education, and in so doing clearlj^ recognized the distinction between secondary schools and technical institutes and classes ; thus the authority of the Government has been won for those who advocate an extended course of general education as a prerequisite to specialized training. The term “ secondary ” as defined by the board applies to “ any day or boarding school which offers to each of its scholars, up to and beyond the age of 16, a general education, physical, mental, and moral, given through a complete graded course of instruction of wider scope and more advanced degree than that given in elementary schools.” As being essential to this course of instruction, the following points are emphasized : (a) The instruction must be general — i. e., must be such as gives a reasonable degree of exercise and development to the whole of the faculties, and does not confine this development to a particular channel, whether that of pure and applied science, of literary and linguistic study, or of that kind of acquirement which is directed simply at fitting a boy or girl to enter business in a subordi¬ nate capacity with some previous knovvdedge of vdiat he or she will be set to do. A secondary school should keep in view the development and exercise of ail the faculties involved in these different kinds of training, and will fail to give a sound general education to its scholars in so far as it sends them out, whether to further stud3'' or to the business of life, with one or other of these faculties neglected, or with one developed at the expense of the rest. Specialization in any of these directions should only begin after the general education has been carried to a point at vvdiich the habit of exercising all these faculties has been formed and a certain solid basis for life has been laid in acquaintance with the structure and laws of the ph.ysical world, in the accurate use of thought and language, and in practical ability to begin dealing with affairs. (b) The course of instruction must be complete — i. e., must be so planned as to lead up to a definite standard of acquirement in the various branches of instruction indicated above, and not stop short at a merely superficial intro¬ duction to any of them. Secondarj^ schools are of different types suited to the different requirements of the scholars, to their place in the social organization. 836 EDUCATION KEPOKT^^ 1904. _ and to the means of the parents and the age at which the regular education of the scholars is obliged to stop short, as well as to the occupations and oppor¬ tunities of development to which they may or should look forward in later life. But in no case can the course of a secondary school be considered complete which is not so planned as to carry on the scholars to such a point as they may reasonably be expected to reach at the age of 16. It may begin at the age of 8 or 9 or even earlier. Scholars may pass into it from elementary schools at various ages beyond this up to 12 or 13, and in schools of a high grade which give an education leading directly on to the universities it may be continued up to the age, even, of 18 or 10. But as a rule the years from 12 or 13 up to 16 or 17 will be those during which it is most important that it should be carried on in accordance with a systematic and complete scheme. (c) The instruction must be graded in its various branches. A defect which is notorious in many schools is that in certain subjects (often from causes for which the school authorities are not responsible) instruction of the scholars is cut down to “ marking time,” or the repetition of lessons already learned. Instruction which is not progressive, while it may be of some use as drill and discipline, is of little real educational value. It giA^es only a superficial and transitory accpiirement, while at 'the same time it fails to interest or to stimu¬ late the scholar. The grants payable under the regulations are made in I’espect of a four years’ course only. A certain minimum number of hours in each vreek must be given in each year of the course to the group of subjects commonly classed as “ English ” and including the English language and literature, geography, and history ; to languages, ancient or modern, other than the native language of the scholars, and to mathematics and to science. Ample time is left for a well-planned cur¬ riculum to add considerably to this minimum in cne or more of these groups of subjects, as well as to include adequate provision for systematic physical exercises; for drawing, singing, and manual training; for the instruction of girls in the elements of housewifery, and for such other subjects as may profitably be included in the curriculum of any particular school. In respect of this coinplete course of graded instruction, grants will be made on a simple and uniform scale. This grant applies alike to all the types of school which come within the general definition of a secondary school, as above giA’en. These types fall, broadly speaking, into three main classes, whether regarded from the side of the standard or of the kind of general edu¬ cation which the school is meant to provide. In the former aspect they fall into one or other of the three grades of the schools inquiry commission of 1864 and the secondary education commission of 1894; the first-grade schools lead¬ ing up directly to the universities and the colleges of university rank ; the sec¬ ond-grade schools, which stop short of that point as regards the bulk of their scholars ; and the third-grade schools, Avhich do not attempt to carry education much beyond the age of 16, and the object of which is to turn out scholars ade¬ quately equipped for commerce and business, for entering upon appi-enticeship to the teaching profession, or foi proceeding, with a sound preliminary general training, into technical and industrial pursuits. In the latter aspect, in respect of the kind of education offered, they may roughly be discriminated into Avliat are known in ordinary usage as the literary, the scientific, and the commercial types of school ; the first of these paying special regard to the development of the higher poAvers of thought and expression, and that discriminating apprecia¬ tion of Avhat is best in the thought and art of the Avorld, in other ages and coun¬ tries, as Avell as in our oavu, vrhich forms the basis of all human culture; the second to the training of the intellect toAvard understanding and applying the hiAvs of the physical universe, and the third to the equipment of the scholars for practical life in the commercial and industrial community of Avhich they are members. The board desire it to be clearly understood that the fact of a uniform scale of grant being giA’en to all these grades and types of school implies no belief that they are of equal importance or have indiscriminate claims to State aid. Still less does it imply the assumption that the cost of maintaining one grade or type of school is the same as that of maintaining any other Avith a similar number of scholars, or that the return to the State per scholar in the form of trained material for citizenship is estimable in uniform terms of so many shil¬ lings a head. The uniform scale of aid given is designed to giA^e impartial encouragement to all Avell-considered local efforts tOAvard deA^eloping a general HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 837 system of secondary schools through many channels and in varying directions. Much of the work that has to be done in establishing such a system is experi¬ mental and will have to be reconsidered later in the light of its results. The secondary schools are in a sense the educational laboratory of the nation, and the case of elementary schools shows how difficult it is, even after a generation of practical working, to reach any certain conclusion as to the relative efficacy of different subjects and methods and as to the exact point at wliich the con¬ trol or influence of the State ceases to be an expanding and stimulating force and tends to fetter or to sterilize individual genius and local patriotism. To this uniform scale of grants, however, one exception is at present retained as justified on historical and practical grounds and as necessary toward con¬ tinuity of administration. The schools hitherto known as “ Division A schools ” (in these extension is given to the scientific course) form an important element in the provision for higher education, and have grown into existence by the direct encouragement and special aid of the board. A special imperial grant toward aiding the teaching of pure and applied science has for many years been one of the accepted liabilities of the State. This type of school is one which, in the words of previous regulations, “ provides a thorough and progress¬ ive course in science, forming a part of a general education,” and including individual manual instruction and practical laboratory work. The instruction given in it is, upon this side of its work, somewhat more advanced and some¬ what more specialized than that of ordinary secondary schools, even of a higher grade, and the cost of maintenance is correspondingly enhanced by the more expensive nature of its apparatus and general organization. For this type of school a special grant is made in addition to the ordinary grant which it re¬ ceives as a secondary school complying with the general conditions prescribed for all such schools. The amount of this special grant will be fixed by the board, with regard to the circumstances of each school, upon a scale which is the practical equivalent of the scale previously applicable to schools of this type, and may reach a maximum which doubles the total amount of the ordinary grant. In addition to the general requirements certain specific conditions are laid down by the education board to which a secondary school must conform in order to share in the Government grant. The most important of these conditions are as follows : The school must be efficient and must not compete unduly ^vith a neighboring schoool ; no religious test or requirement as to religious observances or attend¬ ance upon religious exercises shall be imposed upon day scholars ; the curric¬ ulum and time-table of the school must be appro^'ed by the board of education ; a full account of the income and expenditure of the school must be annually submitted to the board ; the fees charged must be approved hy that body ; the school premises, equipments, and appliances must be satisfactory ; the school must meet regularly during not less than thirtj-six weeks in tlie course of the school year, and for not less than four hours e.ach school day. It is further specified that the teaching staff must be sufficient in number and qualifications ; that the salaries offered shall not be subject to variation according to the amount of grant received, and the registers must show not less than 20 qualified students in the approved course of secondary instruction. To schools fulfilling the conditions required, grants will be paid on account of each scholar attending the approved course of secondary instruction on the following scale : Shillings. (a) In the first year of the course _ _ 40 (&) In the second year of the course _ 60 (c) In the third year of the course _ 80 (d) In the fourth year of the course _ 100 No grant is payable for more than four years in ali on account of any one scholar, and no scholar is eligible for grant vdio is reported by the inspector as unfit to attend the course. A scholar promoted during the school year is 838 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. regarded for the purposes of grant as a scholar of the year from which he or she was promoted. No scholar is eligible for grant whose attendance has not been registered at 80 per cent of the meetings of the school during the year ; but where a scholar has been prevented from attending through illness or risk of infection, a medical certificate to that effect may be accepted in lieu of any attendance. In addition to the above grant a special grant will be paid on account of each scholar attending a special coarse under specified conditions at such rate as may be determined in the case of each school by the board. * * * To insure adequate results from the encouragement thus given by the central government to .secondary education, it was “ considered necessary to commence the establishment of an inspectorate for secondary schools under a chief inspector especially responsible tor this work.” a STATISTICS OF “HIGHER” (l. E., SECONDARY, TECHNICAL AND EVENING) SCHOOLS. The following statistics summarize the operations of the schools for higher education that were under the supervision of the board of education in 1902-3. Inspection of second aru schools under section 3, hoard of education act, 1899. — The number of schools inspected under the board of education in the year ending December 31, 1903, was 135, as compared with 95 in the previous year. Of these 25 were inspected on the application of the county authorities aiding them; 23 were proprietary schools; 33 were private schools; 75 were schools for boys ; 49 were schools for girls, and 11 were mixed schools, for boys and girls. Sixty-one were schools receiving grants under the regulations of the board for secondary schools, and in the case of 41 of these the in.spection was required for compliance with the regulations. tsecondarij schools receiving Government grants. — In 1903 there were 31,090 scholars receiving organized day courses of instruction in 226 secondary day schools, Division A (offering extended cour.ses in science), an average of 137 scholars in each school. Of these pupils 25,047 were taking elementary courses and 0,043 advanced courses of instruction. In 1903, 2,0-15 scholars were examined in science and 1,191 in art subjects. The grants paid amounted to 4130,470 ($052,850), being an average payment per scholar under instruction of £4 19s (about $25). Up to the 31st of December (1903) 142 schools in England and 00 schools in Wales and IMonmouthshire were recognized as eligible for grants under the regulations for secondary day schools. Division P>. Of the schools in England 114 were endowed schools, 2 were county or municipal schools, 6 were estab¬ lished by stock companies, 10 were conducted by religious bodies, and 10 by bodies of local managers. ’ The number of pupils following approved courses of instruction in the schools of Division B during the school year 1902-3 was 10,094, and the grants paid amounted to £20,750 or an average payment of £2 13s. for each scholar under instruction. CLASSES AND SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE AND ART AND EVENING SCHOOLS. The classes in science and art to which grants are made under the regal, i- tions of the board include classes in day secondary schools, as reported above, day classes in schools of a somewhat more advanced character, and classes in evening schools. « To this post Itr. W. C. Fletcher, M. A., till recently head master of the Liverpool Institute, was appointed in May, and shortly afterwards Mr. .1. W. lleadlam, M. A., Dr. It. P. Scott, and Dr. Frederick Spencer were appointed as staff inspectors to assist him. Each of these officers possesses special qualifications in the literaiq^ and linguistic side of secondary school work. HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 839 Under the new organization it is impossible to treat the classes in science and art separately from the schools of which they form an integral part, and consequently the following table, presented in the report of the hoard of edu¬ cation, repeats statistics already given under the head of secondary schools, and those which follow present further details respecting evening schools. School year 1002-3. 9 Description of schools. Number of schools. Number of stu¬ dents iinder in¬ struction. Grant. Day. Evening. Schools of art . - . - . 231 5,624 31 9 20,598 33,679 657,594 £ 49,630 285, 126 6,665 203 Evening schools . _ _ _ _ Classes receiving grant for day work other than in pupil- teacher centers or schools which coiild now be recog¬ nized as secondary schools: Science _ _ _ - _ _ 4,337 924 Art - . . . Evening schools. — The present regulations for evening schools, as explained in the official report, apply to the class of schools formerly conducted in accordance with the regulations of the science and art department, and con¬ tinuation schools regulated by the elementary school code. The former included very advanced classes held in important technical insti¬ tutions as well as some elementary classes held in smaller towns and villages. The latter were most typically represented by the village evening school, giving instruction of a somewhat elementary nature. The following statistics show the classification of evening classes and students by courses of instruction : Course of instruction. Number of classes. N umber of students in respect of whom a grant was paid. Division I. (a) General or preparatory in character; (5) more specific or more advanced . . . . . . _ . . Division II. Art. . . . . . 15,164 1,142 1,467 5, .560 3,724 448, 216 54, 866 29, 78U 174,419 92, 2.55 Division III. Manual work in wood and metal _ _ _ _ _ _ ... Division IV. Science, including instruction in the scientific principles un- derlving certain trades or groups of trades. . ... . . . . . . . Division V. Home industries . . . As individual students in some cases attended for instruction in more than one subject of a division, the number of individual students in each division is less than is here shown — e. g., in Division II the number of individual students in respect of whom a grant was paid was 48,536, and similarly the number of individual science students was 125,704. No grant is paid on account of a student who does not attend a class for at least fourteen hours. Students whose attendance at any class fell short of that limit are not included in the numbers here given. 840 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. The following table gives a comparison of tbe number of students wbo at¬ tended, and at tbe same time indicates their age and sex : Number of stu¬ dents who have attended at any time during the school year. Number of students upon whom grant was claimed. Students. Percent¬ age of total. Students. % Percent¬ age of total. Age of students: Between 13 and 15 years . 147, 191 348,853 162,050 22 95,153 237.867 107, 698 21.6 Between 15 and 21 years . 53 54.0 Over 21 years . , . . . 25 24.4 Total . . . . . 657,594 440, 718 Sex of students: Males . - . . . 403, 629 253,965 61 267,236 173,482 eo.6 Females . . . . . 39 39.4 Total . . . . 657,594 440, 718 The efficiency of the scliool is tested by inspection, with or without notice, and in subjects of science or art an additional test is afforded by the annual examinations of the board. The evening schools which earned a grant during the year ending July 31, 1903, numbered 5,024. ACTION or LOCAL AUTHORITIES IN RESPECT TO “ HIGHER ” EDUCATION. The foregoing survey pertains to schools of an, advanced grade in England and Wales and the relations established between them and the board of education. The action of the central Government, hovcever, in respect to education is very general. It is intended to stimulate aiid supplement local effort, never to su]> plant it; hence the most important part of the current record of education, whether elementary or higher, relates to the action of local authorities (county and municipal councils). By reference to the conspectus of the education law of 1902 (p. 801, par. 4) it will be seen that the educational functions of the local authorities, excepting that of levying a school tax, may be delegated to education committees. Reports from several of the larger cities show that strong committees have been formed and have applied themselves earnestly to the task of ascertaining the conditions to be dealt with as a preliminary to future developments. The investigation has been particularly thorough in Sheffield and Livei-pool, the educational committees of both these cities having secured the services of Mr. Michael E. Sadler « to aid them in this stage of their work. As regards elementary education the situation in the cities named was well known from the reports of the former school board, and consequently the inves¬ tigations authorized by the newly formed education committees related to the province of secondary and higher education as it devolves upon the locrd authorities under the new law. The results of Mr. Sadler’s investigations are embodied in two reports,'' which set forth in an exhaustive manner the existing provision for education above the elementary stage in the cities named and sub- « Formerly chief of the division of special inquiries and reports, department of educa¬ tion ; at present professor of the history and administration of education, Victoria Uni¬ versity, Manchester. City of Sheffield, Education Committee Report on Secondary and Higher Education, by Michael E. Sadler, M. A. Oxon, Hon. LL. D. Columbia. City of Liverpool Education Committee Report on Secondary Education in Liverpool, including the Training of Teachers for Public Elementary Schools. Idem. HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 841 mit recommendations as to the means of improving, extending, and equalizing this provision. In considering these reports the purpose here is chiefly to show what they disclose relative to the provision for secondary education and the proposed increase of such provision. In his general discussion of this subject Mr. Sadler adhered to the views embodied in the Government regulations already" cited as to the age limits and types of seconda.ry education. The three types are characterized by him in the Sheffield report as follows : (1) That in which mathematics and physical science pi-edominate ; (2) that in which (with due provision for mathematical teaching) the linguistic disci¬ pline predominates, living languages (or one living and one ancient) being taken as the chief, though of course not the only, vehicles of instruction ; and (3) that in which the linguistic discipline still forms the backbone of this course of training, but is imparted for the most part through Latin and Greek, though with some regard to one modern foreign language, as well as to other subjects, like mathematics. In the case of boys (though this is due to historical reasons rather than to the nature of the case) the three types of curricula outlined above are generally found in courses of different duration. The first-named type is usually provided in a compact four-year course, fitted in between the ages of 12 and 10. The second type usually, though not always, begins at 10 years of age, or even earlier, and extends itself to about IT. The third type, in its highest perfection, occupies an even longer period. It begins (though' not nec¬ essarily or always) at 10 years of age, or even earlier, and runs on to 18 or 19. In the case of girls the forms of secondary school curricula are more flexible and variable than in the case of those provided for boys. But, nevertheless, with due regard to the need for giving girls a lighter burden of work during the critical years of their physical growth, the types of their secondary school curricula do approximate to those provided for boys. The first type, less severely but still markedly mathematical and scientific, tends to be a four- year course. The second (by far the most usual) is a longer course, begin¬ ning at 10 years of age, or earlier, and extending to 17, or later. The third (or fully classical) type is very rare in the case of girls, and indeed hardly has a separate existence, but is found here and there as a small subdivision of a larger school. It carries on its work till the girls are IS or 19 years of age. SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF SHEFFIELD. From Mr. Sadler’s report we learn that Sheffield, with a population of 420,080, had at the time of his investigation — two chief secondary schools for boys, namely, the Royal Grammar School and the Wesley College. At the former nearly all the boys are day scholars ; at the latter boarders form rather more than one-sixth of the whole. (Preparatory departments are attached to both institutions, and there is one other private preparatory school for boys only — that of the Misses Whitfield.) In both the grammar school and the Wesley College linguistic discipline is the backbone of the curriculum, though at each school some science is taught through the greater part of the school (at the grammar school more than at Wesley College) and a good deal of mathematics. But the grammar school, above the middle forms, branches into two difterent curricula — one which is predomi¬ nantly mathematical or scientific, and one which is mainly classical. At the Wesley College, in the middle school one curriculum is taken practically by all boys ; in the upper school choice is made between Latin and practical chemistry and between Greek and German. It should be added that many boys are sent away from Sheffield to boarding schools at a distance.a “The Schoolmaster’s Year Book, 1904, gives the following particulars with respect to the two schools named above: The Royal Grammar School has accommodation for 191 hoys (including 4 hoarders) ages 6 to 18. The annual fee ranges from £10 10s. to £13 10s. There are scholarship funds awarded upon comp-etitive examination, which lessen the expense for the successful candidate. The Wesley College has accommodation for 209 hoys (including 35 hoarders) ages 7 to 19. The annual fees for day pupils range from 9 to 15 guineas ; for hoarders, from 42 to 48 guineas. 842 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. The grammar school is an endowed, school, administered, as the report explains — ■ under a scheme of the charity commissioners. It has a governing body, upon which the city council and other local bodies are represented. It has received a grant of £000 per annum from the city technical instruction committee. The scheme provides that religious opinions, or attendance or nonattendance at any particular form of religious worship, shall not in any way affect the qualifica¬ tion of any person for being a member of the governing body. There is a con¬ science clause. The scheme provides for not less than fifteen foundation scholar¬ ships, of which one-half must be awarded to boys who are, or for not less than three years have been, scholars in any of the public elementary schools in the school district of Sheffield. The head master is required by the provision of the scheme to be a graduate of some university in the United Kingdom or in some colony or dependency thereof, or to have such other qualification as may be fixed by any regulation of the governors, approved by the charity commis¬ sioners (responsibility transferred to the board of education). By virtue of the scheme the head master has the sole power of appointing and may at pleasure dismiss all assistant masters. lie receives a fixed yearly stipend, with a capita¬ tion fee, for each boy in the school, fixed on a scale appointed by the governors. The regulations can not be changed without the sanction of the board of edu¬ cation, hence the school is to a certain extent under public supervision. The Wesley College is a proprietary institution vcith denominational affilia¬ tions. The two institutions are types of the best classes of secondary schools through¬ out the country. The city has also a high school for girls, conforming very closely both in the subject-matter and the duration of its course to the second type of secondary schools. This is one of the schools established by the Girls’ Public Day School Company (Limited). It accommodates 238 pupils. The fees, which are the same in all the schools of the company, are as follows : Entrance fee, 1 guinea ; yearly fees, pupils 7 to 10 years of age, 0 guineas; 10 to 13 years, 12 guineas; 13 and upward, 1.5 guineas. In the category of secondary schools in Sheffield Mr. Sadler includes also the “ pupil teachers’ center,” which provides for the instruction of pupil teachers engaged in elementary schools. The aim of the “ center ” is to secure for its pupils admission to a training college and to enal)le them to reach a standard of general attainment which will qualify them to profit by a normal course. The majority of the pupils are girls. Their ages range from about 15 upward. The classes are held in the evening as well as in the daytime, in order to meet the needs of the pupils who are working as pupil teachers in the elementary schools. All other secondary schools in the city of Sheffield are strictly private schools, conducted for the profit and at the expense of the principal. In view of the conditions so carefully investigated, Mr. Sadler declared that the most urgent demand for Sheffield was improvement in the secondary education provided for boys. There is need [he says] for a secondary school, vchich should give the highest instruction in English, in classics, in mathematics, and in foreign lan¬ guages, together with instruction in science. This school should train boys intended for professional careers and also for the higher posts in busi¬ ness. It should prepare for the universities. It should be able to give the best possible chance to boys of high mathematical or linguistic ability. The classes should be small. It should have a long course, extending from 10 (or 12) to 17, IS, or 19. It should be on the highest plane of intel¬ lectual efficiency, thoroughly well staffed, accommodated in a good building, well equipped with a library and apparatus, and carefully organized from the point of view of school games and those other forms of school activity which develop esprit de corps, give a good tone, and teach the virtues HIGHER EDUCATION IH ENGLAND. 843 of corporate life. Alaniial training should be encouraged throughout the school. The training of the hand helps to develop the brain. Great care should be taken to make the most of the average boy, but at least equal care is necessary to avoid sacrificing the interests of the specially clever pupils. With care these two objects can be successfully combined. The average boy can be helped forward and the brilliant boy can be given the special opportunities which he needs. But in order to combine these advantages the staff must be large and thoroughly efficient. With help [he adds], either the grammar school or the Wesley College could be raised to the level of complete efficiency described above. Among the recommendations made by Mr. Sadler was that of the consolidation of the Royal Grammar School and the Wesley College as the best means of securing for Sheffield a secondary school of the highest type. This was suggested as a mere possibiliW, but the education committee have since reported that— thanks to the unselfish and public-spirited attitude of the governors of the grammar school, as well as to the broad-minded policy pursued by the Wesleyan authorities, the committee have been enabled to frame a scheme, which has been submitted to the board of education, embracing in its scope the purchase of Wesley College and grounds, covering 5 acres, and also of the grammar-school buildings and surrounding land ; the adaptation of the Wesley College buildings to modern requirements, and the establishment therein of one strong secondary school of the highest type, to be the property of the municipality, supported by public funds and under effective public control. The scheme as submitted contemplates leaving the endowment of the grammar school in the hands of the governors, to be used for the purposes of higher education. The carrying out of that portion of the scheme which relates to the purchase of Wesley College has already been tacitly approved by the board of education, but difficulties have arisen in regard to other portions of the scheme, which it is hoped may ere long be adjusted, so that the whole plan may be proceeded with. It is con¬ fidently believ’ed that the expenditure involved will be fully justified by the extremely important and far-reaching advantages to be gained' by the city. ^ In addition to a secondary school of the highest type, Mr. Sadler noted, further, tlie need of a secondary school “ to feed the techmcal school with a steady stream of well-educated lads of 10 years of age ” and of a secondarj" school for girls “which will feed the pupil teachers’ center with a steady stream of well- educated girls of 16 years of age.” These two wants he believed might be met by a single secondary school of purely modern type, situated in a central part of the city. The general character of the school is outlined as follows : It should be a school with low fees — Is. a week, which (allowing for holi¬ days) would be about £2 a year. It should be very well staffed with highly competent and well-trained teachers. No class should be allowed to contain more than 30 pupils. Individual work should be encouraged. The school should be in two divisions, one for boys and one for .^irls, with a different curriculum in each division, though many of the teachers might do work in both divisions, and, if the head master of the school thought well, both boys and girls might work together in some of the classes. There should be a large number of scholarships tenable at this school. These scholarships should give free educa¬ tion and be awarded for merit. The education committee Avouid also, I think, do well to keep in hand a fund out of which further remission of fees could be privately made in deserving cases. From this fund small maintenance allow¬ ances should also be made when such addition to the scholarships was thought expedient, in view of special difficulty experienced ’03" anj'- parent in keeping without such aid his child at school throughout the course. Such a school would be mainly recruited from the public elemeutaiy schools. Pupils should be drafted to it from the elemental^ schools at or near their twelfth birthday. Earlier transference Avould injure the tone and intellectual standard of the elementary schools, Avould be incompatible with judicious selection for scholarships, and in the case of girls v/ould involve the inconvenience, and even clanger, of sending little children to school through crowded streets, often at 844 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. some considerable distance from their home?!. Later transference, on the other hand, would throw the boys and girls too late in taking up the more advanced work of the secondary-school curriculum, especially the mathematics and the foreign languages. A very sharp hoy will he at the top of the elementary school by his twelfth birthday, and should then be moved forward to further opportunities than the elementary school can offer him. To have sent forward a succession of well-grounded and clever pupils to the secondary school would be a public service deserving cordial recognition, and would become an honor of which the head master or head mistress in question would be justly proud. In discussing the course of study for the boys’ department of this school, Mr. Sadler bears in mind the preparation of candidates for admission to the tech¬ nical school of Sheffield. His idea as to this preparatory work is of special interest to all persons concerned with the problems of technical education. A boy [he says] should enter the technical school at 10, and not before. He should enter the technical school with the following level of attainment: (1) He should have had, to start with, a good English education — that is to say, he should have a good command over his mother tongue (a power in which English boys, as at present trained, are sadly and needlessly deficient) and should have gained an interest in the broad outlines of history, with a closer knowledge of the lives and deeds of some well-chosen national and other heroes, and have read and learnt by heart a good deal of first-rate English poetry and some English prose. Most of this foundation should have been laid in the primary school ; but the secondary school should aim at sus¬ taining and developing, so far as time allows, the boy’s interest in history and good literature, and at practicing him in power of fit expression in his mother tongue. In this respect we have much leeway to make up. Through our clumsy methods of teaching English we waste much interest and much power. (2) Next the boy should come to the technical school with a sound grasp of elementary mathematics. This is a matter of the highest importance. The methods of teaching mathematics should be made as practical as possible. The boys should be made to see the practical value and application of what they learn ; and there should be close and friendly conference steadily sustained between the mathematical teachers at the central secondary school and at the technical school, so that the work of the former may dovetail into that of the latter, and that the same spirit of teaching may prevail in both institu¬ tions. Very great care should, I think, be taken to insure that the mathe¬ matical teaching in the Sheffield schools is, from top to bottom, first-rate of its kind. This remark applies to elementary and preparatory schools as well as to the schools of higher grade. Mathematics are the foundation of applied science. Sheffield depends, in large measure, on applied science. Good inathe- matical teaching all through the Sheffield schools is a necessity of the situation. It should be on the best modern lines. Much harm can be done by having mediocre mathematical teaching in the early stages of a boy's educational career, and it would be a grave error to run the risk of this mischief in Sheflield, when so much depends on mathematical ability and where (so far as one can judge from an examination of the roll of Sheffield worthies) mathe¬ matical and scientific ability are especially likely to make their appearance and to find stimulus from their environment. (.3) In the third place, when the boy enters the technical school he should, if possible, be able to read, to speak, and to write simple French with intelligence and accuracy. He will find French very helpful to him in his technical studies. In later years he is not unlikely to have to travel on business, and the power of speaking French is a valuable possession, and by no means without its bearing on business success. And, 'further, a boy understands his own language much more thoroughly when he has learnt another to compare vrith it. A well organized and really well-staffed modern secondary school can give a boy fail- command over one foreign language in the course of a curriculum extending over the four years from 12 to 16. But it is indispensable that the teaching should be on modern lines; that the classes should be small (never more than thirty), and that not less than one lesson a day should be devoted to the sub¬ ject. (4) What remains of the boy’s curriculum at such a modern secondary school as might be established at the central school should be made up of phy¬ sical science (not forgetting first-hand study of nature), drawing, some manual^ training (this is essential), geography, physical training, and vocal music.' This, with care and with provision for religious instruction, can just be got HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 845 into 31 lessons per week. It would mean hard work for the boys, but they would be there to work, and the burden would not be unreasonably great. There should be good holidays. If really hard work is done in term times both boys and masters need them. In Mr. Sadler's opinion the course of study for the girls’ department of the secondary school should be different from that of the boys’ department. I would suggest [he says] that this course, like the boys’, extend over four years. But I would strongly recommend that their burden of work be far less. It is a grievous mistake to overwork girls at this critical period of their growth. And girls often show themselves more unsparing of their strength in school Studies than boys usually are. An important aim of this division should be to produce a fine type of women teachers for the Sheffield elementary schools. But, of course many of the girls would go into business, and a much larger number would devote themselves to the duties of home life. These girls should all have a thoroughly good training in English ; they should have a sound train¬ ing in mathematics ; their foreign language, taught on modern lines but with great stress on grammatical accuracy, should be French (or, if thought well, German) ; and probably the best choice of scientific subjects would be botany and hygiene. Vocal music, drawing, and the arts of home life should receive special attention. In girls’ education there should be a strong artistic element. They should be taught to love and admire beautiful things, beautiful characters, and beautiful literature. The nucleus of the school, whose character is thus defined, existed already in the Central School, of Sheffield, belonging to the class of higher elementary schools. Mr. Sadler's recommendation that steps should be taken to convert this institution into a secondary school of the type indicated has been approved, and the education committee reported in March, 1904, that the work of transform¬ ing and reorganizing the school in accordance with the suggestions of Mr. Sadler would at once be begun. It should be observed that the scheme for the reor¬ ganized school includes a system of scholarships and bursaries on a scale so liberal as “ to insure that no child of ability and general fitness shall be debarred from the privileges of the school for want of means.” Peculiar difficulty will I^e encountered everywhere in England in the endeavor to transfer pupils from the public elementary to secondary schools on account of the long-standing distinctions between the two classes of schools. Hereto¬ fore pupils of the social classes reached by the secondary schools have entered at about 10 years of age, and have at once begun the study of ancient languages. Pupils transferred from the elementary schools at the age of 12 years, as pro¬ posed, will thus be at least two years behind their classmates of the secondary schools. Mr. Sadler suggests that this difficulty may be met either by providing special instruction for such pupils on their admission to the secondary school or by postponing the commencement of Latin in the secondary school till the 12th year of age. “ Ultimately,” he says, “ I believe we shall incline to the second solution.” The evening schools, which are also now included in the category of secondary schools, complete the provision in Sheffield for continuing the education of the people beyond the elements. The entire scheme of education, as provided for under the new conditions, is shown in the accompanying diagram, which presents very clearly the dual conception of secondary education that has the sanction of the ablest minds of England and the purposes to which each type of education is directed. Secondary education in Liverpool. — The report of Mr. Sadler’s investigations in Liverpool is more voluminous and of wider scope than the corresponding report for Sheffield. This was inevitable, as the task committed to him included secondary education in all its relations, and, further, the whole subject of the training of teachers for the public elementary schools. Moreover, the conditions to be dealt with in Liverpool were much more complicated than those which Outline Plan of Proposed Organization op Education 846 EDUCATION KEPOKT; 1904. I e •At 17 years of ape. or, earlier if duly qualified, students may enter the HIGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 847 Ollf!? Intiirrsitg. 848 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. were met in Sheffield on account of the larger population, 716,810, as against 426,686, and the mixture of people characteristic of a great commercial port. AYith respect to provision for secondary education there was also to be taken into account the lack of endowments. On this point Mr. Sadler observes : Few, if any, of the great cities in England lack so signally as Liverpool the aid of large endowments for the support of secondary education. The city rose to greatness more than two generations, after the impulse toward the founding, or refounding, of grammar schools, which played so great a part in the social history of England during the sixteenth and the early part of the seventeenth centuries had ebbed away. * The lack of educational endowments is striking when compared with the com- 1 ^rative wealth in this respect of some other Lancashire towns. While Man¬ chester and Salford between them have educational endowments amounting to ill 18s. per 1,000 of their population, and while Bury, on a like calculation, has as much as £21 4s., Liverpool has only 10s. 7d. In discussing the general character of secondary education, the jirinciples by which it should be governed, the different types of secondary schools, their scoiie and age limits, the Liverpool report repeats substantially the views ex¬ pressed in the report for Shefiield. But in the case of Liverpool new interest is imparted to these views by suggested modifications to meet the demands of a commercial city. Without repeating the author's general theory of secondary education, it is the purpose to present here extracts from this very suggestive report pertaining (1) to existing conditions; (2) to the recommendations as to future develop¬ ments. Even before the passage of the education law of 1870, says Mr. Sadler — Liverpool made voluntary efforts, unsurpassed elsewhere in England, to grapple with the educational destitution of the masses of her people. Nor has the city failed, ever since that time, to hold a very honorable place among those communities which are bent upon progressive improvements in their primary schools and which value variety of method and of ideals in the work of elemen¬ tary education. In particular is noted, in this connection, the advance made in the develop¬ ment of higher departments in a large number of the public elementary schools. The statistics given show that in the school year ending .Tuly 31, 1003, “there were in the public elementary schools of Liverpool 716 scholars above standard YII ; and of these 117 boys and 78 girls were in voluntary, and 2.^>8 boys and 263 girls in council schools. Forty-three of these boys and 81 of the girls were over 14 years of age.” This number was, however, trifling as compared with the total enrollment in the public elementary schools of the city, viz, 132,749 (boys. 66,356; girls, 66,393). Mr. Sadler emphasizes this fact of the small proportion of pupils found in the advanced grade by com]";arison with New York. In this city in the year named (1903), according to the figures quoted — Tv.^enty-four jier 1.000 of the elementary school children passed, on the com¬ pletion of their elementary course, to the secondary schools, the average age of the boys being 14 years 7 months, and that of the girls 14 years 9 months. In the same year, however, in Liverpool, so far as can be ascertained, only 3 per 1,000 passed on to secondary schools, nearly all the boys being in their fourteenth year, and more than half the girls in the fourteenth or fifteenth year. The sources from which the secondary schools of Liverpool draw their pupils are private schools and the junior departments of the ^secondary schools them¬ selves ; thus it appears that “ the secondary school population is separate throughout its ages from the elementary school population.” In order to meet the present demands, two things are necessary ; (1) the correlation of the public 849 HIGHEE EDE^CATION IN ENGLAND. elementary scbools and secondary schools in such a manner as will facilitate the passage of pupils from the lo\cer to the higher schools, and thus insure the benefits of secondary education to a much larger proportion of the population 4 (2) an increase in the number of secondary schools. The following table shows the existing provision of schools and departments which offer courses of instruction above the elementary stage : Type of sc-hools. N limber j of schools. 1 i Boys. Percent¬ age of total boys. Girls. Percent¬ age of total girls. Total of both sexes. Percent¬ age of full total. Public secondary . 21 i 1,999 j 67.28 1,246 47.02 3,245 .57. 73 Private secondary . . 38 597 20.09 1,063 40.11 1,660 29.53 Higher departments of pub¬ lic elementary schools . 375 12.62 341 12.87 716 12.74 Total--. _ _ 2,971 2,650 5, 621 1 In respect to the amount of provision that should be made in the city for secondary education, Mr. Sadler notes several conditions that make it extremely difficult to arrive at a satisfactory, estimate. Conditions [he says] vary between town and town; in no two cases are the outlying districts served by the schools of particular towns strictly comparable; in no two cases are the numbers of children sent away to boarding schools likely to be exactly the same. Moreover, in England the statistics are not yet in exist¬ ence which would justify any generalization. ]Mr. Sadler refers in this connection to efforts made at various times to deter¬ mine the proportion of youth for whom secondary education should be provideii He considers the estimate of the schools inquiry commission (ISGT), that 12.2S boys over 8 years of age per thousand of the population should be in secondary schools, to be too high. The commission of 1894 abandoned the endeavor to make an estimate. Later investigations showed tliat in the tovrn of Biianingham 7 boys and 5 girls per thousand of the population were receiving an education that might properly be regarded as secondary. This estimate has been accepted as a reasonable standard for the large towns generally and is used by Mn Sadler in his analyses of the conditions in Liverpool. In this city he says: The number of boys receiving education in secondary schools or in the higher departments of public elementary schools amounts to no more than 4.1 per thou¬ sand, and the number of girls to 3.70 per 1,000 of the population of the city. Measured by the standard suggested above, the Liverpool total is nearly 3,000 short. Where there are now 5,021 pupils there should be 8,002. The effect of this showing is heightened by the following comparisons: In the year 1900 the proportion of boys in the higher schools of Prussia was 5.44 per 1,000 of the total population (187,020 in 34,472,500). It will be noticed that this calculation includes the rural as well as the urban districts. It takes into account those schools only which provide a course of instruction extending up to at least 10 years of age. Measured by this standard the Liverj)ool total boys in secondary schools is just over 1,300 short. There are 2,590; there should be 3,899. In Cologne, a city more than half the size of Liverpool, the number of boys attending the higher and middle schools in 1900 was 8.7 per 1,000 of the popula¬ tion. If this proportion were reached in Liverpool the number of boys in the secondary schools would be 0,230. On the other hand, the New York secondary school statistics may be set over against those derived from Prussia. In the year ending July 31, 1903, New York, with a population of 3,741,231, had no more than 0,800 boys and 10,20.5 girls, i. e., 1.83 and 2.72 per 1,000, respectively, of the total population, in its public high schools and high school departments. Of the numbers in the private secondary schools no statistics are available. In comparing New York with ED 1904 M - 54 850 EDUCATION BEPORT^ 1904. Liverpool it must be remembered that practically none of the American high school pupils are under 13 years of age. Of boys and girls over that age in all the Liverpool schools there are, respectively, 1,3-52 and 1,055, i. e., 1.89 and 1.47 per 1,000 of the population. There is, however, an admitted deficiency of secondary school places in New York, which, with its public secondary school population of 4.56 per 1,000, falls considerably below the present proportion for the whole of the United States. The wave of enthusiasm for high school edu¬ cation, which is one of the most striking features of American life at the present time, has not attained its full height in Yew York, though it is rising rapidly year by year. Taking the United States as a whole, 7.2 per 1,000 of the popu¬ lation are in pul)lic secondary schools. In some American cities the proportion per 1,000 of population is far higher. Indianapolis has 17 per 1,000; Denver, 18; Kansas City, 22; Newton (Mass.), 22; Topeka (Kans.), 24. These totals leave Liverpool far behind. From the available report of former conditions it appears that Liverpool has suffered a decline in respect to attendance upon secondary schools. Whereas in 1864 the proportion of youth reported in schools of this grade was 3.87 per 1,000, it had fallen to 3.08 in 1891 and from that to 1.91 in 1903. From his exhaustive survey of the whole situation Mr. Sadler declares that only one conclusion is possible, namely, that — The proportion of boys and girls who are receiving secondary education in Tiiverpool schools is smaller than we should expect to find in a great commercial city. Admirable in so many other respects, the educational equipment of Liver¬ pool is, in regard to secondary education, considerably below modern standards of accessibility and popular support. The detailed account of the existing secondary schools and higher institutions of Liverpool make up the greater jairt of the report considered. Here it is impossible to do more than name with brief characterizations the institutions, due for the most part to private initiative, which have become permanent factors in the intellectual life of the city. Under the head of secondary education are classed three schools or “groups of schools ” which Mr. Sadler counts “ among the most noteworthy educational institutions in Liverpool.” The Liverpool Institute was established in 1825, as a laiblic trust, “ for the i)romotion of useful knowledge and learning.” Its first teaching department was opened in 1835. The institute comprises at present the high school, with an attendance of 105 boys and accommodation for 300, and a commercial school, with an attendance of 422 boys and accommodation for 500. The fees in the high school range from £2 2s. a term to £4 4s., and in the commercial school from £1 5s. to £2 2s. The institute includes also a school for girls, established in 1844, and a flourishing art school. In 1903 the entire organization was transferred by the directors to the city, and its various depart¬ ments began a new era as municipal secondary schools. The Liverpool College, founded in 18-14, comprises at present an upper school organized in a classical and a modern department, having on the registers 262 boys and accommodation for 300, fees £4 Os. 8d. to £8 6s. 8d. a term ; a middle school enrolling 248 boys with accommodation for 500, fees £2 2s. to £4 a term ; and a commercial school with 243 boys in attendance and accommodation for 486, fees £1 5s. to £2 2s. a term. St. Francis Xavier College, established in 1842 by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, comprises also a classical school with 158 pupils on the rolls and a commercial school with 150 students and accommodation for ISO. The fees in the classical school range from £1 2s. a term to £3; in the commercial school the fees are £1 12s. a term. Although the three institutions named maintain preparatory departments, their work both as regards methods and purposes is essentially secondaiy. They are also public schools in a sense in which the term is now very generally HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 851 applied in England — that is, tliey comply with the conditions as to standards, equipments, etc., which entitle schools to share in Government grants. The movement of which these institutions were the outcome may be regarded as an early local manifestation of demands which have become general in Eng¬ land and which no previous efforts have adequately met, even in the most pro¬ gressive communities. The causes of this early movement in Liverpool are thus explained Mr. Sadler : In the first thirty-five years of the nineteenth century the population of Liverpool nearly trebled itself. The town had become the great port of indus¬ trial England. Its business increased by leaps and bounds. Many of its citizens realized that the vast growth of commerce under modern conditions carried with it the need of providing, on a larger scale than hitherto, what we now call secondary education for boys, as a leaven for good in a great trading center, as a means of furnishing competent recruits and cadets for business life, and (though this was less clearly understood then than now) as giving the best intellectual basis for further economic advance. Starting thus with well-defined purposes the three institutions which arose one after the other in the period between 1825 and 1842 have given “ a charac¬ teristic quality and tone to secondary education in Liverpool.” The remaining schools of Liverpool which are classed as secondary are pri¬ vate schools whose work is largely confined to the training of younger children. The two schools for girls belonging to the Girls’ Public Day School Company are, however, essentially secondary in character and maintain excellent stand¬ ards. Particular mention is also made in the report of the work of the great religious communities in the training of girls which forms “ a striking feature of the educational life of Liverpool.” Provision for the training of teachers for the Liverpool elementary schools, which was included in the scope of Mr. Sadler’s investigation, comprises five centers for the instruction of pupil teachers and three training colleges. The “ centers ” are organized to continue the education of young people who are engaged part of each day in teaching and may be regarded as specialized secondary schools. The training colleges like our own normal schools offer academic and pro¬ fessional courses of study. Two of these colleges are residential, and the third is a day college connected with the University of Liverpool. It is noticeable also that a large proportion of the students from the principal Pupil Teachers’ Center enter the university. The importance of increasing the relations between the university and the professional training of teachers was one reason for making the investigation all inclusive; additional reasons were found in the existence of specialized schools of art and technics, which depend for their full development upon stu¬ dents whose preliminary education has been prolonged, at least through the secondaiw schools. The specialized schools enumerated b3" Mr Sadler are the Municipal School of Art, foi-merly a part of the Liverpool Institute, the City of Inverpool School of Architecture and Applied Art, established in 1894 Iw the joint action of the technical instruction committee of the city council and the university authorities, the School of Commerce, controlled by a joint committee of the representatives of the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, of the university, and of the education committee of the city council, the Training School of Cook¬ ery, and technical colleges of domestic science. These specialized schools, as well as the Liverpool University, maintain even¬ ing classes which, with the evening classes conducted in the elementary school buildings, represent a very important part of the educational provision of the 852 EDUCATION REPORT; 1904. city. Taken together these classes form, “ in intention, at least,” says Mr. Sadler, “ an admirably graded system of schools.” Their work is classified by him under five headings, as follows : 1. Nonspecialized instruction, largely literary. 2. Commercial subjects. 3. Mathematics and science. 4. Manual training. 5. Technological subjects, with a subdivision for domestic arts. These headings are of interest rather as suggesting the lines of future devel¬ opment than as defining present distinctions. They illustrate also the tendency to recognize diversified purposes in secondary education and to provide for cor¬ responding types of institutions, which is manifest throughout the report. The conception of secondary education in its relation to business life set forth in the Liverpool report may be gathered from the following citations : With regard to secondary educiition for boys [says Mr. Sadler], the point which in the special circumstances of Liverpool transcends all others in im¬ portance is the need for insisting on first-rate quality in the instruction and training to be provided. My inquiry has convinced me that a multiplication of facilities for getting a rather showy secondary education of poor intellectual quality would do very little good to Liverpool, and in the long run would not give a sufficient return for the money which would have to be spent upon it. On the other hand, I am persuaded that the future commercial greatness of the city, its command over new sources of prosperity, its power to hold its own against keen rivalry in the markets of the world, and the continued vigor of its civic life, depend, to a critical degree, on steps being taken at once to raise to a high level the intellectual standard of the secondary schools, which prepare the greater number of the boys of the city for responsible business careers. A com¬ paratively limited supply of thoroughly good secondary education, if made really accessible to gifted boys in all ranks of the community, would render far greater service to Liverpool than the provision of a much larger amount of teaching which lacked scholarly thoroughness and failed to furnish searching intellectual discipline. Quality rather than quantity is the wise aim in the reorganization of secondary schools. The necessarily great expense of providing a really good secondary education points in the direction of concentrating effort upon a Limited number of schools with a view to the firm establishment of a high intellectual standard in their work. In his suggestions as to the remodeling of the Liverpool Institute Mr. Sadler dwells with even more emphasis upon the importance of quality. The recent transference of the institute to the city council affords [he ob¬ serves] a suitable opportunity for remodeling the organization of the school. At present the institute consists of two schools of diiferent grades under one head master— the liigh school, with 195 boys, and the commercial school, with 422 boys. In neither school do the boys stay long enough to get, in the mass, the thorough intellectual training which is the proper work of a secondary school and vfhich gives the best foundation for mastery and sustained purpose in the serious work of life. It seems undesirable that this state of things should be allowed to continue. I would suggest, therefore, that instead of the two schools at the institute there should in future be only one and that the one school should be so equipp^ed as to do first-rate work throughout a well-planned course extend¬ ing over at least four years, viz, from 12 to 10. This unification of the two schools vrould mean the closing of the commercial school, the boys who are at present receiving instruction there being allowed to finish their course, but no further entries being sanctioned. Steps would have to be taken to make parents realize that in future a course of training at the institute would mean four years, and that a boy would be expected to enter not later than his twelfth birthday and to stay until IG. Boys would of course be allowed to enter younger and to stay later, but the minimum ordinary course should be between the ages named above. A high standard of work should be insisted upon. No boy should be admitted above the age of 12 unless able at once to take his place in the class normally reached by those boys of his age already in the school. I would also suggest that the education committee should make a strong appeal to HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 853 the chief employers and business houses in the city to cooperate with them in this matter by causing it to be publicly known that in their future appointments they would be prepared to give preference to boys who have completed a course of secondary education extending to the sixteenth jmar. The head master of the school would then be able to depend upon having a steady stream of boys passing through a graded course of instruction lasting for at least four years. He would thus be in a position so to organize the curriculum and so to plan both the methods of teaching and the order of subjects as to secure the best possible use being made of the time during which the boys remained at school. With respect to the course of study for this reorganized school the report is specific. It should be carefully adapted to the special needs of Liverpool. This would make it desirable to base the main curriculum upon the Humanities and to assign an important place in it to the study of the mother tongue, in order to give thorough training in the art of expression. Adequate time should be given throughout the school to the study of history and of literature. Geography, taught upon the best modern methods, should be a strong feature of the curricu¬ lum. Great care should be taken to secure for every boy in the school a sound and intelligent training in mathematics. A course of general elementary science should form a part of the curriculum with a view to the formation of a habit of intelligent and accurate observation, and also in order to make each boy quick to realize the bearings of scientific discovery upon all forms of modern enterprise and upon questions of social organization. The two languages other than Eng¬ lish which would be of most value for the purposes of the school training would be French and Latin. Each should be taught in such a way as to interest the boys in the history, literature, and national life of the peoples concerned. There is a strong reason for giving both Latin and French a place in the curricu¬ lum of the school. It is desirable that in the course of their secondary education boys should gain some insight as well into the meaning of a great ancient civili¬ zation as into the history and ideas of a great modern people whose thoughts and deeds have had strong influence upon our own. French would be begun before Latin. A considerable number of hours each week should be given to the study of it when it is first begun in order that the boys may make real progress with the language and get a feeling of power in their use of it. It should be taught according to the best modern methods, and with due regard both to skill in speaking and reading it, and to grammatical accuracy in composition. It would be well, I think, to arrange for the teaching of Latin in the school to begin at 12 years of age. This plan has been tried with good results elsewhere. It gives more time in the earlier years of education for training in the mother tongue and for the study of French. It has the further advantage of making it possible for boys entering the school from the public elementary schools at 12 years of age to begin Latin along with the rest of their school fellows. But the plan involves giving much time to the subject at its commencement in order that the boys may make rapid progress and quickly get on to the point of being able to read selections from great Latin writers. And with this object some of the best Latin teaching in the school should be concentrated on the beginners’ class. All the boys should learn drawing. Manual instruction should (at any rate for a portion of the school course) form part of the regular curriculum, and every boy should go through a carefully graded course of physical exercises. Such a curriculum would, I believe, best meet the needs of the greater number of boys in a secondary school in Liverpool. But it would also be desirable to olfer an alternative course based more largely on physical science and requiring only one language, and that a modern one, besides English. And apart from this a third course of study might well be offered by allowing, as a variant of the main curriculum, a second modern language to be taken instead of Latin. Such a system of “ electives,” if confined within reasonable limits, would not dislocate the organization of the school, provided that the staff of teachers were sufficient to cope with the increased number of classes. The size of the classes should be kept small. In no class should the number of boys exceed 30. In many subjects 2d is the maximum limit compatible with really good work and with attention to the different needs of the individual boys. In the higher forms of the school the number of boys under the care of each master at any one time would be in many cases considerably smaller, because those boys who stayed beyond their sixteenth year would often be doing more specialized work. 854 EDUCATION KEPOET^ 1904. For the successful working of the institution whose scope is thus defined — • ^ It would be necessary [says Mr. Sadler] to strengthen the present staff of masters, and to make a position on the staff of the institute oiie which would attract men of first-class ability into the service of the school. A good deal was done toward this end by the directors of the institute during Mr. Fletcher’s head mastership, but the intellectual vitality and educational power of the school need to be further strengthened. The real efficiency and influence of a school depend upon the talent, the energy, the experienced skill, and the char¬ acter of its teachers, and therefore no part of the expenditure is more remuner¬ ative than that devoted to the maintenance of a veiy highly qualified staff of masters. This is a matter upon which at the present time great emphasis should be laid, as the inadequacy of the salaries generally given to secondary schoolmasters in England is deterring men of capacity from entering the pro¬ fession. It would be a national misfortune if at a time when we need an intellectual quickening in our secondary schools there were to be a failure in the supply of the very men who alone can give us what we require. That sup¬ ply, it is true, is not wholly governed by the rates of salary offered. Many a teacher keeps on under conditions of pecuniary discouragement because he loves his work, because he is fond of boys, and because he desires to serve his generation. But a national system of education, though its greatness is en¬ hanced by zeal and self-devotion, can not subsist on self-sacrifice alone. The economic basis of the teaching profession must be sound if it is to be contin¬ uously recruited by men who can uphold its standards and w^orthily accomplish its work. Now, when we consider the cost of educating a secondary school¬ master for his profession, and the responsible duties which he is called upon to perforin, we shall not deem a salary commencing at £150 per annum, v/ith annual increments of £10 up to £300, an unreasonable minimum for a fully qualified graduate master in a secondary school. A man is soured and is apt to lose his love for his profession when year after 5mar his salary remains far below that which he could have certainly earned in another and not more ardu¬ ous calling. Nor does the matter affect himself alone, Discourageiuent and dissatisfaction in the minds of the teachers have a depressing and hurtful influ¬ ence upon the vital tone of the school. It is desirable that in a large secondary school of good standing there should be two schemes of salaries — one recog¬ nizing the normal need, starting from a fair minimum and rising by periodic (preferably annual) increments to a reasonable maximum which would allow of the maintenance of a family ; the other, on a liigher scale, applicable to cases of special excellence and ability and brought into operation by the gov¬ ernors on the head master's recommendation when it was thouglit expedient to secure or to retain the services of a teacher with specially high quaiifications for the work of the school. In this connection, mention should be made of the desirability of giving teachers (and the remark a]q)lies as well to women as to men) occasional leave of absence for a term in order that they may see other schools at work and so keep themselves in touch with the advance of educational practice in other parts of the country or in other lands. A teacher is always in danger of getting into a rut. He is apt to fall into routine. Ilis work Jibsorbs him, and rather cuts him off from opportunities of seeing how other teachers, especially those younger than himself, are handling the difficulties with which he and they alike have to contend. A school gains greatly by anything which keeps its teaching staff fresh in mind and interested in improvements in methods of teaching and of school organization. A “ grace term,” after flve years of service in the school, and a somewhat longer leave of absence after ten years cf such service, would enable a teacher to widen the range of his professional experience, or to carry out some piece of original research, with great benefit alike to himself and to the school. An arrangement of this kind has been found advantageous in one of the great public schools in England. It is common in America, and it well deserves con¬ sideration whether a similar plan would not prove of benefit to the secondary schools of Liverpool. It is of special interest also to notice that Mr. Sadler has no thought -of main¬ taining this institution on a cheap basis. He warns against — the attempt to provide secondary education at a cost incompatible with real intellectual eff'iciency. Yet intellectual efficiency, combined with high per¬ sonal character, is of vital importance in a system of secondary schools. With- HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. •855 out it tiiey must fail in the very work which they are set to do, and the labor and expense of establishing them would he practically thrown away. A secondary school for boys [he continues] capable of rendering to Liver¬ pool the kind of service which may fairly be expected from the institute, would be found to cost, in the end (ajiart from interest on capital charges and from the cost of buildings), about £23 a year per boy in the school. The cost at first would be considerablj^ less, but would rise, with the increments to salaries needed to retain the services of first-rate teachers in full efnciencj^ to the limit named above. I am aware that this estimate is higher than those usually made, but careful inquiry and calculation have convinced me that the current estimates fall considerably short of the real cost which must be incurred in important city schools if intellectual efficienc5" is to be secured and maintained. The following table confirms the view which I have taken of the real cost of good secondary education for boys. It should be noted, however, that the net cost here given includes certain charges for administration and the expenses of scholarships. (At Norwich scholarships are not included.) Year. School. Average number of boys. Net expendi¬ ture for year. Average cost per head. 1903 Norwich Grammar School. . . 116 £ s. d. 2,376 5 7 £. s. d. 20 9 8 1903 Nottingham High School . . . 329 7,580 3 10 23 0 9 1902-3 Bristol Grammar School . . . . . 179 4.447 14 1 24 16 11 1903 St. Paul’s School.. - - - - 581 24,279 4 6 41 15 9 The question of the fee to be charged in such a school as that described above next calls for consideration. At present, at the institute, the fees for boj^s over 11 in the high school amount to 12 guineas a year, and in the commercial school to 0 guineas. The closing of the commercial school would result in large num¬ bers of boys who would otherwise have been sent to that school being placed (greatly to their advantage) in the high school instead. But in vievr of the additional expense which this would entail upon their parents, it might be thought desirable to strike an average between the present liigh school and com¬ mercial school fees and to charge a fee of 9 guineas a year for the new school. It would be well to have “ no extras,"' except, of course, for private lessons in music or other subjects. Boys entering the school between their tenth and eleventh birthday and intending to remain till their sixteenth might be charged, for the whole of their stay in the school, a reduced fee of 8 guineas a year. This would encourage parents to send their boys for a longer school course. I'or boys under 10, a junior department would be desirable. The annual school fee in the junior department might be fixed at G guineas. The fees recommended, it will be seen, are not large, but they indicate a policy ill respect to secondary education quite unlike that which prevails in our own country. Here the 'desire is to induce the largest possible number of young people to continue their studies besmnd the elementary stage. This is held to be a measure of public safety, a means of raising the level of general intelli¬ gence, and of increasing the mental alertness of individuals. These results are also seen to promote industrial aptitudes and power, hence the almost phenom¬ enal increase in the number of our free high schools in recent years. English policy, on the contrary, is directed to the selection of young people of special promise and to their preparation for definite spheres of usefulness. This purpose is manifest throughout Mr. Sadler's reports. He goes, however, beyond many of his countrymen in the recognition of the fact that ability has no sociiil limits, but may be found even among the poorest classes, and he' is particular to recommend, both in the Sheffield and the Liverpool reports, an increase of. scholarshi]:) funds to be awarded by competitive examination, thus enabling promising young people, irrespective of their social class, to continue their studies in secondary schools. The extended discussion of this policy emphasizes anew the difference between the American and the English conception of sec¬ ondary education. 856 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. It is interesting to note that Mr. Radler recognizes the need for a manual training school in Liverpool adapted to a Class of pupils differing ip many respects from those who would naturally enter the typical schools described. The manual training scliools, he says, should take boys “ at about 13 years of age and keep them in training up to 15 or 16, the latter being the age at which boys ]nay be taken as apprentices in the engineering trades.” The scope and course of study suggested for tins school are as follows : It would not be the aim of such a school actually to teach a trade or to serve UkS a substitute for apprenticeship. Its purpose would be to fit the boys to learn their trade more quickly when the time came by giving them a well-graded preparatory course in practical handwork, combined with a scientific study of the fundamental principles underlying the occupations bj^ which the pupils intended afterwards to earn their living. Mathematics, drawing, and natural science would thus, along with manual training, form an important part of the curriculum. But the school course should also give ample time for the teaching of English (including composition, national history, and literature) in order to kindle the imagination of the boys, to give them an ideal of citizenship, to culti¬ vate in them a love for some master])ieces of the national literature, and to train their power of expressing themselves in good, clear English. It would be a great mistake to narrow down the course of study at a jnanual training school to shop work and science. The humanities are needed in it as well. Special care should also be given to physical training. The aim of the school would be to turn out a number of keen young fellows, vigorous in body, alert in mind, proud of their country, clever vcith their hands, with a good hold on mathematics, with some knowledge of scientific method, and fitted, to do credit to themselves and to Liverpool in the engineering trades, or in other industries which their skill and trained practical ability might in time do much to promote in the city. Entrance to the school should be confined to those whose work in the elemen¬ tary school had proved their fitness to profit by the more advanced work of the manual training school. The course should be so arranged as to allow those boys who wished to stay three years to pass through a graded training extending over that time. Many of the boys, however, would probably leave at the end of the second year. If the week's school work were to amount to thirty hours, the division of time between the various subjects might be somewhat as follows : Hours weekly. English (including written and oral composition, national history, litera¬ ture, and, for part of the course, geography) _ 6 Mathematics _ 5 Natural science (physics and chemistry, magnetism and electricity, and a general course in theoretical and applied mechanics) _ 0 Manual training and drawing _ 10 Physical training _ 3 30 The manual training or workshop course would be correlated with the course in drawing (which should not ignore the artistic side) and with some parts of the instruction in natural science. It might begin, in the first year, with a course in carpentry and joinery, combined with a course in mechanical and free¬ hand drawing. The next year's course, continuing the mechanical and free¬ hand drawing, might include wood turning as preparatory to pattern making work, and the first part of a course in forging and blacksmithing. The latter might be continued in the third year, and be followed by a course in iron-fitting and elementary machine-tool work. A manual training school of this kind should really be a school Avith a cor¬ porate life of its own, and not merely an aggregate of separate classes. A plain building of simple construction would be the most api)ropriate for its work, but it would be desirable that the rooms for class work should be well furnished and decorated with good taste. The difficulty of obtaining suitable teachers for this school is admitted. The danger in this respect, says Mr. Sadler — would be lest the school should fail either into the hands of men vrho were good at shop work, but had no experience of teaching boys and of organizing school niGHEE EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 857 life, or into the hands of men who knew about school management, but were deficient in their practical knowledge of shop work. What is wanted is a com¬ bination of the two kinds of experience. The suggestion is made that if the education committee venture upon the experiment of establishing the school — they should seek some thoroughly qualified, practical man with a strong interest in and experience of teaching, and after nominating him as head master, to send him to the United States to make a careful study of what is now being done there in the manual training schools. On his return he should be asked to submit a draft plan of work for the school, and inquiry might then be made for suitable members of the teaching staff, the importance of having good Eng¬ lish teaching in the school being steadily borne in mind from the first. Additional recommendations in the report advise means for encouraging and improving private schools which at present provide for about one-third the pupils receiving secondary education in Liverpool, and for strengthening of the upper classes of public elementary schools. If these are adopted the various agencies lor “ higher ” education in Liverpool will be brought within a unified system. The report is enriched by several appendixes, of which the most important is a “ Memorandum by Mr. Gloudesley Brereton on ‘ Suggested improvemejits in the teaching of modern languages in Liverpool.’ ” This appendix formulates the conditions for attaining exact and valuable results in the teaching of modern languages, a subject of ever-growing interest to all communities. Secondary education in London. — The two reports above considered present for the cities to which they relate a more complete statement of the provision for secondary education than is at present available for any other city of Eng¬ land with the exception of London. While in the metropolis no single inves¬ tigation covering the whole field of education has recently been attempted, the results of several independent investigations made during the past decade enable one to form a pretty clear idea of the provision the city offers for the education of its citizens. From an investigation made in 1802 by Mr. TI. Llewellyn Smith, secretary of the National Association for the rromotion of Technical and Sec¬ ondary Education, « it appears that at that date there were in London 3G endowed secondary schools, attended by 12,500 boys, and 10 proprietary or stock company schools, attended by 1,800 boys. The endowed schools are sub¬ ject to a form of public control through the right of Government to insure that the conditions of the trusts are fulfilled. The proprietary schools also have a semipublic character, being conducted under the auspices of incorporated com¬ panies. In addition to the classes of schools named, there were denominational schools and schools for special classes, such as the sons of missionaries, the sons of poor clergymen, and the like, and above 450 private schools for boys and girls. According to the results of an investigation published the same year as the above (1892)^ there were for girls 20 high schools, of which 2 were endowed and the remainder proprietaiy, liaving accommodations for 4,950 laqnls, and 14 middle-class schools, with an attendance of 3,8GG pupils. It is interesting to compare the statistics of enrollment in the secondary schools of London given above with the estimates presented eleven years later by Mr. Sidney Webb, chairman of the technical education board of London. In his vrork on London education, published in 1903, IMr. Webb says : There is a common impression that the public secondary schools of London are few and inefficient. Yet, including only foundations of which the manage- a See Studies in Secondary Education, edited by Artliur D. Acland, M. P., pp. 145-199. ^ See Studies in Secondary Education, chapter on “ Secondary education in London (girls).” Clara E. Collet. 858 EDUCATION KEPOKT^ 1904. ment is essentially public in character, London has to-day certainly not less than 1 25,000 boys and girls between 7 and 19 in its secondary schools, actually a | larger number than either Paris or P>erlin. > The schools referred to numbered 85 and evidently included the 80 schools \ (40 for boys, 34 for girls) which in 1S92 were estimated to have a total attend- ' ance of 23,116 pupils (14,300 boys, 8,810 girls). : In addition to the 85 schools having a semipublic character, Mr. Webb notes i that — i In the background and not included in this calculation stand, in varying ] ciuality, the private “commercial academies” and “colleges for young ladies” , of the genteel suburbs. To these is left the opportunity of justifying their 1 existence by catering for special needs and supplying a desirable elasticity to i the necessary rigidity of any public system. ; No particulars are given with respect to these strictly private schools, but i they are certainly not fewer than in 1892, when they were said to number at least 450. As in the case of Liverpool and Sheffield, fees are charged in all the secondary schools of London, and the only chance for a poor boy to enjoy their advantages is by securing a scholarship. There is, however, quite liberal provision of funds for this purpose. Every year [says Mr. Webl)] about 800 of the al)lest l)oys and girls in the pul»Iic elementary or lower secondary schools, l)etween 11 and 13 years of age, are picked by competitive examination for two to five years’ higher education. These 2,000 scholarships provide for the cleverest children of the London wage- earners a more genuinely accessible ladder than is open to the corresponding class in any American, French, or German city. In addition to these mainte¬ nance scholarships there are free places at most of the London secondary schools, from St. Paul's downward, which are utilized, as is found to be 'the case with all provision of merely gratuitous secondary education, by the “ lower middle ” and professional cla.sses. Above these opportunities stand the intermediate and senior county scholarships, and others provided by various trust funds, probably about 000 in all, for candidates between 15 and 19 years of age. These serve partly to carry on the best of the junior scholars, partly to admit to the superior secondary schools the ablest children of parents ineligible for the lowest rung of the ladder, and partly to take the very pick of London’s young people to the technical college and the university. As Mr. Sadler has done in the case of the cities upon which he has reported, so Mr. 4Vebb, having in view the new conditions and increasing demands, recognizes the need of revising and extending the scholarship system of London. Upon this subject he says there is a consensus of opinion that — When a child passes from an elementary to a secondary school, it should do so before the age of 12, and should remain for not less tlian four years. It looks as if the limit of age for the normal junior scholarship should be reduced from 13 to 12, and its duration extended from two to four years, whilst the annual maintenance allowance up to the age of 14 might be reduced to £5, rising to £11) and £15 in the last two years. In view also of the scarcity of teachers — “ the teacher famine,” as it is called — and the consequent need of increased provision for the education of pupil- teachers, Mr. Webb observes : If the need for pupil-teachers causes the number of scholarshijis to rise to 2,000 a year, it would perhaps be possible to effect the further desirable reform of beginning the selecting process by a preliminary examination conducted by the head teachers themselves, in their own schools, of all -the children who had attained the fifth standard before the age of 12 ; and of undertaking to award the scholarships, not to any fixed number of ’s’\4nners, but to all who, in the subsequent centralized competitive examination, reached a certain percentage of marks. Such a reform would organically connect the scholarship system with all the public elementary schools instead of, as at present, only about a third of them, and would bring London’s capacity-catching machine to bear on every promising child. HIGHER EDE^CATIOH IH EHGLAHD. 859 In the clL^cussion of tliis subject it is evident that Mr. "SVebb has in mind the view of secondary education long established in England. “ The secondary schools "" * * charging high fees,” he says, “ and providing an education of high grade may be left to themselves.” Naturally schools of this character are patronized only by those udio are able to afford the expense, although by means of scholarship funds a few phenomenally gifted youths of the poorer class come also within the circle of their influence. The great bulk of public aid, whether in the form of grants or scholarships, goes, however, to the sec¬ ondary schools of the second and third types that have been already discussed. But under the most lil>eral provision at present contemplated the masses are not reached by any of the secondary schools. For them evening classes are maintained which can be accommodated to the wants and conditions of those who have already entered the ranks of workers. The development of such classes is one of the most important of the many remarkable achievements of the recent London school board, supplemented since 1892 by the efforts of the technical education board of the county council. This provision is summed up by Mr. Webb as follows : For the secondary education of the masses there has been organized, by the school board on the one hand and the London county council on the other, an extensive assortment of evening classes, providing instruction in every imagin¬ able subject of literature, science, art, and technology. The classes of the school board, which enroll over 130,000 students for the winter session and have an average attendance of half that number, are conducted in 400 of its day school buildings, mainly by the younger and more energetic of its staff of day teachers. The work of the technical education board, dealing usually with a more ad¬ vanced stage and older scholars, is concentrated in the 50 polytechnics, art schools, and technical institutes under its management or control, v/hich have in the aggregate about 50,000 students. Here the lecturers and teachers are spe¬ cialists in their respective subjects, teaching in institutions especially equipped for their work. At six of the polytechnics the highest classes have been included in the faculties of the reorganized London University, and duly matricu.lated evening students obtain first-class university instruction in their own neighbor¬ hood, and are enrolled as internal students of the university itself. These two schemes of evening instruction have now to be coordinated, differentiated, and developed.® The limitations of the evening school provision are suggested in the eslimate given by Mr. lYebb of the number of young people who escape its beneficent influence. It ought not [he says] to be too much to ask that every boy or girl wlio leaves school at 14 or 15 should, up to 21, be at any rate enrolled at some evening class institution, even if attendance is confined to an hour a week. Yet there are in London over 000,000 young people between 14 and 21 and not a third of these are at ])resent members of any sort of institution, recreational or educa¬ tional. Out of 84,000 boys and girls between 15 and IG, only 21,000 are on the rolls. What is happening to the others? We can not as yet compel them to come in, as the Bishop of Hereford proposes, though this is done in various parts of Germany and Switzerland. But v/e might try the experiment of using the school-attendance officers to look after those who have not joined an evening school, using the method of persuasion just as they look after the younger defaulters from the day school. Reference should also be made in this connection to the 7 high grade schools and the 75 higher grade departments which were developed under the former school board. Lord Reay, in his valedictory address, distinctly stated that “ the character of these schools is undoubtedly elementary, not secondary ; ” but it is certain that the pupils enrolled in them are pursuing one or more secondary branches. The total number can not be estimated on account of the method of “ Chapter III of Mr. Wehh’s hook is devoted to a consideration of commercial educa¬ tion as it is developed in the schools of London. The organization and scope of the London polytechnics are described in detail in Chapter IV. 860 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. their classification, but it is fair to assume that the pupils over 14 years of age in grades above the seventh liave reached the secondary stage. These pupils in 1904 numbered 5,299. The information here presented with respect to provision for education above the elementary grade in three great cities of England shows the variety and the peculiarly independent character of the agencies engaged in this work, and fur¬ ther the difficulty of arriving at any fair estimate of the actual amount of such provision in the country as a whole. This it is evident can only be done by special investigations similar to those that have been here reviewed. For con¬ venience of reference, the following statistics show the kind and amount of instruction given in the London board schools under the head of optional branches : Subjects and numljer of students, 1903. Algebra _ ,30, 382 Animal physiology - 11, 599 Bookkeeping _ 2, 451 Botany _ 9, 532 Chemistry _ 7, 510 Domestic economy _ 896 Domestic science _ 3, 064 Elementary physics and chemistry- 11, 352 Elementary science - 11,953 Euclid _ 3, 997 Experimental and practical sci¬ ence _ 4, 105 French _ 47, 868 German _ 863 Mathematics _ 27 Hygiene - 3,174 Latin _ 313 Mechanics _ 17, 370 Mensuration _ 3, 807 Magnetism and electricity _ 1, 960 Physics - 7, 498 Physiography _ 290 Sounds, light, and heat _ 117 Shorthand _ 5, 483 First aid, ambulance, home nurs¬ ing - 200 Total - 185, 811 The total, it will be seen, includes many duplications. The statutes pertaining to the secondary and higher grade elementary schools in the three cities referred to are brought together in the following table, which includes also population and enrollment in elementary schools : City. Popula¬ tion, cen¬ sus 1901. Date. Enrollment in public elementary schools. Enrollment in higher grade ele¬ mentary schools in¬ cluded in the foregoing column. Enroll¬ ment in second¬ ary schools endowed and pro¬ prietary. Sheffield . 426,686 716,810 4,536,541 1904 75,750 132, 749 762,974 945 a 538 Liverpool _ _ _ 1903 716 63,245 25,000 London . . . . 1904 5,299 « As indicated in Schoolmaster’s Year Book, 1904. Also 1,660 in private secondary schools. The statistics tabulated above present a very incomplete view of the actual number of young people pursuing secondary studies in the three cities included, as private schools are omitted, but on the other hand the table indicates quite clearly the extent to which secondary education has come to some degree at least under public management.a « Evening schools classed now as secondary have not been included in the table, partly because statistics with reference to them are not complete and partly because they differ from day schools in respect to methods, curricula, and standards. The available statis¬ tics with respect to the registration in evening schools in the cities here considered are as follows : City. Year. Enroll¬ ment. Sheffield _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1904 6,782 13,500 180,000 Liverpool _ _ 1903 London _ _ _ 1904 HIGHER EDUCATION IN ENGLAND, 861- TLe reports by Mr. Sadler and the work of Mr. Webb on London education give a very clear insight into the educational policies and conditions of the cities to which they relate, but the statistics drawn from these sources are chiefly valuable as illustrating a movement which has assumed national scope. Independence and variety characterize English secondary schools, and in the judgment of the experts whose works have been cited are qualities that should be jealously guarded. Nevertheless the need of bringing this great department of education into closer harmony with elementary schools and with higher insti¬ tutions and of reenforcing it by public funds and public supervision is urgent. The statistics tabulated may be taken both as a measure of what is already accomplished in this direction in the three cities specified and as a standard by which to measure further progress. PKINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE MOVE.MENT FOE OEG.iNIZINO SECONDAEV EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 1835. Appointment of select committee to inquire into means of extending a knowledge of the arts and of the principles of design among the artisan classes. 1836. Grant of £1,500 for the establishment of a normal school of design. 1837. Normal school of design opened. 1852. Department of practical art constituted. 1853. Science departm.ent added to the department of art. Reorganized department em¬ powered to maintain special schools of art and science, to draw up examination schemes and conduct examinations of schools and classes complying with speci¬ fied conditions, and to distribute Government grant to the same. 1853. Charity commission appointed to inquire into the condition and management of charities and to frame schemes for their administration ; educational endow¬ ments thus brought under supervision. 1856. Control of the department of science and art transferred to the committee of coun¬ cil on education. 1861. Lord Clarendon's commission to inquire into the nine leading public schools (sec¬ ondary). 1864. Lord Taunton's commission to inquire into the condition of additional secondary schools (endowed grammar, proprietary, etc.). Report of commission published in 1868. 1865. Endowed schools law passed. 1894. Commission appointed (Bryce’s) to consider “ What are the best methods for estab¬ lishing a well-organized system of secondary education in England, taking into account existing deficiencies and having regard to such local sources of revenue from endowment or otherwise as are available or may be made available for this purpose?” 1895. Repoi't of commission published. 1902. Education law passed authorizing local authorities to raise funds for and exercise a measure of control over secondary education. CHAPTER XIV. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS COMPILED AND EDITED BY George E. Gay, President of the Educational Exhibitors’ Association of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. I.— PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF TUE UNITED SUATESv CONTENTS. Page. Introduction _ 864 Education at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, hy the Editor _ 865 The Lessons ot tlje Exposition, hy Howard J. Rogers, Chief of Lepartment of Education _ 871 The Educational Exhibit at St. Louis, by Anna Tolman Smith, mem])er of the Jury of Awards _ 875 STATES, TEL'RITORIES, AND INSItLAE POSSESSIONS. Arizona _ 884 California, by Robert Furlong, director _ 880 Colorado, by Helen L. Grenfell, State superintendent of public instruction, and James B. Ragan, director _ 890 Connecticut, by C. D. Hine, secretary State board of education _ 894 Illinois, by Alfred Bajliss, State superintendent of public instruction _ 897 Indiana, by 5V. A. Millis, director _ 901 Indian Territory, liy John D. Benedict, superintendent _ 905 Kansas, by John Macdonald, director _ 905 Massachusetts, by G. H. Martin and G. E. Gay _ 909 Mississippi, by T. L. Trawick - 915 Missouri, by G. V. Buchanan, superintendent - 915 Nebraska, by Erwin Hinckley Barbour _ 919 New Jersey, by S. R. Morse, director _ 921 New Mexico, by M. W. Porterfield, commissioner _ 924 New York, liy He Lancy M; Ellis, director _ 925 North Dakota, by W. L. Stockwell, State superintendent of schools _ 930 Pennsylvania, by Nathan C. Schaelfer, State superintendent of public instruction _ 932 Philippines, The, by A. R. Hager, chief of the department of education, Philippine Exposition Board _ 937 Porto Rico, by E. W. Loid, assistant commissioner of education _ 940 South Dakota _ 942 ’;rennessee, by B. A. Enloe, director - 944 Texas, by W. L. Lemmon, secretary of the educational commission _ 945 Utah, by Horace H. Cummings, director - 947 Virginia, by A. M. Dobie, University of Virginia - 949 West YTrginia _ ^ - 950 Wisconsin, by W. D. Parker, director _* - 951 CITIES. Chicago, by C. D. Lowry - 955 Cleveland, by Edwin F. Moulton, superintendent of instruction _ 958 New York, by A. W. Edson, director - 960 St. Louis, bj'^ F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction _ 965 « Chapter XV treats of polytechnical and art schools and certain other institutions at the St. Louis exposition. Universities and colleges in the United States and the educa¬ tional systems of foreign countries are treated of in other chapters in Volume II of this Report. 863 864 EDUCATION REPOKT; 1904. INTRODUCTION. The Educational Exhibitors’ Association of the Louisiana Purchase Expo¬ sition was composed of the directors of the educational exhibits in the Palace of Education and was established to promote social intercourse among its membership, to advance the interests of the several exhibits, and to promote the cause of popular education in all possible ways. The organization was successful in ail departments of its work and added much to the pleasure of exhibitors and the benefits received by them. It was early proposed by the association to publish a volume describing the educational exhibits and giving the lessons to be derived from them. The nature and form of this volume were discussed for a long time, and various propositions were entertained concerning its publication. It was finally decided, however, to offer the volume, when prepared, to Commissioner Harris for pub¬ lication in his annual report. Doctor Harris accepted the same, and it now appears in this form. The editorial charge of the several manuscripts was committed to me, with directions to combine them into an organic whole, so far as possible, and I have endeavored to comply with the wishes of the association. Monographs were prepared in accordance with the following directions ; The proposed volume will be devoted to a description of school systems and an account of school exhibits shown at the St. Louis Exposition. It will be composed of a series of monographs, each descriptive of a single exhibit and containing — First. A preparatory essay on the school system represented. [Topics for this were suggested, and a description of the school system of one of the United States was supplied as a model of the kind of description desired.] Second. An account of the preparation of the exhibit represented. This should be historical in character and shouki include original features in pre¬ liminary circulars, and a brief and orderly account of the steps by which the exhibit was prepared, collected, and made ready for shipment. Third. A description of the principal features of the exhibit. The follow¬ ing topics are suggested as covering the matter desired, viz, expense, installa¬ tion, arrangement, contents, principal features, and demonstration. In particu¬ lar a complete account should be given of unique and original educational work shown in the exhibit, especially experiments of every kind, courses of study, methods of instruction, school devices, statistics, notable schools and depart¬ ments, and the work of special schools. Finally, the lessons taught by the exhibit should be drawn modestly, but frankly and fully. They should include those principles of education which the exhibit illustrates and enforces. Although these monographs were called for by circulars issued on the 4th day of October, and supplementary calls have been made upon all who failed to respond, the collection is not complete, and, much to the regret of the editor, the report does not cover every educational exhibit made at the exposition. The call for monographs assigned to each exhibitor a definite number of words as the limit of his monograph. This limit was set by the editor after a general examination of each exhibit and an estimate* of the amount of space which it occupied, as vcell as of its educational value. The smallest assignment was to individual institutions, for which a maximum of 300 words was assigned. The largest assignments were made to Germany and to the exhibit of the United States experiment stations and agricultural colleges, to each of which a limit of 8,000 words was set. Some of the mauuscri]:)ts received have been considerably larger than I could possibly use, and I have, therefore, been compelled to reduce them to the amount of space which could properly be given them. Others have been smaller than I expected. These I have not attempted to improve upon. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 865 Certain eonskleratious have led me to reduce or change some of the contribu¬ tions ; but, as a whole, except in the amount of matter, the monographs are in the words of their authors. Credit has been given to the authors whenever known. In some instiinces manuscripts were received witliout signature, and I had no means of ascertaining by whom they were written. In the strictly editorial work I have been governed by the following prin¬ ciples : The compilation as a whole should be coiiij^lete in its description of the exhibits ; the style should be varied ; there should be no unnecessary repeti¬ tion, and as a whole the matter should be of general interest. No mention could be made of awards, no comparisons between exhibits could be introduced, and complimentary references to individuals must be avoided. Strict applica¬ tion of these principles has materially reduced the size of the work. The thanks of the editor are due to the numerous contributors, known and unknown, who made tJie compilation possible. I believe they will find their revvard in the value vhich it possesses for all educators who study it, and, in particular, for those people of the succeeding generation v ho will have the duty of preparing for the world's next great educational exhibition. EDUCATION AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION. BY GEOKGE E. GAY. Education at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition received a recognition at the hands of the managers of the exposition far greater than was ever given to this subject at any pre\'ious world’s fair. One of the main buildings, in the very center of the exposition, was given up entirely to this department and to the kindred subject of social economy. Here were arranged, Avith all the skill and fullness which the ingenuity of thousands of investigators could devise, all things that can be presented to the eye and the ear concerning educational SA^stems, methods of school instruction, the means and instruments of school instruction, and the results of school instruction ; so that, Avhile the exposition did all that AAms possible in giving dignity to the subject, educators the Avorld over did all that they could do to take advantage of the opportunity presented. Justice requires that credit in the highest degree should be given also to the chief of the department of education, IIoAvard J. Rogers, and his faithful assistants, under Avhose direction the department Avas organized and brought to full efficiency. The folIoAving countries contributed educational exhibits : The Argentine. Republic, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Ceylon, China, Cuba, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Roumania, SAveden, the United States. The folloAA’ing States, Territories, and possessions of the United States made exhibits : Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Indian Territory, loAva, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, NeAV Jersey, NeAv Mexico, NeAV York, North Dakota, 0]i;lahoma, Oregon, PennsylAania, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vir¬ ginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin. The folloAving cities had special assignments of space: Chicago, Cleveland^ NeAV York, St. Louis. The folioAving uniA^ersities and colleges were represented by exhibits : Amherst College, Boston UniA^ersity, Bryn MaAvr, University of California, University of Chicago, Christian Brothers’ College of St. Louis, Columbity University, Cornell ED 1904 M - 55 866 EDUCATIO^iT KEPOET; 1904. University, Forest Park University, Harvard University, Holy Cross College, University of Illinois, Johns Hopkins University, Mount Holyoke College, New York University, University of Michigan, University of Missouri, Simmons Col¬ lege, Smith College, Syrian Protestant College, St. Louis University, Vassal* Col¬ lege, Washington University, Wells College, Wellesley College, Western College, Williams College, University of Wisconsin, Woman’s College of Baltimore, Woman’s College, Frederick, Md. ; Yale University. The following technical schools made exhibits ; Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Hampton Institute, Manual Training School of Washington University, Massa¬ chusetts Institute of Technology, Pratt Institute, Purdue University, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, the United States experi¬ ment stations and agricultural colleges. The following art schools had exhibits : Art Institute of Chicago, YTassachu- setts Normal Art School, Minneapolis School of Fine Arts, Museum Art School of Boston, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, St. Louis School of Fine Arts. The following special exhibits were made : The exhibit of Brown’s Business College, the exhibit of Jones’s Business College, the exhibit of Phillips Exeter Academy, the Lutheran parochial school exhibit, the Philadelphia museum’s exhibit. The exhibits were installed in the Palace of Education and were ready for inspection, with few exceptions, on the opening day of the exposition. Very few of the exhibits, however, were complete at that time, and the work of installa¬ tion continued during ’the entire month of May and a portion of June; indeed, not till late in June was the work of installation completed. Nevertheless, the educational building was one of the first buildings in the exposition whose exhibits were completely installed. The amounts of space assigned to the several exhibits by the chief of the department differed very greatly, for in the assignment he endeavored to take into consideration the size and the worth of the exhibits to be in'ade. The largest spaces assigned to separate exhibits were given to Germany and to the United States experiment stations and agricultural colleges. The smallest space assigned was probably G square feet, assigned to several of the smallest exhib¬ its. To divide the entire space justly was a work requiring almost superhuman wisdom and skill, and that the division was made in a manner satisfactory to nearly or quite all the exhibitors seems almost bejmnd belief, but is, neverthe¬ less, true. The method of installing the exhibits, with the general style of booth and furnishings, was left to the judgment and taste of the individual exhibitors, subject to the approval of the chief of the department. Accordingly, the methods of installation were very numerous. The booths, in general, were planned as separate rooms, with elaborate ornamentation of the outer walls. The interiors were divided into separate alcoves by partitions and by cabinets, shelves, etc., in such a way as to provide the greatest possible amount of space for the exhibition of the various articles brought by the exhibitors. The furni¬ ture was as varied as the styles of architecture. There was some uniformity in cases, arising from the fact that nearly all American exhibitors used exhibit cabinets made by the same furniture company ; but with these the similarity ended. A portion of the furniture was made by pupils in manual-training schools, a portion by prisoners in penal institutions, a portion by the contractor who erected the booths, and a large amount was purchased in St. Louis. As a whole, the installation was pleasing, the color effects were satisfactory, and the educational exhibit, as a whole, was much superior to that of any other exposition. The nature of the several exhibits is fully presented in the monographs which EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 867 follow, and it is not my purpose to consider them at any length in this prelim¬ inary essay. It is necessary, however, for me to make certain general remarks concerning them, designed to be of use primarily to those who shall hereafter have to do with the preparation of educational exhibits, and these remarks nat¬ urally fall under two heads — criticisms and commendations. ximong the excellencies to be commended, I mention the following: First. A simple chaste booth and installation was a great excellence. This found emphatic illustration in some of the foreign exhibits — for example, those of Germany, Sweden, and Japan, which seemed to say to visitors : “ Our exhibit is within these walls. We have given it a suitable temporary abiding place here. Your attention is directed to onr exhibit, and not to the house in which we have placed it.” ^ . Another excellence to be commended was the bringing of furniture made by pupils in technical and manual-training schools of various kinds. This furni¬ ture was often especially well adapted to its purpose and was at the same time a suggestive exhibit in itself. Another commendable feature of many of the exhibits was the large number and the great value of the charts giving statistical and other information in graphic form. These charts, when displayed upon the walls and easily seen, were among the most striking and useful features of the exhibits. Charts which were concealed from sight in cabinets or small alcoves were, of course, less easily found and examined. Charts which showed courses of study, time¬ tables, and related facts had special interest and value. These charts were numerous in some exhibits and wholly wanting in others. Wherever found, they were well made and told their story simply and effectively. Models of institutions, grounds, laboratories, etc., were more numerous than at any previous exposition and were most effective in showing material re¬ sources. Models are expensive to make, but they show better than anything else what may be called the physical equipment of educational institutions. Large photographs upon vralls, and albums of photographs upon tables, etc., formed a very useful part of the exhibits. As a whole, no doubt it is true that a larger amount of money was expended for photographs than was necessary. This is especially true in those cases where photographs of different objects vrere practically duplicates of ®ne another. Photographs of one hundred school- houses may tell no more than the photograph of one school house, and photo¬ graphs of many classes may give no better idea of school conditions than the photograph of one class. But the photographs, as a whole, large and small, on the walls, in cabinets, in albums, formed a very important part of the exposi¬ tion, as they must of every exposition. The manual-training exhibits were, as a whole, excellent and attracted a great deal of attention. They were sometimes very well displayed, and the method of display added very much to the interest which was taken in them. Those displays were the most useful which were numbered in series and showed the development of a course of study. Class exercises, shovring how well each member of a class had made some particular exercise, had value for the student of manual training but no special value for the general observer. In my judg¬ ment the most effective method of mounting manual-training models that was used was the placing of them upon panels covered with black cloth. This back¬ ground gave to the models a force which no other mount seemed to give. Maps of a State or county or city, showing the location of school buildings, with their size and characteristics, are always objects of much attention in an exposition, and possibly for this reason are to be commended. But they are very expensive as a rule, and convey little information concerning the conditions of school work and school life. 868 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. The method of installation which puts each individual township by itself has little merit in itself, but when combined with the exhibit by subject, as may easily be done, it has certain advantages. Those exhibits of written work and drawing of pupils were best which combined the method by subjects and the method by grades. It should be said that this double method of installation was not common, but it was used by one city at least, and in several States there was a partial use of this scheme. The educator, as a rule, wishes to see in an exposition the development of a subject in accordance with a fixed course of study. He desires to learn how the child takes the various steps necessary to his work and the order in which he takes them. For him an exhibit is most convenient, therefore, vdiich puts the work shown in one subject by itself, where he can follow it from its beginnings in the first grade to its conclusion in the high school. The grade teacher, on the other hand, wishes to see the work of her grade. Often, also, a superintendent of schools wishes to see the work of a grade in all subjects placed together, for in his visits to his schools he is accustomed to inspect the entire work of a grade at once. An exhibit, therefore, that meets the wants of both classes of visitors has the best form, and this form is as easily secured as any other. If thought desirable, the two representations may be side by side in cabinets or they may be separated in different parts of the booth, or they may be of different forms, school work by grades being shown in cabinets, for example, and the development of subjects in albums or portfolios or bound volumes. The city of New York, in part at least, adopted the last method with great advantage to its visitors. Those exhibits were most visited and most useful which had competent at¬ tendants in charge. Indeed, the matter of a “ demonstrator ” is so important that there is little danger of giving it too much prominence. Exhibits like those of New York, St. Louis, and Missouri had their importance increased several fold by the number and character of those whose duty it was to answer questions and explain the exhibits. An exhibit without an attendant was prac¬ tically without value to anyone. All intelligent visitors in an educational exhibit have many questions to ask which are not answered by the exhibit itself — questions pertaining to school organization, management, methods of instruction, etc. These questions can be ansv/ered only by skilled educationists, familiar with educational history, methods, and means of instruction as repre¬ sented in their exhibit, and the personnel of the supervisory and teaching forces. Far better for a State or city to leave its exhibit at home than to send it to an exposition without a competent attendant. Books and pamphlets for distribution formed one of the most valuable por¬ tions of the exhibits. It would seem from the frequent calls for them that no other feature of several exhibits was so valuable. A series of pamphlets like that supplied by the city of Milwaukee forms a permanent exhibit that one may easily take with him to his home. Certain criticisms on the exhibits seem pertinent in this paper. Some of them have already been indicated in preceding paragraphs. A common criticism of most of the exhibits was that the written work did not represent the daily work of the schools. Visitors often remarked of written work that it had been corrected and copied by pupils, or had been corrected by teachers before copying. In general, I think, it may be said that the written work of the pupils as shown in the cabinets and in the bound volumes was, to many people, the least satisfactory part of American exhibits. The remedy for this is, of course, at hand. If written work is designed to show the ordinary written work of school pupils, it must be collected day by day throughout a school year without any knowledge on the part of pupils or teachers that the work is to be placed on exhibition. Whether such work would have any special EDUCATION AT TPIE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 869 value I do not know. It .seems to me that the value of written work lies almost wholly in the suggestions which it gives for methods of instruction and courses of study, in showing what superintendents and teachers believe it worth while for school children to undertake. Whether the work has been corrected by pupils and copied, whether it is “ regular ” or “ special,” seems to me to be of little consequence. But if I were again to prepare an exhibit of school work for an exposition, I should endeavor to secure the work of each day of a school year taken from the usual exercises — good, bad, and indifferent — without the knowl¬ edge of pupils or teacher that it was to be preserved. It is this kind of work which is always shown by Germanj^ and France, anddt has great interest always for visitors. Another criticism which maj^ be fairly made touches the superabundance of manual training exhibits. Some of the exhibits seemed to saj^ : ” The schools of this city or State are devoting themselves almost wholly to instruction in manual training.” Properly, I think, the amount of the various kinds of instruc¬ tion displayed should correspond to the time given to the several subjects in the daily programme of school exercises. Thus would the exhibit be a correct pic¬ ture of the school. Another criticism lies, as indicated above, in the lack of suitable attendants. One great country left its exhibit, for the most of the time of the exposition, in charge of a janitor without special knowledge of schools ; and more than one of the exhibits from America were left for a large portion of the time in the hands of incompetent persons. By this means the reputation of the country and the States was injured. In one instance an exhibit that had cost some fifteen thou¬ sand dollars to prepare was left for months in charge of a person who had no acquaintance whatever with any department of school work above the primary grades. In some States there was a frequent change of attendants, whereby a person was discharged as soon as he became skillful in his work. A further criticism may justly be made respecting the haste with which many of the American exhibits were prepared. In some instances it was January 1 or later before the first steps were taken toward the preparation of an exhibit. This was most unfortunate. The proper preparation of a large exhibit requires a long time. First of all, the general scheme of arrangement has to be decided upon. Then comes the preparation and selection of the materials of which it is to be composed. Here no one person’s thought is sufficient. The combined wisdom of all who contribute to the exhibit is necessary. J^o secure this wisdom means time and travel on the part of the director. The ideal method for pre¬ paring the school exhibit of 190-1 would require the beginning of preparations to have been made in September, 1902. A whole year could then have been devoted to thought and selection of material ; an interval of six or eight months would have intervened, and then the final arrangement of material v/ould have been begun. All the larger exhibits required from one to two months for installa¬ tion and arrangement, and the largest required even longer time. A further criticism may be made of those exhibits in which there were not . sufficient printed directions and labels for the articles exhibited. In an educa¬ tional exhibit the meaning and value of everything depends upon the circum¬ stances under which it was prepared, and these circumstances should be fully shown. In the case of written exercises, whether exposed singly in cabinets- or bound together in volumes, a full statement from the teacher should always be placed beside the work shown, a statement including all the conditions con¬ nected with the work and making the same general explanations which she would make to a visitor who saw her pupils engaged upon similar work in her room. Some exhibits were apparently displayed in any manner which would fill the space at command. If a picture or case or book fitted into a vacant place, 870 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1904. it was fastened there without reference to the work which adjoined. A logical arrangement, whereby the whole is seen in relation to its parts, and the parts are seen as components of a unified whole, is, of course, absolutely essential to any installation worthy of the name. Some exhibits were open to the criticism that they showed other things than school systems and school work. This criticism applies to comparatively few of the exhibits, however, and is perhaps not likely to be repeated in future expositions. The lessons of this exposition have been carefully drawn by Dr. Howard J. Rogers, chief of the department of education, in a paper read before the National Educational Association at its meeting last July, and reprinted from the proceedings of this association as a part of this chapter. Several minor les¬ sons not drawn by Doctor Rogers seem to be worthy of record, as follows ; First, the business ability of the American schoolmaster was very much in evidence in the Palace of Education. It is customary for school men to be told that they lack the supreme excellence of business ability, and many of us have accepted the statement as necessarily true. We shall accept it no longer. The whole history of the work done in and for the Palace of Education goes to show that no exhibits were more skillfully planned or better displayed or better managed than were the exhibits in this building. Second, the exhibit showed, both by the prominence given to it by the exposi¬ tion authorities and by the large attendance throughout the entire season, the importance which the American people attach to the subject of popular educa¬ tion. Perhaps no other building received more careful and intelligent attention or excited greater permanent interest than did the Palace of Education. Third, we were all impressed with the value assigned to manual training and industrial education by our visitors. It may be said that much of the admiration expressed was irrational and based upon very slight knowledge of the subject ; but a large portion of it was certainly the expression of the honest opinion of intelligent citizens anxious only for the well-being of their children and of the schools. Hand work and head work are henceforth to be united in all American schools. Fourth, the prominence given to the exhibition of the bonds that unite home and school is evidence of one of the best features in the newer education, and was manifested in all the educational exhibits. Perhaps it was in part the natural reaction of the home which manifested itself in the great interest shown by parents in the school work of their children as displayed. Fifth, the doctrine that school is the preparation for life was emphasized and enforced everywhere. The great exhibit of P>elgium, in the Belgian building, proclaimed this principle most emphatically, perhaps, of all the exhibits, writing it in large letters upon its very door posts. But it was manifested everywhere, except in those exhibits which represented the scholasticism of previous cen¬ turies, and even these seem to have been modified to some extent by the theory which has taken such firm hold upon modern school life. China itself showed side by side the old and the new. We could not understand the old, but the new spoke a universal language. Sixth, the exhibit showed most clearly that the educational cauldron is seeth¬ ing in every country. Experimentation of the most serious kind in the education of the youth is going on all over the world, and the end is not yet. The monographs which form this compilation v.dll prove interesting to students of education in part because of the experiments which they relate. Seventh, interesting lessons may be drawn from comparisons which naturally arise respecting American and European views of education and the methods by which public education is promoted in different countries. The limits of EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 871 this essay do not admit of an extended discussion of this subject ; but I can not forbear to raise the question, wbetber our common, lazy statement that European education is best for the Europeans and American education is best for the Americans, is as true as we think it is. For my own part, I am convinced that we have much to learn from Europe and that Europe has much to learn from us. Great expositions are forceful teachers, not alone of the differences in practice between ourselves and others, but also of the principles which underlie practice. The supreme object of an educational exposition is not comparison of school exercises, or school curricula, or school methods, or even manifestations of school spirit. Indeed, such comparisons may be harmful. The supreme benefit of an exposition like the one described in this volume is in its suggestiveness. What is my neighbor doing? What is he doing better than I am doing the same? Why is his work better than mine? These are the questions which the visitor should ask. The work which the schools are doing is, of course, not writing exercises or making models or drawing pictures ; but the work of the school is the develop¬ ment of power, the increase of knowTedge, the evolution of character. If the exhibits here described have promoted these, ends, the time and labor and treasure bestowed upon them have not been so bestowed in vain, but will bring rich returns in every schoolroom in which their influence is felt. THE LESSONS OF THE EXPOSITION.^ BY HOWABD J. EOGEES, CHIEF OF THE DEPAETaiENT OF EDUCATION AND DIEECTOE OF THE CONGEESSES OF THE LOUISIANA PUECHASE EXPOSITION. In an exposition the directorate proposes, but the exhibitor disposes. The classification may be perfect in its logic and comprehension, the space for instal¬ lation and time of preparation ample in extent, the plan of arrangement thor¬ oughly approved and appreciated ; and yet the right-hand member of the equa¬ tion, composed as it is of a great number of factors varying in time, money, cai>acity, and interest, and all involved with that variable quantity, human nature, renders its solution extremely difficult. Probably the perfect educa¬ tional exhibit will never be made till some benevolent iierson provides at least a half million or more for the purpose, so that material may be collected and installed about a well-defined plan and under the guidance of a single mind. This would be an educational museum. It is doubtful, after all, whether that would have the popular attraction and human interest of an exposition, where variety rules and where the limitations of one exhibit bring into bolder relief the excellencies of another. In this brief discussion of the St. Louis educational exhibit I am estopped officially from drawing comparisons, inasmuch as the jury of awards has yet to pass upon the exhibits, and the States and nations here assembled are still in a sense our guests. Some general observations may, however, be of interest. First, at the risk of some repetition of former statements, 1 must sketch the object of the exhibit. Not everything can be shown in an educational exhibit. It is a common expression that you can not exhibit the finer parts of education — ■ that you lose the spirit and personality of the class room. It is true that you can not exhibit this. I sometimes wonder, in the present days of ticktack rou¬ tine, if our teachers would recognize it if we could. But neither in an agricul- “ Reprinted from the Proceedings of the National Educational Association, meeting of 1904. 872 EDUCATIOI^ REPORT, 1904. tural exhibit can you exhibit the rural peace and environment of field and forest which mold the nature and the labor of the farmer. In education, as in agri¬ culture, we can exhibit the course of study as well as the rotation of crops, the jnethods of instruction as well as the methods of planting, the machinery and the equipment for the work, the products of the laborer and the comparative results of his labor. We can exhibit enough to be of interest and value to the student and establish a clearing house for suggestive ideas whose influence will be carried to every quarter of the world. The great results which have followed educational exhibits in England, in France, and in America are the best demonstration of their value. In the prepa¬ ration of the educational exhibit at St. Louis there were two points made promi¬ nent — the participation of foreign nations, in order that a comparison might be instituted between the educational systems of the various countries of the world noted for educational progress, and the thorough presentation of every phase of education in the United States, as exemplified in our public schools, our colleges and universities, our technical and professional schools, art, agriculture, defect¬ ives, and special forms of education. In the preparation of the classification, made with the advice of a special committee consisting of Doctor Harris, Doctor Butler, and Superintendent Jones, of the National Educational Association, the field of education was divided into eight groups, as follows : Gi’oup 1 — Elementary education. Group 2 — Secondary education. Group 3 — Higher education. Group 4 — Special education in fine arts. Group 5 — Special education in agriculture. Group 0 — Special education in commerce and industry. Group 7 — Education of defectives. Group 8 — Special forms of education : Text-hooks, school furniture, school appliances. Ill its comprehensiveness the particitiation in the exhibit fully reaches our expectations. Thirty-three States and Territories, four cities, and fifteen for¬ eign nations have contributed to the elementary and secondary groups. Twenty- eight colleges and universities and eight professional and technical schools are exhibitors in Group 3. Seven of the best art schools of the country have, for the first time, made a classified exhibit. The agricultural and mechanical col¬ leges, under a special grant of li?100,000 from Congress, have made a collective exhibit, which you are invited to examine carefully as upholding in every detail the high grade of special instruction given in our farm laboratories. In Group d — Commercial and industrial education — the business college and commercial high schools and industrial and trade schools have contributed many exhibits. In Group 7 — “ Education of defectives ” — the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf and the American Association of Instructors of the Blind have com¬ bined to maintain a working exhibit, in order to demonstrate to the general pub¬ lic the thorough work which is being doiie for children deprived of all their nor¬ mal faculties, and further to demonstrate the fact that the results of this in¬ struction are so beneficial as to warrant the same care and maintenance on the part of the state as for normal children. In Group 8 — “ Special forms of educa¬ tion : Publishers and school equipment ” — the exhibits are many and instructive. We feel, therefore, that we have gathered here a basis for comparisons and gen¬ eralization from which inferences and truths of value may be derived. We regret to say that the strenuous life of the preparatory days of an expo¬ sition has not permitted us to make a careful study of the exhibits, but in the examinations we have made two things seem to us to stand forth so prominently EDUCATIOl'T AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 873 at every turn that they can he termed the pivotal points of the exhibit. The first is the similarity of the exhibit from every State and city in the United States, demonstrating the fact that we have a national system of education, and the second is tlie subordination of the humanities to industrial instruction in the exhibits of foreign nations. I hinted at something like this three years ago at Chicago, as inferences from the Paris Exposition, but they were not then so clearly borne in on my mind, nor did they then occup5^ so completely the objective points of vantage. Concerning the first point, it is impossible for any person to go from State to State in this exhibit and detect any radical distinction in the work presented or the methods illustrated. Such as does exist is entirely local in its reason, and is the evidence of the personality of the superintendent or the progressiveness of the community. There is no greater difference between Syracuse and Los Angeles than between Syracuse and Binghamton. It is a satisfactory and gratifying condition. The simultaneous advance along any line of progress of a nation vast in extent and power is an impressive fact. It indicates a flexibility of the mind and a solidarity of purpose which would be irresistible applied to any problem. There are the same elements of strength in the union of ideas and mental training of every section of a great country as in its physical and constitutional union. At the same time, I would not have it understood that there is a stereotyped form of processes in exhibits. There is enough originality and expression of experiment to insure against any possible danger of machine routine. If it were asked why the educational systems of forty-five States, each under a separate, independent government, separated by tradition, clime, and culture, show such unity, I would assert that it is due to two causes : First, to the United States Bureau of Education, under the able guidance of its great chief. Doctor Harris ; and, second, to the influence of the National Educational Association. The Bureau of Education can not arbitrarily shape the policy of any State or section, but so wisely has the power of suggestion been used, so forcibly has the inference from statistics been drawn, and so clearly has the comparison of sys¬ tems, foreign and domestic, been set forth, that our educational policies from East to 'N^ est have by force of logic formed in parallel columns. Nor should we omit to mention, as a most directive force in this regard, the personal influence of the United States Commissioner of Education. The second reason advanced for this unity — the influence of the National Educational Association — is very apparent. Drawing its constituency from every part of the Union, meeting once a year in numbers, and twice a year through its superintending ofiicers, there is a constant interchange of criticism and information which holds in close relation every component factor. The special investigations of its committee of fifteen and committee of ten show in the curriculums of hundreds of elementary and secondary schools. There is no need to dwell on this point. The arguments are apparent as soon as it is men¬ tioned, but its practical demonstration seems set forth so clearly in the exhibits about you as to form a great and accepted fact. I ask your careful examination of the exhibits with this point in view, and your acceptance or criticism of the statement. The other main point emphasized by the exhibit — the subordination in foreign countries of the humanities to special industrial instruction — can be proved by preponderance of evidence, if by no other means. Three nations participating in the exposition have thought it advisable to portray their educational system in a foreign land, and in comparison with other systems, in no other group than 874 EDUCATION REPOET; 1904. in technical and industrial education. In Uyo others the predominance of the exhibits of this class serves to accentuate the main point. In the remainder the relative proportion is greater, with the exception of one, and in this one only is there something of a balance maintained between the two great lines of the mental development of the child. It is not my province at this time to discuss the tendencies of European and American elementary instruction. They are based on different theories of national maintenance, founded on different aspira¬ tions and traditions, and reriuire comprehensive treatment. The statement that the illustration of this difference is found in the exhibits all about you is suffi¬ cient for this purpose. These are to me the two main points of the educational exhibit. A minor point is the scientific character of the exhibits and the exploitation of lines of research. This is, of course, a scientific age, and exhibits of the univer¬ sities would naturally assume that form ; but the tendency of each institution to lay stress upon some few lines of investigation is striking. Perhaps in this connection it may be said, without being open to the chai‘ge of discriminating between exhibits, that the exhibit of the German university laboratories in chemistry, physics, and biology is one of the most thorough and instructive dis¬ plays ever made. Everything has its reason, and this exhibit seems to me a magnificent attempt on the part of Germany to demonstrate that in the field of special training, particularly in biology and medicine, her universities are still the foremost in the world. In view of the marvelous advance of American uni¬ versities in this respect in the last fifteen years, and the acceptance of the idea that it is no longer necessary for American students to be trained abroad, the exhibit assumes a new and interesting aspect, even if it may not be assumed to become historic. In the scientific group our own most noteworthy exhibit is that of the agri¬ cultural and mechanical colleges of the country, which have made a collective exhibit under the special appropriation of ?100,000 made by the Congress of 1903. If there can be demonstrated to the public the great ulterior economy in the liberal maintenance of these institutions, a most important benefit to the country will have been insured. In the same spirit has been undertaken the collective exhibit of the Associa¬ tion of the Schools for the Pdind and the Schools for the Deaf, in which working classes will be maintained throughout the exposition. No greater lesson could he taught the great public than to demonstrate beyond a doubt that the educa¬ tion of those defective in some physical respect is as much a duty of the State as the education of those normally endowed, and remove fforever from their thoughts the idea of its being in any wise a charity. Such are some of the more general lessons of the exhibit. There are scores of minor ones apparent to your close observation, which you are cordially invited to make. The exhibit has many strong points; it has some weak ones. There are some exhibits of institutions concerning which, to use the remark of our humorist philosopher, “ it would have been money in their pocket if they had never been born.” But, as an average, we belie re the exhibit is high, and we ask for it your careful study and frank criticism. In conclusion I beg to express publicly my thanks for the sympathetic coop¬ eration of foreign countries in promoting the exhibit ; for the magnificent sup¬ port of the States and cities, and for the loyal assistance of the colleges, universities, and technical schools, many of which acted either through personal friendship or from a sense of duty in supporting an educational enterprise. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 875 THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT ST. LOUIS.a BY ANNA TOLMAN SMITPI, MEMBER OF THE JURY OF AWARDS. An exposition to be successful must be spectacular. This is tlie quality that attracts the people, and it is only when the attendance rolls up in the hundred thousands that the enterprise pays. It has thus come to pass tliat the original purpose of expositions, which was instruction, has given way to display for commercial ends and sensational effects. At Paris in 1900 the educational idea again prevailed and at St. Louis' it has been made supreme. Said Mr. Skiff, in an address outlining the enterprise at its inception ; “ Modern man is the theme of the St. Louis classification. Its grand departments represent what man has accomplished up to this time with his faculties and the natural resources at his command in the environment in Yvhich he has been placed. Therefore we find in this classification that educa¬ tion is given the leading position, because through education man enters life’s activities.” In pursuance of the purpose thus expressed a special building was erected for education, the first time in the history of expositions that the chief collective activity of civilized peoples has been thus honored. The site chosen was a commanding one and the building, though a departure from classic styles, pre¬ served the true spirit of Corinthian beauty. It had been planned in advice with the director of the department, Mr. Howard J. Rogers, to whose practical suggestions were largely due its admirable adaptations to its specific purpose and the skillful disposition of its varied material. The interior of the building was divided into a central court surrounded by broad corridors. In the allotment of space the north corridor was assigned to our State and city exhibits, the west corridor to colleges and technical schools, the east to schools for special classes, the south corridor to the exhibits of social economy, and the central court to American universities and the exhibits of foreign countries. Thus space and systein combined to enhance the beauty of the separate installations ; so striking indeed were many of these that it was difficult to fix attention upon anything else; even experts wandered up and down in the mere satisfaction of gazing at harmonious outlines and coloring. All styles of installment had been employed, the closed pavilions offering broad fa^-ades for decoration, the open alcoves marked off by low railings or slender columns with free access for light, and ingenious combinations of the two extremes. Indeed, the first and most lasting impression made by this depart¬ ment was that of the art of display as applied to the exhibit of an ideal process. In a survey of the varied subjects comprised in this collection, higher educa¬ tion comes first to mind possibly because of its commanding position in the general arrangement. Entering by the northwest door from the grand plaza, one came directly upon the imposing exhibit of the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts and experiment stations, prepared under the direction of a Gov¬ ernment board and with the aid of an appropriation by Congress of $100,000. The purpose of the exhibit “ to represent those features of education and research which differentiate ” the colleges named “ from other educational and scientific institutions ” was thoroughly maintained. It was arranged in two great sections, i. e., agriculture and mechanic arts, each subdivided into departments. Centrally located in the exhibit was an office around which were grouped exhibits of the Bureau of Education and of the Office of Experiment Stations, which represent the United States in its relations with these particular colleges and stations. Reprinted Dy permission from the Educational Review for December, 1904. 876 EDUCATION REPOKT; 1904. The agricultural exhibits attracted most attention, and especially those relat¬ ing to plant production, to animal industry, and to the dairy laboratory. Naturally also popular interest centered in the simpler problems illustrated. Tests of milk ^Yhich any housekeeper might employ, methods of soil enrichment, proof of the feeding quality of animal food, the retarding of fruit blossoms by spraying the trees — these and a hundred other ingenious processes appealed at once to the curiosity and the self-interest of the multitude ; at the same time they illustrated the importance of research and the practical applications of scientific knowledge. This exhibit particularly impressed foreign experts, who, if they claimed for their own institutions higher development in respect to agricultural science, admitted that they had much to learn from us as to the means of diffusing this knowledge. They were astonished also at the growth of the colleges as set forth in conspicuous wall charts. Beginning with 3 colleges and 22G students in 18G5, they number to-day G5 institutions with 28,000 students. Their property valuation is about $71,000,000 and their annual income above $10,000,000, a tenfold increase in less than two decades. The sense of science as a force in higher education was deepened by the uni¬ versity exhibits ; especially by those of our own country and of Germany. The State universities of the West made elaborate display of their equipments for laboratory research, for engineering, for industrial chemistry, and in a few instances gave large space to their agricultural work. Harvard, Chicago, and California universities by their exhibits of celestial photography emphasized the most imaginati’\'e of the sciences. But it was Germany — home of philosophy and classical learning — that expressed most completely the scientific aspect of modern learning. Peculiar dignity was imparted to the exhibit of German uni¬ versities and higher technical schools by the court of honor through which it v\^as approached. Facing the entrance to the court vras the bust of the Emperor, and in repositories on the walls works contributed by the German academies of science. The room beyond was set apart for “ Excavations,” which formed a unique feature of the section. Here were shown models of the Roman citadel, Saalburg, as reconstructed by order of the Emperor, photographs of the restored temples of Jupiter Ileliopolitanus, and on the wall copies of five Babylonian flagstone pictures reproduced in all their vivid coloring. These objects pertain indeed to the “ humanities,” but they illustrate the scientific method in historical study. The culminating point of this exhibit was reached in the rooms assigned to medicine. Prei)ared under the direction of eminent specialists, this exhibit disclosed the full significance of science both as principle and method. Of the departments into which medical science has been resolved five had been chosen for representation and grouped around a central hall fitted up for lectures and demonstrations ; to these was added a Roentgen cabinet furnished with the nevcest apparatus. In the several departments were shown the results of research and methods of class demonstration, with the appliances, instruments, models, photographs, and cultures, at the disposal of the professors. The only other exhibit comparable to this section was that of Johns Hopkins medical school, which illustrated by plates and drawings the same high order of research. The latter was, howeA’er, purely scientific in character, whereas the German exhibit carried one into the class room. Although science and its handmaid, technics, Avere prominent in the German section of higher education the spirit of ideal culture was not wanting. It found visible expression in the busts of eminent men — Goethe, Kant, Humboldt, Momm¬ sen — and in beautiful statues like that of the Athena Lemnia which adorned the university room. The exhibit included also elaborate and beautiful views EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. of buildings and equipments, representing altogether thirteen universities and eleven technical colleges. The three features of the German exhibit here distinguished, the scientific, the educational, and {esthetic, were repeated in all the university sections. It was the excess of one or the other that gave distinctive character to each. Thus to name the principal foreign countries represented, Germany had the best-balanced exhibit; France showed only views and the published works of her eminent professors and savants, while Great Britain by a series of exquisite photographs brought vividly to mind the beauty, natural and architectural, of her ancient seats of learning. In the case of the United States, which presented above twenty higher institutions as separate units, it is impossible to name even the many striking features. The complete models of site and buildings presented by several universities, notably by the University of Wisconsin, Washington University, and the University of New York, excited universal admiration. Harvard showed a fine model of its students’ stadium and, on the scientific side, a remarkable representation of intestinal digestion as seen under the Roentgen rays, and a case of the exquisite Blaschka glass models for botanical study ; Columbia, a model of the beautiful new library building with the majestic statue of alma mater in the foreground, and Yale suggested the highest out¬ come of university life by portraits of famous alumni. For {esthetic effect pure and simple, the exhibits of the University of Michigan and of Columbia University surpassed all their sister institutions, while the University of Cali¬ fornia excelled in photographic representations. The transparent views of her mining school, including class, laboratory, and field operations, aftorded the highest example of this mode of exhibit as regards technical finish and illumination. But the special value of the university exhibits was in the conditions they illustrated rather than in their actual material. The lavish equipments answer to the expansion of knowledge and man’s increased control over the forces of nature; beauty of environment and. of architecture, to the hunger of the spirit for ideal things. Lessons such as these could not fail to be caught by the mere casual observer, while the nature of the subjects selected for representation brought clearly tp mind the lines of recent progress in matters and methods of u n i ver s i ty instruction. Impressive, however, as were the exhibits of higher education, the great sur¬ prise of the Educational building was the magnificent array of public systems of education. As regards {esthetic effect the installations surpassed all previous efforts of the kind. In the case of the foreign nations the decorative treatment of the external partitions of their respective sections conformed in a measure to the national type. Thus harmony of color and graceful designs marked the faqade of the French pavilion. It was composed of alternating panels and niches, the whole surface finished in a neutral tint that harmonized well with the decorative elements. Each panel showed a shield depending from a lion’s mouth and bearing on the blue field the names of great artists, littfn’ateurs, or scientists. Around the shields hung in long sweeping curves a design of grape vines in full loaf and fruit. Large ornamental vases occupied the niches, and the apex of the arched entrance bore the gilded ‘ monogram of the Republic. The symmetrical regularity of this beautiful faqade accorded well with the logical structure of the educational system which it inclosed, a system thoroughly organized and classified and so uniform in its results throughout the country that as regards the schools of general education, elementary or classical, a single one of each class affords a fair representation of all. Below the univer¬ sities, complexity and variety are found only in the technical schools adapted 878 EDUCATIOIT REPOET; 1904. to local conditions. The latter, which are under the minister of commerce , and industry, occupied one side of the French pavilion and the schools for general education and the universities — all under the minister of public instruction — the other. Paris exhibited separately in the same pavilion the work of her celebrated special schools (art and industrial), and also municipal activities relating to sanitation, charities, and similar matters. The space assigned to Italy was bordered by a plain partition hung with beautiful engravings of her masterpieces of art, an eloquent expression of un¬ dying fame. The impress of the age which produced them is still seen in the ordinary art work of the Italian schools and of those of all other nations where the Latin influence prevails. The design for the sculptured and pictorial decorations of the German section were drawn from school life. Especially noticeable were the main entrance to the school exhibit, a reproduction of the portal of a r>erlin schoolhouse ; reliefs on the outer wall representing groups of German school children, and in the cen¬ ter of the entrance room the statue of a female figure symbolizing education. As a rule, even where the aesthetic quality was not marked or was even alto¬ gether wanting, the installations were admii’ably planned; in this respect, in¬ deed, great advance has been made since the Chicago exposition and even since the Paris exposition of 1900. Naturally, v.’here the system of education is highly centralized, as in France and Japan, the task of organizing an exhibit is comparatively easy ; the difficulties increase in proportion to the degree of local and institutional independence. Great Britain, which represents the ex¬ treme of such independence, presented at St. Louis for the first time a well- organized exhibit in striking contrast to the confused state of the material shown at Paris. The result was effected without obscuring either the freedom of institutions or of local administration through the careful selection both of the material to be presented and the mode of display. Only typical things were chosen — for example, the art work of schools distinguished for success in this branch, views illustrating the characteristic life of the great endovv’ed schools, or the work of institutions like the London polytechnics adapted to special conditions. In all the aim was to show essential features and high achieve¬ ments. The same purpose was apparent in the selection of students’ work in the Japanese section, but here the selected material was supplemented by full sets of programmes, curriculums, and material appliances for the teacher's use. The exhibit as a whole possessed many remarkable features and was char¬ acterized by the perfect finish of every detail. The plan adopted by Germany for the display of its very composite system was that of the complete presentation of selected types of schools and groups of schools, city and country, elementary, secondary, and industrial. The exhibit of each type was arranged in a separate room plainly marked by a sign giving a list of the contents. Many of the rooms were further distinguished by some appropriate work of art. Thus a beautiful portrait of Queen Louise adorned the room devoted to high schools for girls ; a hubt of Melanchthon, the room de¬ voted to the material for religious instruction ; a bust of Ilerbart, the room con¬ taining the most important recent works on education. Throughout this ex¬ tensive exhibit, from which nothing pertaining to school activities had been omitted, there was the evident intent to present also, symbolically, the historic relation of those activities. The educational exhibit of Sweden though limited in space was one of the best planned and most suggestive in* the entire building. That of Belgium, which was placed in the State building, offered among other impressive lessons a remarkable example of the exhibit of a complete course of instruction in natural EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 879 products and the local industries pertaining to tliem. The course was developed from grade to grade on the concentric principle, the subject selected being flax and its treatment in field and factory. The presentation excited great interest by reason both of its complete illustration of an educational principle and its effective display. Ranged on the wall in a series of open cases, and with explanatory charts at every stage, it v/as easily seen and readily comprehended. The separation of the Belgian exhibit from those in the education building was partly compensated for by the chance of seeing education in close relation with other forms of public effort for the general welfare. Tlius indeed was realized the idea suggested by the inscription on the palace of education, namely, “ Education and social economy.” The exhibits of Spanish-speaking countries of the Western Hemisphere illus¬ trated in a striking manner the conflict between mediaeval ideas and those of the present age. This was particularly noticeable in the case of the Argentine Republic and of Cuba, both of which exhibits had been so planned as to empha¬ size progress in the adoption of modern ideas and methods. Altogether 22 foreign countries were represented in the educational depart¬ ment. Our brief survey of their principal exhibits indicates the success of the endeavor to make the collection international not only as regards the number of nations included, but the forceful presentation of distinctive features of their systems. To aid in the understanding of these features explanatory literature, historic and descriptive, was lavishly supplied, and in many cases — notably in that of Sweden, Belgium, Japan, and Germany — with duplicates of the originals in the English language. The school exhibits of our own country represented 31 States, 3 Territories, and 5 cities, having separate installments. Of this number, 5 — Massachusetts, New York, State and city, Missouri, and St. Louis — may be taken as the highest types. Each illustrated a distinct principle of arrangement, carried out with lavish expenditure of money and directive ability. The controlling principle of the Massachusetts exhibit was that of an educa¬ tional ideal expressed in the practical work of schools. To prevent the ideal being lost in endless duplications, the endeavor had been made to secure the complete representation of each branch of the course of study as carried out in some one or two cities. The material was presented in three forms. In wall cabinets were displayed select examples of written work from the successive grades up to and including the high schools, the collection in each cabinet being clearly indicated by an explanatory chart ; below the cabinets extended glass cases filled with additional work, often of a special character, and in closets beneath were placed bound volumes presenting tlie entire work of successive classes in the subject of the group. The wall space immediately above the winged cabinets was reserved for manual v/ork, arranged also to show the devel¬ opment of the subject from grade to grade. Photographs of classes at work, gymnastic drills, etc., gave living interest to the programme, while on the upper wall spaces were exhibited large photographs of model school buildings. By this general arrangement it was possible for one to take a rapid survey of the entire operations of the schools or to make an exhaustive study of some particular subject. The collective exhibit of the 10 State normal schools, which was placed in central cabinets, followed the plan of presenting the ideal of professional train¬ ing without duplicating details. Other exhibits in the collection were those of the evening schools of Lowell, selected as typical ; of the Trade School of Spring- field ; of the schoolship Enterprise, and a select exhibit from the Massachusetts College of Agriculture. The view of the State system was completed by a con¬ cise presentation of the administrative features and very full statistical charts. 880 EDUCATION REPOKT; 1904. The exhibit of the city of Boston, which occupied a separate alcove within the same inclosure as the State exhibit, excited the admiration of educators from every part of the world. The mode of exhibit was the same as that adopted by the State, every branch of the curriculum being fully represented by the regular work of the pupils in bound volumes and l)y typical specimens in the winged cabinets. The value of the presentation was greatly increased by an accompany¬ ing view of the whole school programme, so arranged as to show the absolute number of hours and the relative proportion of the entire time given to each subject daily, annually, and throughout the course. Among special features indicating the liberal policy of the city was the work of the industrial centers and vacation schools maintained at public expense. The pavilion inclosing this admirable exhibit was a model of noble simplicity. The ground tint of olive green gave effect to the beautiful colored designs from the technical schools which adorned the external panels. The frieze bore the names of the principal towns, indicating their independence in school affairs, while the beautiful seal of the State on medallions between the names preserved the sense of their common relation. The projecting base of the frieze formed the support for busts of eminent men, statesmen, poets, and philosophers identi¬ fied with the Commonwealth. One wall displayed a unique maj) indicating by pictures of the buildings the location of three hundred public libraries in the State, and the panels on either side of the main entrance were inscribed with the names and dates of the principal laws pertaining to the public school system. Just within the door stood a commanding statue of Horace Maun, the father of the system. Nothing was in excess, nothing superfluous ; every detail contrib¬ uted to the complete harmony. The exhibits of New York, State and city, which occupied adjoining booths in a continuous inclosure, represented the exact opposite of the Massachusetts exhibit. The aim in the Empire State was to present the whole educational pro¬ vision, public and private, with complete fullness of detail. The result for both State and city was a wealth of material, requiring great skill for its s^^stematic display. The arrangement of the exhibit followed the French classification, in three groups — elementary, secondary, and higher. The elementary was again subdivided by school grades — assigned singly or by groups of two and three to separate alcoves. Thus all the kindergarten work was found together, and so on through the eight succeeding grades. It was noticeable also in the State alcoves that each city was assigned its own place, cities and villiages being grouped according to population. Minute explanations accompanied every section, so that teachers could readily examine the work of their special interest with full understanding of the conditions under which it was produced. The high school work was arranged by subjects, following the plan of departmental teaching. Striking features of the State exhibit were a model of the new State Normal School at Fredonia, made by the students of the manual-training and art departments, and a series of graphic charts comparing the educational opera¬ tions of New York with those of the United States as a whole. Among other items, it was shown that the State, with a population one-tenth that of the entire country, bears nearly one-sixth the total public school expenditures, the relative proportion in 1903 being exactly $41,418,095 on a total of $235,208,405. The spirit of this composite collection was typified in the map which hung on the outside wall, indicating the location of every institution of learning in the State, the material used in its construction, and its seating capacity. The exhibit of New York City continued the impression of abundant material and admirable system. The most novel features were those relating to measures for adapting the public school system to the varied conditions of an immense population, for extending its activities beyond the limited school period and EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 881 turning it to the service of the adult masses. To this extension work belonged photographs illustrating methods of physical training applied to weaklings, the cabinet pertaining to the free lecture system, the collective exhibit of vacation and evening schools, and the views of recreation centers, showing industrial and social features. Comparison was naturally suggested with the similar though less extensive collections in the exhibits of Boston and Chicago, which empha¬ sized the elements of intellectual training for adults, and with the exhibits of the London polytechnics, which, like the extension work of New York City, place great stress on the social features. The external side of the city booth was utilized for the exhibit of the Woman’s School of Design, a private enterprise conducted in a philanthropic spirit. The exhibit consisted of a remarkable collection of original designs, which, with one or two exceptions, were purchased by manufacturing firms as they stood on the wall. The signal lesson of the entire exhibit was that of great municipal problems and their possible solutions. The exhibits of Missouri and of St. Louis, although on opposite sides of a broad aisle, can hardly be considered apart, as they followed the same general plan of arrangement and decorative treatment. In both equal emphasis was placed upon results and processes ; the former were shown by the work of pupils in lavish profusion, the latter by every avail¬ able device of art, visual and audible. The written exercises and drawings from each grade of schools were assigned to a separate alcove, typical exercises being placed in winged cabinets along the wall, and the entire work of classes in bound volumes beneath. No effort had been spared to render every detail intelligible. The conditions under which each volume and separate exer¬ cise had been prepared were explicitly stated, the length of time the subject had been studied, and the time allowed to it throughout the course. So care¬ fully was the labeling carried out in the State section that the work of any one of the 200,000 contributing pupils could be readily located. In this section, also, hundreds of pictures in crayon, ink, water colors, and oil, showing school build¬ ings, playgrounds, groups of pupils, etc., adorned the walls, while moving pic¬ tures and photographs animated the scene. It is difficult to express in words the magnificent effect of the exhibit of- the public schools of St. Louis. It was spectacular and yet essentially instructive. The illuminated Christmas tree in the kindergarten section, the ingenious con¬ structive work from the grades, the moving pictures of school scenes, the por¬ traits of distinguished educators, the paintings, engravings, and casts loaned by various schools, the remarkable display of special lines of work and illustrative devices, and the living exhibit of a veritable class room, with daily exercises, attracted delighted throngs, but each feature was also full of suggestion to the professional visitor. From the festhetic standpoint the distinguishing feature of this unique section was the fagade, so constructed as to form an integral part of the interior exhibit while giving character to the external view. It con¬ sisted of 16 square hollow columns, connected by arches, in the style of a Roman triumphal arch. On the alcove side the columns framed illuminated photographs showing, in orderly sequence, typical school exercises. On the aisle side they were paneled with a series of 16 transparent paintings, repre¬ senting a history of education. The choice of subjects — which included scenes from primitive life, from classic, medimval, and modern history — the composi¬ tion, costuming, and painting were all the work of an art teacher in the St. Louis high school, the personnel of the groups having been selected by her from teachers and pupils in the schools. The medallion portraits of children and ED 1904 M - 56 882 EDUCATION REPOST; 1904. youth in the spandrels above, and the illumined transparencies in the facing columns inclosing the State section heightened the etfect of this brilliant series. It was, indeed, as expressed by one of the foreign jurors, the mission of St. Louis to excite popular enthusiasm and gratify critical taste at one stroke ; in other words, to attain the ideal end of an exposition. The exhibits here dwelt upon have been selected because they represent char¬ acteristic types. They do not, however, exhaust the striking features of the vast collection. The Pennsylvania section made a fine impression with its massive columns and panels of polished wood ; California, with its fagade of the native redwood, and Minnesota, by its air of elegant refinement. Indiana charmed the eye by a simple harmony between the framing woodwork of its cabinets and the tinted paper that lined the glass doors, and Denver gave a rich note of color by its tissue-paper art windows, original both in design and material. The general aspiration toward the beautiful must be taken as one of the most significant lessons of the exposition, a sign of spiritual forces work¬ ing their way to the heart of the people. There were exhibits also which with no attempt at aesthetic effects made last¬ ing impressions by their system. This was particularly marked in the case of Kansas, which presented at a glance the most important features of an educa¬ tional system in an agricultural State. The limited space occupied by the exhibit was divided into two sections by a narrow aisle. To one section was assigned higher education, subdivided into university, county high schools, and normal schools, each occupying a separate alcove ; to the other section, elementary edu¬ cation, comprised also in three alcoves allotted, respectively, to city schools, rural schools, and manual training. The very complete statistics of the system were arranged in a sort of frieze running around the whole booth ; the aisle partitions gave wall space for maps, drawings, etc. The striking feature of the exhibit was the alcove devoted to county high schools, a provision in which Kansas has led the West. The work of the schools, statistics showing their increase, and the text of the law for their establishment made up the contents of the alcove, with the portrait of iMr. James H. Canfield, author of the law, in a commanding position. The exhibit of Louisiana, which comprised in a single booth the most dissim¬ ilar 'elements, public schools, parochial, and private schools, separate schools for the colored race, colleges and universities, was saved from confusion by the most careful organization. The feature of the public school section was the exhibit of the city of New Orleans, which compared favorably with that of northern cities, especially in the mode of displaying pupils’ work and in the ingenious use of illustrative material. Considered as a whole, the lessons of the St. Louis exhibits were for the most *t)art repetitions of old lessons on a grander scale and in more varied forms, but in respect to one particular they made many revelations. Educational provision in rural communities for the first time assumed in this exposition the importance of a separate problem. It was presented under a variety of forms and with many suggestions as to its proper solution. State after State gave prominence to the subject in special or collective exhibits set forth in an effective manner. Minnesota presented a typical village school and a collective exhibit of rural schools ; Illinois, a collective exhibit from 23 counties, including the best type of a one-room school building to be found in the State ; Pennsylvania, a col¬ lective exhibit from every township in Indiana County, and Oklahoma, work from the whole body of her rural schools, with a map showing the exact location of each. Among many evidences of efforts for improving rural schools in the interests EDUCATION AT THE ST, LOUIS EXPOSITION. 883 of agricultural communities were the unified, course of study for elementary schools, as shown by North Dakota ; the organization of teachers’ reading circles, as in Indiana and South Dakota ; the use of natiye material in school work, illustrated by interesting exhibits from Mississippi, Utah, and New Mexico ; the general introduction of drawing and manual training, as in village schools of Iowa and Indiana, and the beginning of continuation schools for adults in rural regions, as shown by Wisconsin. The most comprehensive and perfectly organized exhibit of the rural schools of a State was made by Indiana. It included the evolution of the consolidation county school represented by means of photographs and statistical charts. The former set in striking contrast the old conditions and the new, the latter proved that the gain in all elements of efliciency had been accompanied by a saving in public expenditure. This running commentary on the education department of the great exposi¬ tion has been limited to the exhibition features and the general trend of effort which they illustrate. Space forbids more than a reference to the pedagogic proble7ms which it forced upon attention. Critical observers were struck with the remarkable similarity in the methods of the public schools throughout our country. But the net result in any State seemed in large measure proportioned to the resources at command. Hence the serious import of the wide divergences in this respect revealed by comparative statistics. While, however, there are many influences working toward unity of method on certain lines, the dissim¬ ilarity in others is equally marked. Manual training shows, for example, progress in three different directions. The St. Louis manual training schools follow the French method of analysis and repetition of fundamental exercises. The St. Paul Manual Training School places emphasis on construction from the beginning, while the Stout Manual Training School (IMenomonie) follows the Swedish idea of strict attention to pedagogic form and adaption. Deeper still are the differences in the systems of art training, especially as seen from the international standpoint. France holds to classic styles, and England shows the subtle influence of ritualistic and heraldic emblems. Germany of all for¬ eign countries has departed farthest from conventional models and turned to nature with splendid results. The same movement in our own country is rap¬ idly freeing our schools from the cramp of imitation. The exhibits also brought distinctly to view the conditions of secondary educa¬ tion as it is developed in different countries, and emphasized the need of some international agreement with respect to the limits of this department if nations are, at this point, to profit each by the experience of all others. Such agree¬ ment, moreover, is indispensable before the estimate of international juries can carry conviction or stimulate to large endeavors. It were, indeed, easy to suggest a dozen lines along which select exhibits could have been made from this whole vast collection for the study of particular prin¬ ciples and processes in their historic and social bearings. As an object lesson in methods of display the exhibit here considered sur¬ passed all former efforts of the kind. In its varied collections two media of expression proved most effective, namely, photographs and statistical charts. The former not only please the eye, but they fix, in living form, subtle sugges¬ tions of mental processes to which words seldom give utterance. Statistics, on the contrary, seize and correlate the salient facts of a historic movement or of a national condition as reflected in its chief social activity. They use, moreover, a universal language by means of which a nation like Japan — ^newly arrived among world powers — escapes the limitation of an unknown tongue and makes intelligible to them the story of her ascent. 884 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. In regard to completeness and graphic presentation it would be diflacult to choose examples from exhibits so rich in this particular form of expression. It was, however, recognized that our own country had a remarkable advantage in the high degree of uniformity that marked the statistical methods of inde¬ pendent States and cities. The result was justly attributed to the influence of the Bureau of Education, whose statistical survey of education in the United States formed the principal feature of its exhibit in the Government building. The reason for such location is obvious, but the regret was general that this series of charts, the impressive presentation of a nation’s progress on every line of educational effort, could not have been duplicated to crown and complete our exhibit in the education palace. ARIZONA. HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION. The earliest record of public funds being used for public school purposes in Arizona is found in the proceedings of the first legislative assembly, which con¬ vened at Prescott in 1SG4. From these it appears that appropriations were made from the Territorial treasury for the benefit of the public schools in the towns of Prescott, La Paz, and Mohave, to the extent of ^250 each, on the con¬ dition that the said towns appropriated a like sum. Five hundred dollars were appropriated to the school at Tucson at the same time, conditioned on instruc¬ tion being given daily in the English language. No further mention was made of the public schools in any legislative assembly until 18G8, from which it is inferred that whatever schools were in operation during the interim received their support from private sources. In 18G8 the first attempt at school legis¬ lation was made, and the first public school law was enacted. This law was replaced by another in 1871, and that by still another in 1875, which remained in force until 1879. Changed conditions seemed to require further changes in the law, for in 1879, in 1881, and in 1883 other laws were passed; but these were all repealed in 1885, when the present law was enacted, which, with slight amendments, has governed the schools to the present day. The year 1885 may be fixed as the date when the school system of the Territory was founded. In that year the normal school at Tempe and the university at Tucson were estab¬ lished, which completes the chain from the primary school, through the grades, the normal school, and the university. Prior to 1885 the reiwrts and records of the public schools are incomplete. Consequently the progress of educational affairs must date from that year. The normal school at Tempe has grown in many ways. Additional buildings, apparatus of the latest improved types, and a useful library have been added as funds were available. The buildings now on the campus are the main building, training school building, and two large dormitories, all equipped with the latest designs in furniture and modern appliances. These dormitories will accommodate about 100 young ladies and gentlemen. The Northern Arizona Normal School at Flagstaff was established in 1899, and enrolled 35 pupils the first year, with but 2 teachers in charge. From time to time it was found necessary to finish off other rooms of the spacious building to accommodate the increased enrollment and the apparatus required for successful work, and now the teaching force consists of 8 teachers. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 885 The Territorial university at Tueson is well equipped for thorough university work, having commodious buildings on the campus, and a new library build¬ ing in course of construction to cost ?25,000. There are 10,000 volumes in the present library. These buildings are situated at a convenient distance from the city proper. In 1885 there were 137 schools in the Territory, with 10,219 children of school age in attendance, while the last census in 1903 gave 467 schools, with 25,951 children of school age. ARIZONA’S EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT. In the great palace of education and social economy at the Louisiana Pur¬ chase Exposition the Arizona exhibit is found in close proximity to those of California, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. It is not so large and bewildering that the visitor is lost in its study, but attractive, tastefully arranged, and complete in its representation of all the grades of instruction, from juvenile hand work without the embellishment or finishing touches of the instructor to finished specimens of drawing and work in the higher branches, showing most clearly that the educational system and progress thereunder in Arizona compare favor¬ ably with those of other States and Territories reiiresented at the exposition. The exhibit occupies a space of 30 feet on the aisle by 18 feet in depth. The faqade of colonial architecture is characterized by four large white columns with gold trimmings, the hand railing being of oxidized brass. The arrange¬ ment and display of students’ work were planned by the custodian, who tried to make the most attractive exhibit possible with the small capital available. The wall space was decorated with drawings in color, photographs of schools, and work from the manual training department. There are also four large wall. dis¬ plays, consisting of census tables, statistics, courses of study, etc. These tables are the work of a student in the university and have received much praise from visitors. Below these are hung two large, swinging-leaf cabinets showing views in and around the university. Extending around the booth af either end are shelves, upon which is displayed written work from the various schools of Arizona. The Tempe Normal School exhibits bound volumes of school work, one case of drawings, one of history and science, one of literature and work from the training school, and a case of photographs of buildings, classes, and class rooms, grounds, and drills. The Northern Arizona Normal School, located at Flagstaff, displays a large four-faced glass case of views of the buildings and class rooms in the school, the case being made of the beautiful v/hlte pine from the famous Coconino forest of northern Arizona. On the shelf and wall imme- diatelj^ back of this case is shown the excellent work from this normal school, consisting of written exercises and drawings. Occupying a space on the right hand wall are four framed maps of great merit from the Nogales Public School. The remainder of that side is given to the Phoenix Indian School. There are six large leaves of work of its students, from the kindergarten through the sev¬ enth grade. The manual training department of the same school displays one glass case of fine lace work and embroidery, three beautiful rugs, and one col¬ lection of ironwork. On the right entrance stands a hand-carved oak writing desk, made by a student of the Phoenix Indian School. A glass case on the right is filled with construction work in paper and geometrical solids, pea and toothpick work, clay modeling, eggshell work, and sewing. The gathering of this exhibit was the work of the Territorial superintendent and others appointed by him, and represents in general the work being done in the Arizona schools. 886 EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. CALIFORNIA. BY EODERT FURLONG, DIRECTOR. THE EXHIBIT. The display in the Californian section forms a collective exhibit from the leading cities and counties of the State ; aiso an institutional exhibit from the University of California. Other State institutions are represented in photo¬ graphic displays. Private schools and institutions have only a small repre¬ sentation. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. A pavilion or vestibule, 40 feet square, in the northeast corner of the educa¬ tion building, is used exclusively for a collective display from the University of California. This is the largest space allotted to any one institutional exhibit in the palace of education. Although somewhat distant from the university section proper, the location is almost ideal. One of the main entrances to the Palace of Education is through the vestibule. There light and ventilation are good, while its nearness to Cali¬ fornia’s general school display serves to unify the State's educational exhibit. Although not obtrusive, the college colors are in evidence to gladden the hearts of U. C. students and other loyal visitors. High on the four sides of the pavil¬ ion, in large letters of gold on a field of blue, all the principal activities of the university at Berkeley are set forth in full view, that “ he who runs may read.” The most striking feature of this exhibit is the many beautiful photo-transpar¬ encies that give light and color to the interior walls of the pavilion. There are nearly 300 of these fine views on glass, many of them IG by 20 inches in size, illuminated by electric lights concealed behind the framework that holds the pictures in place. It is a picture gallery of itself. Over one-third of these views are from the astronomical department of the university and are almost priceless, having been obtained at great elfort and expense. Many of them are of the sun in total or partial eclipse. Some were taken in remote corners of the globe by astronomical expeditions sent out under the auspices of the Lick Observatory. Others in this group are the work of scientific- observers who keep nightly vigils on Mount Hamilton, while studying the laws of the universe through the powerful instruments there at hand. A panorama of Berkeley and its environs on four glass plates, a total of 80 inches in length, gives a splendid view of the college town and its surroundings, including San Francisco Bay, with the Golden Gate in the distance. There are a dozen or more photo-trans¬ parencies presenting views of the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art. Others are of college buildings, classes at work in the laboratories and in the field, the campus, the grand old oaks, the Greek theater, works of art, museum collections, etc. Another feature of the university display is the published bulletins that have been issued from time to time by the university press. These cover a wide range. Special publications from the Lick Observatory occupy a separate show¬ case. Another showcase is occupied by student publications. Books written by authors who have been or who are now connected with the university, either as students or as members of the faculty, fill a good-sized library case. Another library case contains 84 volumes of translations into the Chinese language by Prof. John Fryer, of the chair of oriental languages. This unique exhibit of the work of Doctor Fryer represents a prodigious amount of labor. There are also maps, monographs, etc., prepared by university men and women. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 887 THE CALIFORNIA GENERAL SCHOOL EXHIBIT. Less than 50 feet distant from the nniversity pavilion is the handsome booth of polished wood inclosing California’s general school exhibit for the State. The inclosed area is in the form of a trapezium, containing 1,700 square feet. The facades on three sides are of classic design. Doric columns and fluted pilasters support a rich cornice, 14 feet above the floor. The whole structure, however, has many features that are distinctively Californian. A continuous arcade facing the broad aisles on the three exposed sides is charac¬ teristic of California’s mission architecture. Twm arched windows of art glass, symbolizing California’s fruits and flowers, light the office at the sharp angle of the trapezium. No stain or paint mars the natural beaaty of the native redwood, furnished only from California forests. The installation is unique and original, as well as artistic. Beneath nine of the graceful arches along the side fagades are cabinets that open outward, v/hile at their backs a correspond¬ ing number of cabinets open to inner aisles. Cross sections or blocks of eight cabinets each, with aisles between, fill the interior floor space. Four large arches of the front fagade and one on the longer side are invitingly open to visitors. The inner walls of the fagades are beautified by framed photographic views of rare size and excellence. A view of the Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton, 14 feet in length, has attracted the attention of many thousands of visitors. A photograph 12 feet in length is of the Leland Stanford Junior University. One of the State capitol at Sacramento is 8 feet in length ; two of 6 feet each are of the State normal school building at San Jose. Santa Clara and Notre Dame colleges in Santa Clara County are shown in photographs, each over 7 feet in length. All of these grand pictures are from 2 to 3 feet each in width inside of frame. Except the view of the State capitol, all are by Andrew P. Hill, of San Jose, and came in the educational exhibit from Santa Clara County. Art work in water colors and crayon sketches by high school pupils, alter¬ nated with exhibits in sloyd, Indian baskets, and other constructive work in wood and metal from manual training schools, all harmoniously arranged, form mosaics of the walls above the arches. Eighty-four winged cabinets with shelved bases resting on the floor are filled with material from the elementary and secondary schools of the State. It is here in nearly 1,000 bound books and over 10,000 cabinet exhibits that the schools of California have their display. Nearly all of the cities and counties that rank well educationally are represented by exhibit material from their schools. San Francisco has over 300 bound books, a wall exhibit of manual training, and 10 cabinets filled with pupils’ work. Los Angeles city has 7 cabinets, several bound volumes, a display of sloyd, and a fine exhibit of Indian basketwork from pupils of the elementary grades. Ten cabinets of material are from Los Angeles County, outside the city. This includes Pasadena, Pomona, Whittier, Long Beach, Compton, and other towns, also many rural schools. The city of Oakland has 7 cabinets filled with drawings, water colors, and sketches, a wall exhibit, showcases filled with the handiwork of pupils, and 80 bound volumes. Berkeley has 3 cabinets and a number of books on shelves and in showcases. The county of Alameda, outside of the cities, presents an attractive display of pupils’ work from the town, village, and rural schools, also an exhibit of school administration in the county, a cabinet of the wild flowers of the county, and a cabinet of drawings from the Haywards schools. This exhibit has also a large number of photographs of school build- 888 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. ings in city, town, and country, together with a relief map of Alameda County. Twenty-five substantially bound books of miscellaneous school work accompany this exhibit. Fresno County makes its display in 6 cabinets, 4 of which are filled with work from Fresno city schools. The city also displays 2 wall trays of high school manual training and some attractive water colors and sketches by high school students. Twenty-seven bulky volumes contain the written work of the Fresno exhibit. Sacramento County is represented with 5 cabinets of material and a num¬ ber of bound books. One of the cabinets is from the county outside the city, and contains exhibits from rural and town schools. A large album contains views of the school-houses throughout the county. The artistic design on the glass front of the Sacramento cabinets attracts much attention aside from the merits of exhibits within. The Stockton exhibit, which fills 6 cabinets, occupies a prominent place in the front section, where it is seldom without visitors. It shows the work of a year in every class of every grade in the Stockton city schools. Material, which was taken daily from class exercises, is on manila paper as it came from the class room, uncorrected. There are duplicate sets of books, by which arrangement the work is presented both by subjects and by grades. A color scheme in the binding enables the visitor to quickly find the particular subject and book that he may wish to inspect. A typewritten outline of method used by teacher, the requirements of the course of study, and the daily programme showing time allotment for subject, all precede pupils’ work, filling several pages at the beginning of each book. There are some 200 neatly bound books in the Stockton display. Some original lines of study are shown in “ Books of industries,” “ Books of excursions,” and in albums of fine photographic views of the industrial activities in and around Stockton. There are also “ Books of methods,” “ Books of programs,” a monograph on ” The interior decorations of schools,” and a series of books outlining a course in physical training, all by teachers in the Stockton department. Sonoma County illustrates her course of study in a number of bound books and in 3 cabinets filled with drawings, maps, and photographs, chiefiy from the primary and grammar schools of the county. There is also a showcase of native woods and rocks collected by pupils, a statistical table containing data of growth and financial support of schools in the county, and two large photo¬ graphs of high school buildings. Kern County has four cabinets, a manual training exhibit in wood and iron from the county high school, and thirty neatly bound volumes of pupils’ work. The binding in this exhibit was done by pupils in the manual-training depart¬ ment of the Kern County High School. It is perhaps the best illustration of practical skill in handiwork of any displayed in the California exhibit. Under the folds of a beautiful fiag suspended from the inside cornice are three cabinets containing the Ventura County exhibit. Partly concealed by the Stars and Stripes is a lithographic map of Ventura County, showing the location of school districts. Monterey County presents a fine collection of sea shells and other marine fossils from the Pacific. The collection was made by the pupils of Bay dis¬ trict, Monterey County, where such material is used for nature study and language work. This display of Pacific coast shells is much admired by people from the Mississippi Valley States, who are not familiar with marine products. Monterey County has also a cabinet of illustrative work from her schools. Marin County has one cabinet, a number of large books of material from rural and town schools, and some drawings and apparatus made by pupils of EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 889 the San Rafael High School. This display is chiefly representative of the primary and grammar schools of the county, the material having been selected from typical schools and classes. One cabinet and some seventy bound books comprise an exhibit from Santa Cruz County. The display is of both elementary and secondary education. There are many beautiful photographs of the redwood forests and of scenes on the ocean beach, used in connection with both language and geographical work. Two cabinets were secured from Placer County for a display of its schools. The material from the Auburn schools was lost in transit. One cabinet is filled by the county schools, including the Placer County High School. Two schools only are represented in the exhibit from San Bernardino County. The Lugonia and the Kingsbury schools, of Redlands, have each an exhibit both in manual training and in regular lines of everydaj^ activities in their classes. El Dorado, Orange, and Santa Barbara counties have each sent some work to illustrate education in their respective counties. There is a private exhibit of sea mosses and marine algm, scientifically classi¬ fied and well mounted, filling one wall cabinet, from San Diego County. The Hitchcock Military School, at San Rafael, has an exhibit in woodwork representing the course of study in that branch of manual training and display¬ ing the skill of young students in handiwork. The State library, at Sacramento, has three of its traveling libraries, each containing fifty books, on exhibition. It also has a handsome wall cabinet of large photographic views of the leading public libraries of the State, accompa¬ nied by a monograph on California’s public libraries. Several thousand copies of this monograph are for distribution. There is an exhibit from the Von Meyerink School of Music, in San Fran¬ cisco, an exhibit in school architecture showing many fine school buildings of the State, also a model of a school building suitable for California climate, by a firm of architects of San Francisco, and one cabinet of photographs showing manual-training plant of the Wihnerding School, the California School of Me¬ chanical Arts, the Polytechnic High School of San Francisco, and the Anna Blake School for Manual Training, at Santa Barbara. There is an exhibit in wall pictures of the Throop Polytechnic Institute, at Pasadena ; also of the State Polytechnic School, at San Luis Obispo. California’s five State normal schools have a collective exhibit in photog¬ raphy, filling one cabinet and making an attractive wall display. The State institutioi^ for the deaf and the blind has one cabinet, some bound books, and some constructive work made by students in the institution. Administration of the school system of California is displayed in a carefully arranged exhibit from the office of the superintendent of public instruction. It consists of copies of school laws, reports of State superintendent, school registers, and a large book of forms containing blanks of every description used in the administration of schools. A full set of the State school text-books accompanies this exhibit. Pour monographs on education were prepared expressly for the California educational exhibit. A thousand copies of each will be distributed during the time of the exposition. Other literature bearing upon education in California is being gratuitously distributed. Some 5,000 copies of an illustrated report from the Golden Gate Kindergarten Association, of San Francisco, are for free distribution. Ten thousand copies of “ California,” a 200-page book setting forth the activities of the people of the Golden State, including educational activity, are being given away in the different exhibition buildings. Statistical data relating to the public educational system and its means of 890 EDUCATION KEPORT;, 1904. support are found in the biennia! report of superintendent of public instruction, many copies of which have been distributed during the time of the exposition. It has been the aim of those having tiie exhibit in charge to present a fair and full display of the work of California’s schools. While every phase of education may not appear in it, yet the exhibit is sufficiently comprehensive to include all of the State’s leading educational activities. Some things that are distinctively Californian have been emphasized in the material presented for display. The industries of the people, the products of the soil, the fruits and flowers of the State, together with the scenic grandeur of its mountains and forests, have all been used as subject-matter for composition and drawing in the elementary grades. It is worthy of note that some of the exhibits display work showing a close relation between the class room and the industrial activi¬ ties in the neighborhood. At least one large exhibit presents evidence of a successful effort to correlate the work of the school with the work of life. Classes of pupils have been taken to the factories, the mills and the work¬ shops of their city, also the dairies, the orchards, and the vineyards of the surrounding country to study the industries and the products of their locality. Written descriptions, illustrated with drawings and photographs of the things noted, preserve a record of such visits, A like tendency to bring the work of the schools nearer to the people is observable in some exhibits of secondary education, also in several of the courses outlined for college work at the uni¬ versity. This should be especially gratifying to those who have heretofore claimed that the trend of education is in the opposite direction. COLORADO. BY HELEN L. GRENFELL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AND JAMES B, EAGAN, DIRECTOR OF EXHIBIT. ORGANIZATION. The school system of Colorado was formally established by act of the legisla¬ ture in 18G1. Comprehensive enactments were made, and the management of school affairs was placed in the hands of a Territorial superintendent, county superintendents, and district boards. County and district taxation for the sup¬ port of the schools was established, and even in these early days interest and pride in educational conditions were manifest. In 1S76 Colorado was made a State. The school system was established by the constitution, and the statutes gave it equal consideration with other matters of V, ’eight and importance. A superintendent of public instruction was placed at the head of the educational system, and was to be elected at the same time as the governor and other State officials, for a term of two years and with a salary of $3,000. This official provides the questions for county examinations of teachers, held three times a year, edits the school law, gives decisions upon points of school law, and supervises the work of the county superintendents of the whole State. He also distributes the school income fund twice a year to the various counties of the State. He is president of the State board of education and the State board of examiners, and is a member of the State land board. The State school fund is derived from the sale of lands bestowed by act of Congress upon the schools of the State, These amounted originally to some 3,500,000 acres, and are mineral, grazing, and agricultural in character. The EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 891 income from the rentals of these lands and from the interest of the school fund forms the school income fund, which is semiannually distributed as stated above. The other school revenues are derived through a system of local taxation (a general county tax fixed by each hoard of county commissioners, the minimum allowed being 2 mills, and a special tax levied by the electors and varying in amount in the districts of the different classes) and from fines and forfeitures fixed by law. Provision was made in the constitution for the establishment of a State uni¬ versity, and the institution was opened in 1877. It is located in the town of Boulder and has become far-reaching in its influence. Its first president was Dr. Joseph A. Sewall, the position being filled for the past twelve years by Dr. James H. Baker. The university is supported by a two-fifths mill State levy. A school of mines was established at Golden in Territorial days and is a flourishing institution at the present time. Its students receive practical instruc¬ tion in all lines of importance in mining work, such as engineering, assaying, etc., and its graduates may be found in the South African and South American gold fields, Europe, Australia, and Alaska, as well as in important positions throughout our own States. The State Agricultural College was established at Fort Collins in 1879, and is doing excellent work in solving the agricultural problems peculiar to an arid region. The State normal school was established at Greeley in 1890, and yearly sends out a large class of well-equipped teachers, but as yet the supply of teachers obtained from high school and college graduates and the normal school is insuf¬ ficient to meet the demand of the State, which circumstance has attracted instructors from every part of the Union. In 1877 a lav; was enacted providing for the establishment and support of teachers’ normal institutes, the various counties of the State being grouped for the purpose into thirteen institute dis¬ tricts. The county superintendents serve as members of the executive commit¬ tees managing the institutes. The instruction in these institutes is given by educational people of high standing and has been productive of much good, better equipping teachers for the work of the smaller schools. Institutions of importance are the State school for the deaf and blind and the State industrial schools for boys and girls, the work of which is on a thor¬ oughly practical basis and is accomplishing most helpful results for the classes of children concerned. A law providing for the establishment of free kindergartens in any school district was passed in 1893, and provides for the training of children from 3 to 6 years old, the latter being the age of eligibility to enter the regular public school work. The common school work provides for eight years’ elementary and four years’ high school work. The law demands that the elementary schools must be main¬ tained for at least sixteen vreeks in each year to be entitled to a share of the State school income fund. Local school affairs are managed by boards of directors of from three to five members, who are elected by vote of the people, the terms being from three to five years. These boards have full power to employ and discharge teachers, fix the course of study for the scliools, and make rules and regulations governing them. In districts having over 1,000 children of school age the boards have the power to examine and certificate teachers, and also to fix the amount of the special district tax before mentioned. Women in Colorado have ahvays had the right to vote for members of school boards and to be members. Since the granting of full political rights to women, through act of the legislature in 1893, at least one-half of the county superintend- 892 EDUCATION REPORT; 1904. ents have been ^Yomell, and Avomen have continuously filled the office of State superintendent of public instruction since that time. It is held to be largely due to the work of the Avomen that the excellent com¬ pulsory laAYS noAY existing haA^e been passed. These provide that every child betAveen the ages of 8 and 10 shall be sent to a public, private, or parochial school during the entire school year, save that a child over 14 who shall have completed the eighth grade, or may be eligible to enter a high school, or Avhose help is necessary for its OAvn or its parents’ support, if in the latter case such child is being sufficiently instructed at home by a person quali¬ fied, shall not be required to attend school. The laAV also provides for the l)unishment of truant children by commitment to the industrial school or some other training school. Provision is made for the appointment of truant officers, Avhose duty it is to see that the laAV is thoroughly enforced in their district. Children under the age of 14 can not be employed in any factory or other place of business during the school term. All children over 14 and under 10 years of age Avho can not read and write English are required to attend school half the time or have private instruction from some person. Free text-books may be provided by any district school board upon a majority vote of the electors of the district for the pupils in the schools. There is no State system of text-books, each school district having the privilege of using Avhdtever books may be decided upon by its board of directors, the law requiring that changes in text-books be not made oftener than once in four years. The schools of the State are passing more and more into the hands of women, the Avork of the men being practically restricted to the high school grades and principalships. The average Avages per month in graded schools are, for men, $80.65, and for Avomen, $58.58 ; in rural schools, for men, $52.27, and for women, $45.15. The average expenditure per cfiild of school age for school purposes in the year 1904, based upon the total enrollment, Avas $88.76, Avhich includes only expenditures for elementary and high school work. The total expenditure per capita of the population for education in 1904 was $6.41. The groAvth of the State during its tAventy-eight years of existence is plainly shoAAui by the folloAV- ing statistics : Children of school age (6 to 21) in Colorado in — 1877 _ 21, 612 1904 _ 179, 919 Children enrolled in public schools — 1877 _ 14, 085 1904 _ 134, 260 Amount expended for schools — 1877 _ $215, 225 1904 _ $4,103,639 THE COLORADO EXHIBIT. In planning and preparing the exhibit of Colorado for the Louisiana Pur¬ chase Exposition the folloAving purposes Avere kept in mind: First. The schools of the State must be directly benefited in the preparation of the exhibit. In order to accomplish this end it Avas urged that all work be prepared during the preceding school year and with the pupils’ knowledge that some of it Avould be sent to the fair ; also, that the exhibit would be displayed at the school, or at the superintendent’s office, so that parents and others could see Avhat the schools Avere doing and surmise what they would be able to do^ under more fa\mrable conditions. This plan was pursued in many instances, and it proved to be a source of EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 893 much information to the parents as well as the general public and brought both into closer sympathy with the schools and their management. It was also understood that all exhibits of the State would be assembled at Denver prior to being taken to St. Louis, thus giving the added opportunity to see what is being done in other parts of the State. Thousands visited the col¬ lective exhibit. All seemed surprised, and many wondered if the children could do it again. Second. The course of study of each school should be illustrated as fully as possible by the actual work of the pupils in that school, thus benefiting the entire State, as well as the school, by giving opportunity for comparison, if not fur¬ nishing new ideas to students of education at the exposition. Third. The complete system of public education should be shown as an organic whole — from the kindergarten through the elementary, secondary, and higher schools, including the juvenile court and detention house, the industrial school for boys, and the school for girls, the State home for dependent children, and the school for the deaf and blind, the State university, the State normal, the State agricultural college, and the State school of mines. Fourth. There should be demonstrated what can be accomplished in manual training and domestic science in a period of eight or ten years, working one and one-half hours per week in the elementary schools, and three or four times as much in the secondary manual schools. Also the relative importance of these subjects in the courses of study of the various schools in the State, and their influence, if possible, on the remaining subjects taught. Fifth. To show that drawing and art can be correlated with manual training from the kindergarten through the elementary and secondary courses of study, and that they should be so correlated. Sixth. To show the evolution of the schools of Colorado during the past twenty-eight years, relatively and absolutely, by means of six models of school- houses, consisting of the “ dugout,” sod house, log house, modern rural frame house, modern city graded school, and high school ; and by statistical tables showing the growth of interest in education, and the State’s position compared with the other States, with reference to expenditures per capita for school purposes. The substance of the foregoing and many general and special suggestions were embodied in circular form and distributed to superintendents, principals, teach¬ ers, and school authorities throughout the State. In the main only general suggestions were made for the preparation of mate¬ rial to illustrate courses of study. It was not desired to secure uniformity in the work from all the schools of the State, but to give as much freedom as pos¬ sible to teachers and supervisors in preparing their exhibits, provided that the preparation be made with fidelity to their course of study. Special directions were given with reference to certain kinds of drawings and their mounting; to the form of the manuscript work, the original draft with its indicated corrections in red ink to be preserved and bound with the pupil’s corrected copy, thus show¬ ing a teaching process ; the different steps in the production of certain finished pieces in manual training were to be illustrated, and for the same purpose. Special visits were made to superintendents and supervisors, to superinten¬ dents’ and teachers’ associations, and to State institutions, in order to gain and disseminate ideas that might prove helpful in preparing the exhibits. All parts of the State’s exhibit were prepared, collected, arranged, and in¬ stalled in accordance with the purposes and general plan above mentioned. The various kinds of work from each system of schools were installed as a unit, showing the grades in progression rather than by subjects. Some of the most striking exhibits — the “ Evolution of the schoolhouse,” the 894 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. tissue-paper art windo^YS, and the manual training from various schools were placed in the hack part of the booth in such position that no one could fail to see them from the aisle outside. The walls and partitions vrere covered with manual work, maps, charts, photographs, and more than sixty educational leaf cabinets filled with drawings, photographs, and paintings. Nearly two hundred bound volumes of manuscript \\ere displayed on the shelves of the cabinet bases. It was the intention to arrange the exhibits in a simple, orderly, tangible way, so as to attract and hold the attention of the visitor, and at the same time to assist him in following up the illustration of any course of study. Some of the lessons of the exhibit may be summarized as follows : First. In order to be of most value an exhibit must consist largely of the regular school work rather than special work or show work. It should be collected throughout the school year, and ought to show a teaching process wherever possible. Second. Manual training, correlated with drawing and art, is not of impor¬ tance mainly on its own account, but in its bearing and influence, directly or indirectly, on every other subject studied, and through these on the character of the child. The inference might here be made that if manual training one and one-half hours per week is good, three or four hours per week would be better. Third. If the general opinion of visitors be taken as the expression of good judgment, an exhibit should be simple enough to be readily understood, yet complex enough to be educative in its general effect. Fourth. A lesson to the school men of Colorado is that while her schools are doing some things as well as, and some things better than, they are done in other parts of the world, still they are doing other things not so vrell, and ample room for improvement may be found in many parts of the State. CONNECTICUT. BY C. D. HIKE, SECRETARY OE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. THE EXHIBIT. The Connecticut educational exhibit was arranged by towns and cities, except in the portion displayed on the walls. On the south wall are two panels of drav/ings from the Arsenal, Northwest, Northeast, Second North, Brown, and Washington Street schools of tiartford ; charts from New Haven, showing drawing and water colors ; charts of water- color work from New London; charcoal drawings from Middletown. On the north wall are drawings from Middletown ; picture of the New Haven High School ; pottery and basketry, original designs on cloth, leather, and wood from the New Haven schools; woodwork from the Stamford schools. On the east wall are three panels of raffia work and three panels of woodwork from the South School, Ilartford ; three panels of machine work, woodwork, forging, Venetian ironwork, and pottery work from the pupils of the Boardman Manual Training School, New Haven ; four panels of work from the manual training department of the Hartford High School ; two panels from the West Middle School, Hartford, showing specimens of the pupils’ work in drawing and original design. EDUCATION AT TPIE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 895 The Middletown exhibit is shown in cabinets 1 and 2. It consists of papers and illustrated booklets, showing correlation of nature study, language, and drawing, and history and geography with language and drawing. In the cases below are bound volumes of pupils’ work in history, geography, nature study, Latin, physics, essays, drawing ; and from the high school, work in French, German, Latin, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, political economy, Greek history, English. The New Haven exhibit is in cabinets 3 to 15, 53 to 56, inclusive. In these cabinets are exhibited specimens of pupils’ work in drawing, kindergarten, nature study, science, English composition and letter writing, technical grammar, local history. United States history, penmanship, sewing, handicraft work, read¬ ing, arithmetic, suggestions for busy work. On the shelves are shown bound volumes of pupils’ work in the subjects enumerated above, and also of kinder¬ garten work. The high school work is shown in cabinets 12 to 15 and also on the panels above the cases. In the cabinets are shown the blanks used in the high school administration, outline of the courses of study, showing the number of periods devoted to each study, work from the business department, free-hand drawings, mechanical drav.dngs, samples of Vvmrk in sewing, domestic science, botany. Particular attention is called to the photographs of the pieces in wood carving, pottery, Venetian ironwork, shop work, and sewing actually completed by the class graduating from the Boardman Manual Training School in June, 1903. On the shelves are bound volumes of high school pupils’ work in drawing, domestic science, geography. The Hartford exhibit is shown in cabinets 16 to 26 and 32, The high school exhibit is in cabinets 16 to 18, and shows pupils’ work in constructive drawing, free-hand drawing, work from the commercial department. In the cases are bound volumes of constructive drawing, blueprints, business forms, and speci¬ mens of the work of the pupils in the manual-training department. Other speci¬ mens from the manual-training departments are shown on panels above the cabinets. The work from the graded schools is shown in cabinets 19 to 26 and 32, and on the wall space above the cabinets. On the cabinet leaves are shown selected specimens of the pupils’ work in geographj^ arithmetic, technical gram¬ mar, drawing, history, language and literature, nature vrork and science, algebra, geometry, penmanship, both work of the teachers and of the pupils, sewing and cooking outlines. There are on the shelves bound volumes of pupils’ work in all of the subjects mentioned, and also an exhibit of kindergarten work, raffia, Venetian ironwork, basketry work', sewing, and a collection of twigs. The New London scliools exhibit, in cabinet 27, work in history, geography, arithmetic, and grammar. The bound volumes include the subjects mentioned and penmanship and portfolios of drawings. The city of Norwich is represented by work from central district schools and from the schools in the West Chelsea district. The central district shows, in cabinet 28, work from the pupils in the graded schools. There are selected papers in language, literature, history, geography, and nature study. There are bound volumes of Avork in arithmetic, language, history, geography, literature, spelling, nature work, and in the case some mounted butterflies. The West Chelsea district, in cabinet 37, has selected work in arithmetic, history, geogra¬ phy, language, grammar, literature, and drawing, and bound volumes in the same subjects. In the case is an industrial chart on flax, prepared for school use. The Stamford schools use cabinets 29 and 30 for showing commercial work from the high school and from the graded schools pupils’ work in language, read¬ ing, drawing, kindergarten work, and cooking. There are bound volumes of 89G EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. pupils’ work in drawing, bistory, geograpny, miscejianeous work, and portfolios of forms in high school commercial department, drawing, and sewing. In cabinet 31 Bristol shows selected papers in color work, drawing, designs for book covers, sewing, kindergarten work, and on the shelves portfolios of drawing and sewing, bound volumes of pupils’ work in arithmetic, physiology, history, geography, language, and drawing. Work from the rural schools in North Canaan and Prospect is shown in cabi¬ net 33. The work from North Canaan is in English and mathematics, from Prospect in language and in science. There are also bound volumes in English, geometry, and language from these schools. In this cabinet are drawings from Groton, Meriden, and Greenwich, and bound volumes of pupils’ work in drawing, writing, arithmetic, language, and music from Westbrook ; in grammar, arith¬ metic, and spelling from Southington. One volume on this cabinet contains a stenographic report of the entire work of a half day in an ungraded school in Southington. The Waterbury exhibit is in cabinets 3-1, 35, 30. A series of photographs shows the changes that have been made in school buildings in that city during the last ten years. There are specimens of free-hand drawing from the pupils of the high and evening schools ; work of the pupils of the graded schools in civics, primary language, and local history. On the shelves below are bound volumes of pupils’ work in language and history and civics. The Connecticut State normal schools’ exhibit in cabinets 38 to 41. In cabi¬ nets 38 and 30 is shown the work of the children in the model schools of the New Britain Normal School in drawing, nature study, science, stories from Con¬ necticut history, translation from French (Grade YIII) ; the work of the normal school students in the geography of New Britain and vicinity. In the case is shown geological maps of the city and vicinity, prepared by the students. Booklets containing stories from Connecticut history and drawings by the model school children are on the shelves. The exhibit in cabinet 40 was prepared at the Willimantic State Normal School. The organization of the school, course of study, outline of plan for primary arithmetic, primary geography, letter writing, normal school extension, general plan, and typical science lessons are shown on the cabinet leaves. On the shelves are bound volumes of “ Outline of work done in practice school in primary arithmetic ” and “ General plan of teaching letter writing.” The New Haven Normal School shows, in cabinet 41, a “ Plan of com¬ mon school education followed in the State Normal School, New Haven.” In the case is a sample of a science cabinet prepared at the school, to be loaned to the teachers in the public schools of the State. A noteworthy feature of this exhibit is the list of books actually read in the different grades of the model schools connected with this school. On the shelves of cabinet 42 are two sets of Connecticut town reports and a set of the reports of the Connecticut State board of education and samples of library and school documents. The exhibit of the New Britain city schools is shown in cabinets 43 and 44. It consists of papers showing the work of the high school in stenography and typewriting, and graded school work in penmanship, language, spelling, arith¬ metic, algebra, drawing, and kindergarten work. On the shelves are bound vol¬ umes of pupils’ work in language, spelling, arithmetic, algebra, portfolios of drawings, photographs, and kindergarten work. The exhibit of the Deep River schools (town of Saybrook) is arranged in cabinet 45. It consists of papers selected from pupils’ work in algebra, arith¬ metic, number, papers showing the correlation of drawing with language, geog¬ raphy, history, and literature. There are hound volumes of pupils’ work in algebra, arithmetic, and language. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 897 In cabinet 46 the Connecticut public library committee show the library privileges open to the people of the State. There is a map showing the distribu¬ tion of public libraries, charts showing organization and statistics, photographs of the buildings. On the shelves are samples of library and school documents, a library scrapbook, a sample portfolio of Audubon bird charts, sample port¬ folio of pictures loaned by the Society of Colonial Dames. In special cases in front are samples of libraries loaned to the library committee by the Audubon Society and the Society of Colonial Dames. These portfolios and libraries are loaned by the committee to the public schools of the State. The Bridgeport exhibit is in cabinets 47 to 51. In cabinet 47 the Bridgeport City Normal School shows charts prepared by the normal students “ during the discussion and api)lication of the principle concerning the relation of the con¬ crete to the abstract in instruction.” In cabinet 50 the city normal school shows methods in geography and the work of the practice and regular depart¬ ments. In the other cabinets are shown specimens from the art work of the public schools and pupils’ work in arithmetic, language, comi3osition, his¬ tory ; outlines of the methods of teaching music in the schools ; a series of pho¬ tographs illustrating the methods of physical training. There are bound volumes of pupils’ work in drawing, composition, and arithmetic. In cabinet 52 Ansonia shows the city school administration, specimens of the work of the children showing the correlation of drawing and language, pupils' work in number and drawing, and work from the high school. There are bound volumes of pupils’ work in language, geography, history, and Latin. ILLINOIS. BY ALFRED BAYLISS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. ORGANIZATION. The public school system of Illinois is based upon the statutory provision that ” each Congressional township is hereby established a township for school purposes.” The law provides that three trustees shall be elected in each town¬ ship, to hold office for three years, one being elected each year. The trustees appoint a township treasurer, who is under bond, and whose duty it is to receive, hold, and pay out all school moneys, securities, papers, and effects belonging to the township or the school district. The trustees are authorized to “ lay off the township into one or more school districts, to suit the wish or con- A’enience of a majority of the inhabitants of the township.” This provision has led to the establishment Af 11,751 districts, 10,677 of them so small as to require the services of but a single teacher. In each school district having a population less than 1,000 there is a board of three directors, and in each district having more than 1,000 and not over 100,000 inhabitants there is elected a board of education consisting of a presi¬ dent and six members and “three additional members for every additional 10,000 inhabitants.” The term of office of directors and members of boards of education is three years, one-third of the membership being elected annually. The presidents of boards of education are elected as such by the voters annually, and have no vote except in case of a tie. In cities having a population exceed- ED 1904 M - 57 898 EDUCATIOlSr REPOET, 1904. ing 100,000 inhabitants the board of education consists of 21 members appointed by the mayor, by and ^Yitb the advice of the common council, 7 each year, for the term of three years. Boards of education and of directors are authorized to levy taxes to the amount of 21 per cent upon the assessed valuation of all the taxable property in the districts, annuall5% for maintenance, and, when authorized so to do by the electors of the districts, a like amount for building purposes. When authorized by a vote of the electors, boards may also issue bonds for indebtedness to the amount not exceeding 5 per cent of the total valuation. These boards are authorized, and thus empowered, to establish and maintain free schools, employ teachers, adopt text-books for a period not less than four years, and make all necessary rules for the government of the schools, which are free to all residents of the respective districts between the ages of 6 and 21 years. Two or more adjoining townships, or parts of townships, as well as any single Congressional township, may, in a manner provided by law, establish and maintain a “ township high school ; ” such schools, of which there are as yet 33, being governed by a tovnship board of education of 5 members, with the general powers of school directors. In each county there is a county superintendent of schools, elected by the voters of the Avhole county quadrennially and paid by the State. It is the duty of the county superintendent to act as the oflicial adviser of the school officers in his county, to examine and certificate teachers, to visit and supervise the schools. He is required by law “ to spend at least half the time given to his office, and more, if practicable, in visiting ungraded (1 teacher) schools.” No scholastic qualifications are prescribed for the countj^ superintendent. There is a State superintendent of public instruction, elected quadrennially by the voters of the whole State. He is charged with a general supervision of all the common schools of the State ; is the legal adviser of all school 'officers ; must give his opinion upon any question arising under the school law, when requested, and hear and determine controversies coming to him by appeal from the county superintendents, and report the general condition of the schools to the governor biennially. There are five State normal schools, established and maintained by the State, in which tuition is free to all persons preparing to become teachers, subject to an agreement to teach in the schools of Illinois for a specified time, unless employment can not be found. These schools are governed by boards of trus¬ tees appointed by the governor, the State superintendent being ex officio a mem¬ ber of each board. THE ILLINOIS EXHIBIT. The school exhibit made by the State of Illinois represented every grade of school established under the foregoing provisions of law, except in school dis¬ tricts having a population of over 100,000 inhabitants. (At present the school district of the city of Chicago is alone in that class. The exhibit from that city was a unit by itself and was maintained as such.) The State commission pro¬ vided the booth, received the material, and authorized the State superintendent of public instruction to install it. Except a very small allowance to each normal school, all expenses connected with the preparation of material and transport¬ ing it to and from the exposition were borne by the districts. It is, therefore, not possible accurately to estimate the cost of the exhibit. The first request to districts to participate in the exhibit was made as late as November 1, 1903. At that time all schools under boards of education, except in cities of over 100,000 inhabitants, and all county superintendents were invited to send material, subject to the following classification and suggestions: EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 899 Classification of Schools. Group I. — Elementary education. Class 1. Country schools. Class 2. SemigTadecl schools. Class 3. .Graded schools. Group II. — Seeondary education. Class 4. High schools. Class 5. Normal schools. Under this classification it is desired to exhibit : 1. Legislation, organization, general statistics. 2. Buildings — photographs, plans, models. 3. Administrative methods. 4. Results obtained by methods of instruction. Material op Exhibit. Class I. — Country schools. 1. The design of the best one-room schoolhouse in the county, to include floor plans and method of heating and ventilating. 2. Photographs of ten of the best one-room school buildings in the county, preferably with pupils and teachers in front of the buildings. 3. Photographs of every school building in ten or more counties, as above. 4. Photographs of groups and classes of pupils at w'ork. 5. Photographs of school libraries, museums, .natural history collections, etc. 6. Photographs of school gardens. 7. Manual training work of all kinds. 8. Collections of written work, honestly prepared and intelligently labeled, bound in volumes arranged by grades, so as to clearly and faithfully illustrate the solid and indispensable work of the school. 9. Free-hand dravdng, color work, illustrations, map drawing, etc. 10. A bound collection of circulars, programmes of teachers’ meetings, school papers, and other printed matter used by the county superintendents in admin¬ istrative work. Class II. — Semiyraded schools. Material for exhibits from schools of this class may be chosen from the items enumerated for country schools or graded schools, in the discretion of teachers, acting under the advice of the county superintendents. All schools in buildings with fewer than eight rooms may be counted in this class. Class III. — Graded schools. 1. In this class should be placed schools in buildings with eight or more rooms for grades below the high school. For work done in this class the unit is the city, and material may be prepared under the direction of the city super¬ intendent or corresponding othcer. To the itemized suggestion of material under Class I may be added apparatus, appliances, models, and materials used in teaching each of the eight grades ; lists of supplementary and collateral read¬ ing, reference books, maps, charts, magazines, and newspapers in use ; printed courses of study, manuals of directions, blanks, reports, records, etc. ; pro¬ grammes, rules and regulations, annual reports, and other printed matter. 2. Photographs of all school buildings in the city, showing pupils and teachers at work, as well as exteriors and playgrounds. 3. Statistical charts, diagrams, and tables showing graphicallj^ the important facts in regard to the population, the number and kind of schools, number of teachers, number of pupils, cost of instruction, etc. 900 EDUCATION EEPORT;, 1904. Class .—High schools. 1. A photograph of each and every building in Illinois used exclusively for high school purposes is earnestly desired. 2. Photographs of physical, chemical, and biological laboratories and the assembly rooms are especially desired. 3. Photographs of manual training and household arts departments, showing equipment and pupils at work. 4. The school grounds, shown by topographical maps and photographs. 5. School gymnasiums, games, and outdoor sports. 6. Printed lists of text-books, libraries, and collateral reading lists. 7. Courses of study. 8. A graphic representation of the history of the school, showing number of graduates, their present occupations, the per cent of pupils who have gone to college, higher technical, or professional schools, and other data tending to illustrate the plans, methods, and ideals of the school. 9. Choice specimens of pupils’ work in physics, chemistry, biology, and in manual training. 10. Bound volumes of the written work of the pupils, intelligently labeled to show conditions under which the work was done. Class A. — formal schools. 1. Topographical map of grounds. 2. Photographs of grounds and buildings. 3. Photographs of interior views of libraries, class rooms, laboratories, etc. 4. Publications of the school or of members of the faculty. 5. Theses of students, graduates, or undergraduates. 6. Special methods of instruction and pieces of apparatus invented at or peculiar to an institution. 7. The course of study, equipment, maintenance, history, and purposes of the school shown by charts, catalogues, jmarbooks, etc. 8. A representative collection of work done by pupils in the practice school. 9. A representative collection of students’ written work, with especial refer¬ ence to those forms peculiar to normal schools, as observation notes, lesson plans, and the like. 10. A pamphlet for judicious free distribution, to include paragraphs explan¬ atory of the objective exhibit as well as a retrospective view of the school. The exhibit thus assembled was necessarily more or less unbalanced. The late date of the initiatory steps and the somewhat inadequate allowance for nec¬ essary expenses also operated to some extent as handicaps. Evidences that it had been collected and arranged on short notice were not wanting. It had, how¬ ever, the merit of fidelity to actual and, perhaps, average conditions, and was more than ample in quantity. The exhibit included 3,500 photographs, 1,200 volumes of written work, 3,000 pieces of hand work, 7,000 drawings, an excellent model of a school building recently erected for the use of a “ consolidated ” country school, a model of an unusually good type of one-room schools, and a topographical map and model of the grounds and buildings of the Carbondale Normal School — the work of students of that institution. No features of this exhibit stood out in very bold relief as more excellent than others. Its characteristic was the completeness with which it represented, as far as it is possible to do so objectively, present conditions in the common schools of a wealthy State in which the school system is so organized as to leave almost everything to local initiative. From this point of view its uniformity was remarkable. Sixty-eight city and village school districts, 11 township high schools, 29 counties (country schools), and 5 normal schools were represented. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 901 There were variations in quality and quantity, but no decided premiership in any group. It is believed, too, that it would be quite possible to assemble, without notice, from the current school work in Illinois an equivalent or even better exhibit without in any way varying the routine of the schools for that purpose — given the authority to select and take the material wherever found. Had more time, money, and forethought been expended upon this exhibit it might, perhaps, have been more uniformly excellent, and certainlj^ more artis¬ tically installed, but at the risk of making it more impressive to the casual observer and at the expense of fidelity to actual conditions and value to the student of things as they are. Upon this last consideration must be based whatever claim of excellence is made for the exhibit as a whole. INDIANA. BY W. A. MILLIS, DIRECTOR. ORGANIZATION. In the State of Indiana elementary education is almost exclusively a func¬ tion of the State. In rural communities and in most towns the public school is the only school known to the people. In the cities desultory systems of paro¬ chial schools are maintained, and in the larger cities a small number of poorly attended private schools exist. The chief provision for secondary education is in the more than 1,000 public high schools. These are supplemented by 26 acade¬ mies, seminaries, and preparatory schools under private or ecclesiastical control. The facilities for higher education comprise two State universities, one organ¬ ized in the direction of the liberal arts and the professions, the other in the direction of technology and engineering, and 20 other colleges and universities. The relative extent of public education as compared with education under all other control is shown in the table of enrollments below. The numbers are approximate : Department. Enrolled in pnblic or State schools. Enrolled in all other schools. Elementary . . . 556,000 38, 650 2,893 1,791 5,000 Secondary . . . - . . . . . 1,800 3,703 5,242 Higher education . . . . Normal schools . . . . . ADMINISTRATION. The spirit which pervades the organization and administration of the public school system of Indiana is reflected in the purpose to provide “ open paths from every corner of the State through the schools to the highest and best things which men can achieve.” The public school system provides for three circles or spheres of administra¬ tion : (a) The State, (h) the county, and (c) the township, town, or city. In each sphere the administrative bureau comprises an executive oflicer and a board of education, which in some respects sustains an advisory relation to the 902 EDUCATION REPOET;, 1904. executive and in other respects a superior relation. The State bureau of education is composed of the State board of education and the State superin¬ tendent of public instruction. The State board of education is composed of eleven members, eight of whom are jnembers ex ofRcio and three are appointed by the governor of the State. The ex officio members are the presidents of the two State universities, the president of the State normal school, the superin¬ tendents of public schools of the three largest cities of the State, the governor, and the State superintendent of public instruction. The three members ap¬ pointed by the governor must be actively engaged in educational work, and at least one must be a county superintendent of schools. The State board of edu¬ cation is charged with general responsibility for the certification of teachers. It prepares all questions used and issues regulations governing the conduct of examinations. It is thus charged with the control of teaching standards. The State board selects and adopts text-books used in the elementary schools throughout the State. It inspects public high schools and the State normal school, prepares courses of study for the high schools, and establishes a uni¬ form requirement for such schools as wish to be accredited as preparing for admission to the colleges and universities. It also supervises the University of Indiana to the extent of appointing five of the eight trustees of the institution. The State superintendent of public instruction is elected biennially by direct vote of the people. He is charged with the supervision of all school funds and revenues, the disbursement of school revenues, the preparation of courses of study for the elementary schools, the general supervision of educational con¬ ditions throughout the State, the promotion of educational progress, and the duty of advising the general assembly of needed legislation. He is ex officio president of the State board of education and a member of the board of trustees of the State normal school. The county bureau is composed of the county superintendent of schools and the county board of education. This board is composed of an ex officio member¬ ship, the trustees of the several townships into which the county is divided. The chief function of this body is the selection of the county superintendent of schools and the truant officer. The county superintendent holds his office for a term of four years, conducts examinations and issues licenses to teachers, conducts institutes and other teachers’ meetings, supervises the location of schoolhouses, advises in the selection of teachers, inspects schools and directs their management and the instruction. Rural schools are under the management of the township trustee, who selects and employs teachers, provides houses and equipment, and holds or causes to bo held township teachers’ institutes. He must submit all financial matters to an advisory board for approval. The schools of incorporated towns and cities are under the control of a board of school trustees, consisting of three members appointed by the common council. This board is charged with all details of direct school management, but may and in all cases does employ a superin¬ tendent, to whom is delegated all details of instruction and government, and in many cases all executive functions, the board retaining a general supervisory function. In the city of Indianapolis this division of function is required by law. The school system is supplemented by a number of voluntary agencies, con¬ spicuous among which are the Teachers’ Reading Circle, a State organization of more than 13,000 teachers, who study Uyo professional books each year ; the Young People’s Reading Circle, with a membership of several thousand pupils ; three general teachers’ associations, with a combined membership of more than 6,000, and meeting annually ; ninety-two county associations, and a number of EDUCATIOIT AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 903 associations of teachers of special branches. In nearly every community of prominence a well-organized public library is maintained in close correlation with the public schools. THE INDIANA EXHIBIT. By an act of the general assembly, effective March 9, 1903, a commission was created and empowered to provide for an adequate representation of the re¬ sources, industries, progress, institutions, and attainments of the State at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The act conferred upon the commission full authority to determine the nature and extent of exhibits, to employ agents for the organization and management of such exhibits, and carried an appropriation of $150,000, of which amount $10,000 were appropriated for the purpose of an exhibit of educational facilities and progress. The commission appointed three of its own iiiembers a committee on education. This committee at once re¬ quested the indorsement of the project by the State board of education and the cooperation of the State superintendent of public instruction in the preparation of the exhibit. A superintendent was appointed and given large liberty in the organization and management of the exhibit. The principle which guided in the selection and organization of material for the exhibit was the purpose to show three things by means of a cross section of school work ; 1. The physical and personal equipment of schools of all grades from the kindergarten to the university and in all parts of the State. 2. The scope and organization of instruction. 3. The standards of efficiency or excellence in schools of all kinds in all parts of the State and in all departments of education, and giving thus the objective of the conscious effort of teachers and school officials. The effort was to select material with reference to the evident standard of excellence in each school corporation, not with reference to the standard of any one corporation nor to a State standard, nor to conform to the opinion of any judge or group of judges as to what constitutes satisfactory school wmrk. It was the purpose to make the exhibit historically true, an exhibit of Indiana school conditions and tendencies rather than a display of special features which were particularly strong. Material was accepted not with reference to its inherent worth, but because it was adjudged to be representative of what the contributing schools were satisfied to send out as a portrayal of the scope, organization, and efficiency of their educational effort. ■ Little more than two months were given the schools in which to prepare their contributions to the exhibit. It was expected that a more truly representative portrayal of actual school work would be secured because the time was short. The material offered was necessarily a cross section of regular daily work. While the result could not be so attractive as an exposition feature, it certainly was more valuable for the student of educational conditions and of more value to the exhibiting schools, because it was a truer reflection of the actual situation. In every instance the contributing corporation exhibited the scope and character of school work of all grades maintained in the system and in all subjects of study and training provided. Something of the generally representative character of the exhibit is shown in the fact that such portrayal of the whole system was made by 82 counties of the 92 in the State, by 127 towns and cities, and by most of the colleges and normal schools. Indiana was awarded a floor space of approximately 1,700 square feet near the southeast entrance in the Palace of Education. This floor space was divided into two sections, each of which was inclosed in an attractive fagade 12 feet high, stained cherry and relieved with green draperies. The written matter was 904 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. bound in uniform volumes, half leather, of about 400 pages each. Photographic and art exhibits were mounted on boards, uniform in size, weight, and color, and exhibited in swing-leaf cabinets. Exhibits of manual training were shown in wall frames and in glass cases, with which most of the wing-frame cabinets were fitted. In all, 101 New Jersey School and Church Furniture Company wing- frame cabinets, a number of sections of the Globe- Wernicke bookcases, and a complement of library tables and chairs were used. Material used, for the most part, was drawn from regular class exercises in which all pupils belonging to the class participated, and was selected as typical in form, method, and content of the regular instruction. The written work was done on uniform paper, from first draft work vrithout correction, and arranged in volumes, first by subjects, and then by grades. The written exercises filled some 700 volumes, aggregating about 300,000 pages. The exhibit included also about 20,000 photographs and pieces of art work, beside many hundreds of pieces of manual work. Wall charts exhibited the location and strength of reading circles, the location of schools and distribution of all the public school teachers of the State. The administrative system was shown by means of graphics and specimens of all forms, blanks, outlines, bulletins, courses of study, reports, and other publications of the department, the whole filling three cabinets. A com¬ plete exhibit of text-books used in the public schools at the present time was thrown into relief bj- a collection of the books used prior to 1860. The display of each corporation was shown as a unit. These units were so placed as to group the exhibits of higher and professional education in one part, the larger cities in another, the smaller cities in a third, the rural schools in a fourth, and the exhibits of the reading circles and of the administrative system in a fifth. It was thus easy for the visitor to go at once to the particular kind of work he wished to see. It also gave each kind of school the most favorable setting. A conspicuous feature of the exhibit was the quantity and character of peda¬ gogical literature displayed and distributed. In addition to the full set of text¬ books displayed, there was shown a complete set of books of both the teachers’ and young people's reading circles. Besides the hundreds of copies of the School Law, the State Course of Study, institute outlines, department bulle¬ tins, Arbor Day boolvS, directories, and department reports which were distrib¬ uted to students of education, the State university published a thousand-copy edition of a \olume in which the history of the university is reprinted, together with a bibliography of the publications by faculty and alumni of the institu¬ tion, and a very careful and unique studj" of the evolution of the curriculum from the narrow academic course of 1829 to the full university organization of to-day. State Superintendent Cotton published a specially prepared volume of over GOO pages explaining, respectively, in three divisions, the administration and status of elementary, secondary, and higher education in Indiana. Two thou¬ sand five hundred copies of this volume were distributed. State Librarian Henry supplemented his large exhibit of the public library system of the State with a neat volume, specially prepared for the exposition, containing the history of every public and municipal library of the Commonwealth. The reading- circle board prepared and distributed several thousand copies of a neat bro¬ chure containing the history of the reading-circle movement in Indiana and a catalogue of all the books which have been used. Aside from the representative character of the exhibit, the most conspicuous displays made by Indiana were the portrayal of the equipment, organization, and instruction in the rural schools of the State, the exhibit of rural-school consolidation, of the reading circles, and of the schools of the city of Indian- EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 905 apolis as representing the standard of efficiency toward wfiicfi all of the schools of the State are striving. Examination of the Indiana exhibit revealed the fact that her teachers are awake to educational problems and movements. They are thinking and attempting to work out their problems in the schoolroom. It also revealed that Indiana schools, in common with most schools in this country, have in recent years failed to give sufficient emphasis to the formal elements of education. Sufficient time is not devoted to training as distinguished from instruction. The critical attitude of mind is stimulated, to the neglect of the art of doing things properly. The schools too much assume in children the power of self- criticism and of self-correction. The chief weakness shown, in the conduct of elementary schools particularly, is the lack of a clearly defined and consistently applied philosophy of education. This is manifest in the lack of system in the scheme of instruction. At least four results should be realized from the exhibit; 1. A better definition of the lines and direction of educational effort. 2. A steadying of educational thought. 3. Increase of faith in public education, with increased liberality of support. 4. The establishment of definite and higher standards of excellence in the work of the schools. INDIAN TERRITORY. BY JOHN D. BENEDICT, SUPERINTENDENT. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit of Indian Territory in the department of education was installed in the Territorial building, and consisted mainly of the following : First. A collection of regular examination papers and written recitations. Second. A collection of drawings, free-hand. Third. A collection of maps drawn by pupils. Fourth. A collection of oil paintings. Fifth. Samples of sewing, of all grades, from plain stitching to fine embroidery and lace work. Sixth. Samples of woodwork from Indian schools. Examination papers were contributed by some of the public and private schools for white children, but nearly all of our hand work, or industrial dis¬ play, is the work of Indian children, as is also much of our written work. Our exhibit demonstrates the fact that in all kinds of hand work (writing, drawing, wood carving, and needlework) the Indian children excel the whites, while in mental work they are somewhat slower than white children. KANSAS. BY JOHN MACDONALD, DIRECTOR. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. The State superintendent is elected biennially. He is required to visit each county at least once in two years, and to give his opinions on questions and controversies arising out of the interpretation and construction of the school 906 EDUCATIOiT KEPORT; 1904. laws. He is ex-officio chairman of the State board of education and of the State text-book commission, and is a member of the board of school-fund commis¬ sioners. Salary, $2,500 per year. County superintendents are elected biennially. Each must hold a profes¬ sional certificate, or a first or second grade certificate, or must be a graduate o? an accredited college or normal school, and must have taught at least eighteen months. Must visit each school in his county at least once each term of six months. May in conjunction with district board dismiss teachers for cause. Each school district board is composed of a director, clerk, and treasurer, elected at annual meeting ; term, three years ; one retires annually. Board employs all teachers. Boards of education in cities are composed of three members from each ward in cities of first class; if more than four wards, two from each ward; term, three years. In cities of second class, two members from each ward ; term, two years. In country school districts the maintenance is largely from local tax. Maximum allowed, 2 per cent. In cities 8 mills on each dollar of valuation is the maximum. When popula¬ tion is 30,000 or more, 15 mills (including building tax) may be levied. Maximum in cities of the second class, 15 mills. The State board of education is composed of the superintendent of ])ublic instruction, chancellor of the State university, president of the State agri¬ cultural college, and president of the State normal school as members ex- officio. Three others, selected from among those engaged in school work are appointed by the governor. Term of office, two years. The State superin¬ tendent is chairman. The State board may issue State certificates on examination, valid for three or five years or for life. Graduates of colleges or universities anywhere in the United States, whose courses are approved by the board, may receive certificates based upon their college grades, provided that such graduates pass an examina¬ tion in philosophy of education, Kansas school law, methods of teaching, school management, and psychology. The county superintendent and two persons, holders of first-grade certificates or of diplomas from the State university. State normal school, or State agri¬ cultural college, compose the county board of examiners. The superintendent is chairman ex-officio. All questions used in the examination of county teachers are prepared by the State board of education. A normal institute lasting not less than four weeks must be held annually in each county. The institute is under the management of the county superin¬ tendent. He employs a conductor and instructors, who must have certificates from the State board of education. The course of study followed in the institute is prepared by the State board ot education. All men and women 21 years of age or more, who are residents of the district or precinct, have the right to vote at every school meeting in the country districts, or for members of the board in cities. Text-books are adopted every five years for all the schools in the State by a State text-book commission, of which the State superintendent is chairman ex-officio. It consists of eight members, appointed by the governor. Not more than three shall be selected from any one political party. Boards of education in city and country may levy a tax not to exceed one-half mill upon the dollar for the equipment and maintenance of industrial-training schools or industrial-training departments. Every school district may vote a tax annually, not to exceed 2 mills on the EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 907 dollar, for the buying of books for the school library. The board in its pur¬ chases is limited to history, biography, science, and travels. Every child between the ages of 8 and 15, inclusive, must be sent to a public, private, denominational, or parochial school, taught by a competent instructor, during the whole school year. The law is enforced by truant officers. THE EXHIBIT. The director of the Kansas educational exhibit. Chancellor Frank Strong, of the University of Kansas, was appointed early in September, 1903, and later in the month John MacDonald, editor of the Western School Journal, was selected by the director to superintend the work. The preliminary circulars were sent out early in October. They asked for photographs of representative school buildings, with children and teachers in front ; photographs of interiors, showing decorations, school libraries, apparatus, and children at work ; photographs of children at play ; manuscripts of pupils’ work in the grades or classes of country and city schools ; relief maps, draw¬ ings, botanical and entomological specimens ; articles showing the work in manual training schools ; kindergarten work ; catalogues, programmes, courses of study in country schools, graded and high schools ; photographs of grounds ; international, interstate, and intercity children’s correspondence ; original charts made by teachers — for instance, in language and numbers ; architects’ model plans of one-room country schoolhouses, showing interior, elevation, plan for heating and ventilating, grounds, and closets ; architects’ model plans showing improved ways of lighting, heating, and ventilating gram¬ mar and high school buildings; progressive maps in geography; scrapbooks used in history, geography, or literature classes ; free-hand and mechanical drawing, nature-study charts ; photographs of pioneers in school work in country or city. There were prompt and hearty responses from city and country and from the higher institutions, and it was soon evident that Kansas would need all the space assigned to it and probably more. The Kansas booths were the first com¬ pleted in the Education Building. The structure was built of cypress and was 45 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 15 feet high. The number of large maps, relief and plane, of photographic groups, of articles from manual training schools, and the many cards of drawings made it necessary to use not only the side and end walls, but to build six interior partitions to furnish additional sur¬ faces. The total wall area was 3,828 square feet, or 425 square yards. The total cost of the exhibit, including the structure, furniture, salaries, and transportation, was about $6,000. The open installation, as it is termed, has its advantages in that it makes fanciful decorations possible, but with a limited floor space, vacuums and columns put a complete exhibit of school work out of the question. The Kansas space was between two public aisles, and these were connected by a central aisle 7 feet wide. On one side of this aisle were the exhibits from the ele¬ mentary schools, classified iii alcoves, three in number, as rural schools, city schools, and manual training. The other side of the central aisle was given to higher education, divided into alcoves as in the elementary department, and containing work from the University of Kansas, the Kansas State Normal School, the county high schools, and the church colleges. On the upper part of the walls a series of large cards, 71 in number and lettered so that they could be easily read from the floor, was placed in the form of a frieze. On each card there was given in the fewest possible words 908 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. information concerning the Kansas schools and the result of their work. Here are several which may serve to show the character of the rest : The total amount of money raised for all purposes in Kansas in 1903-4 was $16,903,157.50. Of this amount $4,882,327, nearly one-third of the whole, was for the support of the public schools. Education should he as broad as man. Emerson. Kansas has 30 colleges, 434 high schools and academies, and 8,979 public schools. Miniature normal schools — The total attendance in the normal institutes of Kansas in 1903 was 10,119. Women have the right to vote in every school district in Kansas, in county and city. A cheerful giver — The tax to support the public schools is the tax the Kansan pays with the greatest cheerfulness. It is estimated that at least 90 per cent of the Kansas teachers are members of Christian churches. In the elementary department there was work of some kind from about 400 country school districts and from 104 cities. Many of the smaller cities repre¬ sented are under the jurisdiction of county superintendents ; hence their ex¬ hibits may properly be considered as part of the display from rural schools. In the Kansas school exhibit the work of the elementary schools was made prominent, and the subjects taught in the grades below the high school were given the place of honor. Class work in orthography, writing, language, gram¬ mar, geography. United States history, arithmetic, and physiology was mainly in book form. There were in the exhibit about 350 neatly bound books of written exercises. In the cabinet cases drawing, photographs, and kinder¬ garten work were displayed. While the kindergarten is not yet made by law a part of the Kansas school system, it has worked its way into primary rooms everywhere in city and country, and it is probable that the display of kinder¬ garten work in the Kansas cases was as complete as any other exhibit of the kind in the building. In addition to that sent from the public schools there was a special exhibit of the work done in the Sheldon Kindergarten, Topeka. This school has been maintained a number of years by Rev. Charles M. Sheldon, Topeka, and his congregation. The elevating and refining results of this kin¬ dergarten work for negro children are plainly visible in the homes represented in the school. Considering that manual training is still in its infancy in Kansas, the superior skill shown in the woodwork, sewing, and clay modeling exhibited by Kansas City, Pittsburg, Wichita, Topeka, Lawrence, Saiina, and Seneca, and the county of Pawnee was noticeable. The acts passed by the legislature of 1903, authorizing small grants to cities or schools maintaining manual training departments, will stimulate many boards of education to begin the work, and the manual training exhibit which Kansas will send to the next world’s fair, wherever it may be, will demand much larger space than could have been granted in 1904. It should be said that in the Kansas State Normal School and in the Kansas State Agricultural College the training of the hand is not a new study and that both institutions sent fine specimens of their work to St Louis. The higher institutions were shown mainly in a pictorial form in our booths. The University of Kansas was seen in a collection of 55 photographs, in which nearly all the buildings and class rooms spoke effectively to the eye, and the work of the State agricultural college was made clearly visible through 144 photographs in a revolving machine attached to an electric motor in our central aisle. The class work of the agricultural college was a part of the EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 909 exhibit made by the United States Department of Agriculture in another part of the Education building. Fine drawings, miscellaneous work in wood, pho¬ tographs, and written class work represented the Kansas State Normal School. Perhaps the exhibit which attracted the most attention was that of the county high schools of Kansas. It was studied by many because of its unique¬ ness, for it was the only exhibit of its kind in the Palace of Education; by others because it proved that in Kansas the articulating of the rural schools by the means of county high schools with the higher institutions of learning is no longer an experiment. Twelve of the 19 schools now established in the State were represented in our booths by written work, drawings, and pho¬ tographs, while tables of statistics and a map showed to every visitor how important a part of the Kansas school system the county high schools have become. There are 19 of them now in successful operation and more are coming. As the exhibits from the Kansas State School for the Blind and the State School for the Deaf were in the living form, it was necessary to find space for them in another part of the building. The recitations given daily during several weeks in the summer by the nine children brought to the fair by Supt. Lapier Williams, of the School for the Blind, and by Supt. H. C. Ham¬ mond, of the School for the Deaf, kept the aisles in front of the class rooms thronged while the exercises were in progress. Both exhibits demonstrated to thousands of interested spectators the skill, faithfulness, and kindness which characterize the teaching in both institutions. After a careful inspection of the Kansas school exhibit one acquainted with the progress of education in the State wouid easily come to the following conclusions : 1. That the work in the schools of Kansas has made a great advance since the world’s fair of 1903. 2. That improvement in the teaching of all the studies usually taught in ele- mentaiy schoois is distinctly visible. 3. That solid foundations have been laid for enduring work in manual train¬ ing from the liindergarten to the high school. 4. That blind experimenting in the teaching of drawing is disappearing and that the demand is growing for more skillful work and more competent super¬ vision. 5. That while the highest and noblest work done in our schools — the making of character— can not be shown in an exhibit, there was an atmosphere environ¬ ing the material things on vcalls and tables and in cases which sureiy must have conveyed to every visitor the impression that the government and moral influ¬ ences in the schools of Kansas make for righteousness and the highest type of citizenship. MASSACHUSETTS. BY GEOKGE H. MARTIN AND GEORGE E. GAY. ORGANIZATION. I. - THE STATE SYSTEM. The system of public education in Massachusetts is characterized by a maxi¬ mum of local independence with a minimum of central control. The Btate hoard of education. — The State board of education consists of the governor and lieutenant-governor, ex officiis, and eight others appointed by the governor for a term of eight years, one retiring annualiy. 910 EDUCATIOIT EEPORT;, 1904. The board is responsible for the management of the State normal schools, ten in number, the holding of institutes, the gathering and publishing of the school statistics of the State, and other matters defined by statute. The secretanj. — The secretary of the board of education is usually classed with the State superintendents of schools. He works partly under the direction of the board and partly under the immediate direction of the statutes. His principal duties may be summarized as follows : To make abstracts of school returns, collect information respecting the condition and efficiency of the public schools and other means of popular education, and distribute the same for the benefit of the general court and the public ; to visit schools, make educational addresses, and serve as one of the two commissioners of the Massachusetts school fund ; to perform such miscellaiieons duties as would naturally fall to the chief executive officer of the board. Agents. — The board employs several officers called agents. Their duty is to visit the schools, confer with teachers and the school authorities, give educa¬ tional addresses, and in general to promote through advisory means the welfare of the public schools. The State sehool fund. — The school fund is ^5,000,000. The entire income of the school fund is divided among those towns of the State whose valuation is less than two and a half millions of dollar. Forms of financial aid hy the State. — These are as follows: 1. Distribution of income of school fund. 2. Tuition of high school pupils in out-of-town high schools. 3. Part of the salary of district superintendents. 4. Tuition and support of deaf, blind, and feeble-minded children. 5. Fortj' scholarships each in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. C. Annual appropriations to the State and county teachers’ associations. 7. Support of normal schools. S. Several scholarships in the Massachusetts Agricultural College. ir. - LOCAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Each town and city is a unit in the management of its schools. There are no local subdivisions for support or control. Kinds of schools. — The highly organized system of the cities and larger towns comprises kindergartens, primary schools, grammar schools, high schools, and evening schools. xV few support vacation schools. In the more sparsely settled communities the ungraded school is still the prevailing type. High sehools. — These schools are required in towns having more than 500 families. They are authorized in smaller towns. Towns which do not maintain high schools must pay for the tuition of properly qualified pupils who desire to attend high schools in other towns. For such tuition the State reimburses towns whose property valuation is low. Evening schools. — Evening elementary schools are required in towns and cities whose population exceeds 10,000, and evening high schools in cities having an excess of 50,000, if petitioned for by fifty or more residents over fourteen years of age who desire to attend such a school. Vacation schools. — Vacation schools are not required, but are being estab¬ lished in increasing numbers. Courses of study. — The State in statutes names certain studies which must be taught in all schools and others which may be taught. It also fixes a minimum length of the school year, but it prescribes no course of study. Each town and city fashions its own. Elementary schools must be maintained for at least thirty-twm weeks in each EDUCATION" AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION". 911 year, but in towns having a specified low valuation the term may be reduced to twenty-eight weeks. High schools must be provided with courses at least four years in length and must be continued at least forty weeks in each year. Graded schools throughout the State are organized generally on a basis of a thirteen years’ course, with annual promotions. Frequently the first three grades are organized by themselves into primary schools in separate buildings. The next six grades form the grammar schools and the last four the high schools^. Selection and pay of teachers. — The local school committees have full power to appoint and discharge teachers. Annual election of teachers is the prevailing custom, but committees are authorized to elect “ to serve during the pleasure of the committee,” and in Boston and some other cities teachei’s are so elected after serving a prescribed number of years, and enjoy permanence of tenure. Support of the schools. — Schools are supported mainly under the general law — • “ Towns shall raise by taxation money necessary for the support of public schools.” The amount raised by local taxation is supplemented by State aid in some towns. A few small local funds are also available. In Boston the amount to be raised for school purposes is limited by law to a fixed ratio of the valua¬ tion ; elsewhere it is unlimited. Conveyance of children. — In some towns neighboring small schools have been consolidated; in some others all the children are brought to one central building. Local supervision. — In each town and city the schools are in charge of an elective body called the school committee. "SVomen may vote for members of this body, and women may also serve on it. The members are chosen for three years, one-third retiring annually. Every town and city, either alone or in a union district with other towns, is required to employ through its school committee a superintendent of schools to have the care and supervision of the schools, under the direction and control of the committee. In order that all the towns may enjoy the benefits of profes¬ sional supervision, small towns are required to unite in districts and employ a superintendent. III. - SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND TRUANCY. The period of required school attendance is between the ages of 7 and 14. Children between these ages must attend all the time the schools are in session. For the care of habitual truants the counties are required either separately or jointly^ to maintain county truant schools, to which boys may be committed after con-viction, on complaint of a truant officer. Truant girls are sent to the State Industrial School for Girls. IV. - EISEPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN. No child under the age of 14 years may bti employed in any factory, work¬ shop, or mercantile establishment. No such child may be employed for wages during the hours when the schools are in session, nor before 6 o’clock in the morning, nor after 7 o’clock in the evening. No child under 16 may be employed without an age and schooling certificate approved by the superintendent of schools. THE EXHIBIT. An educational exhibit may serve several purposes. It may^ show the best written work of the best pupils, as an agricultural exhibit shows the best corn and wheat. It may show an educational plant, schoolhouses, grounds, appa¬ ratus, etc. It may show courses of study and methods of instruction. It mav show statistics of work done, of growth and development. It may show 912 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. methods of school organization and administration. In general, it may show what the people of a community or State believe to be worth doing for school children and what they believe it to be worth while for children to do in school ; for we have come to understand that children can do many different things well and with some advantage to themselves and the community, and that the crucial question in i3ublic education is, On what things and for how long time shall school children be employed during the hours that they are in school? The Massacliusetts exhibit served all these purposes, but its emphasis was laid upon school organization, courses of study, and means and methods of instruc¬ tion. It was not primarily an exhibit of fine penmanship, though penmanship was treated as an important school exercise. It was not specifically an exhibit of drawing, though drawing was represented as holding a high position among the several studies taught in the schools of Massachusetts. It was not an exhibit of manual training, though several excellent courses of study in this department were shown. It was not a collection of pretty exercises made by pupils and teachers for exhibition at the World’s Fair; happily, their day has passed. In a general way the things represented by the exhibit maj^ be classified and described as follows : 1. School organization, shown by reports, charts, and printed pamphlets. 2. School architecture, shown by photographs of school buildings. 3. Courses of study, shown by printed pamphlets, descriptive charts, and illustrative exercises selected from the writtcji work of school children. These were shown in the wall cabinets, 114 in number, which lined the walls and filled the alcoves of the exhibit booth, and formed the most prominent feature of the exhibit. 4. Illustrative school apparatus, designed and made by school children. This was placed in show cases and on exhibit tables. 5. Manual and industrial training models, including sewing, made by pupils, arranged in logical order and numbered serially. These were placed on the walls of the booth above the cabinets, in show cases, and in drawers beneath the exhibit tables. 6. Bound volumes of class exercises prepared and copied as special World’s Fair work. 7. Bound volumes and pamphlet cases of class exercises, original drafts, pre¬ pared as regular exercises without the knowledge of anyone that they were to be used for exhibition. 8. Bound volumes and pamphlet cases of class exercises prepared as in No. 7, with corrections by the teacher, followed by revised copies made by pupils. 9. The exhibit of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 10. The exhibit of the ten State normal schools. 11. Exhibits of the Lowell Textile School and of the Massachusetts Nautical Training School. 12. The exhibit of free public libraries in Massachusetts. The special circulars sent out to superintendents and principals called for exhibits as follows : 1. School architecture, buildings, laboratories, equipment, heating, ventilation, etc., shown by photographs, plans, etc. 2. School organization, rules, regulations, etc. 3. Courses of study, in brief and in full, illustrated by the written work or’ ’ pupils. 4. First drafts of written papers, regular daily work. 5. Corrected written work, regular daily work. 6. Special exercises prepared for special occasions. EDUCATIOK AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 913 7. Hand work of pupils, made to illustrate subjects of stud3^ 8. Portfolios of drawings. 9. Portfolios of photographs. 10. Manual training models, numbered in series and attached to screens. 11. School exercises of any kind that show orderly development, theories of instruction, and principles of method, 12. Original investigation of educational problems. 13. Office equipment. 11. Homemade apparatus. 15. Administrative blanks. The response to circulars was not general, and most of the material exhibited was obtained by the personal solicitation of the director. The following cities and towns contributed to the exhibit : Athol, Auburn, Becket, Boston, Brookline, Chester, Clinton, Everett, Fall River, Fitchburg, Gardner, Georgetown, Groveland, Haverhill, Lawrence, Lowell, Lynn, Malden, New Bedford, Newton, North Adams, Northampton, Orange, Pep- perell, Pittsfield, Revere, Somerville, Springfield, Sutton, West Brookfield, Wes¬ ton, Winthrop, and Worcester. Among the most prominent and valuable features of the exhibit werje those representing the Massachusetts Agricultural College and the State normal schools. The agricultural college occupied a large space in the educational exhibit and was also the most prominent donor to the State exhibit in the Palace of Agriculture, while it contributed generouslj^ to the general exhibit of the agri¬ cultural colleges and experiment stations collected and arranged by the United States Government. The normal schools, under the advice of the director, took, in general, a single branch of study each, and showed the method in which the study is pursued. In this way no duplications were made, and the collective exhibit gave a satisfactory view of normal school work in the State. Of the cities and towns the following deserve especial mention : BOSTON. The exhibit of the city of Boston formed a part of the Massachusetts exhibit, It was limited in space and therefore had no room for ornamentation beyond that which was furnished by the work itself. While it was in harmony with the rest of the State exhibit, which was simple, but effective and beautiful, it was filled to every inch of space with charts — graphic and statistical — and with work direct from the schools, and every part generously illustrated and aided by ])hotographs. The wall space allotted to Boston admitted of the close placing of 24 cabinets, and 6 more w^ere placed in the center. Though apparently restricted in space as compared with other large cities, yet every subject of school work, of both day and evening schools, was shown in detail, from the kindergarten through the normal school. The work of the evening drawing schools was vividly and systematically arranged on the outside of the booth. The work was exhibited by subjects. The first cabinet contained the kinder¬ garten work ; the next 11 cabinets the elementary nature study, geography, arithmetic, history, music, physical training, drawing, language, cooking, and manual training; the next 10 the high school work in English, literature, history, commercial branches, botany, zoology, physiology, drawing, mathematics, physics, chemistry, foreign languages, and the Vv^ork of the Mechanic Arts High School ; then one cabinet showing administration and public lectures ; one cab¬ inet for normal school work ; one for work of the Horace Mann School for the ED 1904 M - 58 914 EDTJCATIOIT EEPOET; 1904. Deaf and Dumb ; one of sewing ; four cabinets for evening elementary, evening high, and educational center schools. The space in the wall cabinets amounted to about 4,000 square feet. Below these wall cabinets were show cases, or counters, containing note books and manual work in the subjects shown above; and beneath these were shelves for the bound volumes, pamplilets, and industrial work of the vacation and evening schools. Above the cabinets were panels containing the shop work of the day schools, extending around the entire space. On the wall above the panels were pictures of school buildings, etc. The plan of the exhibit was designed for the convenience of educators who desired to study it, and the number who spent hours with notebooks in hand testified to the wisdom of the arrangement. Every school in the city was represented. In February each master was requested to send in work in what¬ ever subjects he should choose. Most of the work had been done in the regular daily routine and was simply copied on the proper paper for uniformity. From the work thus sent in a committee of teachers selected that which vrould cover the course of study and arranged it in proper order. The most important feature of the exhibit was that it represented the regular work of the schools of the city. The papers and photographs in the wall cabinets exemplified the course of study and the 200 volumes showed the quality of the work by classes. Equip¬ ment, methods, and material that could not be shown otherwise were shovvii by photographs. Two methods of teaching reading in the first grade were shown by series of photographs. The glass door of each cabinet held a large photograph appropriate to the work contained in the cabinet. The aim of the photographs was in every case to make clearer the work of the schools and not for orna¬ mentation. The graphic charts in the administration cabinet showed plainly the school organization, the growth of the schools, the relative number of male and female teachers, the course of study and relative amount of time given to each subject, and, in fact, nearly everything that the student of education would desire to know. Worcester had a full representation of elementary and high school work, filling six “ units ” and covering a large wall space. New Bedford presented a full exhibit of school work in all departments, with a large number of photo¬ graphs representing school architecture. Springfield gave a complete repre¬ sentation of her work in the evening school of trades, a fine exhibit of high school work, and a fully illustrated course of study in arithmetic. Somerville sent a masterly representation of the work of her English high school, with careful and complete representation of her courses of study in language, drawing, and penmanship. Brookline showed a complete course of study in manual training. Lowell showed the work of her evening schools, her training school, and her kindergartens. Lynn sent a full exhibit of work in arithmetic and a representation of her work in manual training in her English high school. The features of the Massachusetts exhibit which attracted most attention from visitors were the Boston high school exhibit in language, a fine representa¬ tion of the highest standard of exhibition work, the exhibit of nature study by the practice school of the Bridgewater normal, the correlated school and home work shown by the training school of the Hyannis normal, the exhibit of the State library commission, and the exhibit of the evening school of trades, Springfield. Unique features were the exhibits of the Lowell textile school, the nautical training school, the educational centers of Boston, the work of vacation schools in Boston, the high school organization from New Bedford, the designs from the EDUCATIOl^ AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 915 Somerville high school, the sloyd training school, and modern methods in kindergarten. In general, it may be said of the Massachusetts educational exhibit that it showed fully the present attainments of a State school system which gives the largest possible local freedom in the management of schools, attainments which, in the minds of her citizens, justify the confidence which has been given to them from the founding of this ancient Commonwealth. MISSISSIPPI. BY T. L. TEA WICK. THE EXHIBIT. This exhibit was collected by Prof. T. li. Trawick, then residing at Crystal- springs, Miss., and though hurriedly gotten together was a very fair represen¬ tation of the Mississippi educational system. The State department was represented by six very elaborately prepared charts, five showing the statistical side of educational matters. The colleges were very meagerly represented, the agricultural and mechanical being the best. The colored colleges of Alcorn and Tougaloo were exceedingly well rep¬ resented. The follov\^ing high schools were represented : Crystalsprings, Greenville, Corinth, Jackson, McComb, Hattiesburg, Wesson, Grenada, Canton, Meridian, Columbus, Brookhaven, Learned, Utica. The high school exhibits vrere excellent, especially the one from Crystalsprings. The work of this school was arranged according to a plan adopted by the Washington, D. C., schools at Paris in 1900, and was composed of photographs of pupils at work in school. Jackson also had a fine exhibit of manuscript work. Among the private schools the work displayed from French Camp and Blue Mountain College was excellent. Mississippi’s booth was well arranged and her exhibits were tastily displayed. MISSOURI. BY G. V. BUCHANAN, SUPEEINTENDENT. THE EXHIBIT. The space allotted to Missouri for her educational exhibit consisted of a strip of floor space 30 feet wide and 140 feet long, lying near the main entrance to the building. This space fronted on the main aisle and extended back between 15-foot aisles. Immediately across one of these aisles was the exhibit of the city of St. Louis, occupying an equal area, and just beyond the St. Louis exhibit was that of the State university. Thus the Missouri educational ex¬ hibits presented a continuous front on the main aisle of the building of 105 feet, with an extreme depth of 140 feet. For the purpose of collecting and arranging this educational exhibit the State 916 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. commission appointed Snpt G. V. Buchanan, of Sedalia, late in August, 1903. He at once began a series of visits to the county teachers’ associations, which were held in the different counties through‘the fall and early winter, and with his assistants in the work presented the interests of the exhibit personally to about 10,000 teachers. Correspondence was then opened with the 114 county commissioners and county superintendents, with many city superintendents, and with teachers and school patrons who had been found to be enthusiastic for tile exhibit. A systematic effort was made to secure exhibits from all the counties of the State — not from the city schools alone, but from village and rural schools as well. A circular outlining the scope and nature of the exhibit and giving general directions and suggestions about the preparation of the work was mailed to every teacher in the State. General interest was awakened, and it was apparent that the teachers of the State were ambitious to have the schools well represented in the exposition. In November the superintendent opened an office on the exposition grounds and conducted a vigorous canvass of the State by personal letters. Late in February the exhibits began to come in. He appointed as his assistants in arranging and maintaining the exhibit the following teachers : Miss Minnie Brashear, of Kirksville ; Miss Catherine Cranmer, of Otterville ; IMiss Emma Seri, of Kansas City ; Miss Mae Hansel, of Joplin, and Miss Jennie Hinkston, of Gower. The packages were opened and their contents examined and arranged in Blair Hall of the Missouri building, and as soon as our exhibit booth was ready the cabinets and bound, volumes were put into place. The Missouri exhibit was arranged by grades, or years’ wmrk, with a view of showing the prevailing system in this State, which separates the course of imblic school education into twelve years’ work. Our entire floor space was surrounded by an arched fagade 12 feet high, with an arch 18 feet wide con¬ stituting the front entrance. Each side of the inclosure consisted of ten similar arches. The oak cabinets containing the work of the children were so placed as to leave a central aisle 7 feet wide extending from front to rear of our space, and to divide the area into 20 compartments with side partitions 8 feet high, each comiDartment opening at one end upon the central aisle and the other looking out upon the broad aisle of the building through these arches, with a hand rail below\ This arrangement gave 20 compartments, somewhat sepa¬ rated, in which to arrange the school work, all comparatively open, so that their entire contents were visible from the broad aisles on either side and from the 7-foot aisle through our own space. While the kindergarten is no part of the public school system of the State, not being i^rovided for by law, yet it is so generally regarded as a desirable beginning for all classes of children that it was decided to give it such posi¬ tion in the exhibit. From the twelfth grade, or senior year of the high school, down, each grade was allotted a separate compartment as far as the third ; grades 3 and 2 occupied their proper sides of one compartment, and grade 1 and the kindergarten took similar positions in the lowest compartment. The compartments not occupied by the primary and secondary schools were assigned to the State normal schools and to the various colleges of the State. One side of one compartment, however, was reserved for the exhibits of special rural schools and an entire compartment for the exhibits of the negro schools of the State. The fagade, or arched wall, surrounding the State exhibit was of old English oak in modified Romanesque style of architecture, the same as used by the city of St. Louis just across the aisle, which was designed by Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, of that city. Mr. Ittner, head architect of the St. Louis school EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 91T board, gave this unique design its pleasing reality. The arches were supported by ample pillars, which offered abundant space for broad panels and large disks, into which pictures could be placed. The spandrels of the arches also invited the use of disks for pictures. To enable the facade to help tell the visitors the nature of the contents of the various compartments, transparent mosaics over the middle of the arches told the grades or named the colleges whose exhibits were within, and large panels and disks in the outer faces and smaller panels in the lateral faces of the pillars, and circular disks in the spandrels of the arches contained transparencies of school buildings, games, and faces appropriate to the grade of ^york. For example, as you stood in front of the compartment occupied by the exhibits from special rural schools you saw in glowing mosaics, above the center of the arch, “ Special Rural Schools.” In the broad panel on the side of the pillar supporting one side of the arch you saw the transparency of a Missouri rural schoolhouse of the better class. In the IG-inch disk just above this was a transparent picture of a country school playground alive with lusty boys and merry girls, just as caught by the camera in one of our rural districts. On the lateral face of the same pillar were arranged five S by 10 transparencies of country school children engaged in various sports, games, and class exercises. The spandrel above one disk showed a typical country lad returning from school, with his bookstrap thrown across his shoulder. Looking in upon the compartment from the same spandrel another disk contained a typical country school girl. In the compart¬ ment occupied by the Kirksville Normal School the name of the school stood out above the arch in illuminated mosaics. The large panel on the outside of the pillar contained the main view of the campus and buildings of the school. The lateral faces of the pillar contained transparencies of primary rooms, classes in the normal department, laboratory, and gymnasium scenes, and classes surveying and studying botany on the campus. On the spandrels of the arch the faces of two girls and two boys, selected as representative students of the dif¬ ferent classes in the school, looked down upon the visitor. In this same manner did each compartment suggest to the thoughtful student or the casual observer the nature of the work it contained. Aside from the 300 transparencies of Missouri schoolhouses, school children, games, and recitations, the facade also presented the faces of 40 of the leading educators of the State, past and present, as selected by a committee of five of the best-known Missouri educators. Within the compartments the work was chiefly arranged in hound volumes, base cabinets, and wing-frame cabinets, or filed in the portfolio draw^ers, or hung up on the 8-foot partitions. Of the volumes there were nearly 500, of about 600 pages each, containing most of the written work and free-hand drawings of about 100,000 children, representing nearly 5,000 different schoolrooms in 80 counties of the State. These volumes were handsomely bound in red English cloth, with backs and tips in russia leather and with gilt lettering. In each grade compartment the papers were arranged by branches, and the order of contents of the volumes was by counties, comprised by the initials on the backs. Each volume was indexed, showing the location of work from the various districts within the counties. This arrangement facilitated the finding of work of individuals or schools. The work of any pupil in any branch of studj^ could be found vfithin a minute if his name and grade and the names of his county and teacher were known. We estimate that the work of about 60,000 pupils was found for visitors within the life of the exposition. On the shelves and within the showcase tops of the base cabinets, of which we used 139, various articles were shown, such as raffia work, clay modeling, pottery, needlework, wood carving, etc. 918 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Within the portfolio drawers were maps, charts, drawings, etc. The wing-frame cabinets, numbering nearly a hundred, contained a variety of work, such as essays, examination and test papers, drawings, and water colors. On the walls were hung framed pictures of half a hundred, of Missouri’s excellent school buildings of rural, village, and city types, drawings, photo¬ graphs, charts, relief maps, and the like. The arrangement for exhibiting manual-training work of the various grades was peculiar to this exhibit. End cases with glass fronts were made to order of the same material as the cabinets and set at the entrance to the different compartments. Each was tilled with such manual-training work as seemed to be best representative of all the manual work sent from schools of the par¬ ticular grade. Thus the manual-training work of each grade vms set beside the general exhibits of that grade. When the work was completed it was easy to see that the manual work of the children, like their penmanship, began with larger and coarser forms and gradually grew finer and neater to about the seventh grade. From there on through the high school the work grew less deli¬ cate and less exact and painstaking. This decline in neatness and exactness in the high school did not seem to appear in those schools which give full courses and systematic work in manual training. The most attractive feature of the exhibit were two graphophones, which recited lessons and sang songs learned from the children in the schools, and seven biogens, or large mutoscopes, showing the physical culture of the schools from the kindergarten to the State normal schools. Groups of people constantly formed about these macliines watching the simple movements of the little chil¬ dren, the free-arm exercises of the elementary grades, the dumb-bell and Indian- club drills of the grammar grades, and the gymnasium exercises of the high school pupils, which Vv'ere almost as realistic as if the visitor had been standing in the room where the drills were in progress. All the recitations, drills, and exercises were from IMissouri schoolrooms, and so arranged as to show a system of development. One of the most valuable of our educational exhibits, perhaps, was the Missouri model rural schoolhouse, which was located in a beautiful grove near the Fine Arts Building. This house consisted of a model schoolroom 23 by 29 feet, with cloak rooms and toilet rooms for boys and girls, and a basement for furnace, fuel, and work bench. The expense of the building was limited to $1,200, and it v/as the desire of the commission to show that every com eiiience and comfort of a modern city school¬ room may be enjoyed by any country district at an expense of not more than $400 over what is usually put into the common and incoii’^enient form of coun¬ try schoolhouses. This model schoolroom was lighted from one side, the light coming to the children from their left, was heated by fresh warm air, ideally ventilated, and had as good toilet accommodations as are on the market. The water used came from a cistern at the side of the building and was carried up by a hand force pump and air-pressure tank. This schoolroom was equipped with all necessary school appliances and had an experienced rural teacher ready to welcome visitors and explain the various features of the building. Two thousand copies of the plans and specifications of this building were pub¬ lished in neat pamphlet form for distribution among the rural school directors of the State. The total expense of the educational exhibit of this State was slightly more than $100,000. The part for which the State commission was responsible cost about $75,000. The general exhibit of the State, not including the city of St. Louis and the four universities, cost about $40,000. Aside from the exhibits of the public schools of the State were those of the EDUCATIOI^ AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITIOIST. 919 following institutions : The Kirksville State Normal School ; Cape Girardeau State Normal School ; Missouri Valley College, at Marshall ; Central College, at Fayette ; Lexington Female College ; Westminster College, at Fulton ; Howard- Payne College, at Fayette ; Drury College, at Springfield ; Central Wesleyan College, at Warrentoii ; Liberty Ladies’ College ; William Jewel College, at Liberty ; Christian College, at Columbia ; Park College, at Parkville ; Harden College ; St. Cecilia Seminary, and Loretto Academy. NEBRASKA. BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR. THE EXHIBIT. Shortly after the appointment of a director (or superintendent) of education by the Nebraska State commission to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, circu¬ lar letters were addressed to nearly 10,000 schoolmen and school women of Nebraska. Through the courtesy of Mr. W. K. Fowler, State superintendent of public instruction, the mailing list was made up from his corrected manu¬ script list of the schools and teachers of the State, both public and private. Later developments showed that circular letters were insufficient for the pur¬ pose and that considerable apathy existed, which had to be overcome by per¬ sonal appeal. Because of the small legislative appropriation the commission found it necessary to limit the amount for educational exhibits to $4,250. This sum was made to cover all costs of installing and maintaining not only the educational booth proper, but also two classes and teachers from the school for the deaf and a booth in mines and metallurgy. It has been said, and it is doubtless true, that no other similar educational exhibit was prepared and maintained at less cost. The architectural plans of the booth were prepared by Mr. Thomas Kimball, of Omaha, and consisted essentially of a plain four-column fagade in white, suitably decorated with symbols of education, and with the great seal of the State and of the University of Nebraska in relief. Wide counters with cur¬ tained shelves beneath extended around the three walls, with two large tables and v\4ngs projecting from each of the two side walls. The color scheme was a subdued green, and all the draperies, furniture, card mounts, wall trimmings, counters, and floor were made to match. The tables, counters and shelves were devoted to bound volumes of school work, portfolios of drawings, and show cases. Cabinets for card mounts and suitable show cases were provided. Card mounts paneled off by oak molding and corner blocks were arranged uniformly over all blank wall spaces. The rear wall was reserved for large drawings and paintings, and was enlivened by two double ornamental windows imitating leaded glass. Alternating panes were embellished by educational statistics and literary symbols. Suspended overhead was an original lantern in imitation of stained glass, designed and executed by a schoolboy of Lincoln, and near it a large circular stained-glass churchwindow designed and executed by the club women of Omaha. The entrance to the booth was rendered additionally attractive by large colored transparencies from the Morrill geological expeditions of the University of Nebraska. Omaha, Lincoln, Kearney, Hastings, Beatrice, York, Fremont, Plattsmouth, Falls City, Peru, Crete, Crawford, Columbus, Craig, Tecumseh, 920 EDUCATION KEPOET^ 1904. Belleview, Gering, Wahoo, and other towns and many rural schools were repre¬ sented. Special exhibits were made by the Institute for the Deaf, Institute for the Blind, the State Normal School at Peru, the State Forestry Association, the State Forestry School, the University of Nebraska, Union College, the State library commission, the State geological survey, the State botanical survey, the State Engineering Society, the State Ornithologists’ Union, the Nebraska weather bureau, women’s clubs, etc. The work of collecting, preparing, and forwarding material was shared chiefly by Miss Carrie A. Barbour, Miss Helena I. Bedford, Mr. E. G. Woodruff, and Miss Edith L. Webster, assistants in the University of Nebraska. Miss Webster was given charge of the exhibits during the entire period of the exposi¬ tion. Among the special features of the exhibit, the one cherished was that of honest representation. The work was not recast for special display, but was shown as it came from the pupils, with errors and corrections still in evidence. So far as can be learned, pupils were not generally forewarned and few knew that their work was to he displayed. In the case of the larger schools, where the notebooks and the written work are of exceptional excellence, the director of exhibits selected and made up the bound volumes out of material laid aside before the legislature had acted upon the State appropriation for the exposition. The exhibit was genuine throughout. The tendency toward laboratory methods and applied science was pronounced, even in the work of the rural schools. The rapid advancement of Nebraska’s educational standard to its present position of lowest percentage of illiteracy on the western continent has depended, as does the survival of any pioneer, upon resourcefulness. Through¬ out the State great stress seems to have been laid on original work in every grade, resulting in many individual pieces of striking merit, some of the most interesting coming from isolated villages and rural schools on the western border. Among the special features an important one v^as the work of women’s clubs in their efforts for the establishment of parks, playgrounds, gardens, and more commodious schoolhouses ; in the organization and maintenance of city and home-improvement societies, traveling libraries, and charity organizations; in original investigation and the education of certain worthy poor. The State Library Association made an extensive exhibit of large photographs of the exte¬ riors and interiors of all the libraries of the State, carrying the matter even to the traveling libraries in the villages and rural homes. Accompanying this were published reports and statistical matter of value. One of the striking features of the exhibit was the Omaha manual training display. The work was of such excellence and of such exceptional finish and beauty as to attract general notice. The work of every grade was shown in the order of progression, as well as the beautiful piecework, turned work, and inlaid work which certain students of the Omaha High School were allowed to make as a recognition and reward for proficiency in required work. The school for the deaf at Omaha was represented by work in plain and fancy sewing and embroidery, by an especially large and creditable display of art work, by bound books of class work and statistics, and by two “ live ” classes. During the month of .June a class of six pupils and teachers was maintained and was in operation daily, illustrating the method of teaching the youth of the institute for the deaf. Again, during the month of October a class of eight pupils and teachers in art work gave daily exhibitions of methods. The Nebraska School for the Blind, at Nebraska City, exhibited lace, plain and fancy sewing, embroidery, knitting, weaving, beadwork, basket work, ham¬ mocks and nets, brooms and brushes, the exhibit being large and creditable in EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 921 every line of work. The State Forestry Association exhibited publications of the society. The State Forestry School exhibited the work of students, various forestry scenes, seeds, and sections of timber grown in Nebraska, photographs of the Dismal River, Government forestry reserve, 50 large colored photographic views of timbers and forests, 100 framed charts tinted to show the distribution of each tree in Nebraska and in the United States ; also photographs of J. Ster¬ ling Morton, the founder of Arbor Day, and his home at Arbor Lodge. The State Normal School at Peru was represented by a series of enlarged colored photographs and by the work of its art department. The University of Nebraska was represented by colored enlarged photographs of its campus, buildings, and equipment ; by a particularly creditable display by the art department ; by original models and charts from the department of zoology and medicine ; by large relief maps, geological maps and sections, crys¬ tal models, and i)ublished reports ; by an elaborate set of photographs and draw¬ ings showing the laboratories and equipment of the electrical department, which also exhibited original apparatus, theses of students, and published re¬ ports ; by photographs of the psychological laboratories ; photographs and sta¬ tistics of the University School of Music, with published reports and printed and manuscript music; by statistics from the English department, particu¬ larly the branch of debating, showing photographs of all contestants, statistics, and victories in the intercollegiate debates ; awards from the funds established by the Hon. William Jennings Bryan, etc. ; by books and published reports from the departments of botany, geology, zoology, pedagogy, electrical engineering, and psychology ; by trophies and statistics of victories in athletics. Union College, at Collegeview, represented a remarkable industrial and ap¬ plied system of education, not only showing college work of standard grade, but every phase of practical work in the trades and agriculture, the care of the sick, and the economics and management of the household. This was ably illustrated by photographs, catalogues, and papers printed on the college press and bound in the college bindery. The work in relief maps was of special merit, ranging from crude free-hand work in paper by the first grade to that of the State geological survey and of the University of Nebraska. The study of geography by the sqrapbook method, a very successful method devised and used in the Omaha public schools, was presented for inspection in large bound portfolios, and attracted the notice and elicited the favorable com¬ ments of teachers. A new method of teaching crystallography developed in the State University was shown, by which blocks of plaster of Paris with axes of silk are used. By cutting and modifying these with reference to the axes the various forms are produced. NEW JERSEY. BY S. R. MORSE, DIRECTOR. THE EXHIBIT. The decision to make an educational exhibit from New Jersey at the world’s greatest exposition was delayed until late in October, 1903. As the exposition was to be opened on May 1, 1904, this gave a scant allowance of time for the for¬ mulation of plans and the preparation, collection, selection, arrangement, ship- 922 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. ment, and installation of work. Notwithstanding this unfortunate delay, of the 35 States which made an educational exhibit New Jersey’s was the first to be in place and ready for inspection. As soon as the decision to make a display was reached all local school authori¬ ties were at once notified, but our circular (No. 3) outlining the plan of work was not printed and ready for distribution until November 20. The response to the circular was prompt, cordial, and very nearly general. The principal sug¬ gestions contained in it were as follows : ■ Each county and city superintendent was made chairman of a committee of his own selection to take charge of the preparation of the work forwarded from the schools under his supervision. Special committees, comprised of experts in each of the several lines of school work, were appointed to assist in the final selection of material to be forwarded to St. Louis. In order to stimulate healthful rivalry, awaken a general interest in the State exhibit, and give the parents and friends of pupils an opportunity to see their work, a public exhibit of the work of each school was recommended before sending it to the county or city superintendent. County and city exhibits were also suggested to be made before superintend¬ ents forwarded the work received by them to State headquarters. This afforded an excellent opportunity for comparing the work of different schools and gave each teacher an opportunity to see what was best. This local exhibit is the most interesting and valuable factor that can be associated with the preparation of the work for a world’s exposition. Nothing is more eff'ective in strengthening educational sentiment or proves more helpful in establishing the closer bond of sympathy so much needed between the home and the school than the local dis¬ play, in which each parent has an opportunity to see the work of his own and his neighbor’s children. In addition to the preceding, circular No. 3 gave extended specific and general instructions for the preparation, classification, and mounting of school work. All kinds of paper needed for the final work of pupils and the cardboard required to mount it were furnished by the State. The following special exhibits were solicited : Specimens of minerals correctly labeled and boxed ready to be set up, each label to state the name of the speci¬ men, when and where found, and the name, age, and grade of the contributing pupil; mounted specimens of plants and leaves; homemade apparatus tor physical and chemical experiments; text-books, monographs on special topicT>!, and other literary productions prepared by teachers, principals, and superin¬ tendents engaged in public school work; photographs showing the architecture of school buildings, their class rooms, furniture, apparatus, and the personnel of teachers and pupils ; also any special literary, scientific, mechanical, or artistic work of pupils. In common with all other States, New Jersey exhibited copies of school law, annual reports, courses of study, catalogues, rules and regulations, and the various blank forms found necessary in modern school administration. The New Jersey educational exhibit differed in some features from that of other States. It had the same wing cabinets that were designed and used exclusively by the New Jersey department of public instruction at Chicago in 1893, but for the display of books and various lines of work not readily shown upon the walls or in the cabinets, drawers instead of shelves were placed under the cabinets. These enabled the work to be put in convenient form for inspection and had the additional merit of keeping it clean. Another feature entirely new and used for the first time at this exposition was the index key, of which the following is an explanation ; EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 923 The exhibit was divided into sections lettered from A to jM, inclusive, and these were subdivided into units numbered from 1 to G8, inclusive. Each unit consisted of a leaf cabinet with six drawers directly underneath. The units from 15 to 21, inclusive, were arranged to serve as an index to the entire public school exhibit. Unit No. 15, for instance, directed to first year’s work, and unit No. 16 directed to second and fourth years’ work, etc. In order to find the work from a particular school it was simply necessary, first, to find in one of the index cabinets the card containing work from the county or city in which said school is located. This card directed you to the section, to the unit, and to the volumes in which all the work of the school, except that placed upon the walls, could be found. Different lines of school work were bound in different colored volumes, as shown by index cards. Other unique features of the New Jersey exhibit were as follows : The manual-training work of each school was shown in connection with its academic. An exhibit, consisting of sketches prepared by pupils of the public schools, of historical events that have occurred in the State was accompanied by photographs of historical places and served to stimulate unusual interest in a most important line of investigation. The educational value of an exhibit of this character was duly appreciated, even by unprofessional sight-seers. A combined exhibit of music and art was exceptionally fine and attracted much attention. By means of systematic arrangement, a large amount of work was displayed within small compass. The work in the leaf cabinets was not shown in single sheets, but in the majority of cases from five to twenty sheets were fastened in a single space, so that the entire work of a class could be conven¬ iently inspected. The general arrangement of the work in the New Jersey educational booth was as follows : Beginning at the left entrance, there came first that of the New Jersey normal and model schools, next that of the State Industrial School for Colored Youth, and then followed in regular order the general exhibit of primary, grammar, and high school work. The State normal and model schools of Trenton furnished a complete exhibit of their work, filling six cases, the wall space above these cases, and a number of bound volumes. In preparation for the exhibit, the teachers of the various grades and departments of the schools were requested to select typical exer¬ cises from the regular work of the pupils and have these exercises copied by the pupils on uniform exhibition paper without criticism hy the teachers, so that so far as the pupils were represented the work should be distinctly their own. I In the normal school the types chosen represented not only the efficiency of the pupil, but the plan of the work, or, rather, the method. For instance, a number of typical exercises in English would show the method of taking up the study of English with different grades of pupils, the subjects of English study, and their application to the various grades of pupil development. In the model school the exercises exhibited typical academic work from each one of the subjects taught in the school and were so arranged as not only to show what was regarded by the authorities of the school as good work, but also to constitute an expression in practice of the theory of the normal. For instance, in the department of drawing there were specimens of constructive, representative, and decorative drawing and color work, and applications of designs in mechanical drawing, posters, pen and ink sketching, etc., all so applied as to meet the standards of practical use in the arts and crafts. The work as a whole was so systematically arranged that a comprehensive 924 EDUCATION REPORT/ 1904. panoramic view of the school work of the State was clearly presented and the visitor furnished concrete proof of the progressiveness of the Garden State and the excellence of its public school system. NEW MEXICO. BY M. W. rORTERFIELD, COMMISSIONER. THE EXHIBIT. New Mexico’s educational institutions were represented at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition by excellent exhibits from the normal school at Silver City, the Normal University at Las Vegas, the University of New Mexico at Albuquerque, the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts at Mesilla Park, the School of Mines at Socorro, the Military Institute at Roswell, and from a large number of graded schools and country schools, fully demonstrating the educational facilities of the Territory. It must be said for the educators who had the preparation of this work in charge that the brief time allotted to them was well employed, as the late date at which the appropriation was available left them only the few weeks remain¬ ing between the 1st of .Tanuary, 1904, and the opening of the exposition. At a meeting of the educational association, convened at the capitol building at Santa Fe on December 27, 1903, M. W. Porterfield, superintendent of exhibits for New Mexico, appeared before the association and addressed the educators on the subject of providing a creditable exhibit of the eilucational facilities of New Mexico at the exposition, asking the association to appoint a committee to aid him in outlining a plan which would insure uniform and comprehensive exhibits from all the schools of the Territory. The committee appointed con¬ sisted of Dr. C. M. Light, president of the Silver City Normal School ; Prof. A. B. Stroup, principal of the Albuquerque High School, and Prof. J. A. Wood, superintendent of the Santa Fe schools, who presented to the association a detailed working plan, which was adopted, and the principals of all schools of the Territory and the presidents of all the higher institutions were appointed to cooperate in the work of preparing the exhibits. It was agreed that cabinets and wing frames of suitable design would be used, and that the New Mexico commission would furnish to each school as many of these as it could utilize. The cards to be used in the wing frames were shipped direct to each school, and the school work attached to these according to a prescribed rule, ready to be placed in the frames. In this condition they were shipped to St. Louis, where the cabinets and wing frames were ready to receive them. The work was uniformly prepared in the manner outlined, and the cards numbered, so that when they reached St. Louis everything was in systematic order and readily fitted into the cabinets. In addition to the work suited for •installation in the wing frames were specimens from the manual training departments, biological departments, kindergarten work, raffia work, map work, and photographs of the school buildings. These were exhibited on the walls of the booth and in upright show cases along the front of the aisle, making in all a very neat and attractive exhibit. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 925 NEW YORK. BY DE LANCY M. ELLIS, DIRECTOR. OEGANIZATION. Tlie administration of the school system of the State of New York has been more complex than that of any other State in the Union, This was owing to the fact that while the sentiment toward public education in no State more generous, yet the administration of educational affairs was highly centralized in two departments. The State department of public instruction and the Uni¬ versity of the State of New York, the two educational departments under which the schools were formerly administered, were merged by act of the legislature of 1904, and now the controlling power is designated as the education depart¬ ment of the State of New York, consisting of two coordinate branches — the board of regents (the legislative branch) and the commissioner of education (the executive). The members of the board of regents, numbering eleven, are elected by the leg¬ islature on joint ballot, and serve for a term of eleven years, one member retiring each year. The board exercises the powers of the coriioration known as the University of the State of New York, with which powers it has been charged since the granting of the charter by the legislature in 1784, and in addi¬ tion thereto exercises advisory powers on State educational policies as related to elementary and secondary schools, as well as the higher institutions. The members of the board receive no compensation, but are paid actual expenses while in attendance upon meetings of the board. The first commissioner of education was elected l)y the legislature for a term of six years, and his successors are to be appointed by the board of regents and serve during its pleasure. He is the executive officer of the board and has general and administrative supervision of all educational interests in the State. He administers the consolidated school law, the university law, and the general statutes of the State relating to education, and has power to create such depart¬ ments as in his judgment are necessary and to appoint deputies and heads of departments, subject to the approval of the board. The heads of the several divisions appoint, subject to the approval of the commissioner, the subordinates in their respective divisions. All appropriations of public money made in sup¬ port of the common school system and all appropriations in aid of secondary education are certified by the commissioner and paid by the State treasurer on the warrant of the comptroller. The commissioner receives a salary of $7,500 per annum and $1,.500 per annum in lieu of personal expenses. There are three assistant commissioners, appointed on the nomination of the commissioner and the approval of the board, each receiving $5,000 per annum. The first assistant commissioner is in charge of universities, colleges, professional and technical schools, and of the execution of the laws concerning the professions, also the relations and chartering of institutions. The second assistant has charge of high schools and academies and of the training of teachers therefor, including the oversight of the State Normal College. The third assistant has charge of the elementary schools and of the training of teachers therefor, including normal schools, training classes, and teachers’ institutes. It devolves on each assistant to guide the work and uplift the institutions of his class. In the absence of the commissioner, the assistant commissioners in their numerical order act in his stead. 926 EDUCATION KEPORT; 1904. The administrative and clerical work of the department is classified under divisions, as follows ; Accounts, compulsory attendance, examinations, inspec¬ tions, law, records, statistics. The heads of divisions are called “ chiefs,” unless otherwise indicated, and are appointed on the nomination of the commissioner and confirmation by the board. Such work as is carried on directly by the department, rather than through schools, is included under libraries and home education, and State science work. The head of the libraries and home education division is called “ director,” and the operations and work of this division are under the immediate supervision of the commissioner. The division includes the State library, the Library School, the administration or aid of town, school, and other libraries, including the supervision of all agencies for promoting study and culture outside of teach¬ ing institutions. The head of the science work division is called'” director of science work ” and of the State museum. The work of this division is likewise under the com¬ missioner’s immediate supervision. It includes the work of the State geologist, paleontologist, entomologist, and botanist, and the charge of the State scientific collections. The head of the division of accounts is called the “ cashier,” who is required to give a bond approved by the comptroller for the proper discharge of his duties. In addition to keeping all financial accounts he is charged with the management of the business affairs of the department, and with the care and proper expendi¬ ture of all moneys received. The administration of the compulsory education law is lodged in the com¬ pulsory attendance division. The examinations division ♦includes the entire public examination system of the State, comiDrising the examinations of pupils in the schools with reference to their advancement, the examination of all candidates for certificates as teachers, and the examination of candidates for admission to the professions. The inspections division contains twelve inspectors, and includes the inspec¬ tion of the elementary, secondary, and higher institutions of the State as to methods and efficiency of instruction, equipment, sanitary conditions, etc. The law division answers all inquiries made informally as to the provisions and meaning of the school laws, and has charge of all appeals from the acts of local school officials which are taken on formal pleadings to the commissioner, and on which his decision is final and can not be called in question in the courts. This distinctive feature of the New York system has been in operation for three-quarters of a century and provides a court for settling school contro¬ versies speedily, inexpensively, and conclusively. The records division has charge of all permanent records of the depart¬ ment, and all data bearing on the history of education in the State. The statistics division compiles the annual reports from the elementary, secondary, and higher institutions, and apportions all school moneys. Under the professional laws of the State, boards of examiners are provided in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, certified public accountants, and nurses, in connection with the work of the department. The annual apportionment of school moneys affects every public school in the State of elementary and secondary grade, and is made with special reference to aiding the weak rural districts. These moneys are derived from three sources — the free school fund, raised by taxation, and so much of the income of the United States deposit fund, and so much of the income of the common school fund as may be appropriated, it being provided by statute that all moneys so apportioned, except the library moneys, shall be applied exclusively to the pay¬ ment of teachers’ wages. In apportioning the school moneys the commissioner EDUCxmOX AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 927 i is required, first, to set aside a sum to pay tlie salaries of school commissioners, who are local officers in rural districts, chosen by popular Amte and serving for a ^ term of three years, $1,000 per annum each ; then such sum for library moneys as shall be appropriated for that purpose. The balance is apportioned as fol- loAvs : To each city, $800 ; to each village and union scliool district Avith a popu- ilation of 5,000 or more, which employs a superintendent of schools deAmting his entire time to supervision, $800 ; for contingent fund, not more than $10,000 ; to each school district having an assessed valuation of $40,000 or less, and to each Indian reservation for each teacher, a quota of $150, and to each of the emaining districts and to each of the cities in the State, $125, this apportion¬ ment being known as a “ district quota to each district or city, for each addi- 1 tional qualified teacher, $100, this apportionment being known as a “ teacher’s I quota.” (In order to receive a “ teacher’s quota ” a district must present Aerified ; evidence that a duly licensed teacher has taught therein at least one hundred and f sixty days in the school year.) The balance is apportioned to the several coun¬ ties on the basis of population. The apportionment is certified to the county I clerk, the county treasurer, school commissioners, and city treasurer, or chamber¬ lain in every county in the State. The school commissioners of each county i thereupon meet and reapportion the money in accordance with the instructions % of the commissioner of education, diAuding the amount which has been appor- tioned to each county on the basis of population among the several districts E- therein on the basis of aggregate attendance. Having made their apportion- P ment, the school commissioners certify the same to the treasurer of the county and the commissioner of education, and to the supervisor of each town the amount of school moneys apportioned to his town, the superAusor being required I to give his bond for at least double the amount of school moneys so apportioned I for the faithful disbursement, safe-keeping, and accounting for such moneys and - all other school moneys that may come into his hands from any other source. No person can teach in the public schools of the State without a license, and ? the State maintains an elaborate system for the training and certification of teachers, as follovcs : First, a normal school system, comprising 1 normal college and 11 normal schools, the first named being a degree-conferring institution and all of them, upon the completion of one of the prescribed courses of study, issuing certificates to teach for life in the State; second, training schools for the prepa- ; ration of teachers in the various cities of the State, carried on under State supervision and with State aid, Avith a course coA’ering tAAm years, upon comple¬ tion of Avhich course a certificate to teach is issued for three years, renewable for ten years ; third, training classes in the high schools and union schools of rural ' districts of the State, maintained under State supervision and with State aid, the course of study ’oeing one year, upon the completion of Avhich a certificate is , issued to teach for three years, renewable for fiAm years ; fourth, a graded sys- tern of teachers’ examinations for the rural districts, known as the “ uniform ” : examinations, so graded that applicants for the profession must begin at the ; , loAver grade, and in order to remain in the profession must gradually earn the - certificates of the higher grades. The certificates are valid for different lengths ' of time, depending upon the scope of the examination. These examinations are j ^ prepared by the sta_lf of the education department and conducted by local school ■ authorities throughout the State, and papers are returned for correction and I rating in the State department of education, which issues the certificates. A system of teachers’ institutes is maintained throughout the State by a ^ competent corps of instructors, an institute being held in every commissioner W district in the State each jmar lasting one Aveek. The system is being gradually V extended to the cities, \AUerein, hoAAmver, at this time the holding of institutes S is optional, Avhereas in the rural districts it is obligatory. Lectures are giAmn 928 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. on pedagogical subjects. Attendance upon tbe part of teachers is obliga¬ tory, the penalty for failure to attend without valid reasons being the revoca¬ tion of the teacher’s certificate. The attendance upon teachers’ institutes is counted in the required number of days to be taught, and the law provides for the payment of teachers’ wages for institute week. THE EXHIBIT. The educational exhibit of the State of New York was prepared with the hearty cooperation of all of the educational interests of the State. The move¬ ment was inaugurated at a meeting of the State Teachers’ Association held at Saratoga in July, 1902, at which a resolution was offered inviting the various educational associations in the State to cooperate with the above association in arousing interest and obtaining funds for making an exhibit commensurate with the State's educational importance at the St. Louis Exposition. An immediate response was received from the administrative departments of the State and from each of 10 powerful educational associations, who each sent a representa¬ tive to a so-called “ conference committee.” This committee succeeded in obtaining the requisite funds from the commission appointed by the governor to represent the State at St. Louis and the appointment of a director for the exhibit. The matter was presented at every educational meeting of importance during the year 1903, and that fact, in conjunction with the circulars sent throughout the State, aroused a widespread interest in the project. The exhibit was collected, systematically arranged, and mounted in the office of the director at Rochester, N. Y., the entire expense of its preparation and trans¬ portation being borne by the State, with the exception of the binding of written work and small incidental expenses, which were borne by local school authorities. Full instructions were forwarded to local authorities as to the preparation of work, amount of material desired, and the proposed plan of arrangement. To the latter, which is described below, objection was raised on the part of one or two cities, but it was generally considered that while the arrangement made no concession to local pride, it was the wisest arrangement to follow in an exposition of international scope. This arrangement was briefiy as follows : That, save the city of New York, which had been assigned separate space by the exposition authorities, and which had made an appropriation more than half as large as that made for the entire State exhibit, no city should be per¬ mitted to make a distinctive exhibit, but that all should be merged in a State exhibit, which should indicate clearly what the State as a whole is doing in education. Having decided upon this method, it but remained to decide whether the work should be arranged by grades or subjects. The conference committee, v.diich, upon the appointment of a director, took the name of “Advisory com¬ mittee,” recommended that the grammar school work should be arranged by grades; in other words, that all the work of the State Jn a single grade should be installed together, thus making it possible for a grade teacher to compare her own work readily with that of New York’s and to profit by the comparison, no matter in whose favor it might be. In the high school section all the work was to be installed by subjects and classed under various departments, such as science, classics, mathematics, etc., for the benefit of instructors in charge of departments. The compliments which have been bestowed upon the arrange- meni:, and the readiness with which all visitors have found the work in which they were particularly interested, have demonstrated beyond doubt the wisdom of the committee in pursuing the course above outlined, and, in the opinion of EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 92^ the writer, it is clearly the most satisfactory arrangement of work in an exposition of the scope of the present one. The total appropriation for the exhibit was $20,000. This amount was^ expended approximately as follows ; Installation ; booth, wall cabinets, furniture, floor coverings, etc _ SO, 000 Salaries of director and assistants, and maintenance at St. Louis _ 7, 250 Freight, express, cartage, telegrams, etc _ 1, 800 Material used iJi preparation, etc _ 3, 000 Traveling expenses _ _ _ 1, 200 Printing, etc _ 550 Expenses of advisory committee _ 200‘ Total _ 20,000 In an educational exhibit, probably more than in any other, the necessity of personal explanation to supplement the work exhibited is necessary. Through¬ out the summer there were present trained attendants to explain the work exhibited and to give full details of systems and institutions from which the exhibit material had been sent. These attendants spoke the principal foreign languages, which in itself was of much advantage to foreigners, greatly aiding: them in grasping the ideas set forth and the methods exemplified. There were many features of widespread interest, one of which was a series of 35 statistical charts bearing upon educational activities generally and setting^ forth startling facts as to' the wonderful growth of New York's educational system. Another was an educational map showing the location, grade, construc¬ tion, and normal capacity of every institution of learning within the borders of the State. Various methods of instruction which are peculiar to certain cities or localities were fully set forth ; e. g., the system of individual instruction as carried on in Batavia ; the complete system of free kindergartens and the pro¬ gressive methods in vogue therein in Albany ; manual training throughout the grades as carried on in Jamestown ; high school athletics, as exemplified at Ithaca ; physical training as carried on in Syracuse. An exhibit from the State School of Clay Working and Ceramics at Alfred, which is the only school of its kind receiving State aid, was an especial feature. The whole aim of those in charge of the exhibit was to show the work in edu¬ cation which is being done in the Empire State in all its forms and phases, and therefore the exhibit was not confined to the work of the public schools, as was quite generally done. Space was given to typical private institutions throughout the State to show the assistance which they are giving to the cause of education in general. In fine, there were interesting exhibits in place, not only from 24 cities and numerous villages both in elementary and high school work, but also the most complete and representative exhibit of rural school work that has ever been gathered in the State of New York; a composite exhibit of the normal school work of the State; a collective exhibit from the training schools and classes; concise displays from several of the smaller universities (the larger ones, such as Cornell and Columbia, having been granted separate space by the exposition authorities) ; interesting exhibits from technical and trade schools and business colleges ; a composite exhibit from the Indian schools of the State ; an interesting exhibit from the schools for defectives, including the blind and the deaf and dumb, and an alcove devoted to the work of summer schools and exten¬ sion courses, as best exemplified at Chautauqua. The exhibit made by the edu¬ cation department of the State in visual instruction, as carried on by lantern slides, to aid in the teaching of geography, history, and kindred subjects, received ED 1904 M - 59 930 EDUCATION EEPOET; 1904. hearty commendation from educators generally, but particularly from foreign visitors. Nowhere else in the world is it carried on with the same careful atten¬ tion to detail, nor is the same perfection of slide making reached, as in the State of New York, The exhibit from first to last demonstrated beyond peradventure the beneficial results accruing from a strongly centralized, powerful, and at the same time most liberal administration of educational interests. Under the fostering care and conservative guidance of the governing authority, standards have been steadily raised. The qualifications of instructors and the compensation of teachers have been constantly advanced. School buildiirgs have been enlarged and improved with such rapidity that statistics show, in the year 1903, the value of buildings and sites in the State to be double what it was in 1893, a decade ago. Under the impetus given hy the State's jiolicy of duplicating moneys raised locally for libraries and apparatus, school equipment is at the highest point of efficiency. A compulsory education law has been uniformly enforced, both in city and country, with a minimum of friction. In fact, the close relationship existing between the central authority and all educational activities has clearly made for superiority of educational work. NORTH DAKOTA. BY W. L. STOCKWELL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS. THE EXHIBIT. North Dakota's educational exhibit at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition gave a very excellent idea of the educational progress of the State. While not elaborate, a careful examination of the same would disclose the fact that she is not necessarily behind many of the older States in the character and quality of her school work, A committee was appointed by the State Educational Association consisting of the following members : President J. H. Worst, of the agricultural college ; President Geo. A. McFarland, of the State normal school. Valley City ; Supt. Mattie M. Davis, Fargo ; Miss Mazie Clemens, Jamestown ; Supt. W. E. Hoover, Park River, and State Supt. W. L. Stockwell. This committee was empowered by our State commissioner, Hon. David Bartlett, to undertake the preparation of the exhibit. Immediately after the appointment of this commit¬ tee circulars were sent out to the educators of the State, calling their attention to the desires of the committee and asking their cooperation. The plan of the committee was to have an exhibit which would represent intelligently the work of the schools, from the rural schools to the university, including every depart¬ ment of education. The exhibit was not intended to be an exhibit of individual schools so much as a representation of the work of the State as a whole. In order that a more definite idea might be given of the work desired by the committee a preliminary exhibit was held during the State Educational Asso¬ ciation of 1903 at Grand Forks. A large number of rural and graded schools sent exhibits, and the committee was enabled to call attention to the features which it particularly desired to have represented. The work of collecting the exhibit was seriously handicapped by the lack of EDUCATiOIv AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 951 funds with which to employ a person to take charge of tlie preparation and collection of the exhibit. As a result each school sent in its exhibit to Fargo, and, after the exhibits were all in, the committee had the task of going over the same and selecting those features which would more particularly represent the work of the State. The booth assigned to North Dakota was of necessity small, having not much above 1,500 square feet of floor space. The plan of arrangement might be considered as an open lx>oth, with cases containing the mounted exhibits placed around the outer margin,, leaving the interior of the booth for the placing of show cases displaying the industrial features of the exhibit. The institutions of higher learning were all represented. The State uni¬ versity, the agricultural college, the State normal schools at Valley City and IMayville, the manual training school, the school for the deaf, the school of science, the Fargo College (Congregational), and the Red River Valley Uni¬ versity^ (Hethodist), furnished comprehensive exhibits. All of the large graded schools, including those of Fargo, Grand Forks, Grafton, Jamestown, Valley City, Devils Lake, Park River, Larimore, Hillsboro, Wahpeton, Lisbon, Cando, Langdoii, Carrington, and many others were represented. The rural schools of Walsh, Cass, Barnes, Sargent, Wells, Pierce, and Pembina counties were repre¬ sented. In brief, all the phases of educational work of North Dakota were fairly exhibited. The department of public instruction sent an exhibit, including charts show¬ ing statistics with reference to education, maps showing the locations of all schools in the various counties, exhibits of teachers' examinations, together with various publications, such as courses of study, school laws, high-school man¬ uals, and copies of the various blanks which are used by the department of public instruction. Another prominent feature of the exhibit was photographs. In this the committee endeavored to follow out the idea suggested by the head of the educational exhibit. The photographs represented buildings, interiors, groups of students at work in laboratories, groups of the faculties of the higher insti¬ tutions ; in fact, everything which could be represented by a photograph. This feature of the exhibit was one which enabled the visitor to form a very com¬ prehensive idea of the equipment of the educational institutions in North Dakota, as well as a very excellent idea of the type of men and women who are found in our institutions as instructors, and of the class of young people who are being instructed in our schools. Art work, as done in our .schools, was very well representetL This included work in charcoal, crayon, pen and ink, and water color. The industrial features of the exhibit were from the engineering department of the university, the agri¬ cultural college, and the manual training school through specimens of work in wood and iron and mechanical dravung of all kinds. The industrial vrork from the graded schools was shown by specimens of basketry, mat weaving, and other work of a similar character. The actual work of the class room was shovrn through the medium of bound volumes of school work. ^ The lack of funds handicapped the committee in the inauguration of many features which gave a very decided character to many of the other exhibits. The committee having' the exhibit in charge, however, feels that the display was in every vray creditable, and gave to the visitors an excellent idea of the educational progress of our State, showing, as it did, that North Dakota has the same educational tendencies and is making the same educational progress as are found in practically every other Commonwealth of our country. 932 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904, PENNSYLVANIA. BY NATHAN C. SCHAEFFEB. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. The law providing for the establishment of a system of common schools was enacted in 1834. It was amended in 183G. By its provisions every township, borough, and city was made a school district under the management of a board of directors or controllers. In the townships and smaller boroughs the number of directors is six. In most of the larger boroughs and the cities the number varies according to the number of wards into which the municipality has been divided. The power to fix the amount of tax for school purposes is vested in the school board in all cities except Philadelphia, where the levy is made by coun¬ cils. The maximum annual tax for school maintenance is 13 mills, but the law allows an additional tax for building purposes, which must in no case exceed the amount levied for school maintenance. A tax not exceeding 1 mill may be assessed for library purposes. School boards are vested with power to select school sites, build schoolhouses, grade the schools, employ the teachers, adopt the text-books and the courses of study, furnish free text-books and supplies, and organize in townships as a board of health during the prevalence of epidemics or contagious diseases. They are further charged with the duty of enforcing the law which makes attendance at school compulsory for all persons between the ages of 8 and 13, and of others between 13 and IG who can not read and write the English lan¬ guage intelligently or are not regularly engaged in sojiie useful employment or service. Orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, history of the United States, and physiology and hygiene must be taught in every district. Provision is made for such otlier branches as the hoard of directors may see fit to include in the curriculum. In addition to these branches the teachers must also have certificates of scholarship in elementary algebra and civil government; and no teacher is permitted to give instruction in branches not enumerated on his or her certificate. The act creating the office of county superintendent was passed in 1854. Sub¬ sequently laws were enacted permitting cities, boroughs, and townships of 5,000 inhabitants to elect separate superintendents. The salaries of the county superintendents are paid out of a legislative appropriation, while those of the other superintendents are paid out of the treasuries of the school districts which elect them. Before a school superintendent can he commissioned, it must be evident to the State superintendent that he possesses the literary and professional qualifica¬ tions required by law. The term of office is three years. The election of the county superintendent is held at the county seat on the first Tuesday of May by a convention of school directors. No other State, county, or municipal elec¬ tion is held at the same time. The system of holding annual teachers’ institutes puts the whole responsi¬ bility for the success of the institute upon the superintendent, whose visits and examinations have made him familiar with the needs of his teachers, gives him funds adequate for securing the best available talent in the whole country, provides for the closing of the schools during the institute week, and gives the teachers the same compensation as if they were teaching. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 938 , The act providing for the establishment of State normal schools was passed i in 1857, During the last year the thirteen State normal schools received $130,000 for maintenance and tuition, at the rate of $1.50 per week for every < student willing to sign a pledge to teach two years in the public schools. The aggregate value of the buildings and equipment of these schools exceeds $4,000,000. The course of study covers three years. The school department was made a separate department of the State govern¬ ment in the year 1857. Before that time the secretary of the Commonwealth was ex officio superintendent of common schools. The State superintendent is appointed for a term of four years, by the advice and consent of the senate. For many years there was no definite high school policy. Cities and boroughs, indeed, organized and maintained efficient high schools, but it was only in 1895 that a general high school act was passed. In 1901 the policy of aiding town¬ ship high schools by State appropriation was inaugurated. During the school year 1903-4, 1G3 township high schools received aid in this way, and the number is rapidly increasing. The courses of study cover from two to four years, according to the needs and resources of the community in which the high school is located. The total number of high schools in the State is 630. The growth of the system has exceeded the most sanguine expectations of its founders. According to the statistical report for the school year ending June 1, 1903, it gave employment to 31,449 teachers, and furnished school facilities to ' 1,193,669 pupils. The total expenditure for that year was $24,354,888.23. The estimated value of the school property was $68,523,701.44. THE EXHIBIT. The educational exhibit of Pennsylvania presents the ordinary work of many schools in their different grades, with courses of study, etc. The kindergarten and manual training schools are particularly well represented. Photographs are, of course, a prominent feature of the display. A fine oil painting of Thaddeus Stevens, loaned by the Lancaster school board, is prominent upon the V wall at one end of the section and properly challenges the attention of the visitor. It is here to connnemorate the great fact in the school history of Penn- sylvania that, in 1835, he prevented the repeal of the law for the esta])lishment of common schools which had been enacted the year before, mainly through the ^ efforts of another son of Nev/ England, Hon. Samuel Breclv. Over the pillared entrances on each of the inner sides of the inclosure there is a splendid show- J ing of historic portraits loaned by the department of public instruction ; on one side Samuel Breck, Thomas H. Burrowes, Henry L. Diffenbach, and Charles R. p Coburn, and on the other, facing these, J. P. Wickersham, Elnathan Elisha Higbee, David J. Waller, and Nathan C, Sciiaeffer, These lifelike portraits, heavily framed in gold, in pleasing contrast with the dark background upon which they hang, occupy a commanding position and attract much attention, i. The committee on education of the Louisiana Piirchase Exposition Commis- / Sion, in June, 1903, appointed as director of education for Pennsylvania at the exposition Supt. Addison L. Jones, of Westchester, who at once formulated plans for the collection and installation of an educational exhibit from the pub¬ lic schools. The plans were submitted to and accepted by Col. James H. Lam¬ bert, executive officer of the commission, and the committee on education, A circular letter containing addresses by State Supt. Nathan C. Schaeffer and Colonel Lambert to school officers and teachers, and rules for the preparation of exhibits, was prepared and sent out to all siqjeriutendents and other school c officers early in September, 1903. At a meeting of the normal school principals and the directors ac Harrisburg 934 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. it was decided that the normal schools should make a collective exhibit. A committee in each school was appointed and their work was well [torformed. This is the first world's fair in which all of the normal schools have been represented. Nearly all of the material for the exhibit was collected in Westchester by March 1, 1904. To arrange the matter and install it at St. Louis two assistants to Superintendent Jones were appointed, Alicia iM. Zierden, a graduate of Bucknell University and a teacher in the schools of Dubois, was made first assistant. Miss Zierden had done valuable work in the department of educa¬ tion in the expositions at Buffalo and Charleston. Ih'of. T. L. Gibson, formerly sui)erintendent of Cambria County, and more recently an institute instructor, assisted in the preparation and installation of the material. Supt. Edward Brooks, of Philadelpliia, began early to make preparations for the best city exhibit the schools could prepare. He appointed committees in the different dejiartments of the school system. The commission gave one- fourth of the entire block allotted to the State to the schools of this city. The space was small, but the display is greatly admired. The Philadelphia exhibit. — The kindergarten exhibit was intended to repre¬ sent the progress of the kindergarten itlea up to the present time. It consisted of worl^ of children in public kindergartens, representing a sequence of a year’s work as arranged in the programme authorized by the director of kindergartens ; also a series of papers explaining the principles and methods of Froebel’s philosophy as ai»plied in the gifts, accompanied by drawings showing their application in the practical work with the children. In detail it represented the mathematical analysis of the gift work in sewing and original expressions of the children on this basis; original work in weaving, sequences in paper folding, paper cuttiiig, original illustrations of kindergarten stories in drawing, and “ color work ” from models with brush and pencil. A typical programme of a month's work in the kindergarten contained an outline of a morning talk, games, gift, and occupation exercises, accompanied with drawings illustrating the details. The exhibit of the elementary schools consisted of papers on language, arith¬ metic, geography, history and civics, pliysiology and hygiene, together with work in drawing and sewing, kindergarten work, etc. The papers on language showed the successful application of the idea that in the correlation of studies language should be made the central study, and that history and literature on the one hand, and “ nature study ” on the other hand, should be grouped around this center. The work is characterized by another educational maxim placed prominently on our exhibit, “ Language is the instru¬ ment of thought and the medium of expression.” The infiuence of these two principles was manifest in the language work of our exhibit. The exhibit in arithmetic was characterized, first, by the fact that the much- lauded Griibe system had been discarded for a more natural and logical system called the ” normal system,” and, second, by the prevalence of that analytic method of thought and operation which has done so much to revolutionize in¬ struction in a.rithmetic in this country. The work ranged from the elementary processes of the first grade to mensuration and the elements of algebra in the eighth grade. The business applications of arithmetic were made prominent in the exercises. The papers in geography showed the coordination of political and physical geography in the treatment of each individual country or State, and the influ¬ ence of physical conditions on plant and animal life and upon the occupations, characteristics, and the welfare of mankind. In case of the United States EDUCATIONS' AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 935 these influences were correkited with the history of the country, especially in respect to the State of Pennsylvania. The work in physiology and hygiene represented the general character of class-room work in the Philadelphia schools. The work included, first, a description of the body as a whole ; second, the bony framework ; third, the muscular system ; fourth, the digestive system ; fifth, the blood and its circu¬ lation ; sixth, the lungs and respiration ; seventh, the skin and its functions ; eighth, the nervous system and the special senses. The papers on history indicated the mediods and purpose of teaching this branch in the public schools. Those in the primary grades related to some prominent event in our country’s history or to the deeds of its great men. The main object of the teaching, in these as well as in the other grades, is to culti¬ vate a love for the study and a desire to learn more of our country’s history, rather than to fix in the memory a certain number of facts or dates. Biography is made the basis of historical study in these grades. In the grammar grades more attention is given to events and those larger movements that indicate the progress of the nation. The sewing exhibit of the pupils, placed in a large glass case at the entrance to the Philadelphia section, consisted of specimens of plain and fancj' sewing and dressmaking by the pupils of the elementary schools, ranging from 8 to 14 years. The exhibit included lace handkerchiefs, fancy underwear, beautiful and dainty dresses, etc. The exhibit in drawing consisted of 80 mounts, 22 by 28 inches, containing an average of tO drawings to each mount, part of which were displayed openly, the remainder being contained in two wall cabinets. In addition there were 8 bound volumes containing over 1,300 drawings. The drawings exhibited were selected from the work of all grades, and consisted of drawings of leaves, s]>rays, plants, common objects, etc., executed in colored chalks and crayons in the low¬ est grades, and in pencil, pen and ink, and water colors in the highest grades. Tlie exhibit of the Public Industrial Art School consisted of: (1) Drawings and designs in monochrome and colors, water coloi- sketches, and charcoal drawings; (2) clay models, conventional forms and designs, nature forms in low relief and in the round; (3) wood carvings; (4) jdiotographs of children fd work in the various class rooms. The pupils of the school are drawn from the fifth to the eighth year of the public schools, and attend one session of two hours each week in the after¬ noon. The Central Manual Training School (William A. Sayre, A. M., principal) and the Northeast Manual Training School (Dr. Andrew J. Morrison, principal) united in the exhibit of manual work. In the manual work of the exhibit, Avhich is a distinctive feature of these schools, each exercise involves a mechan¬ ical principle, and the chief object of the instruction is the development of this principle rather than a finished piece of work. The aim is to teach the pupil to express liis thought in a concrete form with the least waste of time and material and in accordance with the most approved methods. rrinci])les involved in the exercises are explained, and the elementary stages of the work at the bench, the forge, or the machine are gone through with by the instructors. Free-hand blackboard sketches are freely used. Mechanical shapes and units are designed to familiarize the student with types and meth¬ ods of construction. The exhibit of the Central High School of Philadelphia is designed to give to those interested in public education a fairly satisfactory conception of the 936 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. plant itself, its history and development, its methods, and the part it plays in the civic, economic, and literary life of the city of whose educational system it forms the apex. The plant itself — the building and equipment, confessedly the largest and most complete in the United States — is illustrated hy a series of photographs exhibiting eveiT detail, exterior and interior, class rooms, laboratories, and the magnificently equipped observatory. The various departmental exhibits show well the work done in the several lines of instruction which they represent. As a school is to be judged only by its results and effects upon the community, the intellectual activities and achievements of its body of alumni are represented in some degree by the large library of works which have proceeded from their pens. It is enough to say that many of the greatest names in the literature and in the political, scientific, and professional life of our entire country are there represented. In the exhibit of the Philadelphia Normal School every department of work is represented. A careful study of the 04 pages of its leaf catalogue and of its bound volumes, physical apparatus, and manual work will give a good idea not only of the aim of the school, but also of the educational tasks accomplished. Each department tells its own story by picture and text, but besides this, by a well-devised scheme of graphics, the number of hours devoted to each subject, the cost and running expenses of the school, and other valuable information may be obtained at a glance. Few normal schools contain such finely equipped laboratories, and these, together with the large and well-arranged class rooms, are shown by many photographs. All departments present a carefully arranged course of study. In some departments, notably literature, this, from the nature of the case, is the only exhibit. In many cases the course of study is made clear by notebooks, papers, maps, and other illustrative material, the work of tlie students. Other exhibits. — The exhibit of Pennsylvania, so far as the public schools outside of Philadelphia are concerned, is composite. Idle best work of a grade is put together, so that the State is the unit of the exhibit rather than the school district. The work of all the kindergartens appears together, likewise that of the first grade, and so on through the grades. The high school and normal school products have been arranged by subjects, the papers from each branch appearing in a cabinet. Where there is sufficient work from a district, it is installed together, always with the name of city or district plainly marked and the name of the child on every article contributed. The display is made on the inside walls of the booth, in leaf cabinets, base stands, and special show^ cases, and is classified under the heads of work from ungraded and graded rural schools, graded city schools, manual training, normal, and special schools. In portfolios and on the walls there are about 3,000 photo¬ graphs of school buildings, interiors with children at work and at play ; manual classes at sewing, basketry,' weaving, in the shops, and in the gardens; plans and drawings in full of model rural school buildings ; evolution of the school- house, showing the first log building and its successors until the modern school structure is reached; noted places and buildings in Pennsylvania history. INIost of the written work and some drawings from the respective grades are nicely bound in cloth, each subject by itself, labeled with the branch and fre¬ quently with the district. In nearly all the volumes are found teachers’ state¬ ments, describing in full the method of teaching, with other information neces¬ sary to a full understanding of the work and its value in a system of education. There are about 900 volumes and portfolios. There are series of charts showing graphically the growth and extent of high- school instruction, teachers’ tenure of office and salaries; progress and extent EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 937 of evening schools — elementary, manual, and high ; the origin, value, and results of township high schools ; the history, courses, and to some extent the Avork of the normal schools ; the extent, educational necessity, and practical use of school libraries. There are also charts showing at a glance the status of nearly all lines of educational advancement, as well as forming the basis of work for the student Avho desires to study jjedagogy and education. By means of the leaf cabinet a series of 33 charts is placed in a single case. The exhibit from manual schools is varied and full, including Avork from manual-training classes in Avood and iron, Aveaving and basketry, domestic science, anti seAving. This Avork is much admired, and, on account of its excel¬ lence and arrangement, attracts an almost continuous line of visitors. As in all other parts of the exhibit, the work is arranged b.y grades, and the name of the maker appears on every article. / The normal schools of the State have about 300 jdiotographs of buildings, interiors, and students. They have much Avork shoAving methods in teaching, products from the training classes in science, art, language, reading, and peda¬ gogy. Some of the schools also have excellent Avork from their model depart¬ ments, shoAving plans by Avliich the senior classes get their practice in teaching. A set of books, of Avhich normal-school men are the authors, fills several shelves in the booth. THE PHILIPPINES. BY A. R. HAGER, CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, PHILIPPINE EXPOSITION BOARD. THE EXHIBIT. The exliibit from the schools of the Philippines Avas housed in the largest building of the Philippine exposition. While this Avas in one Avay a disadvan¬ tage, since it aatis thus dissociated from the educational exhibits of other coun¬ tries, yet it Avas desirable that it should be located so as to form a part of the complete picture of the Philippines, and it Avas particularly desirable because of the larger amount of space thus available. - The educational building Avas a reduced copy of the Manila Cathedral, and near this Avas the bamboo and nipa structure that Avas an exact reproduction of a Philippine schoolhouse, even to the AvindoAvs of pearl shell. In addition to the contents of these tAvo, the building devoted to “Commerce” Avas an educa¬ tional exhibit, as it Avas a replica of the laboratory building of the Philippine Normal School at Manila. The area of the Philippines is approximately equal to that of the HaAvaiian Islands, plus Porto Rico, plus the State of Ngaa' York, and all of Noav England, with 2,000 square miles left over. In all this area there are less than 150 miles of railroad, and most Avagon roads do not deserve the name. The diffi¬ culty of collecting materials for an educational exhibit Avill therefore be under¬ stood. The principal toAvns are, hoAvever, on the coast, so that a large part of the traffic is by water. The work of preparing and collecting the educational exhibit Avas begun in May, 1903. Circulars Avere sent to all American teachers giving an outline of the plan to be folloAved. These Avere read and explained to the Filipino teach¬ ers, and the result Avas an enthusiastic response. Uniform paper for Avritten exhibits and other supplies Avere sent to all Government and private schools 938 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. requesting them, and the Government and private boats carried exhibit mate¬ rials gratis. The free use of Government telegraph lines was also granted. In spite of all efforts, however, the difficulties were in certain cases so great that supplies sent to some school divisions in June had not reached them in Decem¬ ber on the final date for receiving exhibit material at Manila. Many schools in the neighborhood of Manila were visited by the writer while exhibits were being prepared. The work of preparing exhibits was in charge of the teachers, the direction of the work in each province being under the division superintendent. Most of these superintendents and a large proportion of the teachers took an active interest, the result being that the collection of school work included specimens from nearly all of the 30 school divisions. The larger part of the exhibit naturally consisted of work of the primary schools, since that has been the principal work of the bureau of education during the four years of active work. At the present time, of the 2,280 Gov¬ ernment schools 2,233 are primary, and they contributed fully 90 per cent of the 8,000 exhibits shown. These primary schools are all supported by the municipalities in which they are located. There is a growing demand for intermediate instruction as pupils graduate from the primary grades, and there are now 50 Government schools of inter¬ mediate and secondary grade, at least one of which is supported by each school division. The insular government maintains three special schools in Manila — the Philip¬ pine Normal School, the Philippine Nautical School, and the Philippine School of Arts and Trades. The first named is training Filipino teachers, and has at present an attendance of about COO students. It is well equipped, and students receive pedagogic training in the common branches, in which they also gain actual experience in training classes with critic teachers. The normal students are taught botany and physics by the laboratory method, for which well-equipped laboratories are provided. The Nautical School has been developed from a school founded by the Spanish before the American occupation. When first reopened by the insular govern¬ ment it was in charge of a naval officer, and many of the Spanish instructors of the old school were retained, but now all of the instructors but one are Amer¬ icans, and, as is true of all the schools so far mentioned, all instruction is in English. Both the Normal and Nautical schools sent comprehensive exhibits illustrative of their work. The School of Arts and Trades made a good exhibit of students' work in draw¬ ing. Other departments are maintained in carpentry, plumbing, machine-shop practice, and telegraphy. Filipino students are very proficient in drawing, and have done creditable work in telegraphy, but they have not yet learned to asso¬ ciate the idea of hand work with their concept of an education. The “ educated gentleman ” was taught, in Spanish times, to look down upon manual labor, and it is, and will be, hard to overcome the prejudices that survive the Spanish regime. The Spanish themselves recognized their weakness, in this respect and started a school of arts and crafts shortly before the American occupation. Its life was too brief, however, to give it rank even as a beginning. Besides the government school exhibits there were several fine exhibits made by private institutions, many of which have been established under the American Government and some of which have survived the Spanish rule. The I.Tii\ersity of St. Thomas (“La Universidad de Santo Tomas”) is one of these. The charter of this university antedates that of any American university, and it includes colleges of letters and science, law, and medicine. It is a church institution under the Dominican order, and as a factor in the education and EDUCATIOii AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 939 develoimieiit of the Philippine people its importance can hardly be overestimated. A private secondary school, which has been established since 1898 and which made a complete and interesting exhibit, was the “ Liceo.” This is an example of a number of schools in the islands, several of which were represented by excellent exhibits, that are organized, directed, and taught entirely by Filipinos. The “ Liceo ” maintains a primary department, which is preparatory to the sec¬ ondary school. Like the University of St. Thomas, its classes are carried on in Spanish, though English is taught in this and other private schools much as German and French are taught in classes in American high schools. As we have found true in America, they are learning that a practical working knowl¬ edge of a language is seldom acquired in this way. In viewing this exhibit of public and private schools one heard frequent ex- ])ressions of wonder that so much had been accomplished in the short time American schools have been established. To think for a moment that the level of culture and intelligence sliovv'ii in this exhibit has been attained in four years would be a great mistake. The advent of civilization in the Philippines was many years earlier than in any part of the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, and Spain must be given credit for having provided means for the progress and development of the people of the Philippines during her rule. True, their advance has not been as rapid along many lines as in America, and their civilization has been adapted to their tropical environment and is consequently different from our own. Unfortunately the educational facilities possessed by the Spanish were not such as to provide for a large proportion of the people. The vast majority of the inhabitants of the islands are now very ignorant, and a determined effort is being made by the Bureau of Education to reach them all. 'The development of the Filipino teachers is a necessary first step. 'The present aim is to give every Filipino boy and girl tliree years in an ele¬ mentary school. That may ]iot seem a high ideal from the view point of the American teacher, but it is a practical and a possible working plan whose accomplishment will work w'onders for the Philippine people. Intermediate, secondary, and special training schools will be maintained, and the demands for new schools and a university will, as far as possible, be met as they arise ; but the main work in the Philippines will be in the primary schools for many years to come. The work of the schools is not confined to the “ common branches,” but includes manual training and practical industrial work. It is the intention to have a practical school of industrial training in each province and to have agriculture taught in every school. Nature study is now taught in the pri¬ mary schools, and the course of study is especially arranged to suit local con¬ ditions and materials. Those who have seen the skillful handiwork of pupils shown in the exhibit will be at least hopeful, if not sure, of the results of training in such crafts as pottery work and textile weaving. The basket work, hats, textiles, mats, draw¬ ings, and carvings shown in the exhibits of the various primary and secondary schools were of particular interest to American teachers of manual training. One of these teachers, whose excellent work gives weight to the remark, ex¬ claimed enthusiastically, “ Why, that’s what our American schools are working toward-! ” In coming to St. Louis from the Philippines the writer was accompanied by two assistants. Miss IMaria del Pilar Zamora and Mr. Antonio Estudillo. By the death of Mr. Estudillo, a few weeks after his arrival in St, Louis, the Philippine bureau of education lost one of its most valued teachers. His appreciation of the opportunity to visit the United States and his eagerness and ability to make the most of it made his death seem particularly sad. 940 EDUCATION EEPOKT; 1904. Most visitors to the exposition since the openini; of the Philippine model school are familiar with the work of its teacher. Miss Zamora. Every morn¬ ing' from 9 to half past 11 from one to two thousand people visited this school. If they came before half past 10 they saw a class of 21 Visayan boys and girls studying reading, writing, history, geographjg arithmetic, and com¬ position. These were pupils from the Visayan village, a few of whom had attended American schools in tlie islands. In all the surroundings and fur¬ nishings of the schoolroom, and in the exclusive use of English as the language of all the classes, the visitor saw a faithful portrayal of a Philippine school. If the visitor tarried after the dismissal of this class he saw another class enter the schoolroom, a class of pujnis such as no schoolhouse ever held before — the children from the villages of non-Christian Filipinos. An important thing for the reader to remember about this class is that the Negritos, Igorote, Tin- guian, Bagobos, and Moros of which it was made up are as much of a curi¬ osity to the civilized Filipinos as to ourselves. A Sioux Indian on Broadway would not atti’act more interest than a Bagobo on the main business street of Manila. Miss Zamora, for example, had never seen one representative of any of these non-Christian tribes before, and she has lived all her life in Manila. As an ethnological study this class was very interesting. The progress made by the Igorote and Moro pupils was more rapid than that of the others, while the Negrito, the aborigine of the islands, proved to have the least mental capacity. Practically all the educational work in the“Philippines is concerned with the cliildren of the twelve Christian tribes, of whom the Visayan village showed a true picture. These twelve tribes form over seven-eighths of the population of the archipelago, the school population numbering approximately one and a half million. i‘Oirro Bico. BY E. W. LORD, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. ORGANIZATION. Since the American occupation of Porto Rico in 1898 the American system of public schools has been completely introduced into the islaml. There is now in operation a system of rural, graded, high, and special schools, which compares favorably with the system of schools in any State in the I'nion, although, of course, much of the work is in an elementary condition. At the close of the first term of the school year 1904-.5 there were enrolled in all the public schools 50,559 pupils. Of this number a little more than half, 25,480, were in the rural schools, the remainder in the graded schools, including high and special schools. The work is based on a course of study in eight grades. As, however, this course has been in operation only during the five years of the American occupa¬ tion, and practically during only the past three years, there are very few pupils in the higher grades, all but about 1,000 being enrolled in the first five grades. All the rural and graded schools are taught by native teachers, many of whom have received their education either at the insular normal school or in some other normal school. In addition to the native teachers there are employed about 150 American teachers, whose special work is that of teaching English. These teachers are assigned to the graded schools, and go from room to room giving instructions to the pupils. Two or three times a week they give instruc¬ tion in English to the native teachers, all of whom are required to study that EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 941 language. Both teachers and pupils are rapidly learning English, and it would appear that the time is not far distant when the educated people of Porto Rico will be able to use that language as well as their native tongue. In addition to the elementary schools there are now established four high schools, although only two of these are yet doing actual high school work. In the Central High School at San Juan there will be graduated in June, 1904, the first class from a Porto Rican high school, consisting of five young men, all of \\ horn will probably continue their studies in colleges or universities in the United States or in Europe. Most of the teachers in the high schools are Americans. A few kindergarten schools have been established, and these have proven very popular, but owing to the expense involved it is not probable that this work can be extended. At the present time there are maintained four kindergarten classes, two in San Juan and two in Ponce. Drawing and music are taught in the schools of the largest cities, special teachers for these subjects being provided in San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez. The children have a natural talent for drawing and make great progress in this branch of instruction. The work will probably be extended throughout the schools as rapidly as it can be done advantageously. Industrial education is receiving considerable attention at the present time, the legislature having authorized the establishment of a number of industrial and manual training schools. Four of these schools which have already been established are proving very successful and apparently are meeting the special needs of the people even better than are the regular schools. In these schools there are classes in woodworking, printing, leather work, basket making, hat mak¬ ing, domestic science, sewing, dressmaking, etc., and also in the regular common school studies. Manual labor has always been distasteful in tropical lands, but it has been proved in our industrial schools that the pupils are willing to work hard and even to perform many unpleasant tasks if only they can see satisfac¬ tory results. To provide as far as possible for higher education, the legislature has estab¬ lished the University of Porto Rico, and made generous provision for its support. As yet, however, the university has only one department organized — the normal department — which includes a first-class normal school, a practice school, and an agricultural experiment school, with which is connected a considerable property where agricultural work may be carried on. In this normal department good work is being done in training teachers for the public schools. All educational work is carried on under the direction of the commissioner of education, who is appointed by the President of the United States. Local school boards, elected by the people, have some jurisdiction over the schools in their respective municipalities and cooperate with the district superintendents, who are appointed by the commissioner as his local representatives. The great improvement which has been made in the actual school work is due in no small degree to the effective supervision of these superintendents, of whom there are at present 19, the greater number being Americans. If we compare the present educational conditions in Porto Rico with condi¬ tions under the Spanish administration, we see that an immense advance has indeed been made. One year before the American occupation of the island there were in operation, according to reports made to the Government at that time, 539 schools, with an enrollment of 22,005 pupils. This, however, does not indi¬ cate that all of these pupils received regular instruction. It is probable, indeed, that considerably less than half this number were regularly in attendance at any school, and to those who did attend the instruction given was of a most ele¬ mentary sort, including little more than a thorough drill in the church catechism and a parrot-like learning of certain facts of arithmetic, history, and natural 942 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. scieiico. At the present time the total number of schools is about 1,100, more than twice the number maintained under the Spanish Government only five years ago. At the same time it is woefully true that the public schools are now able to accommodate less than one-fourth of the pupils who ought to be there, and this in spite of the fact that more than 25 per cent of all the revenues of the island, both insular and municipal, is expended for educational purposes. The greatest need of Porto Rico at the present time is the establishment of an immense number of new schools under trained teachers. This, however, can not be accomplished without aid from the National Government or from some other source outside the island. The people here are doing everything that is possible; they realize the need of universal education and are making heroic efforts to extend the benefits of the public school as widely as possible. No department of the American Government is more acceptable to the Porto Rican people than that which is bringing them the benefits of the American school system, and probably no department is doing more to introduce American ideas and methods. The children in the public schools learn loyalty to the American flag and are proud to consider their land a part of the great Republic. It is an inspiring sight to see a room full of these children of the Tropics lustily singing, in their best English, “ My country, ’tis of thee,” and raising their hands in salute to the Stars and Stri])es. SOUTH DAKOTA. EDUCATIONAL HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION. In the spring of 18G0 the settlers at P>onhomme built a little schoolhouse of logs, fioorless and dirt roofed, and in it, in the month of May, Miss Emma J. Rradford assembled ten children and taught them for three months. This was the first schoolhouse in Dakota. In the autumn of 1804 Captain Miner proposed to his soldiers that they build a sclioolhouse, and they soon had a comfortable log schoolhouse completed in the ravine at Yermilion, and Amos Shaw, one of the soldiers, conducted a school therein during the winter. From that date there has been no break in the public school system of Yermilion. In 18C5 Prof. James S. Foster arrived from New York with his famous colony of sixty families, and almost immediately Governor Edmunds appointed him siii>erintendent of public instruction. Although the compensation of the super¬ intendent was but ^^20 per annum, he gave himself energetically to the work and ill a brief period had a regular system of public schools established and sup- jiorted by taxation. The schools were scattered from Fort Randall to Sioux. City, Init he visited every one of them and encouraged both teachers and patrons, and induced the organization of districts and schools wherever he deemed it possible to sustain an establishment. He conducted the first teachers’ institute held in the Territory on November 11. 18GT, and it continued in session two weeks. The first session of the Territorial legislature, held in 1802, adopted a complete code of laws for the conduct of common schools, and it may be added that very few of its successors have failed to follow its example in this respect. By this first code the schools were open only to white children. As late as 1807 a hard fight was made in the legislature, without avail, to strike the word “ white ” out of the school law, and it was not until the passage of the civil rights bill by Con¬ gress that colored cliildren were permitted full rights in our common schools. At the first session the University of Dakota was located at Yermilion. From the planting of the schoolhouse in the ravine at Yermilion the develop- EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 943 meiit of the South Dakota sehool system has kept pace with, if it has not actually led, the demand of the constantly increasing population. The efficient work of James S. Foster for the establishment of the school system was effi¬ ciently supplemented by other Territorial superintendents, the office being filled by such men as Gen. W. II. H. Beadle, J. J. McIntyre, Eugene A. Dye, and A. Sheridan Jones. The work of General Beadle in this office made a deep impression, both for the efficiency of the schools at the period and for the cause of education through all of the subsequent years. He yeas first to grasp the ■\'alue and possibilities of South Dakota's great inheritance of school lands, and to him more than to any other is due the wise safeguards which protect it from waste and peculation, as well as the minimum price at which it could be sold. The earliest attempt to establish an institution giving a collegiate course was undertaken by the general association of Congregational churches, which met at Canton in June, 1881, and resolved to establish a college at Yankton. The col¬ lege was duly established and received its first classes in September of that year. This same year the people of Vermilion set about placing the university on its feet, and an organization was effected which resulted in the voting of $10,000 of l>onds by Clay County, the proceeds of which were used to construct a building which was ready for occupancy in the fall of 1882, and in it was instituted the university, which the ensuing legislature was prevailed upon to endow. The legislature of 1883 located the ;igi*icultural college at Brookings, the nor¬ mals at Madison and at Spearfish, and appropriated funds for the agricultural college and the Madison normal, w hich ’were opened the succeeding year. The next legislature endowed the Spearfish normal, and in 1887 the School of Mines at Rapid City was set up. This same legislature also located a normal school at Springfield, conditioned upon the village providing land as a site. The legislature of 1899 located the Northern Normal and Industrial School at Aberdeen, and the legislature of 1901 gave it an endowment, so that the main building ’vnas erected and the school opened in the autuiiiu of 1902. In 1883 the Methodists located Dakota University at Mitchell, and the same year Pierre University was established by the rresbyterians. This latter in¬ stitution has since been removed to Huron, where it is continued as Huron Col¬ lege. In the same year Sioux Falls College vms undertaken by the Baptists. In 1884 the Congregationalists established an additional college at Redfield and the Episcopalians undertook All Saints School at Sioux Falls. The Scandi¬ navian Lutherans established Augustana College at Canton the same year, and a normal school at Sioux Falls in 1889. The Mennonites founded a college at Freeman in 1903. The State cares for its blind at Gary, its deaf at Sioux Falls, its feeble¬ minded at Redfield, and its unruly at Plankinton. All of the higher institutions of learning, both State and sectarian, are thoroughly equip])ed vrith buildings and a])paratus, are modern and progressive, and are doing excellent work, having a combined registration of 4,000 students. The rural schools of the State are doing efficient worlv in conformity to an approved course of study. High schools are rapidly becoming unified and sys¬ tematized, uniform courses being used in inore than 75 per cent of the cities and towns. The South Dakota Educational Association brings the teachers together for annual conference. The State constitution adopted in 1899 safe¬ guarded the school system in every possible way. The State supervision has been under the direction, successively, of F. L. Pinkham, Cortez Salmon, Frank Crane, Edward E. Collins, and George W. Nash. There are, according to the 1904 returns, 136,990 school children in South Dakota, 5,025 teachers, 4,031 schoolhouses, 106,822 pupils enrolled. The value of schoolhouses and sites is placed at $4,224,815.94, and total expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1904, $2,868,115.03. 944 EDUCATION KEPOKT^ 1904. THE SOUTH DAKOTA EXHIBIT, State Superintendent G. W. Nash was appointed by the South Dakota World’s Fair commission to take charge of and have general supervision of collecting a suitable educational exhibit for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. October 1, 1903, he sent to county superintendents and others having supervision of schools a letter which contained extracts from Circular No. 2, issued by Hon. Howard J. Rodgers, chief of the department of education. An earnest appeal, asking for a systematic preparation, was made at this time, and instructions as to place and date of shipping material were given. The Chicago and North¬ western and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul raihvay companies kindly transported the material without expense to the exhibitoi’s, A committee of three, consisting of Mr. M. A. Lange, Miss Clara Cressy, and Mr. C. C. Bras, was appointed by the superintendent to jneet at Mitchell and to examine, select, and arrange such a part of the exhibit submitted as would show a clear and concise plan of the woik done in the schools of this State. From Mitchell the exhibit was shipped to St. Louis and was duly installed by Mr. George R. Farmer, the efficient secretary of the South Dakota com¬ mission, and Mrs. Lillie S. Cooper, of the Springfield normal, who was after- wmrd director in charge. The exhibit was most desirably located in block 1 of the Palace of Educa¬ tion and Social Economy, the name of South Dakota appearing in large bronze letters in front. The interior was divided into three compartments and was covered with exhibits of school w’ork of all grades. Many photographs were in evidence and were examined very carefully by visitors. Several counties w’ere \vell represented by photographs of their district school buildings as well as those of villages and towns. The following counties were represented ; Aurora, Beadle, Bonhomme, Brown, Buffalo, Charles Mix, Clark, Clay, Davison, Day, Deuel, Fall River, Grant, Hand, Hanson. Hughes, Hutchinson, .Jerauld, Kingsbury, Lake, Lawn-ence, McPherson, Marshall, Meade, Minnehaha, Moody, Sanborn, Spink, Turner, Union, and Yankton. The exhibits from these counties consisted of wuitten wmrk in all grades, including German, Latin, and Science ; photographs of the buildings and dif¬ ferent departments ; collections of notebooks, water-color sketches, maps, and handwmrk in the form of rugs, hammocks, baskets, and sewing, raffia, and wmodwmrk. The written work included actual daily school wmrk of the pupils, and in several instances was bound in neat volumes. The exhibit clearly indicates wffiat systematic effort on the part of those who supervise can accomplish. It show’s the strong as w’ell as the w’eak places in our teaching, and suggests remedies for defects. TENNESSEE. BY B. A. EXLOE, DIKECTOB. THE EXHIBIT. The excellence of Tennessee’s educational exhibit is not disclosed by a casual glance. Every inch of available space is utilized. Beginning at the right of the entrance the visitor finds the exhibit of Bristol and at the left the exhibit of the city schools and the university schools of EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 945^ Memphis. Bet^Yee^ these extremes are found, in order, the displays of the \ schools and colleges of the whole State, so far as they appear, jj The drawings in the Bristol exhibit possess peculiar excellence. The draw- Ings of Tarbox School, of Nashville, are fine, also, and this school displays a. ! bicycle model and a replica of the tomb of Andrew Jackson which are not sur- I passed by sijuilar work shown at the exposition. The next exhibit is that of i the public schools of Knoxville. This display bears testimony to the excellence- I of the system, the superintendent, and the teachers of the schools of this city.- !| The colored people of Knoxville are also represented; and besides them, the ii colored schools of Memphis and the Roger Williams University, of Nashville^ I The exhibits of the models of Knoxville, of Knox County, and of Jackson, deserve I especial attention. Of the exhibits of Jackson, the specimens of manual train- li ing and the maps deserve special mention. The exhibit of the Industrial School 'I of Nashville is prominent. The specimens of v/ork are numerous and good^ ii The knives, tools, and horseshoes made by the boys seem equal to similar articles- for sale in the stores : and the girls’ work, notably the drawn work, compares- favorably with the Mexican drawn work. The manual training specimens of I the Hamilton County schools are also good. I The literature exercises of the Columbia Female Institute deserve mention,, and constitute one of the best exhibits in the display. They are illustrated by' pictures suited to the text, and are bound in leather in a very unique way. Of the more advanced institutions of learning, the exhibit of the Buford Col¬ lege is, perhaps, the most extensive. Among its most salient features are paint¬ ings in oil, water color, and pastel, hand-painted china, a burnt-wood screen^ herbarium, and Bible work. Other schools whose exhibits show excellence are : Mrs. Forest Nixon’s School, of Lawrenceburg, exhibit of original music com¬ posed by the pupils ; the Shelby County schools, and the University of Tennessee, whose model of its grounds and buildings occupies the center of the space, an(S is an ornament as well as an object lesson. TEXAS. BY W. L. LEMMON, SECKETARY OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION. ORGANIZATION. The schools of Texas are maintained by funds from three sources: (1) State permanent endowment, (2) State taxation, (3) local taxation. The State per¬ manent fund is a proud inheritance to Texans, and a subject of great interest te citizens of other States less fortunately provided. State Superintendent Lefevre- makes the following showing of this fund September 1, 1903 : Cash, uninvested _ $21, 624 Interest-bearing bonds _ 10, 298, 415 Land notes - 18, 546, 580' Leased lands, valued at minimum price of $1 an acre _ 10, 666, 704 • Total _ 39,533,323^ ED 1904 M - 60 946 EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. Ill addition to the thirty-nine and a half million dollars, now iirodiicing income, the permanent school fund holds upward of 7,000,000 acres of uuleased land, now unproductive of income, but having great possibilities for the future. In addition to this, the county permanent funds amounted to $0,867,293, so that the following is the showing for the permanent endowment of the public schools : State fund _ $39, 533, 323 County funds _ 6, 867, 293 Total _ 46,400,616 The income from permanent endowment funds for the year ending August 31, 1903, according to State Suiierintendent Lefevre, was as follows: From State permanent fund _ $1, 349, 240 From county permanent funds _ 345, 036 Total _ - _ 1,694,276 The scholastic census for the same year enumerated 759,358 children; there¬ fore the permanent endowment yielded $2.22 per capita of the census enumera¬ tion, or $2.75 per capita for the actual enrollment in the public schools (613,323) of pupils within the ages of the census (8 to 17 years). >S7(//e apportionment. — To the income from the State's permanent fund are added the proceeds of State taxation for the public schools, which amounted to $2,518,830 for the year ending August 31, 1903, and which, together with the income from the i>ermanent fund, gave a total of $3,868,069 for State apportion¬ ment. This yielded, for the census enumeration of 759,358 children, an appor¬ tionment of $5 per capita ; or for the actual enrollment in school of pupils within the ages of the census (613,323), $6 per capita. Such an endowment is a fine foundation for a school system, but it may prove enervating or stimulating according to the spirit of those who enjoy it. In the early days of the State history too much dependemce was put uix)n it. There is no better mark of the educational quicicening of more recent years than the rapid spread of local taxation to supplement this county fund and State appor¬ tionment. Statistics for rural schools that vote local taxes are not available, but the movement is known to be widespread. Indei)eiident districts (villages and towns that have more than 200 population) that vote greater local taxes than those allovred common districts have grown from 142 in 1901 to 327 in 1904 — that is, every week for two years and a half some village or town has assumed the larger privileges and responsibilities of the independent district. Owing to a constitutional inhibition Texas provided no public funds for exhibits at the exi)osition. Funds were provided from voluntary subscrip¬ tions of citizens and corporations. The State Teachers' Association appointed an educational commission, composed of the presidents of the university, the normal schools, the agricultural and mechanical college, and the association, together with the State superintendent, a city superintendent, a county superin¬ tendent, and a professor from a private school. This commission was instructed to make investigations and was given power to act. Through its secretary it solicited funds for an educational exhibit. Most of the funds used for the exhibit were secured or contributed by pupils and teachers in our schools. So far as T know, Texas was the only State whose educational-exhibit fund was secured by voluntary contributions from the schools of the State. Nothing else connected with the Texas exhibit was as significant of the profoundly patriotic and progressive spirit of the educationl work of the State as the manner of pro¬ viding the funds. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 947 But while this method applied a high test to the educational spirit of the State and afforded a proof of the high quality of it, it was a very faulty method when results in' the exhibit itself are considered. Uncertainty as to the time and the amounts of the contributions existed up to the very daj’ of the opening of the exposition, so that no broad or permanent method of organization of the work was ever possible. Tlie exliibits from the different towns and schools were sent in spontaneously and independently ; but necessarily, viewed from the standpoint of philosophical principles, or even from tliat of methodical, practical oi*ganization and generalization, the exhibit as a whole was without form and void. It is true, however, that individual exhibits from some cities and from some of our State institutions were complete and well rounded and illustrative of the best modern conceptions of the functions of such educational units. In the main it may be said that the exhibit amply j)roved that Texas is an alert student of educational progress; it is trying all things that other States are trying; it is holding fast to the three lUs, and has laid hands on the three arts — liberal, industrial, and fine — and the exhibit displayed worthy specimens in all departments. i^TAH. BY HORACE H. CUMMINGS, DIRECTOR OF THE EXHIBIT. THE EXHIBIT. The educational exhibit from TTah occupies a booth about .30 by 27 feet and is displayed upon the walls and in cabinets and glass cases, etc. It consists of samples of pupils’ work in all the lines of the most advanced school work and methods. A row of photographs of modern schoolhouses along the sides form an upper frieze which illustrates the fact that Utah has .$39.93 per capita invested in school property, while the per capita tax for the annual maintenance of the schools is equally high in proportion. Below this frieze are found on one side samples of art work and charts illus¬ trating history, geography, and nature study, while on the other side is arranged a display of manual-training work, sewing, basketry, and colored palnting.s. Nine leaf cabinets on each side, with bases and shelves containing photographs, written work, sewing work, designs, drawing, and other art work, complete the display on the sides of the booth, one side illustrating elementary schools and the other secondary and parochial schools. The end of the booth is occupied chiefly by the display from the State Normal Training School, consisting of an upper frieze of nature-study art panels, underneath vrhich are three rows of plaster casts of things and scenes illustrating class work, and then a number of original designs for clay work, tiles, sewing, etc., and a design for a large rug, vrith sections of the same in process of weaving. A model of a mine and cases filled with specimens of clay work, sewing, weaving, etc., complete the training-school exhibit, and, with a fine roll-top desk made by pupils of the Snow Academy, cover the end of the booth to the floor. A hexagonal case filled with work from the State school for the deaf and the blind finishes the list of exhibits. Space for an exhibit was secured at so late a date that very little time was allowed the schools to prepare any special work, but the display shows that Utah has an efficient school system extending to the remotest parts of the State, 948 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. employing the latest methods, and using the best text-books, supplied free to the pupils. A class of second-grade children from the school for the deaf attracted a great deal of attention during their two months’ work at the fair. The latest and best methods were employed, with the result that all the chfldren had learned to speak orally and read lip mov ements. The daily class work attracted large crowds of the general public and afforded experts and teachers interested in that kind of work a valuable object lesson. The exhibit most instructive for workers in elementary education was the normal training school exhibit, which illustrated a new and unified course of study worked out by the faculty of the State normal school. It seeks to pro¬ vide as follows for the correction of the common defects in the usual school work : First. To utilize instead of suppressing the natural physical activities of the child and make them cooperate with his mental activities. Second. To encourage original effort on the part of the child instead of prescribing in detail all his school work, as is usually the case. Third, To unify the whole school work, so that each recitation is seen to be related to the rest of the school work, instead of teaching each branch as a separate, disconnected study. Fourth. To provide many opportunities for the children to do and say nice and kind things to others, and thus cultivate the altruistic tendencies in their natures in the best way. Fifth. To socialize the work of the schoolroom and furnish the same incen¬ tives to work as actuate the pupil in life, while it places the usual formal studies in a similar relation to the main school work that they occupy in life outside of the school. The central subject in each grade, resjiectively, and out of which the formal studies naturally grow, is as follows : First year : Home environment and relation's ; lessons on things already somewhat familiar to the young child. Second year: Shelters. Study of the house; birds’ nests and animal shel¬ ters ; adaption to the needs of their occupants. Third year : Foods ; obtaining, preparing, serving, kinds, cost, etc. Fourth year: Clothing; necessity, kinds, uses, where obtained, and how pre¬ pared ; animal coverings, adaption. Fifth year: Sources of supply. As the pupils have become familiar with the three great necessities whence spring most of our activities for life, they next study the sources of supply of the things needed for shelter, food, and clothing. Sixth year : Manufacturing these supplies ; evolution of machinery, effects, etc. Seventh year : Transportation and commerce ; getting the manufactured products to the consumers ; evolution of the means and methods of transporta¬ tion on land. Eighth year : Navigation and foreign commerce ; relation to other countries ; evolution of ships, etc. Ninth year: The world’s great empires and what made them great. It is believed that the proper development of these topics in accordance with the principles already stated gives the child a comprehension of the things which engage the attention and labor of the average citizen during his life, and therefore prepares him better for life than the ordinary course of formal, unrelated “recitations” usually given. The so-called “common branches” are by no means neglected, but are taught more intensely than before, since a more natural motive stimulates the pupil. He does much reading, for example, in his EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 949 search for information on matters of interest to the class, as well as in impart¬ ing that information to the class, under the stimnlns of the same motive which actuates most of his reading through life. Arithmetic, language, history, geography, spelling, writing, etc., are all taught in this way, at least in the beginning until their necessity is fully realized, and then the usual formal work is given when needed. The natural motive makes learning very much easier and quicker than an artificial one; hence fewer exercises are needed in the formal studies, leaving more time and strength to devote to the central subjects of study. In short, whatever the pupil reads or writes or makes or paints, the problems he solves, and the principles and facts of science he learns, are made to grow out of or illustrate something he has learned about the central subject of thought as far as possible, lie thus becomes accustomed to seeing things in their mutual relations, and unconsciously acquires the ability to recognize and form an estimate of all the conditions and influences in life which may contrib¬ ute to aid or defeat a desired result. He will be more successful in life. VIRGINIA. BY A. M. DOBIE, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. THE VIRGINIA EXHIBIT. The institutions represented in the ^'irginia educational exhibit embraced the primary public schools, Roanoke College, Hampden-Sidney College, the Ran- dolph-Macon system of schools and colleges, and the University of Virginia. All of these exhibits were installed in the Virginia State building. The exhibit of the primary public schools consisted chiefly of specimens of the written work done by the pupils of these schools as required, together with many small objects, the handiwork of the school children, showing the progress made in the various grades along practical manual lines. The exhibits of Roanoke College and Ilampden-Sidney College were very similar in character, composed chiefly of different views of their main buildings and the most picturesque spots in their grounds. The Randolph-Macon system was represented by a series of cabinets con¬ taining charts showing the courses of instruction, photographs of grounds and buildings, the faculties of the various institutions, and student organizations. The cabinets were very comprehensive, and to the interested observer conveyed a faithful impression of the life at the schools and colleges comprising the system. In this exhibit stress was laid on the Randolph-Macon Woman's Col¬ lege. near Lynchburg, Va., an institution occuiiying a unique and high position in the higher education of women in the South and whose influence has been constantly widening during the last decade. The most elaborate, complete, and interesting exhibit in the Virginia build¬ ing, however, was that of the University of Virginia, the capstone of the Vir¬ ginia public school system. To the founding of this university Jefferson gave the best activities of his later life, and directed that on his tombstone should be placed the title, of which he was so justly proud, that of “ Father of the University of Virginia.” The most interesting objects in the university exhibit were the Galt heroic statue of Jefferson, the Sully portrait of Jefferson, and 950 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. the chair in \yhich he sat when, as Vice-President, he presided over the United States Senate. Many transparencies and photographs showed the picturesque beauty of the grounds and buildings, many of which were planned by Jefferson himself, while numerous mural tablets showed the prominent part played in the destinies of the nation and in the various learned professions by the alumni of this venerable institution. In many wajs, too, the distinctive features of this institution were brought out, particularly the honor system, of which the uni¬ versity is the father, and the elective system of independent schools in the aca¬ demic department. Altogether, the pioneer of State universities was repre¬ sented by an exhibit that was at the same time complete, comprehensive, artistic, and interesting. Besides the institutions first mentioned, the Virginia building contained small exhibits from Hollins Institute, Sweetbrier Institute, and the Virginia College for Young Ladies. WEST V mo INI A. THE EXHIBIT. The AVest ATrginia educational exhibit at St. Louis was not very large or varied, but it contained a number of features that indicate a good’ degree of industrial progress in the Mountain State. The exhibit consisted of maps, charts, drawings, models, and other kinds of handicraft, together with photo¬ graphs, books of manuscripts, etc. It was ])repared under the direction of State Supt. Thomas C. Miller, who was assisted by some of the leading educa¬ tional workers of the State. One of the most noticeable portions of the exhibit was a series of graphic charts, i>repared by the schools of Parkersburg and Sistersville, illustrating by pictures, drawings, and miniature objects the growth of some industry or the development of some product, as glass from sand, leather from rawhide, nails, springs, etc., from iron ore, and silks and other fabrics from the cocoon, the cotton boll, or wool. Each chart was accompanied by a sketch describing the various processes of manufacture. Lumber, agricultural products, and the min¬ erals of the State were also made prominent l)y this graphic presentation, the charts showing the strata of oil-bearing sands and the situation of the coal measures claiming especial attention. In the exhibit were about 100 volumes written by West Virginia authors, a number of educational works, a full set of the publications issued by the State department of schools, including the History of Education in M^est Virginia, recently published. This book of over 300 pages and containing many illus¬ trations gives quite a full account of the growth and development of the educa¬ tional work of the State, and has been widely distributed. Over 500 photographs were shown in cabinets. TTiese were of schools and school buildings chiefly, and indicate a good degree of advancement in school- house architecture. The manuscript exhibited was the everyday work of the pupils and was of such a character as to indicate commendable progress. The allowance made by the State commisssion for the educational exhibit was $2,000, but this sum was considerably supplemented from the contingent fund of the department of schools and by a large amount of gratuitous labor. 951 EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. AVISCONSIN. BY W. D. PARKER, DIRECTOR. THE EXHIBIT. A committee consisting of fourteen j)ersons was named by the Wisconsin Teachers’ Association at its annual meeting in December, 1001, under whose direction steps were taken that have led to the representation of Wisconsin at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. William George P>rnce, of Milwaukee. i)ub- lisher of the American School Board Journal, set in motion the activities that resulted in the creation of this committee, and his judgment has been followed in the proceedings in the name of the State. When convened in May, 1902, the committee found insufficient funds for its purposes and, after naming a subcommittee to outline a general plan of pro¬ cedure, adjourned subject to call. The general committee was convened in Sep¬ tember, 1002, and the sulicommittee reported through William George Bruce that all branches of the State educational system were represented in the com¬ mittee ; that groups of educational exhibits had been named by the exposition managers ; that it was recommended that some person be named to direut affairs in behalf of the committee ; that 5,000 feet of lioor space be secured for displaying work ; that an appropriate booth structure be erected in the palace of education for receiving the exhibits; that exhibitors be assured that all articles contributed would be received at a central place in the State, displayed, cared for, and returned to exhibitors at the close of the season, all at the expense of the State after the exhibits should come into possession of the com¬ mittees, and, finally, that the State managers should be invited to appropriate $10,250 for meeting the expenses, and that they should be informed of these determinations and requested to allow the sum named. The general committee held the third meeting on December 29, 1902, and adopted a report made by William George Bruce that provided a detailed plan of an exhibit in conformity to the general outline framed by the chief of the department of education of the exposition. The committee voted to recommend the Wisconsin Teachers’ Association, then about to convene, to petition the legislature to set aside the sum of $10,000 for the use of the committee. The legislature having made its final appropriation for the exposition, and the committee having been notified tliat $7,000 had been placed at its command, the committee was convened at Milwaukee on August 29, 1903, and it was voted that W, D. Barker be made permanent secretary to prosecute the business ; that a special auditing committee be authorized to act during the season, and that the actual work be set in motion at once, ' The board of school directors of the city of Milwaukee tendered ample rooms in the city hall for the use of the otiicers, necessary office furniture was assem¬ bled, a stenographic typewriter was employed, and on the 18th of September the whole plan of the exhibit was borne to the attention of teachers and superin¬ tendents by printed circulars. Personal visitation at local associations of teach¬ ers during October showed such apathy that a revised circular was mailed urging school board members, teachers, and superintendents to authorize the preparation of exhibits, and thereafter the whole work progressed encourag¬ ingly, so that, agreeal)le to dates fixed, the exhibits began to assemble at Mil¬ waukee early in February. On the 2d of April all material had arrived at Milwaukee, had been acknowledged, inventoried, assorted, delivered to a trans¬ portation company, and consigned to the exposition, where it was delivered in 952 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. excellent condition on the lOtli of Ai^ril. Minor details excepted, the installa¬ tion was completed at the date of the formal opening of the exposition on the 30th of April. In this final movement the celerity of transportation companies and the routine enforced by the exposition company were so complete as to leave little for the director to wish. The secretary’s office during the season of fifteen months issued 4,000 copies of the chief circulars, 1,500 copies of mimeographs, 240 editorials, and 1,200 individual letters. The space allotted to Wisconsin was at the east of the main north door of the Palace of Education, 27 feet wide and extending 75 feet along the main north wall. Built upon this space was a platform raised 4 inches, and erected thereon was a facade having fluted columns that supported a massive cornice, all built of wood and painted white. Four partitions abutting the north wall and 26 cabinets, each having 15 swinging leaves, extended the wall surface so that its aggregate was 3,500 feet. The exhibit vvas planned to show samples of each feature of the public school system as recognized by statutes and to include material from private and parochial schools as far as practicable. The public school system consists of schools of country districts and of cities that fall under the supervision of local and State officers. The names of the departments are kindergarten, primary, intermediate, grammar. State graded, high, and university, but the university exhibit occupied space separate from that of the State exhibit. In addition to the public school exhibits proper this exhibit included articles from the State schools for the blind, for the deaf, for the dependent, for wayward boys and girls, for the feeble-minded, and from the State normal schools, the county teachers’ training schools, the county schools of agriculture and domestic economy, and the United States schools for Indians. While manual training products were prominent, the exhibit was designed to represent all other phases of school activity, and to this end an abundance of manuscript books, drawings, photographs, courses of study, and models of school equipment and drawings of schoolhouse construction were installed. One of the chief attractions was the line of photographs and charts of courses of study shown by two county schools of agriculture and domestic economy — institutions of unique character in America — one located at Menominee, the other at Wausau. They are housed at the expense of the respective counties, are maintained in part at the expense of the State, and their courses of study of two years’ duration conq^rehend an interesting body of work that has called many boys and girls of farmers to enlist permanently in industries that are represented in the following branches of study: For boys : Blacksmithing, carpentry, dairying, farm accounts, rural architec¬ ture, soil, fertilizers, 'and work in soils. For boys and girls: Business arithmetic, civil government, English, library readings, economic insects, disease, plant life, poultry. United States history, vegetable and fruit gardening. For girls: Chemistry of foods, cooking, sewing, millinery, home economy, home nursing, hygiene, and laundry. The wood exhibits in manual training prepared by students of the Oshkosh State Normal School and the outlines in domestic economy by the Stevens Point State Normal School showed excellence for the experimental period of three years. These pj’oducts seemed to justify the zeal of the advocates of those lines for teachers. The city of Milwaukee made a special appropriation of ^4,000 for its exhibit. Mr. A. E. Kagel, assistant superintendent of the city public schools, was placed 958 /li-' ‘■5- EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. in charge of the preparations for the exhibit. In an allotted space of 4G0 square c . feet he tried to show the work of 38,553 pupils, taught by 956 teachers, and .• housed in 56 splendid buildings, also the work of such institutions as the iniblic museum which correlate with the actual school work. To show this in a logical I manner the exhibit was made to be distinctly developmental in its make-up, ! with the idea of growth predominant everywhere. To add an original feature and make the exhibit more attractive Mr. Kagel conceived the idea of showing, by means of 500 records, covering a variety of 130 lessons, the work of the Milwaukee school children in reading, recitation, and singing. Flanked on one side by a series of cases shovvdng manual-training work, and on the other side by cases and cabinets shovvdng school-museum work and pho¬ tographs of buildings, the back of the exhibit booth is used to display drawings, by means of both wall and cabinet mountings. The front is given an inviting appearance by a huge settee and armchair — both products of the high school inanual-training department. The written work is found in substantially bound ! volumes distributed on a large table, while the kindergarten work is mounted on a frame made especially for that purpose. : The administrative side of the school system is elucidated by a series of charts, which also give statistical information. Of the total number (103,923) of children of legal school age, 4 to 20 years, only 40.6 per cent attend public schools, private schools drawing 21.2 per cent. The public school children are taught by competent teachers holding a university or State normal school diploma, or some certilication of efficiency to teach given by a committee of the school board. Appointments are made by the committee on examination and appointment of the board of school directors. The latter, one from each ward, are appointed by the school board commission, four in number. These in turn are appointed by the mayor for a term of four -years, only one commissioner's term expiring each year. The excellence of the kindergarten exhibit has influenced several prominent educators to visit ^Milwaukee that they might look into the system which showed such results. Without enumerating in detail all the branches taught in the grammar grades and high schools, especial mention should be made of the work in drawing, geography, writing, and arithmetic. The school for the deaf was well represented, its unique feature being a series of phonographic records portraying the results in speech obtained from the teaching of articulation and enunciation. A case filled with museum specimens indicates that the institution is doing . something tangible in helping to educate the school children of the city. A pamphlet describes at length the working of the system by means of which 20,000 pupils received instruction at the museum during 1903. This work of the Milwaukee public schools “ is probably unique in the history of the schools of the United States, in that attendance at the museum is required of pupils. All classes from the third to the eighth grade are sent to the museum for certain definite work correlated v.dth their class studies, and museum work is as much a part of the school work as any other study of the curriculum.” In conclusion, the series of pamphlets on various phases of school work issued by the Milwaukee board of school directors must be mentioned. They covered such subjects as school laws, portable schoolhouses, cooking schools, etc., and did much to enlighten the student in regard to educational conditions in Wisconsin’s metropolis, thus greatly adding to the efficiency of the exhibit. The cities of Appleton, Ashland, Chippewa Falls, Madison, Merrill, Neenah, Janesville, and Superior made satisfactorily organized exhibits. 5 954 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. The M'isconsin free library commission showed photographs and statistics relating to many library buildings and organizations in the State and two traveling libraries, one containing books in English and the other in German, The German-Englisli Academy and the National German-American Teachers’ Seminary, of Milwaukee, were represented by sewing, clay modeling, manu¬ script books, and allied material. The Hillside Home School, at Hillside, showed photographs, drawings, and descriptive circulars that indicate a unique institution located in the country, which has courses of study extending from the kindergarten to preparation for college. The Gesu parochial school, of IMilwaukee, showed excellent manu¬ scripts, maps, and photographs. Exhibits from the Stout IManual Training School and the allied Stout Teach¬ ers’ Training Schools at Menominee made a group that justly attracted much attention from all classes of visitors. The exhibits consisted of the latest approved forms of conventional objects and some very suggestive extemporized forms, all in wood, iron, and fabrics, and photographs of raffia and clay models whose originals were deemed too bulky and fragile for transportation. These schools omitted manuscripts and other documentary articles, showing, how¬ ever, a remarkable collection of model designs for wall paper and fine lines of drawings and water colors. The Wisconsin Home for the Feeble IMinded, at Chippewa Falls, showed that its inmates have skill in raffia, manuscripts, wood construction, and shoe¬ making. This school was well rei>resented. Industrial products shown by city schools for the deaf were valid arguments in favor of such institutions, and manuscript books and papers completed the illustration of the instruction given by the purely oral method, a method be¬ lieved to promote advancement of the deaf in self-helpful habits. Pamphlets giving the courses of study of many schools that were otherwise represented were sought especially by visitors from foreign lands and by those who were in pursuit of meiuis of realizing ideals. Among the courses that attracted marked attention were those of rural schools (courses now in opera¬ tion more than tuenty-five years under direction of the officers of the State department of education), those of State graded schools directed by State officers, of the county training schools for preparation of teachers of rural schools, and of the county schools of agriculture and domestic economy. At the close of the season, Vvdien all exhibits shall have Ijeen dispatched to their places of origin and all bills shall have been paid, the $7,000 appropriated for the use of the committee will have been exi)ended. No serious deficiency resulted from reducing the actual expenses some. $3,000 below the original esti¬ mate, though some desirable exhibits in statistical lines relating to the whole State were of necessity omitted. It is the prime economic object of a world’s fair to advance ideals. None but superior exhibits will attract sufficient attention to enable visitors to bear impressions to their homes that may persist sufficiently to take concrete form in the new locality. Therefore the director for each State serves one of the largest interests by soliciting and installing only the best that his constituents can pro¬ duce, for the discriminating visitor, who at home might plead for the display of mediocre articles, will in the presence of the excellencies of the fair, approve the director’s original rejection of duplicates and of series that require minute atten¬ tion. This conviction readily suggests that mere loersonal gratification of seeing one’s products fit a great fair is no sufficient reason for their installation. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 955 CITY OF CHICAGO. BY C. 1). LOWRY. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit of the board of edncatioii of the city of Chicago at the Louisiana I’urehase Exposition occupied a portion of the booth devoted to the exhibit of the State of Illinois. The plan of the booth was prepared under the direction of the hState commis¬ sion, and the expense of erecting the same was borne by the State. The city exhibit occupied a floor space of about 27 by 30 feet. Its chief features were : An account of the organization of the board of education. A brief historical sketch of the schools, illustrated by a series of photographs of typical school bnildings, beginning with the one-room frame building erected in 1837. Descriptions and illustrations of the various departments through which the school board carries on its work. Descriptions and illustrations of the work of the Chicago Normal School ; the work of the compulsory educational department, including the work of the parental school and the school at the House of Correction ; the work of the even¬ ing schools and vacation schools, illustrations showing the development of schoolhouse construction, heating, and ventilation ; an exposition of the course of study ill each of the subjects taught. The descriptions were printed, and, together with the illustrations, were mounted on large cards and hung in cabinets of the usual sort. On the walls of the booth were hung a number of pictures furnished by the Public School Art Society as suitable for schoolroom decoration ; also several pictures of the latest types of school buildings erected by the city. The work in illustration or exposition of the course of study was prepared as follows : A general notice was sent to all the schools stating that written work or work in drawing was wanted in all subjects and all grades, and each school was permitted to send in what it preferred, it being stipulated that in any case the work of a whole class should be presented and that the work should be the ordinary school work. From the papers that were sent in two ivinds of selec¬ tions were made. First. Papers were selected which, taken together, would represent typical work in a given subject, from the lowest grade to the highest grade in which that subject was studied. For example, the work in English was shown as developed through the eight grades of the elementary schools, excluding the kindergarten, and the four grades of the high schools. The work in science, beginning with the simplest nature study in grade 1, was shown as developing into geography and elementary science in the higher grades, and then into tlie sciences of physics, biology, etc., in the high schools. These selected papers were mounted on sheets of cardboard. These cards were fastened in swinging frames that were inclosed in cabinets. The cabinet containing work in any given subject in the elementary schools was placed near that containing work done in the same subject in the high schools. One cabinet was devoted to the work of the kinder¬ garten. It contained cuttings, drawings, hand work, and photographs of classes at work or play. Second. The work of entire classes in a given subject was bound up in vol¬ umes, a number of volumes being devoted to each subject. A few volumes were also arranged to show the development of a given subject through a number of grades in one school. 956 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904. The exhibit in manual training consisted of three parts : (1) The work of the R. T. Crane Manual Training School. — This school has in addition to the nsnal e(inipment of laboratories, etc., for the regular high school course of four years, large and fully equipped machine shops, carpenter shops, foundry, and blacksmith shop. The exhibit of this school occupied a large case, and consisted of the finished work of pupils in the four lines of manual¬ training work above mentioned; also of a com])lete gas engine about *20 inches high, the work entirely of the pupils of this school. Two cabinets were devoted to the drawing and academic work of the school. (2) The manual-training work of the elementary schools. — This consisted of models by the boys of the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary schools. All of the boys of these grades in the elementary schools are taught manual training (carpentry and mechanical drawing) by special teachers. The work of the girls in the seventh and eighth grades in sewing was illustrated by samples of exercises in sewing and by finished garments. The work in cooking was described in writing. All of the classes (girls) in the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary schools are taught either cooking or sewing by special teachers. (3) The construction work of the grades helow the seventh in the elementary schools. — This work has not been systematized. The work shown was a selec¬ tion of that which was done in many of the schools under the supervision of the grade teacher, and consisted of work in many materials, such as beads, raffia, paper, cardboard, cloth, clay, etc. The work of the elementary schools was displayed in the showcases and upon shelves iirthe lower part of the cabinets. One cabinet was devoted to the work in physical training and the work of the child-study department. The work in physical training was illustrated by a large number of photographs, showing pupils at work on all forms of apparatus in the high school gymnasiums and pupils playing various athletic games in these gymnasiums, and photographs of the pupils in the elementary schools exercising on the simpler apparatus installed in corridors and class ro®ms. In the high schools the work is carried on by special teachers of physical culture. Each high school is supplied with a fully equipped gymnasium. In the elementary schools the work is conducted ]>y the elementary teacher, supervised by special teachers. The work of the child-study department was made up of photographs and charts illustrating the variations in height, weight, physical strength, and vital capacity of children ; by diagrams showing the rate of fatigue and variations of energy of children during different hours of the day ; also, descriptions and illustrations of the ways in which children are examined to determine their physical condition. The diagrams were made from data obtained from the examination of several thousand pupils in the Chicago schools. The exhibit of the compulsory-education department outlined the methods by which truants are followed up and the means by which the Parental School and the house of correction endeavor to reform persistent truants and juvenile criminals. The department is organized under State law. The head of the department has under his charge about 25 truant ofiicers. Habitual truants are reported by the schools. These are followed up ; the parents are admon¬ ished, if the absence is dne to their negligence ; and, as a last resort, delinquent parents are prosecuted if they fail to send children to school. The Parental School occupies a number of buildings located upon a large farm on the out¬ skirts of the city. Truants and boys who are incorrigible in the ordinary schools are committed to this school by action of the juvenile court. Here the boys- attend classes in the ordinary' studies and in manual training during part of the day and have vigorous drill in military tactics ; during the open season EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 957 they work on the farm, and at other times are under family government in the cottages. The boys are discharged from the school when they show evidence of trastworthiness or upon reaching the age of 14 years. The work of the normal school and the normal extension occupied four cabi¬ nets. This school provides a course of two years, which fits for teaching in the elementary schools, also s])ecial courses in kindergarten work, in cooking, and in sewing. Two large elementary schools are associated with the normal school as practice schools. The work in normal extension was of particular interest. This department of school work has been in operation for about two years. It is established to furnish teachers of the city opportunity for study in profes¬ sional and academic lines. Classes are formed at different centers through the city, wherever a sufficient number of teachers make request for the same. The classes are conducted largely by the instructors in the normal school, but many others are employed. The cost of instruction is paid by the board of education. All teachers, whether in public or private schools, are eligible for membership in these classes. The enrollment is between four and five thousand. The department for the instruction of the blind was illustrated by hand work made by the pupils, by written exercises in the point alphabet, and by maps and books printed for the use of the blind. The pupils are taught in the ele¬ mentary schools at convenient centers. The teacher is furnished with a class of five or six. During part of the time the pupils are under the direction of this teacher in order to learn special work. At other times they join in with regular classes of other children. The department is provided with an outfit for printing maps and books in raised characters. The work of the schools for the deaf was illustrated by exercises and samples of hand work. These children are taught in different centers in classes of eight. The instruction is by either the oral or the combined method, as the parents of the children elect. Practically all have chosen the oral method. There are two schools for crippled children, containing about 100 pupils in all. The children are brought to the schools and returned to their homes in conveyances furnished by the board of education. They are taught the ordinary subjects of school work. The school furniture and equipment is adapted to their needs. The bureau of geography was originally a voluntary organization supported by the principals in the elementary schools. The expense of maintenance has recently been assumed by the board of education. Its work is to prepare col¬ lections of rav/ and manufactured products, with descriptions and photographs relating to the means of production and processes of manufacture. Typical collections were exhibited. The Projection Club is an organization supported by voluntary contributions from the schools. The club owns, or has the use of. about 132 sets of slides of 50 each. These slides are used in teaching geography, science, history, and literature. A large number of these slides were taken to the exposition and their use was demonstrated by the attendant in charge of the exhibit at certain hours of the day. Selected slides were projected upon a shaded screen. This screen was so arranged and the intensity of tlie light 'was so regulated that the pictures could be seen without darkening the inclosure. As a further illustra¬ tion of the work of the schools practically all the photographs contained in the various cabinets and many others illustrating various phases of school work were made into lantern slides and projected on the screen. Vacation schools have been maintained for several years in the densely popu¬ lated sections of the city. They are supported partly by the board of education and partly by private contributions. Their work was illustrated by photographs showing the excursions and the classes in the gardens and playgrounds and by drawings and hand work. 958 EDUCATION REPOKT; 1904. CITY OF CLEVELAND. BY EDWIN F. MOULTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION. ORGANIZATION. For twelve years the Cle^'eland public schools have been operated under the so-called “ Federal plan.” The main features of this plan are a small board of seven members elected at large, with tenure of office for two years, clothed with purely legislative powers ; a school director elected at large, with same tenure of office as the executive of the business department, and a superin¬ tendent of instruction appointed by the director with full authority in the edu¬ cational department, having power to appoint and dismiss assistants, super¬ visors, principals, and teachers. The tenure of office for the superintendent is during good behavior. The several departments of the schools are as follows : Normal, high, ele¬ mentary, manual training, kindergarten, school for the deaf, evening schools (elementary and high), summer vacation schools, playgrounds, boys’ schools for disciplinary purposes, with subdepartments of music, physical training, and drawing. The schools of the city are in close connection with the central office and directly under the control of the superintendent, his assistants, and the heads of the several departments named above. The statistical exhibit, 1902-3, shows: Total operating expenses of school system, .$1 ,734,847.68 ; teachers, 1,484 ; pupils, 02,874 ; pupils of American par¬ entage, 62.8 per cent ; foreign, 37.2 per cent. THE CLEVELAND EXHIBIT. The primary step toward the Cleveland exhibit was an appropriation of $3,000 by the board of education, which, with a later appropriation of $600, covered all expenses. An executive committee, consisting of the superintendent of schools, school director, two assistant superintendents, two members of the supervisory force, and one member of tlie board of education, had entire charge of the exhibit, including the expenditure of money within the limits of the appro¬ priation, Subcommittees submitted in writing the best means of exhibiting the work of the various departments of the schools. From these reports a unified exhibit was arranged by the executive committee. Instructions and supplies for exhibit work were sent out through the heads of the su])Committees, through principals’ meetings, and by circulars from the suiierintendent's office. From the class work selections were made by the various subcommittees, directed by the executive committee. Manuscripts, photographs, drawings, and manual- training models were arranged, and either bound in volumes or mounted in leaf cabinets, wall panels, and frames, or prepared for exhibition in wall cases, and all packed for shipment. The normal school exhibit shows the character oC work done through photo¬ graphs and manuscripts selected from work of pupil teachei’s in the various departments. The school furnishes a philosophic basis for professional Avork, and supplements this with a prolonged period of practical teaching under expert direction. The five high schools are represented by manusc-ripts of classics, modern languages, English history, mathematics, and natural sciences, and by photo¬ graphs of laboratories, libraries, gymnasiums, school societies, and athletic teams. The exhibit certifies to the high standard maintained. The elementary schools’ exhibit of language work comprises : EDUCATION AT THE ST, LOUIS EXPOSITION. 959 1. Grammar manuscripts, wliicli evince a knovrledge of technical grammar and its application, and illustrate how this subject contributes to the study of literature. 2. Compositions, which illustrate correlation with other subjects. These evi¬ dence training in narrative and descriptive writing, also individuality and free¬ dom of treatment, spontaneity of expression, and genuineness of work. The subjects of the compositions are as follows : (a) Heading and literature, exhibited in (1) supplementary reading books, which correlate with other branches and serve as the basis of work in litera¬ ture and composition, and (2) original reading lessons, by first grade teachers, which are founded upon veritable experiences of the children in the world of social activities, the nature world, and the realm of storyland, and lead them through self-realization to self-expression. (h) History and civics, comprising a study of the development of our national life. These compositions illustrate its purpose, which is to give the pupil a knowledge of the history of and to instill a love for his country, and to enlighten him as to duties and privileges. They show the pupil's assimilation of facts and reveal his state of mind toward the subject. (c) Geography work, exhibited in illustrated manuscripts and maps, and its aim indicated by the pupil’s interest and pleasure in the observation of physical conditions of his home neighborhood ; by his vivid picturing of places and con¬ ditions beyond the sense horizon ; by his grasp of the relation of human indus¬ tries to physical conditions, and by his power to think. (cl) Elementary science and nature study, the compositions manifesting their essential purpose, which is to make the individual happy in his environment by inciting an interest in and love for common things, and by increasing his knowledge and appreciation of the wonders and beauties of the physical world. 3. As German is elective, the growth of the department shows its practical as well as its educational value. These results are seen more particularly in the elementary work, while in the higher grades the pupil’s kiiovdedge of the theory and facility in the use ot the language are shown. The arithmetic exhibits are of regular school work. The aim is to provide problems drawn from practical, industrial, and scientific sources, thus furnishing a basis for unifying this work with other subjects. In the first grade the work is objective, constructive, and creative, and closely correlated with manual training. An economical and practical application of educational manual training to a large school system is exhibited. Its purpose is development of originality, initiative, constructive power, and artistic sense; it essays correlation with regular school work. The drawing exhibit illustrates a definite number of consecutively attainable steps in instruction in drawing, beginning with the simplest and ending with the most complex, and shows the daily work of pupils and the capability of entire classes. Music is exhibited by manuscripts showing, as a distinctive feature, the de- ^•elopment of invention, beginning vcith original melodies by children of the third grade and extending to the writing of four-part music in the eighth grade. A modified Swedish system of progressive physical exercises and games, as shown by photographs, has been used. By these exercises every part of the muscular system is brought into action and developed. The kindergarten exhibit shows, tlu-ough photographs, the various activities of the kindergartens and original gift forms made by the children. The hand¬ work, all unaided, shows skill of hand, increasing power of expression and control of material. 960 EDUCATION BEPORT; 1904, Special departments. In the school for the deaf the oral method is used exclusively. Manuscripts, kindergarten work, and manual training are shown. The boys’ school receives boys persistently truant or incorrigible. The exhibit shows the possibility of relieving the ordinary school and of so treating the boy elsewhere as to prepare him to enter again the regular school. The truancy department records every case reported by means of the card system. Age and schooling certificates are important data. Complete forms, including the record of an obstinate truant, are exhibited. Evening high and elementary school students represent two classes — for¬ eigners desiring to acquire English and working men and women seeking to prepare for better positions. Unique features. The Home Gardening Association distributes at cost hundreds of thousands, of seed packages and bulbs, and exerts a marked influence on civic improvement. The Art Education Society, composed of the teachers, has placed in the schools more than 4,000 pictures and casts of artistic merit, examples of which are in the exhibit. The children's library, through the joint action of the public library and the schools, brings the finest reading matter to the pupils. The teachers’ lecture course, with a membershii) of over a thousand, brings its members the best thought in many lines. The Mutual Assistance Association, 1,000 members, renders pecuniary assist¬ ance to teachers temporarily absent through disability. The exhibit comprises the work of entire classes and selected manuscripts, corrected and uncorrected, representing every building and all grades ; also the work of three entire elementary schools of American, foreign, and mixed nationalities. The exhibit as a whole shows the child’s effort at self-realization, as a worker, as a thinker, and as a social being with rights to maintain and duties to perform. The unity of the work is to be noted. This is accomplished through harmoni¬ ous concerted effort of central management. No special emphasis is placed on any one department, the endeavor being toward an all-round, symmetrical development of the individual through the system on the highest plane consistent with existing economic and social conditions. CITY OF NEW YORK. BY A. W. EDSON, DIRECTOR. THE EXHIBIT. The city inclosure was a continuation of the State inclosure. It had a floor space 27 by 52 feet and walls 15 feet in height. It had a dark Flemish oak finish, with staff ornamentation of old-ivory finish, and was noticeable for its dignity and beauty. Directly over the corridor entrance was a seal of the city in staff some 4 feet in height. The walls were covered with a light-green burlap. Several ])artition walls 9 feet in height projected into the inclosure, making alcoves, in which were arranged wall cabinets. Below the wall cabinets were counters and shelves for the bound volumes. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 961 £\lbums, pamphlets, and shopwork. On the counters and in the corners of the- alcoves were glass show cases for the display’ of manual work from kinder¬ gartens and from classes in sewing, cooking, drawing, and shopwork in day,^ evening, and vacation schools. The inclosiire was furnished with rugs, tables,, chairs, and a settee. On the top of the inside partitions large potted plants con¬ tributed to the decoration. The general idea pervading the New York City exhibit was an exemplifi¬ cation of the course of study from the kindergarten through the high schooL Each subject in each grade of the course was treated in considerable detaiL. The work displayed was confined wholly to the public schools. In order to^ make the exhibit fairly representative of school work in all sections of the- city, four schools in each of the 46 districts were selected as representatives,. In order to restrict the amount of work in any school and to make the prepara¬ tion of the exhibit comparatively light, no school was allowed more than two- subjects and no more than two grades were allowed to work on anj’ one topic. Thus about 200 schools and 600 classes in the elementary grades and: all of the high schools participated. The preparation of work was confined to the months of December and Janu¬ ary. During these months the classes prepared ten sets of papers. From each of nine of these exercises the best six papers were selected. In the tenth exer¬ cise, prepared during the second week in January, all the papers of the class,, good, bad, and indifferent, were reserved. Thus for nine exercises a limited, number of the best papers was selected, and in one exercise the paper of each: pupil in the classes participating was reserved. One of the distinguishing features of the exhibit of written work in the city of New York and one deserving special commendation was the effort to have the exhibit present the honest effort of pupils and be fairly representative of the- regular work of the schools. First drafts only were presented, except in a few exercises in the high schools, where both first drafts and copies were submitted,. In most instances the method by which the teacher unfolded the subject was^ clearly indicated. The process rather than the product was made the important feature. To accompany each set of papers, whether si.x or fifty papers, a statement blank was filled out by the class teacher. This statement was designed to give an intelligent and definite idea of the line of work pursued by teachers and' pupils and to answer inquiries sure to be made by those who carefully in¬ spected the work. The following is a copy : Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. Depap.tment op Education. THE CITY op new YOPK. Tea ch er's s ta fern cn t. 1. Subject - . 2. - year of school work, - half. 3. Number of pupils in class — - . 4. Number of pupils whose papers are here e.Yhibited - . 5. Time per week given, to class instruction in this subject - . 6. Connection of this exercise with previous or subsequent work - . 7. Questions or topics given to class - - . 8. Time spent by pupils in preparing for the written exercise - . 9. Nature of preparation - . 10. Time occupied in writing - . 11. Usual method of criticism or revision by class or by teacher - . I hereby certify that the following papers exhibit the pupils’ first drafts and show the regular work of the class. (Signed) - , teacher, school - , Borough of - . Dated — - , 190 — . ED 1904 M - 61 962 EDUCATION EEPOKT; 1904. TLe greater portion of tlie written work, classified by subjects and grades, was bound into volumes, 300 in all, of 400 sheets each, the binding for the se¬ lected papers differing in color from the bin'ding for the volumes representing the work of the entire class. Selected papers also ^^'ere mounted on cardboard and inserted in wall cabinets. In order to display pro])erly the written work, drawings, maps, photographs, sewing, cord work, raffia blanks, circulars, etc., 58 wall cabinets and 90 albums were used. Each wall cabinet had 33 sheets of mounted cardboard, 22 by 28 inches, and each album had 25 leaves, 18 l>y 22 inches, mounted on both sides. In the glass of each door of the cabinet the seal of the board of education was daintily sketched, and back of each glass was a large photograph or group of photographs representing some educational activity, so that the first impression on entering the inclosure was a pleasing one. The photographic exhibit was very complete. It consisted of ten or twelve hundred photographs, 8 by 10 inches or 11 by 14 inches, and covered the whole field of the city's educational activity. These photographs represented classes at work, the conditions under which they v.'orked, and, as far as possible, the method of work in the day and evening schools, vacation schools, playgrounds, recreation centers, recreation piers, roof playgrounds, kindergartens, labora¬ tories, and gymnasiums ; classes in the parks, at the botanical garden, zoological ])ark, natural history museum, and aquarium. The photographic exhibit was of special value in representing the great achievements made in recent years in schoolhouse architecture. Upon the inside walls and upon the corridor side of the inclosure there were 35 large framed photogra])hs and drawings in colors of some of the latest and best school buildings erected in the city. Two of the wall cabinets were filled with photographs of school buildings, so that anyone interested in schoolhouse construction could easily study every detail of the best type of school buildings that has found expression in this city. On the floor, placed on high tables, were four elegant and expensive models of school buildings — the IMorris High School, the De Witt Clinton High School, Public School G2, and a horizontal section of the third floor of Public School G2. the largest elementary school building in the world. On the walls of the inclosure, in addition to the photographs and drawings of school buildings, were 80 frames, 24 by 30 inches, for charts and mounted material under glass. The statistical and graphic charts showed the remarkable growth of the ciCv in population, in school enrollment, school attendance, expenses, etc., during the past fifty years. Valuable statistical information bearing upon the number of teachers employed, the attendance of pupils in the day, evening, and vacation schools, expenses, etc., for the year 1003, was dis¬ played on charts. A tabular view of the teachers’ salary schedules attracted juuch attention and favorable comment. The arrangement and contents of the 58 wall cabinets, beginning at the right in the entrance from the State inclosure, were as follows : Cainnets 1, 2, and 3 were devoted to vacation schools and playgrounds. Much of this exhibit was in the nature of photographs of clas^ses at the outdoor and indoor playgrounds, evening play centers, and roof playgrounds, baths and sv.umming pools, and of clas.ses engaged in the various industries taught in the vacation schools. Specimens of work in fret sawing, whittling, burnt wood, trench work, Venetian iron, leather, basketry, chair caning, elementary and advanced sewing, drawing, millinery, embroidery, knitting, and crocheting were displayed on the walls and shelves and in show cases near by. Cabinets 4 and 5 held photographs of classes at work in the evening schools, elementary and high, of classes in regular class rooms, laboratories, drawing rooms, and EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 963 assemblies, and specimens of mechanical and architectural drawing, and drawing from life and from cast. The evening schools furnished a dynamo, a chemical and physical apparatus, and specimens of work in dressmaking and millinery. The hats made of ralfia were of superior workmanship. Cabinets 6 to 11, inclusive, held a large variety of specimens of cord and constructive work and sewing taught the hoys and girls through the first three years, and of sewing taught the girls through the remaining years of the school course. The constructive work in cord and raffia — linots, chains, stitches, weaving, and bas¬ ketry— were a progressive series of exercises to develop the creative and in¬ ventive faculty of children and to train the muscles of the fingers to freedom of movement and deftness of touch. The specimens of sewing were carefully graded from elementary stitches on canvas worked with worsted and coarse needle to fine sewing and garment making. Cabinet 12 included charts and theme work, illustrating and explaining the work attempted in domestic science in the last two years of the elementary school course and showing the close correlation of this subject with the other subjects of the school curriculum. In a glass showcase was an excellent exhibit of canned and preserved fruits and vegetables and of bread and candy making. In frames on the walls were illus¬ trations of the work in nursing and laundering and in personal hygiene. On a stand near by in a glass case was a model sitting room arranged from a hygienic, artistic, and economic standpoint. Cabinets 1.3 to 20 included se¬ lected specimens in drawing, construction, and design. The cabinets were arranged to illustrate the eight years' course of study, one cabinet for each year. In each of the cabinets the first ten cards were devoted to drawings of familiar objects, the second ten cards to illustrative drawings in the lower grades and to drawings and painting in water color of plant forms in the higher grades, and the third ten cards to models illustrating the course in construction and applied design. On the shelves and tables were displayed a large variety of articles in card¬ board and wood constructed in class rooms and in workshops, illustrating the coordination of the work in drawing, construction, and design. The communal models made by groups of pupils of the upper grades represented apparatus of A'alue used in the elementary science lessons. The decorated models represented one phase of the training in art. Cabinets 21 to 30 included the course of study and syllabuses and written exercises in copy and dictation, composition, grammar, electives, literature, nature study, geography, history, civics, and mathematics. The space between cabinets 27 and 29 was occupied by three units of class libraries, the first unit filled with typical books for pupils of the third and fourth years, the second for pupils of the fifth and sixth years, and the third for pupils of the seventh and eighth years, fi’he exhibit was designed to give vis¬ itors an idea of what the city is doing in the line of class libraries in all of the schools. Cabinets 31 and 32 and the large show case between them held an exhibit of the work of the New York City Training School for Teachers. Cabinet 31 illus¬ trated the course in sewing and cord v'ork, and cabinet 32 a graded course in map interj)retation. The show case held teachers' and pupils’ outfits in map interpretation and models of trees, roads, rivers, fields, farms, gardens, yards, houses, and villages, made by students in the city training school. Cabinets 33 to 47 included work of the high schools in ancient and modern history, ancient and modern languages, English, commerchil branches, bookkeeping, mathematics, physics, chemistry, physiography, biology, and drawing. In the latter subject four cabinets were given to pictorial and comstructive lines of work, followed by special art work. Cabinets 48 and 49 were filled with photographs of school 964 EDUCATION KEPOKT^ 1904. bnildings in various stages of completion. These photographs exhibited some of the best types of elementary and high school bnildings, internal and external arrangements, floor plans, assembly halls, class rooms, laboratories, libraries, gymnasiums, workshops, school kitchens, baths, hallways, stairways, basement and roof playgrounds, yards, heating, lighting, ventilating, and sanitary arrange¬ ments. Cabinet 50 represented various phases of school activities through pho¬ tographs ; also exercises on board the school ship St. Mary's. Cabinet 51 pre¬ sented a ^'iew of our school system through a brief history of the public schools of the city for the past fiftj' years, the organization of the department of educa¬ tion. names of the members of the board of education, committee assignments, superintendents, directors, and heads of departments, powers of each, and statis¬ tical tables bearing upon day schools, evening schools, vacation schools, play¬ grounds, recreation centers, truant schools, nautical school, free lectures, etc. This cabinet also contained circulars and blanks bearing upon compulsory edu¬ cation, child labor, children's court cases, attendance officers, and licensing of newsboys. Cabinet 52 was devoted to a brief sketch of the various teachers’ associations, their aim and work. The latter part of the cabinet was filled with illustrations of exercises in blackboard ^sketching which were given to a class of teachers in an extension course provided by the New York Society of Pedagogy, Cabinet 53 presented a complete view of the free lecture system of the city for workingmen and workingwomen. These courses provide for adult education to a large extent in the form of illustrated lectures and experiments. Cab¬ inets 54 and 55 were filled with sample circulars and blanks used by the several department^ in the educational system, by the city, associate city, and district superintendents, by principals, directors and supervisors, by the board of exam¬ iners, the auditor, the superintendent of supplies, the superintendent of school buildings, and by the secretary and committee of the board of education. These cabinets also contained questions used in examinations for licenses, minutes of the board of education, board of superintendents, and committees, sample report cards, licenses, diplomas, etc. Cabinet 5G gave a scheme for class-room decora¬ tion, following closely the course of study. It presented the purpose of school¬ room decoration, viz, (1) to make the decoration of a room a unit, the expres¬ sion of an idea; (2) to use pictures that interest and inspire pupils, and (3) to connect the decoration of each room with the work of the grade, especially in the line of literature and history. It gave a selected list of appropriate photo¬ graphs to correspond with the general plan of the course of study, as well as a list of selected photographs for special rooms — sewing, music, drawing, geog¬ raphy, history, etc. The following subjects formed the keynote for class-room decoration in the elementary grades: la. Mother Goose; lb, stories of familiar animals; 2a, fairy tales; 2b, the animals of Aesop's Fables; 3‘U, Indian Life (Hiawatha) ; 3b, child life; 4a, myths; 4b, legends; 5a, the children’s poet; 5b, the city of New York; Ga, explorers and colonists; Gb, American heroism; 7a, early English history; 7b, later English history ; 8a, Shakespeare ; 8b, Sir Walter Scott. Cabinet 57, and two glass show cases near at hand, exhibited the work of over 100 kindergartens in drawing, brush work, constructive work, clay modeling, free cutting, folding, mounting, sewing, and cord weaving. The photographs represented the arrange¬ ment of various kindergarten rooms, views of games, of children at play and on excursions. The statistics gave a registry of 14,797 children in 434 kinder¬ gartens. Cabinets 50 and GO represented through photographs, charts, and printed material, the well-organized work in physical training in the schools of the city. This consisted of story gymnastics, active plays, indoor games, free¬ hand exercises in class rooms, light apparatus in gymnasiums, school yards, and EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 965 assembly halls, heavy gymnasium work, athletics, and the work of the Public School League. A special section was given to the treatment of defective and diseased chil¬ dren, the physical care accorded them, the examination by a physician, atten¬ tion by trained nurses, methods of record, report, and classification. The methods of treatment of atypical children — exceptional, backward, or mentally defective — were explained fully. In nearly all the vcall cabinets containing typical papers or other exhibits of school work the first inside page contained a syllabus of the course of study. In this way the general plan and scope of the exhibit was shown to be a gradual and logical presentation of the steps taken in the various grades and subjects in the city's public schools curriculum. Nearly all of the photographs and work represented in the wall cabinets were duplicated in the ninety large albums found on the tables and shelves. *5 On the wall above cabinets 45, 40, 47 was a large topographical map of Greater New York, 12 by 12 feet, with the school districts clearly outlined. The public school exhibit from the city of New York received high commenda¬ tion from all visitors. CITY OF ST. LOUIS. BY F. LOUIS SOLDAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION. ORGANIZATION. The board of education of the city of St. Louis consists of twelve members, who give their services without receiving any salary or compensation whatso¬ ever. Each member is elected from the city at large for a term of six years. Four members retire every second year, and their places are filled by a general election. Vacancies caused by resignations are filled by the mayor of the city. It is a corporation independent of the rest of the city government, and has no official connection with other administrative powers of the city. The board of education exercises legislative, directive, and supervisory func¬ tions. It shapes the policy of the public schools, directs and supervises its officers, and approves or rejects their recommendations. It levies taxes for the support of the schools and for the erection of school buildings. The administra¬ tive and executive work is placed in the hands of paid officers, who are elected for a term of years. Officers of the board of education are : A secretary and treasurer, a superintendent of instruction, a commissioner of public school buildings, a commissioner of supplies, an auditor, and the attorney of the board. The regular meeting of the board of education takes place once a month. The standing committees of the board are appointed annually by the president of the board, and are named as follows : The committee on instruction, on school buildings, on finance, and on auditing and supplies. While the rules of the board vest all executive functions in the salaried officers, each committee has supervisory power over the department indicated by its name. Printed copies of the reports to be tendered are sent to each member from three to seven days prior to the monthly meeting of the board. The monthly meetings of the board are brief and businesslike. The annual revenue of the board during the scholastic year 1902-3 was .$2,299,518.68. The greater part of this revenue was derived from the tax levied in the city of St. Louis itself. a I’ote of the people passed in November, 966 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. 1902, authority was given the board of education of St. Louis to levy a tax not higher than G mills on the dollar. There are at present 129 school buildings in the city. There are, however, only 9G schools, since a few schools are conducted in several buildijigs standing in the same yard. The present type of school building is a two-story building of 18 rooms, with a large kindergarten room attached. Each room in the new buildings is about 25 by 33 by 14 feet in size, and is capable of accommodating approximately 54 children. The average number of children in each room in the city is about 47. There is a separate desk for each child. P>oth seat and desk are adjustable to the height of the pupil. There are at present 15 fireproof buildings and GO seminreproof buildings. It is the intention to remodel the old buildings gradually, or replace them with new fireproof structures. With the increase in revenue this may be done in the course of five or six years. In the purchase of school sites it is the policy of the board to buy large sites — ■ if possible, a whole block of ground — so as to leave room for play and exercise. Once a year the board of education causes a population map to be made. This population map shows the point of the densest population, and the new site is purchased in accordance with the information presented by the map. From one to eight janitors are appointed to each school, according to the num¬ ber of rooms. Usually two janitors are required for an 18-room building. The janitors have the care of heating and cleaning the schools. In the large schools, in addition to the regular janitors, a scrub woman is employed, who spends her whole time in cleaning. Under the charter the appointment of janitors is entirely in the hands of the commissioner of school buildings, but the board of education determines their salaries and prescribes the way in which the janitors shall be selected. All nominations for teachers' positions are made by the superintendent of instruction. The board of education approves or rejects the nominations thus made. All new teachers are appointed for a term of probation. Teachers in the district schools are employed first as substitutes, and fill sliort temporary vacancies ; the successful substitutes are then assigned to fill positions of teachers that are absent for a longer period, and after eight months of probationary work, a substitute, on recommendation of the principal in whose school she has been teaching, is nominated by the superintendent for appointment. The teacher's tenure of office is practically unlimited. A teaclier, once appointed, holds her position as long as she is efficient in her work. While this is the practical condition, each teacher, according to the terms of her contract, is appointed for one year only. The board of education does not discharge any teacher unless there is evident cause. In each school there is a principal, and a number of assistant teachers. The teacher next in rank to the principal in the larger schools is called the head assistant, and takes the principal's place in case of his absence. There is in each school a small number of teachers whose length of service and merit is recognized bj" a higher rank and salary. They are called first assistants ; all the other teachers are called second assistants. The maximum salary of the second assistants is $700 ; of the first assistants, $800, and of the head assistants, $1,000. The principal of a first-class school receives a maximum salary of $2,400 ; the salary of principals of smaller schools is less, according to the number of rooms. Each teacher in the district schools begins at a minimum salary ranging upward from $420 paid to young beginners. Each year during which a teacher serves adds an advance to her salary until the maximum salary of the grade she holds has been reached. This advance in salary takes place acc-ord- ing to a schedule fixed from time to time by the board of education. All the assistant teacliers in the district schools are women, A large number of the EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 967 principals are men. There are at present in the public schools of St. Louis 1,01S second assistants, 190 first assistants, 49 head assistants, 55 male princi- l)als, and 35 female principals. A teachers* college is established for the training of teachers for the district schools of St. Louis. Graduation from the high school is required for admission to the teachers' college. The course in the teachers’ college is two years, devoted to the studj" of psychology, history of education, principles of education, inethods of instruction, and a review of the district school studies. After finish¬ ing the teachers* college course the candidate is expected to spend one year as an unpaid ap]3rentice in some district school, in order to acquire the practical knowledge of her duties. Priucipalships in the district schools and positions in the high schools are filled bj- examination, which is open twice a year to appli¬ cants. The law of the State requires that separate schools shall be maintained for colored children and white children. Among the 9(3 schools of the city, there ai’e 13 district schools for colored children. There is also a high school for colored boys and girls, with a course of study similar to that of the white high school. In the colored high school, training classes are maintained for girls who wish to become teachers. All the colored schools are taught by colored teachers. There are 5,G98 pupils enrolled in the colored schools. The studies in the elementary schools are the reading and writing of the English language, arithmetic, geography, history of the United States, the ele¬ ments of natural science, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. Lessons on the conduct of life are given once a week. Besides the customary reference books a school library for the pupils is found in each school, with not less than 30 vol¬ umes of each title. Each large school has a kindergarten attached to it. The age of admission to public schools is fixed by the State constitution, and no child can enter the kindergarten until he is G years old. Lie attends the kindergarten for a half day during a 5mar, and then he enters the elementary school. There are at present 9,911 kindergarten pupils in the city. High schools, with a course of instruction of four years, are maintained for pupils vrho have finished the district school work. This course of instruction in the high schools includes Latin and Greek, modern languages, mathematics, the sciences, histoiy, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. Instruction is arranged in certain courses, each course containing a consistent plan of education extending over four years. One of the courses of the high schools prepares the pupil for admission to college or university. During the winter months the board of education maintains evening schools. The evening school course covers five years — three years of elementarj^ work and two years of high school work. The board of education also maintains a public school for deaf-mute children. The schools are absolutely free. Stationery needed during school hours and all text-books are furnished to every child at public expense. Attendance at school is voluntary. The total number of pupils enrolled in the schools of St. Louis is 8G,4S4. Of these, 82,459 are enrolled in the day schools and 4,025 in the evening schools. The enrollment in the day schools is divided as follows : Kindergarten enrollment, 9,911 ; district school enrollment, 69,362, and high school enrollment, 3,186. Boys and girls are instructed together in the same room. During recess the sexes are separated, two playgrounds being maintained in each school. There are 43,189 boys and 43,172 girls in attendance. The p]4ucipal lias the right to send a, child home in case of some important offense, in order to request the parent to call at the schoolbuilding with the child. In cases of very serious offense, or vrhere the ordinary school means have proved unavailing, the principal may send the child away from school, A 968 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. written notice of such suspension must be sent by the principal to both the superintendent of instruction and the parent. The parent is then required to call at the office of the superintendent of instruction with the child. As a rule, the child is reinstated in his own school ; but in rare cases it seems better to send the pupil to some other school in order to secure to the child the possible advantage of new- surroundings. While the board of education authorizes corporal punishment, it does not encourage it. The matter is left largely to the discretion of the principal. For purposes of instruction the children in each room are usually divided into two divisions. In each division there are approximately t\venty to twenty- five children. While one of the divisions receives instruction the other division is engaged in study or seat work. The two divisions are not of the same grade of advancement, but are usually from ten to twenty weeks apart. Promotions in the high schools are made semiannually ; in the district schools seiniannually or oftener. Gifted children can be promoted at any time wdien their ability to do advanced work is established. The superintendent of instruction, until the approval of the board, prescribes the course of study and the amount of time allotted to each study. While the (‘ourse of study is prescribed by the superintendent, it originates largely with the teachers, for its adoption is preceded by previous conferences of teachers and principals, and only after it has been determined by the opinion of the best teachers is it indorsed and promulgated by the superintendent. The district school classes in the se^'enth and eighth years of the course receive instruction in manual training and domestic science. In a number of centrally located schools, carpenter shops and rooms for instruction in cooking and sewing are provided. The children from neighboring schools report to these centers and receive about tvco hours’ instruction per week. Special teachers are employed for this wmrk. The boys receive instruction in carpentry and the use of ordinary tools. The domestic science work for the girls extends over two years, and consists of a course in sewing and a course in cooking. Ordinary needlewmrk, including darning, is taught, and easy lessons in the making of garments are given. The taste of the children in the selection of material and the harmonizing of various colors is cultivated. The lessons in cooking teach not only the practical art but include an ele¬ mentary course in the chemistry of food, the p)hysiology of digestion, and the hygiene of the home. The work of instruction in the various schools is constantly supervised by a number of officers wffio spend their wdiole time in visiting schools, testing results, and aiding and directing the teachers. There are four assistant super¬ intendents, each of whom visits regularly the schools of a district in the city that is assigned to him. Agreement in the principles to be enforced in school work, and which are necessary for a reasonable degree of harmony and uniform¬ ity of supervision is secured by a -weekly meeting of the assistant superinten¬ dents with the superintendent of instruction, in which the details of the week’s Avork are discussed and a common basis for the supervisory wmrk established and maintained. There are also three primary supervisors wffio assist the assistant superintendents in their visits to the various schools. They have chiefly the care of the three elementary grades of instruction. The special branches of the department of instruction, such as kindergarten, drawing, sing¬ ing, and calisthenics are looked after by special supervisory officers, wffio visit the various schools for the purpose of assisting and directing teachers in their work. The principal of each school is the chief supervisor thereof, and all. recommen¬ dations of the assistant superintendents as to wmrk in any school are made after EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 969 a conierence with the principal. He may spend his whole time in supervisory work in visiting schoolrooms and in attending to the executive work of the school. He is expected to guide his teachers in matters of instruction. THE EXHIBIT. To plan and prepare a proper educational exhibit is a task of peculiar diffi¬ culty. Education is not an external process. Its chief result is the building of mind and soul. Its chief means is the subtle and gradual influence of instruc¬ tion and discipline on the growth of childhood. Potent as this influence is, it is so gradual and so much a part of the intangible inner life that the most impor¬ tant part of education can not be made the subject of an exhibit. It is only the external concomitants of the educational process that can be exhibited, such as the methods of teaching that are in use, the work of children in the form of writing or dravring, manual training, school appliances, the books and apparatus in use, and the affairs of administration and management. These, however, merely indicate and do not display the educational condition and progress of a community. The silent processes of gradual transformation of body and soul of the child to stronger manhood and womanhood which educa¬ tion helps to bring about can not be exhibited. All that an exhibit can show is the material environment which the school gives to the pupil, and some of the external results in the shape of the children's work and in pictorial representa¬ tions of school life. The general aspect which is given to the space allotted to the St. Louis ex¬ hibit is that of a library, well and comfortably furnished, which invites the \isitor to sit down and study the exhibit which surrounds him. The space assigned to the exhibit is near the main northwest entrance of the Palace of Education. Entering by the main corridor the space extends along the second aisle at the right, and is located between it and the wall of the interior court. The space is approximately 140 feet long by 27 feet in depth. Across the aisle on the opposite side is the display of the other schools of the State of Missouri. For the display of the exhibit an artistic plan of an ornamental fa<;‘ade has been adopted. The facade answers several purposes. It marks off the exhibit and makes it, as it were, a room by itself. Designed in the style of the Roman triumphal arch, it enhances the impressive and artistic character of the whole display. On the front and interior side of each arch and also back of the arch, there is a panel of translucent ground glass about 2 by 4 feet in size. Each front panel is filled with a transparency representing some group illustrative of the progress of education in the history of various countries. In one of these jianels the Egyptian ])riest is shown teaching a class of youths in the temple; in another pa-iel the Roman boy is trained in the use of arms ; the middle ages are represented by a scene in the schools in the monasteries ; in one of the last historical panels Froebel is represented surrounded by his children. On the panels on the interior side and back of each arch, small transparent photo¬ graphs of school buildings, scenes in sclioolhouses, pictures of groups of chil¬ dren, etc., are placed. These glass transparencies are constantly illuminated by electric liglits kept burning behind them. In the triangular spaces right and left of the top of the arches facing the aisle, large heads of children are pre¬ sented in transparent photographs, which like the panels beiovr, are illuminated by electric light. Near the entrance from the main corridor we find the kindergarten exhibit, and following it, the district and high school work. The pictures of children’s heads in the transparencies in the panels and spandrels of the arches indicate and suggest the character of the exhibit found in the space, behind them. 970 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. The general aim of the exhibit is to give to the visitors and students a com¬ plete and systematic view of the work actually done* by the public schools of the city and their administrative and financial conditions. There is nothing ad¬ mitted to this exhibit that is merely decorative. Everything tends to show' actual facts, and the mode of presenting these facts makes them at once clear and impressive. Instruction in the public schools is showm in regard to the range of subjects ‘ and the kinds of schools w'hich our public school system includes. These various departments are, therefore, represented as follow's : Kindergarten, pri¬ mary schools, high schools, deaf-mute instruction, evening schools, and teachers’ training classes. The exhibit of the public schools includes : First, the method and work of instruction, with the appliances used, such as text-books, maps, apparatus, and natural-history collections and cabinets used in teaching, together with an ex¬ hibit of schoolroom decoration, consisting of pictures and casts as found in and collected from various schools in the city. Second, facts and data concerning the corps of teachers, their trailing, and the organizations they maintain for professional training and mutual help in sickness and old age. Third, the school buildings of St. Louis, their construction and method of heating and ven¬ tilation. Fourth, the school law's of St. Louis and the data and facts of school administration. The articles displayed in the exhibit of instruction include, in the first place, the work of the pupils themselves, their wn-iting, their essays, and examination papers. All the subjects prescribed by the course of study are represented in this collection. The specimens of the draw-ing and decorative w'ork, as practiced in all our schools from the kindergarten to the high school, are somew'hat prominent in this collection. Specimens of the hand work of the kindergarten, the manual training, and the domestic science classes form part of the exhibit. The children are not only allowmd to exhibit their work in the various studies, they also take part in the decorative “ make-up ’’ or presentation of their w'ork. Each class exercise is tied together to form a little book, with cover of heavy colored paper of artistic choice. Each of these books of exercises has a design on the cover page and another on tlie title page, both tlie work of the children, and selected unaltered from their best efforts. For the designs on the covers all the talented children of the city competed. There was to be a design for each of the subjects of instruction, such as geography, arithmetic, natural his¬ tory, etc. Each design was to be in a measure appropriate to the subject. Thus the design for the cover of exercises in arithmetic handed in by some of the children show ed a pattern formed of geometrical ligures ; for the science book a design formed of flowers w'as selected. A committee of prominent artists acted as judges and selected the best designs offered, which were then photo¬ graphed and electrotyped and used in the printing of the book covers. Hence, even this decorative feature of the display show's the children’s work. A large number of these books, with the best work of the children, both by classes and selected w'ork, has been furnished, so that the display at the exposition can be changed a number of times. Experience has shown that such books, by fre¬ quent inspection, are likely to become unsightly, and must from time to time be replaced by new* specimens. The appliances and facilities used in instruction form another department of our school exhibit. A full set of text-books and reference books used in the public schools is shown. A separate bookcase contains the supplementary read¬ ing books, of wdiich the board has supplied to each large school from 25 to 30 books of each title. The facilities for supplementary reading wdiich the board of education has furnished have had a very important share in the improvement EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION, 971 of the schools and are therefore represented in the exhibit. There are also specimens of the very numerous collections and sets of books \Yhich the public library has been furnishing with the greatest liberality to every school in the city. In a great many of the schools artistically chosen decorations, statues, casts, original paintings, and reproductions of classic paintings are found. A selec¬ tion of these schoolroom decorations is displayed in the exhibit as wall decora¬ tions, each exhibit of this kind bearing a tablet reading “ School decoration taken from - school,” so that it is evident to the visitor that this is not a piece of wall decoration, but that it displays an actual fact in our school life. A number of collections of fossils, minerals, pressed flowers, mounted birds, etc., such as are found in a great many of the schools, are also displayed. In some of the schools the children raise beautiful moths and butterflies from cocoons, and an excellent mounted collection of these objects of nature is found in the exhibit. The school life, the recitation-room work, and the playgrounds of the colored and white schools are shown by means of statistics and numerous and well- selected photographs. There are charts of photographs representing the ages of children and the nationalities attending the public schools. Almost every nation of the globe is represented in the public schools of St. I.ouis. St. Louis has had the good fortune of having among its teachers and school officers some men and women who have achieved national distinction and whose memory belongs to the public schools and is commemorated !>y their photographs as part of this collection. Among these eminent people that helped to build the public schools may be mentioned W. T. Harris, formerly superintendent of the public schools of St. Louis ; Miss Susan E. Blow, the founder of kindergartens in America ; Miss Helen A. Shafer, teacher in Ihe high school, later president of Wellesley College ; Mr. William Greenleaf Eliot, president of the board of public schools of St. Louis in 1848 and founder of Washington University ; Thomas Davidson, at one time teacher in the high school, then famous as a scholar and a writer and a founder of the Fabian Societies of England. This part of the exhibit also shows the training and organization of the corps of teachers, and the apprentice and substitute system of the St. Ijouis schools is illustrated by description, photographs, and statistics. flTie organizations maintained by the teachers are shown by statistics of work done by each, by copies of their constitutions, and by photographs of their officers. The societies whose work is illustrated are the Pedagogical Society, Schoolmasters’ Club, Principals' Club, Teachers’ Mutual Aid Association, and the Teachers’ Benevo¬ lent Annuity Association. Some of the artistic and literary work done by teachers forms part of the exhibit. The location and distribution of public school buildings is shown by maps, and their character is represented by plans and pictures. Photographs show the progress made in school architecture, from the old log hut used as a country school to the magnificent school buildings of the present day. Two of our best school buildings are represented by well-executed plastic models, artistically colored, and made on the scale of one-eighth of an inch to the foot. One of these models represents the recently completed McKinley high school, and the other the modern Wyman school, which is the best type of our new buildings. I^arge water-color sketches show some of the artistic qualities of the recent schoolroom architecture of our public school buildings by representing the entrance of the Wyman school and the central portion of the future teachers’ college as the board of education has planned it. A model of the portable building is presented. This style of building is used to accommodate an overflow in the attendance in any school. The portable 972 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. building is well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and offers very comfortable accommodation for 54 children. The building is composed of sections, and when it has done its service can be taken apart and transported to another school site. The St. Louis style of portable building has been adopted very generally by other cities. This part of the exhibit includes information concerning ventilation and heating, latrine rooms, and janitors. The charter of the board of administration, granted by the legislature of the State, is shown in outline on charts exhibiting a tabulated representation of the powers of the hoard and its organization. The mode of electing the board and the composition of the committees are shown. Other charts present a synopsis of the rules of the board. The functions and powers of the various officers are explained. There are a number of very striking graphical representations on large charts of the financial history and condition of the public schools. The sources and amount of income and the classes of expenditure are illustrated. The system used in the financial department, bookkeeping, accounting, auditing, etc., are exhibited. The statistics of the growth of the public school system form another important division of the exhibit of school administration. Quite a number of graphic representations contain interesting information concerning the school population of St. Louis. A collection of hound volumes of the pro¬ ceedings of the board in its monthly meetings is presented, and a brief descrip¬ tion is given of their mode of transacting legislative business. The adminis¬ tration exhibit also includes the hound volumes of annual reports of the public schools and the printed Ifiank forms in various departments of school admin¬ istration. There are charts showing the principles and methods observed in the appointment and government of teachers. The courses of study in the public schools form part of the administrative exhibit, because they emanate from the legislative power of the hoard and its officers. The general statistics of school iidministration are presented, and a synopsis is given of the progress of the last five years in regard to buildings, free books, teachers’ salaries, etc. The many statistical items which are embodied in a survey of the public schools are represented not merely by figures, but by graphic representation, or, ill other words, by drawings, which allow the eye to take in more readily the comparative magnitudes of the enrollment and financial growth, distribution of revenues, and all matters which are less easily comprehended when given in the form of figures. The photographic part of the exhibit has been made systematic and com¬ plete. It describes pictorially all the features of school life, such as school- houses, styles of buildings, equipment of rooms, ground plan of the school, the work ill the schoolroom, the classes, the ages of children, their school life, the character of the teachers, etc. The photographs were taken by some of the teachers in the employ of the rmblic schools, who gave their whole time for several months to this task. A pro¬ fessional photographic assistant was engaged for about five months to assist these teachers. An effective feature of the photographic display is a set of enlarged pictures, 6 by 34 feet, which are intended to show certain phases of school life. These photographs are displayed in proper sequence by means of a well devised mechanical contrivance, moved by electricity, which allows each picture to remain in view for a minute, then moves it aside to make room for the next. In this manner a consecutive series of school activities is displayed and simul¬ taneously inspected by a large number of visiters. At the extreme end of the space allotted to the St. Louis schools, as a crown¬ ing feature of the display an actual schoolroom with children at work is exhib- EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITTON. 973 ited. While ordinary recitation work does not lend itself readily to an occa¬ sion where there is the noise inseparable from a large number of visitors and the constant passing of the crowd, there are certain kinds of school work which are not disturbed by these conditions. The features of work which have been selected for this purpose are manual training, domestic science, kindergarten work, cal¬ isthenics, drawing, physics and chemistry, and music (including the work for the School for the Deaf and the high school glee, violin, and mandolin clubs). These classes in the St. Louis exhibit report there every day from 3 to 5 o’clock in the afternoon. The exhibit is so arranged as to present a connected view of the whole of the public school education of the city of St. Louis. At the entrance of our exhibit space the kindergarten is located, typifying that connection between the school and the home with which all education begins. A Christmas tree, with little col¬ ored lights burning all the time, and placed with the work of the kindergarten children, has been placed in the kindergarten section as a fitting initiation of the display. In the adjacent space the worij of the district schools and high school work is exhibited. Next to the work of the children cojiies the space for that part of the display Vv’hich illustrates the provision which the State makes for the institution and maintenance of education. This exhibit of the legislative and administrative activity of the school board shows the government and the resources of the public schools, and explains the economic and political basis on which they rest. The department next in sequence covers the external means and agencies pro¬ vided to carry on the work of education. Schoolhouses and school appliances are presented through models, pliotographs, and water-color pictures. The last and culminating point of the exhibit of the board of education is the display of the actual results flowing from the legislative and administrative institution exhibited in the preceding spaces. This crowning step of the exhibit is a class of children actually engaged in school work. Si - • • 1^''' '*• . -^^art of the product is sold, and a regular scale of apprenticeship wages allowed for all labor which produces- marketable material. The school is nonsectarian, but much attention is given to religious and moral training, and it is expected that all who go out from Hampton Institute will do missionary work. MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was arranged with the idea of showing by means of photographs and drawings the general character of the instruction given in the various engineering departments and in applied science. P>esides the main exhibit of the institute a considerable amount of material was included in the collective exhibit of the Association of Agricultural Col¬ leges and Experiment Stations, chiefly in the departments of architecture,, chemistry, and mining engineering. The floor space assigned to the institute was on one of the main aisles, and in order to increase the amount of wall space and the attractiveness of the exhibit a booth was erected under the direction of the architectural depart¬ ment. The faqade of the booth contained two large panels, in which were placed enlarged photographs of all the buildings occupied by the various laboratories. On the exterior of the side wall of the booth was shown some characteristic work of recent graduates, as well as a series of transparencies illustrating the Flagstaff (Ariz.) observatory of Prof. Percival Lowell, non¬ resident professor of astronomy. On three of the four interior walls were hung ED 1904 M - 62 978 EDUCATION BEPOKT, 1904. enlarged photographs showing students at work in the laboratories and In the field. The remaining wall of the booth was occupied by the exhibit of the department of architecture. Models of the hulls of ships, designed by the students of the department of naval architecture, were placed on the top of show cases which extended around three sides of the room. Inside these cases were shown blueprints illustrating the original work of students of the departments of civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, and chemical engineering. On four large tables were placed albums in which the detailed work of every department of the institute was illustrated as far as possible by texts and pho¬ tographs. The publications of the institute were placed on the tables and shelves so as to be readily accessible to visitors. The arrangement of the whole exhibit was an essential part of the architectural exhibit. It was intended that to one entering the portal the whole should be dominated by the bust of President Rogers, and that a hasty glimpse of the interior should c*onvey at once the character of the technical education originated and planned for this school by its founder, William Barton Rogers. The drawings in the exhibit of the department of architecture were the work of the students in composition, as required in planning and designing interiors and exteriors. The system of instruction is based on that of the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, but the problems given to the students are thoroughly American in character, and similar to those that they will meet in actual prac¬ tice. This doi^artment of architecture is the pioneer of the numerous schools now established at American colleges. The naval architectural exhibit consisted of drawings and models made by students during their third and fourth years. The drawings shown consisted of ship lines, general arrangement, and jnidship sections. The models were of merchant vessels, sailing yachts, and war ships. The merchant vessels were made by students in the fourth-year class from lines of their own design. The yachts, two in number, were made by third-year students, and the war ship, only one being exhibited, was the work of the young naval constructors sent here from Annapolis by the Navy De])artment to study war-ship design. All the.se models were made from lines and plans designed by the students who made the models. The tracings shovred a part of the plans of the vessels designed in the regular course of instruction. The album contained a descrip¬ tion and schedule of the course, together with photographs of the rooms, thesis work, and apparatus of instruction. The album of drawings from the mechanical engineering department presented a considerable mass of material, exhibiting the work of a large number of stu¬ dents, including dimensioned shop or working drawings made from machinery, boiler drawings, and problems in mechanism design, such as the design of cams, quick-return motions, gear teeth, simple and double valves for steam engines, and other designs supplementing the lecture courses. This collection showed not only the .skill attained by the students, but the method of teaching. With each problem were exhibited the data sheet and the instructions from which the stu¬ dent worked. An album of log blanks of the engineering laboratories gave sample log sheets for te.sts on the apparatus of the laboratories, and calculation blanks that are used by the students, together with a brief statement of the method of conducting laboratory practice. In the exhibit of the department of chemistry and chemical engineering it was intended that the material presented from each branch of the department should show the object of the courses of instruction, the methods of presenta¬ tion, and the results obtained. The labels, both group and specimen, were made as complete as possible in order that the story might be easily followed. In qualitative analysis the range of the work was shown in a general way by EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 979 exhibiting a notebook containing notes made in a typical analysis, and also- by exhibiting specimens of the subjects actually analyzed, by two students. In quantitative analysis much the same method was used. The emphasis laid upon special topics, such as the necessity of careful sampling, was shown by a section of segregated steel rail, on which was marked the analysis of the different parts. In ju’oximate analysis the general character of the course was shown by a full analysis of asphalt and the interpretation of the results, while in sanitary analysis a full set of field ai^paratus for water analysis was shown with the chart, indicating the methods of use, together with typical specimens of water examined and reported upon by the students. The exhibit relating to the labora¬ tory instruction in the preparation of organic compounds, and the methods emi)loyed for the identification of such compounds, was prepared in much detail and illustrated. The course given at the institute is unique in its character and merited detailed presentation. The illustrative material for two lectures on industrial chemistry was shown, indicating how this branch of instruction fs conducted, while the methods of instruction emploj'ed in the industrial chemical laboratory, since they lent themselves easily to the purpose, were somewhat elaborately illustrated. The method of carr.'sing on the work was shown by representing specimens of raw material, then a photograph of the apparatus used, a working drawing (blneja'int) of the apparatus designed for the experi¬ ment, and the entries in the student’s notebook. At the end was shown a report of the whole experiment, giving cost sheets, estimate, and conclusions and rec¬ ommendations. Other branches of the departmental instruction, such as sugar analysis, were similarly illustrated, and albums containing typical views were open to inspection, together with copies of the more important of the published works of members of the instructing staff. The album for the course in civil engineering dealt principally with the prob¬ lems of railroad location and structural design. Fourth-year bridge design was illustrated by many examples of original work by the students. The course in sanitary engineering was illustrated by designs for sewer sections and sewerage systems. There were also diagrams of hydraulic measurements made at Lowell, Mass., and elsewhere. The album of the mining engineering deitartment contained many photo¬ graphs of the laboratories, showing the assaying room and the furnace room with all their different types of furnaces, the milling room with the gravity stamps, Frue vanner, and end-shake vanner, and the many individual machines for studying the principles of concentration of ores. There were also plioto- graphs showing the apparatus for studying chlorination, cyaniding and pan amalgamation. The summer schools, which have visited mines and furnaces in Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Gape Breton, were fully illustrated. The album of the department of physics was devoted to photographs showing in detail the equipment of the laboratories of general physics, electrical meas¬ urements, heat measurements, acoustics, physical chemistry, electro-chemistry, and the physical library. The album of the department of electrical engineering contained views of the large laboratory of electrical engineering, the standardizing laboratory, photo¬ meter, research and lecture rooms, and other photographs illustrating details of the methods of instruction and individual pieces of apparatus. The album of the department of biology contained photographs of the labora¬ tories of general biology, bacteriology, comparative anatomy and physiology, the library, the research laboratory, shop, and preparation room. The album devoted to the work of the department of geology and mineralogy contained descriptions of the courses of instruction designed especially to meet 980 -EDUCATION REPOKT^ 1904, the needs of students in mining and civil engineering, chemistry, and biology, and also outlined a course of study for those who d^rFe'a-*nT»Fe^''piret3C'geological training, particularly along economic lines. There were photographs of lecture rooms, laboratories and their equipments, and several examples illustrative of the work done by students in the department, such as geological maps and sections. PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. BY ARTHUR L. WILLISTON. THE EXHIBIT. This exhibit was planned to show by charts and photographs and typical examples of students’ work the scope and character of the instruction given at I’ratt Institute; in brief, to describe an institution established to promote indus¬ trial education and to encourage the application of art and science to industry. The examples of students’ work were exhibited to show how successful the work of the institute had been by following its very simple pedagogic creed, which, briefly stated, is this : “ Show men how to do something, and insist that they do it as well, as hon¬ estly, as economically, and as beautifully as it can be done — a rule to cover the conduct of all practical work. “ Show men why certain definite combinations of effort and material secure certain definite results, and insist that they grasp these simple fundamental principles and apply them for themselves — a rule to cover the conduct of all scientific and theoretical work that underlies the practical.” The photographs of buildings and equipment were exhibited to show, as far as possible, the means and the methods that the institute had used to reach these results. The seven buildings of the institute, with a floor space of more than 175,000 square feet, were shown by large photographs on the fronts of the wing frames in the center of the exhibit. Smaller photographs arranged in a frieze around the wall showed, in addition to the reading rooms and the lecture and recita¬ tion rooms at the institute, classes at work in laboratories, shops, or work¬ rooms. The institute endowment funds amount to ^2,.500,000, and the buildings and grounds are valued at .$1,2.35,000. The expense of operating the institute last year was .$2.52, .327.02. The income from tuition was .$82,208.84, leaving a balance of $170,118.78, which was made up by the income from the endowment fund, and by several special contributions. The exhibit showed the work of the institute classified under the following main heads: (a) Industrial education for men, {h) industrial education for women, (c) art education for men and women, (d) special education for teach¬ ers, (c) preparatory education for boys and girls, if) department of libraries. Industrial education for men. — The portion of the Pratt Institute exhibit which was devoted to this subdivision of work was intended to illustrate as clearly as possible, in the small space that could be allotted to it, the following things : First. By charts and statistics it was intended to illustrate the scope and prac¬ tical character of the two day courses intended for the training of men for posi¬ tions of the grade of foreman in mechanical and electrical lines, the experience EDUCATION AT THE ' ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 981 aiKl earnesi; eliaraeter of tbe men who apply for admission to these courses, and the responsible positions- which they obtain after graduation. Second. By charts and photographs it was intended to illustrate the nine even¬ ing technical courses, which are intended for men employed in practical lines of work during the day. These included the following branches : Technical chem¬ istry, applied electricity, steam and the steam engine, strength of materials, phys¬ ics, mechanical drawing, machine design, mechanism design, and practical mathematics. Third. By examples of student work and by photographs were illustrated the practical character of work, the high standard of skill in both the construction and finish, and the commercial methods employed in the evening trade courses in machine work, carpentry, pattern making, sign painting, fresco painting, and plumbing. Fourth. Photographs and sample pieces of apparatus were shown to illustrate the nature and amount of the equipment which has been especially designed by instructors at the institute. Fifth. Mimeograph texts and sample notebooks were exhibited to illustrate the original methods that have been employed by teachers at the institute. The methods of instruction which were here illustrated, together with the methods which the teachers at the institute have employed for keeping the indi- ’^iduals in a class, all having a common purpose, but having quite a varied previous training and natural aptitude for their work, all interested and busy — each one accomplishing as much and advancing as rapidly as his individual abilities will permit — without allowing them to become so widely separated in their work as to make effective class instruction impossible, included some of the most important lessons taught by this portion of the exhibit. Sixth. By tables and charts showing the growth of industrial education for men at the institute, the exhibit was intended to make manifest the great demand for trade and elementary technical education in America and the need for the establishment of more schools to undertake the same kind of work that is now being done at the Pratt Institute. Industrial education for loomen. — By the same general method described under the head of industrial work for men, the exhibit exemplified the indus¬ trial work given by the institute for women. The work exhibited was planned to illustrate the following branches for women : Costume design, sewing, milli¬ nery, dressmaking, embroidery, and domestic science for dietitians, matrons, housekeepers, and probationary nurses. This portion of the exhibit also illustrated the work of the evening classes in sewing, dressmaking, millinery, costume design, cookery, serving, and laundry work, and showed by charts of the courses of study and by examples of students’ work how women employed during the day can, in these evening classes, advance themselves along the line of their regular work and fit themselves for better positions. Art tcoric for men and women. — The frieze about the top of the main exhibit, and the collection of studies shown in the art annex across the aisle from the main exhibit of the institute, showed typical examples of work done by students in the department of fine and applied arts, and the large glass case on the main aisle contained a large collection of art metal work designed and executed by the students of the same department. These examples of students’ work were supplemented by pliotographs of the studios and workrooms, by charts showing the courses of study, and by statistical records of the work of the graduates. The courses exhibited included those in illustration, life and por¬ trait work, design and architecture, chasing, jewelry, and diesinking, and evening courses in free-hand drawing, life drawing, design, architectural draw¬ ing, wood carving, chasing, jewelry and diesinking, and clay and wax modeling. 982 EDITCATION" EEPORT^ 1904. Special educaUon for teachers. — This exhibit showed by photographs, charts, notebooks, examination papers, and students’ work the character of the equip¬ ment in the laboratories and workrooms, the scope and aim of the courses of study, the inethods of instruction, and the deA’elopment of the individual student in the courses for the training of teachers in the tine arts, the fine arts and manual training, domestic art, domestic science, and kindergarten work. It also contained records of the practice teaching done by the normal students and records of their work after graduation. Preparatory education for girts and hoys.—This exhibit showed by photo¬ graphs the equipment of the high school building, and by charts, notebooks, and students' work the high school course of study, the methods employed, and the results obtained from the students. The library. — The library exhibit included specimens of work done by the students in the library school, which offers two one-year courses for the train¬ ing of librarians, and charts and statements illustrating the anethods of work in the Pratt Institute Library of 77.12G volumes. rURDr E UNI VBRSIT Y. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit of Purdue University occupied a booth 20 by 27 feet in area. The plan of the exhibit was to project a few notable features of the work of the institution in education and research, rather than to attempt a complete exposition of the university. The exhibit was designed and installed by mem¬ bers of the faculty and employees of the institution. A frieze of large photograi)hs decorated the walls of the booth on three sides and showed the external characteristics of the buildings and grounds. The library cose at the rear of the booth contained complete files of all official publications, of student publications, and representative specimens of writings of members of the faculty. A valuable feature of the exhibit was the collection of manuscript volumes setting forth full information as to the courses of instruction in all important subjects of the curriculum. These volumes described in detail all the features of the methods of administration of classes, depart¬ mental equipment, the scope and character of the teaching, with specimens of student work, taken from the current files. To the educator these volumes n’ere the most valuable features of Purdue’s exhibit. In ten handsome cases were collected materials Illustrating notable features of the work of various departments. From the material-testing laboratory was shown a collection of objects and photographs illustrating work performed in classes, as well as research in testing all kinds of constructive materials, notably concrete. There was a case displaying typical the.ses prepared by students in each school as a prerequisite to graduation. Another case was devoted to an interesting and unique series of models representing higher mathe¬ matical studies with relation to their application in engineering. The department of biology supplied a case showing valuable research work in determining the microscopic structure of different varieties of timber as bear¬ ing on their economic value, this being illustrated bj' a series of unique photographs. In practical mechanics were displayed series of specimens and photographs illustrating the methods and sequence in instruction in shop practice and draw¬ ing as a training for the engineer in the principles of mechanical construction. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 983 Agncultiu-e was represented by a case of charts, pliotograplis, and apparatus showing the results of studies in siigar-heet culture and soil characteristics in the State ; also methods of instruction in soil physics. The department of engineering design presented a large collection of selected drawings and designs executed by students, including maps and designs for machines, bridges, railways, etc. In physics and chemistry there was a case of photographs, models, and mate¬ rials illustrating courses and methods of instruction. IMethods of administer¬ ing engineering laboratory instruction were shown in detail by collections of forms, reports, data sheets, and theses. An attendant was present with the exhibit during most of the period of the exposition, and a register was provided for the names, of visitors. RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. THE EXtllBIT. The exhibit of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at the Louisiana Pur¬ chase Exposition consists of photographs showing the work of graduates and drawings, maps, and graduating theses illustrating the work of students. The photographs of the work designed by or constructed under the supervision of graduates illustrate some of the most notable engineering achievements both in this country and abroad. These include the longest suspension bridges, and many of the largest steel arch, cantilever, swing, and simply supported truss bridges ever built. There are also many views of large industrial plants, high office buildings, war ships, dry docks, steam and electric railroads ; and the Ferris wheel, first erected in Chicago, is an unique example in engineering. Undergraduate work is illustrated by many bound volumes of drawings and maps. These drawings were selected from the regular class-room work, and the endeavor was made to have- the work of as many different students as pos¬ sible exhil)ited, thus showing the average quality of the drawings as well as the number required in each course. The bound volumes of graduation theses illustrate the variety of subjects selected by the students, and cover designs for bridges, waterworks, sewerage systems, power plants, and railroad and munic¬ ipal improvements. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY. BY DR. C. M. WOODWARD, DIRECTOR. niSTOFvY AND ORGANIZATION. The charter of this school was adopted June 17, 1870. The school opened in September, 1880. The object of the school was threefold: (1) To furnish a more appropriate foundation for higher technical education; (2) to serve as a developing school wiiere pupils could discover their inborn capacities and aptitudes; (3) to- fur¬ nish to those who look forward to industrial life opportunity to become familiar with tools, materials, methods of construction, and exact drawing. 984 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The organization of the school was unique. It was of high school grade, and the course of study covered three years and was distributed daily along the fol¬ lowing lines: Mathematics, one hour; science, one hour; language and litera¬ ture, one hour ; drawing, one hour ; tool work, two hours. The three academic lessons were to he learned at home. After several years’' experience the “ hour ” was reduced to fifty minutes, and after still more experi¬ ence the course was extended to four years. The drawing is both free-hand and instrumental. The tool worlv includes joinery, wood carving, wood turning, pat¬ tern making, and molding, forging, and bench and machine work in metals. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit is taken from the regular work of the school. With the exception of one drawing, none of it was made for exhibition. No attenqit is made to exhibit the work in mathematics or language. The exhibit in science is confined to first-year work in botany and zoology. In drawing, as n rule, the woi-k of four students is exhibited in each grade and kind of work. With one exception, all drawings were made from objects placed before the student or they were conceived in the mind. The exception is that of a pen-and-ink drawing enlarged from a printed cut, the purpose being to illustrate the method of handling material and of producing results. All drawings are arranged chronologically, and as every student takes the complete course the exhibit shows progress from year to year. All the drawing is educa¬ tional. It does not follow examples set either by art schools or by commercial¬ drawing rooms. Tool instruction is given in classes of twenty-four students each. Tools and processes are taken up in regular order, and the class goes over the fundamental principles as logically as in mathematics. The commercial element is completely eliminated, and usual forms of construction are introduced only so far as they illustrate the best methods and general principles. Each kind of shopwork ends in a project which is inteiuled to embody in an interesting way what has been learned. Accordingly the exhibit is chiefly class work, a sufficient number of duplicates being shown to establish the fact that the class and not exceptional individuals have done the work. Attention is called to the systematic way in which lettering and projection drawing are taught. The succession of steps in one drawing exercise is shown by four sheets, the first being a free-hand drawing, the second a mechanical drawing of the same object, the third a tracing of the drawing, the fourth a blueprint made from the tracing. This work is done by every student in the class. Free-hand drawing of groups of objects occupies but little time in the school, but every student produces a single sheet, and several of these sheets are shown. In forging, after the typical processes are mastered, every pupil manufactures a set of steel lathe tools, made according to the best design and tempered for their special work ; these tools he carries with him into the machine shop during the last year. The wrought-iron work done by the various pupils is well illustrated by the wrought-iron fence, gate, and arches shown around the exhibit. No castings are shown beyond those in lead, soft alloys, and plaster. The molding and casting is purely educational, and the casting is done only to show the necessary features of the pattern and the method of molding it. The lessons taught by twenty-four years’ experience can not be exhibited at the fair. The fruit of a judicious and logical course of manual training lies wholly in the physical and mental abilities of the students, Avho acquire a fair mastery of material things and learn to control and utilize material forces. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 985 Tbe habit of mechanical analysis, which separates a complicated process into easy steps and reduces a complex construction to simple parts, cultivates also the habit of careful choice in the sequence of operations and in the selection of materials. All this is of infinite value in real life, and it goes far to produce clear-headed and far-seeing men in any calling. Nothing is more certain than that the fruit of manual training is in the boy and not in the project. In no instance is the “ finished article ” allowed to stand forward so prominently as to appear to be the main result. Our experience teaches that time spent in the shop in thoughtful, logical, exact work is well spent; that manual training stimulates an interest in all other studies ; that the progress in mathematics, science, ancient and modern languages, and in English literature is none the less in consequence. WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. THE EXHIBIT. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass., founded in 1SG5, is an eiigi neering school for the training of mechanical engineers, civil engineers, elec-trical engineers, chemical engineers, and students in general science. A prominent feature in the exliibit of the institute was a collection of 84 large framed photographs showing the buildings with their surroundings and the interiors of the various lecture and recitation rooms, laboratories, and workshoi^s. The relative time put upon different lines of work in the five courses was shown by large comparati^'e charts, designed by the department of drawing. The material ])repared by the mechanical engineering department included various articles manufactured in the shops by the students. For example, from the woodworking department various pattern and core boxes ; from the forge shop, specimens showing shaping and welding of iron, lathe tools, and work in tempering; from the foundry, a collection of castings illustrating the regular line of student work ; from the machine shop, a large number of specimens, mounted in a glass cabinet made in the shops, illustrating plain and taper turn¬ ing, spur, bevel, and worm-gear cutting, spindle for sensitive drilling, square- thread cutting, and inside threading, tool making, including construction of reamers, milling cutters, and standard gauges, parts of a regular speed lathe, and a complete bench-drill grinder. The jnechanical engineering laboratories exhibited various broken specimens of steel, wrought iron, and bronze, illus¬ trating strength of materials in tension, compression, and torsion. Metallo¬ graphy was illustrated by four groups of micro-photographs of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. Practice in drawing was represented by the drawing-board work of the free-hand, mechanical, machine-drawing, and descriptive geometry courses, illustrating the training of the imaginative faculty as applied to designing, the acquisition of correct ideas of form, and the solution of engineering problems. That portion of the student’s work in the department of civil engineering for which drawings are required was represented by examples of topographical maps, railroad maps and profiles, stress sheets for roofs and bridges, and designs of masonry, wood, and steel structures. The chemical department displajmd 24 beautifully crystallized specimens of pure chemicals, put up in 2-pound bottles. These chemicals were prepared in the laboratory of industrial chemistry from crude materials and waste products from the laboratories and various industrial processes. Accompanying these 986 EDUCATION EEPOET^ 1904. si>eciinens were IjouhO copies of student reports, showing that in the manufac¬ ture of these chemicals the processes are conducted with as strict adherence as possible to the methods employed in commercial plants and that the cost element is carefully considered. The department of physics was represented by a new and, for the most part, original set of models recently designed and constructed by the department to illustrate a unique set of exercises for a laboratory course, which is intended to replace the somewhat unsatisfactory lecture and'^ recitation course in elementary college physics. THE ART INSTITUTE OF ClIIOAGO. r.Y W. M. U. I'REXCII, DIRECTOR. THE EXHir.TT. The exhibit of the school of instruction of the Art Institute of Chicago em¬ braces, in brief, work from departments of drawing, painting, sculpture, deco¬ rative designing, architecture, illustration, normal instruction, and, in a limited degree, applied arts, pottery, ceramics, and metal y ork. It includes a repre¬ sentation of evening and juvenile classes. The academic drawing and painting are illustrated by original studies from the cast, from objects, and from life (the last portrait, nude, and c-ostumed), accompanied by exorcises in artistic anatomy, pictorial composition, illustration, and other studies appropriate to the artist. A frieze representing children at i>lay, painted by the students for a public school in Chicago, crowns this part of the exhibit. Tlie department of decoration is shown by original designs and exercises of many kinds; that of sculpture, by a few busts and figures, but more fully by photography. The exhibit is much amplified by drawings and photographs exhibited in large bound volumes. It is in these books that the work of the normal depart¬ ment and of the juvenile classes is found. The great Saturday juvenile classes, numbering about 300, are a peculiar feature of the school, and it is from this school that the colored-chalk drawing from objects on gray paper, so niiicli used in the public schools of Chicago and now adopted elsewhere, originated. The normal work resembles closely that of the other well-known normal art schools, but the close association with an academic art school of the first class is reckoned a great advantage, since one of the best qualifications of a teacher of drawing is to be able to draw. It is in connection with the normal work that the ajijilied arts find their chief use. The sculpture department claims to be the most thoroiigli and practical in the whole country. The students not only follow the usual routine of academic modeling of head and figure, and the composition of small groups, but coinpose and model draped figures, set up their own armatures, execute large figures, cut marble, and, in general, perform the practical work of the studio. The importance of the work executed is shov\Ti by the photographs. The academic drawing, in charcoal from cast and life, is believed to be unsurpassed by stu¬ dents of like exjierience. The best claim of the art institute, perhaps, is its coiuprehensiveness. The A'arious departments react favoralily upon each other, and the collateral privi¬ leges, such as the art library, the peiinanent collections, the various and ex¬ tended lecture courses, the successive ])assing exhibitions, create an atmosphere most favorable to the development of the student. EDUCATION AT THE ST. EOUIS EXPOSITION. 987 MASSACHUSETTS NORMAL ART SCHOOL. THE EXHIBIT. [This school mg do two exhil>its — ono of its general course of instruction in art, the other of the work of those pupils in the school who are preparing themselves for teach¬ ing or supervision. The former exhibit was placed, with those of other art schools, in (he southwest corner of the Education building, and was composed of some 300 draw¬ ings and paintings .from objects, from casts, from the antique, and from the human figure, with numerous busts from the class In sculpture, and objects of interest and beauty from the “ arts and crafts ” class. Of the second exhibit the principal, Mr. George II. Bartlett, writes as follows.] The exhihition of the public school class of the Massachusetts Normal Art School represents but a small part of the year’s work, and yet it is the expres¬ sion of the thought of the whole year. On entering this class tlie pupil has had a thorough technical art training of three years (as shown in the exhibit of the academic work of the school), during which time he has labored from the standpoint of the pupil. Now he is to become a teacher. Ilis first effort is to get in touch with the principles of teaching. To learn how to teach, how to select from the great storehouse of art that which is best to teach and to adapt this to the various grades from the kinder¬ garten through the high school, become his especial study for the year. To teacdi the pupil to think definitely and to broaden his understanding of the subject, he is given the problem of planning and of illustrating a limited number of lessons, adapting the thought and the rendering to the grade under consider¬ ation. The graded illustrative work seen in the exhibition is the direct resuit of this effort, the exercises being the ordinary certificate work of the students and not made especially for an exhibit. Simple practical lessons in the various branches of art are here shown, each subject being traced in a sequence of steps from the lowest to the highest grades. To one familiar with drawing in the public schools it is apparent that skill in the use of the pencil and of the brush in water color is most essential to the drawing teacher. To fuiTher this end throughout the year emphasis is laid on work especially in these two mediums, and as much time as possible is given to secure good simple pencil rendering with an appreciation of values, and in water color to secure pure color and direct handling. Another essential in the education of a drawing teacher is skill in blackboard drawing, and practice in this mode of expression is given throughout the course commensurate with its importance. The suggestions for high school lessons in the exhibit show advanced work in the various modes of rendering, yet an especial effort has been made to so closely connect the first-year lessons with those of the highest grammar grade that no break should be made, but that the work in the high school should begin on the old familiar lines. In the apportionment of subjects the thought throughout has been to make a well-balanced whole, giving sufiicient place to those subjects which, though not so attractive, are necessary to general knowledge, yet recognizing the fact that the greater interest a subject possesses the greater is its capability for developing power. 988 EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. THE MINNEAPOLIS SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. BY EGBERT KOEHLER, DIRECTOR. THE SCHOOL. The school at present embraces t^YO departments, the academical and the practical design. The first includes preparatory and advanced antique, sketch, still life, por¬ trait, and life classes, in session five days each week during the winter term of eight months. On Saturday forenoon there is a special class for children. The school is open to beginners and advanced students. No time limit is set for the course of study and no diplomas are issued in this department. There is also a regular summer term of two months' duration. Work in the design department constitutes a course of three years and embraces the study of plant forms, historic ornament, and lettering, and their adaptation to practical purposes in the design of furniture, interior decoration, textiles, book illustration, embroidery, etc. Advanced students desiring to qualify as teachers are given an opportunity to gain experience as assistants to the director in various classes. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit was selected with the object of demonstrating the general char¬ acter of the work performed. The work displayed showed a great variety of treatment, the result of the l»olicy pursued to encourage the development of individuality in the pupils. AVith correctness and simplicity in drawing as fundamental principles, students are given every encouragement to follow out methods of treatment of their own. Likewise in composition, the practice of which is required from the beginning, students are given the widest scope for expressing their ideas. It is claimed that the advantages offered to art students by a smaller school are easily apparent, and that a thoroughly sound foundation for the study of art is more readily obtainable in such a school, where personal interest in his pupils on the part of the instructor is one of the important factors. SCHOOL OF THE MUSEUM OF LINE ARTS, BOSTON, MASS. BY THOMAS ALLEN, CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL. HISTORY AND AVORK. Founded in 1S7G as an appendage to and occupying rooms in the museum for the purpose of encouraging education in the fine arts, the school maintained a separate existence until 1902, when it was incorporated as part of the Museum of Fine Arts. It is administered by a council of fifteen members, which is com¬ posed of representatives of the trustees of the museum, artists, and art workers. Under a competent corps of instructors the school offers instruction in draw- EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 989 hig, painting, modeling, and in decorative design, with supplementary courses in anatomy and perspective. The average ninnber of enrolled pupils is some¬ thing over 200. In the department of drawing and painting the instruction includes drawing from the cast under Mr. Hale, from the nude under Mr. Benson, painting from still life and from nude and draped models under Mr. Tarbell and Miss Hazel- ton. Pupils are promoted from one class to another as soon as their iiroticiency warrants it. In the department of modeling, under Mr, Pratt’s instruction, pupils are taught to model the human figure in clay, both singly and in compo¬ sition. In the department of design, under Mr. C. Hovrard Mhilker, assisted by IMiss Child and Miss Maguines, instruction is given by means of problems, which are criticized and corrected, and by lectures. The general principles of planning, of ornament, and application of ornament to material, and the primaides of color harmony and contrast are taught in relation to all varieties of design. The purpose is to give a training which will fit a pupil to enter the field of design with a knowledge of the fundamental principles of design and an ability to apply this knowledge in practice. THE EXHIBIT. The exhibit of the museum school at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis was selected and arranged by each instructor in his own department. Mr. Tarbell’s classes sent 5.3 oil paintings, portrait studies, and full-length stud¬ ies from the nude, and 2 pastels. Mr. Benson’s classes sent 50 drawings from the nude, Mr. Hale’s class 52 drawings from the antique, Mr. Pratt’s class 4 figures and 4 bas-reliefs in plaster. Mr. Walker’s three classes sent 120 designs selected to include as large a range of subjects as possible. In all, the school makes something less than 300 separate exhibits. The whole exhibit wjas arranged and installed at St. Louis under the supervision of Mr. Philip L. Hale, instructor oP drawing at the museum school, and the council voted to expend a sum not to exceed $400 to cover all expenses. ST. LOUIS MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. BY THE DIRECTOR. HISTORY AND WORK. The St. Louis School of Fine Arts has been the art department of Washing¬ ton University since May 22, 1879, and was established for the purpose of “ instruction in the fine arts ; the collection and exhibition of pictures, statuary, and other works of art, * * * and in general the promotion by all proper means of msthetic or artistic education.” The system which has been adopted in the school work is based on the idea of the universality of art ; that is, it is limited to no material or product. The commonly accepted division of art into fine art and industrial art is not recog¬ nized. It is believed that no difference should be made between artists except by the measure of inspiration shown in their work. Upon these lines the work of the school has been gradually and steadily developed. Whereas at first the instruction was limited to modeling, drawing and painting from ca,sts, still life, and the living model, instruction is now given in design (for fabrics, tex- 990 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. tile.s, wall paper, ceramics, tiles, book covers, book plates, etc.), ceramic decora¬ tion, pottery, book-binding, modeling for ornamental purposes, and illustration. It is continually impressed upon the student that drawing, modeling, or color is the true basis of all successful art work. They are urged to devote a part of their time to the serious consideration of these branches of the arts, and their knowledge of the technical side of tlieir work is broadened by illustrated class lectures on art development and kindred subjects. THE EXHIBIT. The collection shown in the Palace of Education at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition is the selection made from work done by the students within the past three or four years. It has been arranged with a twofold object — first, to show the methods used in developing the student ; second, to show the degree of excellence to which the student has attained. Work was submitted for this purpose by all the students in the school, from the juvenile to the most advanced class. From this work the collection was selected by the corps of instructors. A study was often chosen to represent a phase in the development of the stu¬ dent. Thus in drawing, mere outline studies were selected to show the process of construction. In the color and black and white sketch classes, unfinished studies, often mere suggestions, were chosen to illustrate the manner in which final results were brought about. The same pi-ocess was adopted in the case of all applied art products. Designs of various kinds were taken not so much for their finish as for the knowledge they showed. In several instances a design made in that class by one student was carried out by another, either in the ceramic or bookbinding class. This enabled the students to see the practical results of their efforts in more than one narrow direction. They were enabled to see their weaknesses of design and their weakness of execution on one piece of work. Both the students in the ceramic class and those in the bookbinding class are urged to use original designs — that is, designs which tliey themselves have executed. To facilitate this, their time is so divided that they alternate in their studies, devoting part of their time to one field and part to another. In looking at the result of these methods of work it would seem that the student becomes more practical ; that whereas brilliancy and cleverness may count up to a certain degree, method and thoroughness will carry the. student further and enable him more readily to enter the practical field of his endeavors. LUTHERAN PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. BY A. KAEPPEL, ORGANIZATION. The Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States is one of the five German synods in the United States forming the so-called “ synod¬ ical conference.” All of these synods maintain schools to provide for Chris¬ tian instruction. Out of 2,225 elementary schools attended by 111,81G pupils, the IMissouri synod alone maintains 1.8SS, in which 90,193 pupils are instructed by 1,061 pastors, 857 male, and 170 female teachers. Besides these schools for EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 991 elementary instrnction. wliicii are sustained by the individnal congregations, the Missouri synod provides for the higher education in high schools, colleges, and seminaries, maintained, with two exceptions, out of the common funds of the synod. The synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States was founded in ISTT by 12 congregations, 22 pastors, and 2 candidates for the ministry. Within these congregations there were at that time 14 cojnmon schools, attended by 508 pupils. But previous to the organization of the Missouri synod there were Lutheran schools in this country, even as early as 1734. While the primary object of Evangelical Lutheran congregations in organiz¬ ing and maintaining parochial schools is the religious instruction of their children, an equal importance is attached to the fact that the best possible instruction in secular branches must be pervaded by the spirit of Christianity. For this reason synod educates its own teachers, who malce their profession a life's eailing. The plan of instruction in these schools includes, besides instructioii in reli¬ gion, all the common school branches ; -.German and lEnglish, reading, writing, grammar, composition, arithmetic, geography. United States history, physi¬ ology, zoology, botany, singing, and drawing. In most of the schools instruc¬ tion in all the branches, with the exception of religion and German, is given in English. It is obvious that the standard of these schools varies according to locality and the condition of the congregations supporting them. While some large congregations employ as many as nine teachers, others, especially small con¬ gregations in rural districts, must be content with whatever school the pastor can give their children. Everj’ congregation supports its own schools, either by voluntary contribu¬ tions or by asking a nominal tuition fee of the pupils. The management of the school is in the hands of a school board elected by the congregation, the pastor acting as inspector or supervisor. The Lutherans, as good patriots, cheerfully and loyally support the public schools, and deem it the duty of government to provide the very best education for the youth of this country. But they hold it incompatible with the character of public schools to give religious instruction, and much more so denominational religious instruction ; and since this is out of the question, Lutherans who con¬ tend that there is “ no morality without religion ” must continue to support and maintain their parish schools out of their ovrn means, asking no aid from government. THE LUTHERAN EXHIBIT. When in June, 1902, the synod of IMissouri, Ohio, and other States author¬ ized the faculty of the Teachers’ Seminary, at Addison, Ilk, to collect and install an exhibit of the Evangelical Lutheran parochial schools at the Louisiana Pur¬ chase Exposition, the committee was confronted with many difficulties, the chief ones being the neumess of the undertaking and the extreme modesty of many teachers. An executive committee of three, appointed by the faculty, began agitation for the cause by sending circulars to all the conferences, teachers, and congregations in the synod. Several of the larger conferences were v isited in person by mem¬ bers of the committee, and teachers and pastors were shown the importance of placing on exhibition the work of the Lutheran schools and urged to combine efforts to make the display successful. All material used for the work was supplied by the Concordia Publishing House, of St. Louis, and the completed work was sent there, where it was bound in neat covers. 992 EDUCATION REPOKT^ 1904. Tlie following was installed as an exhibit in April, 1904 : Bonnd volumes of written work _ 739 Bound volumes of drawings - - : — _ _ 72 Photographs of schools _ 809 Large and beautiful collection of insects _ 1 Collection of schoolbooks and helps, compiled and published under the aus¬ pices of synod by the Concordia Publishing House _ 1 Leaf cabinet containing specimens of written work _ 1 Leaf cabinet containing specimens of drawing and photographs _ 1 Leaf cabinet containing photographs only_ _ 1 Leaf cabinet containing specimens of drawings from the Teachers’ Seminary, at Addison _ 1 Bound volumes of written work from the same institution _ 10 Bound volumes of written work from the Waither College, at St. Louis _ 4 The school work exhibited was all regular class work, from 80 to 100 per cent of all papers written in the school being shown. The different branches were represented as follows ; Papers. English language work _ 23, 366 United States history _ 2, 929 Geography _ 6, 788 Arithmetic _ ^ _ _ 13,819 Religion _ 7, 022 German language work _ 14, 143 And quite a number of papers showed physiology, zoology, botany, general history, shorthand, and bookkeeping. THE PHILADELPHIA INIUSEUMS. HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION. The exhibit of the Philadelphia museums in the education building at the St. Louis Exposition consists of a collection of specimens of commercial mate¬ rials of all kinds, designed to aid teachers of geography in classes of any grade. The collection contains, primarily, a series of samples of all the more important commercial articles of the world, and the products of various countries which are of actual use and value from a business standpoint. These are shown in series, from the raw state to the finished article, each accompanied by a number of illustrative photographs. The Philadelphia museums are at present distrib¬ uting five hundred such collections to the public schools in Pennsylvania. The value of such a collection to a teacher can perhaps best be shown by giving a short account of its development. The progressive teachers of Phila¬ delphia and vicinity, feeling that the teaching of geography could be put on a practical basis only by illustrating the lessons by actual specimens of the prod¬ ucts of the various countries, naturally turned to the Philadelphia museums for assistance, knowing that no other institution in the country is so favorably situated for securing such material. Requests for a cotton plant, a cocoanut, specimens of fibers, woods, minerals, and other objects came in constantly. It was soon seen that this was an opportunity for increasing the usefulness of the institution, supplementing its strictly commercial work with the business men by EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 993 making it helpful to the schools. Teachers were iiiYitecl to bring their classes to the nmseuins. A large lecture room was fitted up with tyi)ical collections, selected from all of the exhibits in the museums, and lectures and informal talks were given by the director and by members of the scientific department These talks became very popular, and the lecture room was often crowded by teachers anxious to learn about the world’s commerce. Meantime, other methods of work having the same purpose had been con¬ sidered. Small collections, illustrating a few of the most important commercial materials, were prepared, and these were loaned to one school after another for a limited time on the plan of a circulating library, thus giving to schools at a distance a share in the benefits to be derived from the collections and making it possible for the teachers to use the specimens in their class rooms. This method of making the school children acquainted with the important products figuring in the world’s commerce was the best that could be done under the circumstances, but it was only the beginning of what was planned. In the year 1900 the museums prepared 250 collections, each containing a more exten¬ sive series of samples than had been included in any previous sets. The mate¬ rials which made up these collections were taken partly from duplicate material in the museums’ collection and partly from samples donated for the purpose by wholesale merchants in response to the museums’ solicitation. The speci¬ mens, representing many of the important commercial products of the world, were accompanied by illustrative photographs, maps, and printed descriptions. These collections were given awmy free of charge to such schools in the State of Pennsylvania as could use them to advantage and were wdlhng to furnish proper cases and shelving. The value of the collections from a pedagogical standpoint was at once recognized, and requests were so numerous that they could not be honored. When, a little later, the museums asked the legislature of the State of Penn¬ sylvania for an appropriation to carry on the work the appeal was warmly supported by all of the leading educators, teachers, and members of local school boards. Quick to see the great educational advantages offered to the children of the State, the legislature appropriated an amount of money sufficient to send out 500 collections much more complete than the preceding ones and similar to the one exhibited. Aside from this appropriation the museums furnished freely many of the specimens and much of the labor of preparation. THE EXIIIIHT. The list of specimens included in the collection was made up with the greatest care, and includes as many of the materials of commerce as it seemed practicable to sho',v. Of course, some of the most important articles, being perishable, like meats, eggs, butter, fruits, etc., could not be exhibited. Specimens are shown from all of the chief commercial countries and of all the important groups of materials, such as foods and food products, drugs, oils, wmxes, gums, resins, fibers, fabrics, wmods, leathers, tans, dyes, minerals, etc. Wherever it seemed possible a series of products from one source has been shown. Under cotton, for example, will be found a cotton plant, unginned upland cotton, ginned sea- island cotton, brown Peruvian cotton, cotton Enters, cotton yarn, cotton rope, unbleached and bleached muslins, Persian lawn, calico, gingham, zephyr ging¬ ham, chambray, cotton seeds, cotton-seed oil, cotton-seed oil cake, and cotton-oil soap. Such specimens as could best be displayed in bottles are placed in 8-ounce glass-stoppered jars. Most of the libers are tied in hanks, each of which can be separated into several small samples to be passed around the ED 1904 M - 63 994 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1004. class, while the minerals and many other substances are placed on varnished blocks. The labels all give the commercial name of the product, its origin, its scientific name, the part of the world producing it, and its uses. Accompanying this extensive exhibit are over 200 photographs illustrating the production, preparation, and transportation of the articles. Each photo¬ graph hears on its back a con^plete printed description, together with in¬ formation in regard to the ccinmercial importance of the product. Maps of distribution, statistical charts, and a brochure of a hundred pages give supplementary information in regard to the-materials. The collection is intended as a practical help to teachers of geography, commercial geography, and the study of raw materials ; and while it contains in itself some hundreds of articles, it finds its greatest usefulness when it serves as a nucleus for a school museum, showing to teachers the kinds of specimens which can be profitably used, and how they can be obtained and exhi’nited. The collections are sent free to the schools, freight prepaid, carefully packed in boxes made for the purpose, the exhibition cases being the only expense incurred by the schools. Vdith the collections go suggestions as to the proper kinds of cases and sheh'ing. and best arrangement of the specimens for conven¬ ient use. SCHOOLS FOR DEFECTIVES. nr A. E. POPE, THE EXHIBIT. The most important feature of Grcui* 7 was the living exhilfit in the model schools for the deaf and the blind. These schools weu'e located near the east door of the Palace of Education. A high partition separated the schools for the deaf from the schools for the blind. On each side of this partition were six small, three-sided rooms, neatly burlaped and well furnished. The open ends of the rooms faced the main aisles, and a strong railing held back the crowd of visitors. The most popular classes in the deaf schools were the oral classes, where the little ones were taking their first lessons in speech and lip reading. The visitors could see the diificulties to be overcome and how they were mastered. Here, as elsewhere, the one predominating question, “ How do you do it?” was answered. In the adjoining room was an advanced class reciting in language, geography, arithmetic, etc., entirely by lip reading and speech. Further on was a college graduate explaining the objective exhibits, and conversing freely with the visitors, thus illustrating the practical application of the work accomplished ill the primary classes. In another room was a primary “ manual ” class learning their first lessons in English by the manual alphabet and by writing. In the next room a more advanced class was studying the higher branches by the same method. Across the aisle were six larger rooms with railings on two or three sides, where the industri.al classes worked. There was a class in woodwork, in turn¬ ing, a barber's class, classes in printing, sewing, tailoring, fancy work, and art. The boys were making their own uniforms, caps, trousers, and coats ; the girls cutting and fitting their own dresses. This demonstrated to the public the prac¬ tical training given to these pu]fils, making them independent and self-supporting citizens. EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 995 The Lewis School for Stammerers was represented hy a large class, demon¬ strating the various and ingenious methods used in this school for correcting defective speech. One of the most interesting features of the model schools for the blind was the kindergarten class. The circle in which they played was marked here and there by little wooden strips to guide the children and show each his or her standing place. Next was a primary class learning to read and write one of the point systems. To many of the visitors the point systems seemed quite a revelation, as did also the rapidity with which they could be used. There was a more advanced class demonstrating the utility of these methods__in studying the higher branches. Special maps and globes devised for the blind were used in the g-eography class, and the high school class displayed their efficiency in alge¬ bra, history, literature, etc. One of the most practical classes was that in type¬ writing, showing that the blind could take dictation in one of the point systems and transpose it on the machine. In the industrial department was a sioyd class, where the blind boys were using sharp tools with great accuracy and precision. There were also classes in sewing, basket making, weaving, raffia work, bookbinding, and book making. The music room was very popular, being well equipped with pianos, pipe organ, and band instruments. Vocal and instrumental solos, duets, and orchestral per¬ formances were given at regular Intervals throughout the day. Many of the blind lose their sight late in life, when they are too old and their fingers are too hardened to learn the use of one of the point systems. In order to relieve them of the gloom of solitude and make life more pleasant and agree¬ able,. a simple method of reading has been invented, which was demonstrated by one of the teachers of the Pennsylvania Home Teaching and Free Circulating Library Society. Three deaf-blind pupils were present at different times. Emma Kubic, aged 8, came from the Illinois School for the Blind. She had been in school only a short time, and the iniblic had dn opportunity of seeing the first steps employed in reaching the mind of a child deprived of sight and hearing. She was just beginning to learn the names of objects and to describe actions in sentences of a few words. Lottie Sullivan, aged 18, came from the Colorado School. She represents a further degree of development. All communications were spelled into her hand by the use of the manual alphabet, or presented in Braille or Nev.' York point writing. She expressed herself in the same manner, and in addition could use the ordinary typewriter. Her teacher was a deaf lady, so it was nec¬ essary to have a third-party interpret. Clarence J. Selby, of Chicago, was still older, and could speak quite fluently. He is the author of many beautiful poems, which he distributed. All these classes of deaf and blind children were selected from the different schools of the United States, and maintained in some cases at the expense of the State commissions, in other cases at the expense of the schools, or jointly by the schools and commissions. The following is a list of superintendents and schools participating: Dr. E. M. Gallaudet, president of Gallandet College, Vrashington, D. C. S. M. Green, superintendent of the Missouri Schools for the Blind, St. Louis. Noble B. McKee, superintendent the Missouri School for the Deaf, Fulton. J. H. Freeman, superintendent of the Illinois School for the Blind, .Jackson¬ ville. C. P. Gillett, superintendent of the Illinois School for the Deaf, Jacksonville. Lapier Williams, superintendent of the Kansas School for the Blind, Kansas City. H. C. Hammond, superintendent of the Kansas School for the Deaf, Olathe. 996 EDUCATION EEPOKT. 1904. W. K, Argo, snperinteiKlent of- the Colorado School for the Deaf and the Blind, Colorado Springs. Frank M. Driggs, superintendent of the Utah School for the Deaf and the Blind, Ogden. J. W. Jones, superintendent of the Ohio School for the Deaf, Columbus. R. E. Stewart, superintendent of the Nebraska School for the Deaf, Omaha. Mademoiselle L. Mulot, Directrice de I’Ecole des Jeunes Aveugles, Angers, France. Dr. Robert C. Moon, president of the Pennsylvania Home Teaching and Free Circulating Library Society, Philadelphia. George E. Lewis, president of the Lewis School for Stammerers, Detroit. All participants in the model schools lived in one of the Washington Univer¬ sity dormitories located in the rear of the Administration building. During the five months the schools were in operation there was not a single accident, and little or no sickness. Great care was exercised in the selection of pure and wholesome food. The pupils, teachers, and superintendents had the same fare and ate at the same tables, and any necessary inconveniences were shared by all. Every morning before school opened the children spent several hours inspect¬ ing exhibits in the various buildings. After school the pupils played about the dormitory or went sight-seeing. Two or three evenings each week they visited the Pike, going to the Boer War, Hagenback’s animal show, the Galveston Flood, or'for a ride on the scenic railway, which they much preferred to giving public recitations. One or two rooms were set aside in each school for objective exhibits, but the space was so limited that many schools were forced to place their displays with the genei’al educational exhibit of their respective States. Among the most important schools having objective exhibits, in addition to those which have already been mentioned, are the following : American Printing House for the Blind, Louisville, Ky. The Texas School for the Blind, Austin. The Pennsylvania School for the Blind, Overbrook. The Kentucky School for the Blind, Louisville. The Massachusetts School and Perkins Institute for the Education of the Blind, Boston. The New York School for the Blind, New York City. The German exhibit from schools for the blind. Portugal's exhibit from schools for the blind. The Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C. The Wright Oral School for the Deaf, New York City. The Horace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston, Mass. The Arkansas School for the Deaf, Little Rock. The New Jersey School for the Deaf, Trenton. The IMichigan School for the Deaf, Lansing. The New York School for the Deaf, New York City. Germany's exhibit from schools for the deaf. China's exhibit from a school for the deaf. Tlie fechlc-miiidcd. — Schools for the feeble-minded were classified both in the department of education and that of social economy. Their exhibit, however, was located in the department of social economy, block 5, for the reason that most of the children in feeble-minded institutions receive hospital treatment, and only about one-third take the regular course of instruction. This w’as one of the most successful collective objective exhibits ever arranged, and its superiority is mainly due to the untiring efforts of Dr. A. C. Rogers of the Minnesota School. Dr. and Mrs. William H. C. Smith, of the Beverly Farm EDUCATION AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION. 997 Home and School, were in charge of the exhibits. The most prominent schools in the country prepared work under the direction of Dr, A. C. Rogers. He compiled statistics and sorted and arranged the exhibits. All of the different kinds of kindergarten work from these schools were properly labeled, classified, and scientifically arranged regardless of institutions. The large and costly model of the Craig Colony for Epileptics occupied the center of the room. Around the walls were the leaf cabinets containing school work and statistics. The high partitions and one large cabinet held the industrial work. The schools most prominentlj^ represented were as follows : The Minnesota School for the Feeble-minded, Faribault. The Indiana School for the Feeble-minded, Fort Wayne, The Pennsylvania School for the Feeble-minded, Elwin. The Beverly Farm Home and School, Godfrey, Ill. The Seguin School, Orange, N. J. The Polk Institution for Feeble-minded, Venango County, Pa. Several congresses held at the fair were closely allied to the work of group 7, among which vrere the following : The National Educational Association, Department IG. The Association of Physicians and Superintendents of Institutions for the Feeble-minded. The Association of American Instructors of the Blind. The convention of the deaf of America. The conference of superintendents and principals of American schools for the deaf. Helen Kellar day. There were three personal days at the exposition : Helen Kellar day, Roose¬ velt day, and Francis day. The entire exposition was an educational institu¬ tion, and as Helen Kellar has won the most remarkable victories in this field she was chosen to represent not only the deaf and the blind, not only the depart¬ ment of education, but the whole process of education. The following quotation, taken from the Colorado Index, may close most fittingly this brief account of the representation of defectives at the exposition : “Among all the wonders of the fair, among all the achievements of human genius, among all the evidences of twentieth century civilization, this deaf-blind young woman embodied in herself the most striking features of all, and those who paid homage to her radiantly active soul unconsciously paid homage to the spirit of progress and enlightenment that is the guiding influence of the world to-day.” LA‘ND-GRANT COLLEGES AND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. BY A. C. TRUE, DIRECTOR OF OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE EXHIBIT. The progress of agricultural education and research, as developed in the work of the land-grant colleges and experiment stations, was well illustrated in the collective exhibit of these institutions in the Palace of Education of the Louisi¬ ana Purchase Exposition. This exhibit, which occupied about 1G,0C0 square feet of space, was planned, collected, and installed by a committee of the Asso- 998 EDUCATI01^^ KEPOET^ 1904. elation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, of which W. H. Jordan, director of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, was cli.'iirinan, and A. C. True, Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, secretary, and which included in its membership the United States Commissioner of Education, W. T. Harris. James L. Farmer, chief special agent, had imme¬ diate charge of tlie execution of the plans of the committee. Centrally located in this exhibit were exhibits of the Bureau of Education and the Office of Experiment Stations, representing the United States Govern¬ ment in its relations with the colleges and stations. Around these were grouped exhibits illustrating the methods, appliances, and results of the educational and research work of the colleges and stations in agriculture and mechanic arts, subdivided according to the main divisions of these subjects. The agri¬ cultural exhibits were as follows ; I. Agronomy, or plant production, including soils, in charge of Prof. M. F. Miller, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio ; fertilizers. Director E, B. Voor- hees. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Stations, New Brunswick, N. J. ; plant laboratory, D]-. W. II. Evans, Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ; held crops, Ylr. J. I. Schulte, Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash¬ ington, D. C. : horticulture and forestry. Prof. S. B. Green, University of Minne¬ sota, St. Anthony Park, Minn. ; plant pathology, Mr. F. C. Stewart, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. ; economic entomology. Prof. Clarence P. Gillette, State Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Collins, ('olo. II. Zootechny. or animal industry, including animal hmsbandry (investiga¬ tion), in charge of Director II. P. Armsby, Pennsylvania x4gricultural Experi¬ ment Station, State College, Pa.; animal husbandry (instruction). Prof. Thos. F. Hunt, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. ; veterinary medicine. Prof. D. S. White, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. III. Agrotechny, or agricultural technology, including dairy laboratory, in charge of Prof. E. II. Farrington, University of Wisconsin, Yladison. Wis. ; sugar laboratory. Director W. C. Stubbs, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Stations, Audubon Park, La. ; inspection of foods, feeding stuffs, fertilizers, etc.. Director ?d. A. Scovell, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexing¬ ton, Ky. IV. Itural engineering, or farm mechanics. This exhibit has been prepared under the direction of Dr. Eiwood Mead, Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Vfashington, D. C. V. Rural economics, or farm management. This exhibit has been prepared under the direction of Prof. Fred W. Card, Rhode Island College of Agihculture and Mechanic Arts, Kingston, R. I. CHAPTER XYL THE FIXAL ESTABLISHMENT OF THE AMERICAN CO^I- MON SCHOOL SYSTEM IN NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, AND GEORGIA, 1863-1900. By A. D. Mayo, A. M., BL. D. NOBTIl CAROLINA. The State of North Carolina in 1S70 contained 50,000 square miles of land, or 32,000,000 acres, 0,500,000 of Y'hicli were cultivated. Its population in 1800 was 092,022, with the promise of 1,000,000 in 1870. The State was 500 miles in length and 100 to 150 miles in breadth. At the close of the war its most impor¬ tant productions were tobacco, sweet potatoes, corn, and a moderate supply of cotton, with vast undeveloped resources in the way of fish and lumber. It was divided into three well-marked sections, the coast, midland, and mountain regions. But with all this advantage, one of her historians is compelled to say, “it must be acknowledged, and this is stated more in sorrow than in anger, that there is no section of our Union where education has in the past been so neg¬ lected as in North Carolina.” hdie State, however, was one of the four Common¬ wealths of the Southern group which, previous to ISGO, had established and sup¬ ported a system of public schools for its population of the white race. In the seventh chapter of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1899-1900 will be found a sketch of this movement, which, practically begin¬ ning in 1852, under the supervision of Dr. C. H. ^yiley, was prolonged even to the close of the civil war, and only suspended by the general collapse that followed the disappearance of the Southern Confederacy. In 1868, under the temporary government appointed by President Andrew Johnson, an attempt was made at taking a census of the school children of the State, who are reported as numbering 330,581 (223,815 white and 106,766 col¬ ored). The whole number of schoolhouses reported was 1,906; of them, 178 are characterized as good and 085 as bad. Under the law of 1869 the public school money was to be distributed by the superintendent of public instruction in pro¬ portion to the number of children of each county. The sum of .$100,000 was appropriated by the general assembly, and it was the opinion of the State super¬ intendent, Mr. S. S. Ashley, a gentleman called from a Northern State, that the avails of the capitation tax would supply an equal sum. In 1869 $165,290.50 was apportioned among the several counties, allowing 50 cents per census child. The State university, one of the oldest of this type of institutions in the Union, reported 35 students in attendance, a president and 5 professors, and 25 students in preparatoiy classes. The different churches from the North, interested in the progress of the colored children and youth, had already established a dozen or more seminaries in as many of the larger cities of the State. Several of 999 1000 EDUCATION REPOKT^ 1904. these bad erected large buildings and were expending considerable sums of money. The Friends were especially active in this direction, and were support¬ ing 25 schools, with 37 teachers and 2,475 pupils. Some 15,047 colored children and youth were being educated in this way in 2,527 schools. Seven institutions of the higher education were still in operation, of which the State university and Davidson and Trinity Colleges were the most important, and a large number of academies, with which North Carolina had been liberally supplied, were resuming the work interrupted by the civil war. In 1870-71 Superintendent Ashley reports an appropriation of ?152,2S1.82, of which $115,042.57 had been collected; 1,398 schools had been kept open in 74 counties; 250 of the 800 town¬ ships in the State had made reports. The original brief constitutional provision of North Carolina, of December, 1776, repeated in the constitution of 1835, was supplemented by the new govern¬ ment by an elaborate constitutional provision, providing for a superintendent of public instruction to be elected for a term of four years, with duties prescribed by law, and who should l)e a member of the council of the State. The general assembly was required to provide for a general system of public schools, with free tuition to all children between the ages of 6 and 21 years. Every county was to be divided into a convenient number of districts, in which a public school should be maintained at least four months in the year. An irreducible educa¬ tional fund was to be established, consisting of what remained from the original fund, largely dissipated during the civil war, together with the proceeds of the sales of swamp lands and moneys collected from various other sources. The uni¬ versity was to be connected with the free public school system of the State, and as far as possible instruction was to be free of expense for tuition. The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretai-y of state, treasurer, auditor, superintendent of public works, superintendent of public instruction, and attorney-general consti¬ tuted the State hoard of education, empowered to make all needful rules and reg¬ ulations for public schools, subject to the revision of the general assembly. The board of education could elect trustees for the university, choosing one trustee from each county, with term of office of eight years. Provision was made for establishing in connection with the university departments of agriculture, mechanics, mining, and normal instruction. The general assembly was empow¬ ered to enact that every child of sufficient mental and physical ability should attend the public schools during the period between the ages of G and .18 years for a term of not less than sixteen months, unless educated by other means. Under the provisions of this constitution a school law was passed by the general assembly in 1869. The difficulties attending the establishment of such a system as contemplated can be appreciated from the fact that of the 90 counties of the State 37 had a population less than 10,000 and 9 less than 6,000. Of these, only 30 counties had made reports to the superintendent. In 1870 the general assembly appropriated $90,493 in addition to the $115,042.57 raised by the State and county capitation taxes ; 1,398 public schools had been reported as opened, estimated at 1,415 in all ; 74 of the 90 counties and 250 of the 800 townships had reported. The school attendance was estimated at 49,000-— 35,000 white and 14,000 colored. There were 1,400 teachers at work on an average salary of $20 per month. There were 709 schoolhouses. Of the academical schools reported as still existing in the State the most important was the Bingham School, located at Mebaneville, in the coast region of the State. This school was founded in 1804 by the direct ancestor of Col. William Bingham, A. M., in 1870 the principal. It was a military school, attended by 61 students. It was one of the leading classical seminaries of both the Carolinas,. and probably not excelled in thoroughness of instruction by any school of its character in the South Atlantic States. To-day, as reestablished COMMON SCHOOLS OF NOKTH CAKOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1001 in Asheville, in the monntain region, it has acquired a national reputation. The school first established at Wilmington by Miss Amy Bradley, after gradu¬ ating from distinguished services as a nurse in tlie Union armies in 1867, was well known. It was first an attempt to establish a school for the most destitute class of white children. In process of time Miss Bradley was appointed public school commissioner of the city of Wilmington, and subse¬ quently, by the philanthropy of Mrs. Mary Hemeinvay, of Boston, she was enabled to found one of the best schools in one of the best-appointed buildings in the State, $5,000 a year being appropriated by Mrs. Ilemenway for its support. In 1870 there were 447 pupils receiving instruction in these schools. Doctor Sears, general agent of the Peabody education fund, had furnished $3,000 for these various enterprises. The value of taxable property of the State in 1870 was $123,361,501. At an assesssment at one-twelfth of 1 per cent for educaton, $102,801 was due, only $63,000 of which had been paid into the treasury. Superintendent Ashley was superseded in 1872 by Mr. Alexander Mclver. The school law of 1868-69, under wdiich the first superintendent had operated, was thrown into court and by a final decision was practically annulled. In 1871, on the meeting of the general assembly. Superintendent Mclver appeared, with no power to act. After several efforts he was required to prepare a plan of public instruction, which was adopted, and under which for five years an attempt was made to conduct a system of public instruction in the State. It was, however, not a proper common school system, according to the American idea, but, as described by the superintendent, “ was intended to combine public assistance with private enterprise : to secure the cooperation of that class of the people who are willing and able to do something for the education of their own children. Instead of having two systems of schools, the one private and supported entirely by sul)Scription, and the other public, supported entirely by taxation, it was intended to unite the two systems to the advantage of both ])arties. It was intended that the public schools should take the place of private schools; that all the primary and grammar schools in the State should become public schools.” The superintendent instructed the school offi¬ cials of the State that ” when the salary of the teacher of a free public school is to be paid partly by subscription and partly from the public school fund, the contract should be signed first by the patrons of the school and then by the school committee.” It wms provided by the school law that 75 per cent of the entire State and county poll taxes should be applied to educational purposes. The school funds of the year 1872 included all unexpended balances of apportionment previously made, 75 per cent of the entire State and county poll taxes of 1871 and of 1872, 6§ cents on the $100 w’orth of all property 'and credits in the State, and 20 cents on the poll. The school fund wms not to be apportioned among the several towuiships, but paid to the teachers of free schools w’ithout regard to locality in the order in wdiich they might be pre¬ sented. It was the opinion of the superintendent that funds sufficient to sup¬ port schools four months in nearly all the counties of the State could be sup¬ plied in this way. “If the people of any neighborhood desire to avail them¬ selves of the public school money they must make up by subscription an addi¬ tional sum sufficient to satisfy the teacher w^hoin they employ. The school must be free to all pupils. If any neighborhood refuses to make up a school in this way it can have no claim to any part of the public school funds.” It is unnecessary to pursue the history of this abortive attempt to establish a school system on the basis proposed by Superintendent Mclver. During^ this period he labors through elaborate reports, discussing every feature of a public school system, and only defending his own on the ground that it is the 1002 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. “ germ of wbat may hereafter be developed into something more important.” Ill 1870 the population of the State ^yas 1,071,301, of whom 301,050 were colored. Of the total it is estimated that 05,301 were attending school, of whom some 11,000 were of the colored race. Nearly one-third of tlie people of the State from 10 years upward (397,090) were unable to read and write. In 1872 the number reported in the pu])lic schools was 50,081, of whom 10,387 were colored, and 7,000 were reported in private schools, in 1873 the number attend¬ ing had risen to 100,309 (40.428 colored), with an estimated daily average of 7(KS72 (20,958 colored). The total disbursement for education was $191,075.07. There were some 2,300 public schools in the State and 2,090 teachers. Althoiigli the legal school term was four months, in many instances it was only two months in length, and the average length was probably about ten weeks. Beside the radical weakness of the entire system, it was burdened with another diffi¬ culty, namely, that the poll tax, which constituted an important part of the school fund, was not j^roperly collected. The sheriffs who collected the funds in the counties did not make proper returns. There was no such official as a county superintendent of public schools. The county c*ommissioners were required to exercise a general supervision and control, but the duties of these gentlemen were confined to their office in the court-house. They had neither time nor disposition to interest the people or visit the .schools. The school committees in their respective townships received no compensation for per¬ forming important duties. ” The essential element of the American school system, the right of local taxation, has never been incorporated into the school law of North Carolina.” Thirty-three towns and cities and six teachers’ institutes had received assistance from the Pealxxly edmcation fund to the extent of $12,550, and other assistance was promised. A convention of the friends of education was held in April, 1873, presided over by Hon, William H. Battle. Papers were read by leading educators of the State. Among the resolutions pas.sed was one to the elfect “ that the general educational interests of this State are deplorable and alarming in a high degree, and are such as to require the noblest and most self-sacribcing effort of every true son of North Carolina to relieve her from such serious embarrassment;” also that “the revival of the university at the earlie.st practicable moment is es.sential to education in North Carolina.” In 1874-75 there appears to have been an increase in the number of schools taught, 2,820 for white and 1,2C0 for colored children, making a total of 4,020. The estimated amount of money paid in 1874 was $297,549.85 ; the number of children in school was 174,083 ; the total number of children in the State between the ages of 0 and 21 was estimated at 221,450; the average length of the school terms about ten weeks. Tliese operations were conducterl under the school act of 1872-73, by which an annual tax of 8J cents on the hundred dol¬ lars’ worth of all property and credits and a special tax of 25 cents on polls were levied, and these and 75 per cent of the entire State and county capitation taxes and all other school moneys vrere to be apportioned among the several school districts according to the number of children in each ; the apportionment thus made to each district was to reuiain to the credit of that district for any year the school should not be taught. Under this system “the State does not go into the school districts and establish a school without any effort on the part of the people of the district. It rather aids the peoi)le to establish their own school. If the people of a district want a public school they should exert themselves to establish, maintain, and support it.” There was no provision under the law for city schools. In short, here was a sort of clcudland of public education in a State of more COMMON SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900, 1003 than 1,000,000 people, one-third of whom were declared illiterate by the authorities of the State, virtually dependent on the ])eGple who might have the disposition to contribute to eke out the scanty ar»propriations of the State. It left the entire organization, supervision, and support practically in the hands of a few, with no certainty that it could last longer than it was the fashion in every neighborhood to “ make up ” a school. There was no responsibility of the school when established to anybody, no central supervision, indeed, no security that the masses of the people were receiving even the ten weeks’ instruction, and no knowledge by the superintendent, practically, of what vras going on through the vast regions of the State, Meanwhile the superintendent was favoring the legislature with an elaborate annual treatise on the general subject of education, out of vrhich it requires a careful examination to pick the actual facts of what was going on under his administration. It all reads like the dream of a visionary schoolman confronted with the awful reality of a great State placed in an almost helpless situation of educational destitution. The schools of Wilmington, Newbern, Washington, Beaufort,. Plymouth, Charlotte, Raleigli, and twenty other toums and small cities of the State in 1871-72 were subsidized by the Peabody education fund to the extent some of $1,000, others of $300 and $500, Teachers’ institutes had been held for four weeks, according to the State law. The poorer localities and the colored people were also aided. The American Missionary Association had 17 teachers and 1,00.0 pupils in Wilmington alone. Other denominational missionary organiza¬ tions in the North were contributing in a generous way to the support of the poorer white and the colored population, Th radical defect of the system of public school education that had prevailed from 18G8 until 1876 was its neglect to provide for local taxation. An important bill had been introduced in the general assembly in 1871-72 “ authorizing the people of every town or city of more than 2,000 inhabitants by vote of majority to levy a tax upon the corporation sufficient to supple¬ ment the school fund provided by law, so that a graded school might be main¬ tained ten months every year.” Although this bill did not become a law, it represented one of the most important movements in the State at this early period, and afterwards led to the reform that did much to redeem the general sustem of public education from its failure of thirty years. The desolation and discomforts of country life were driving many of the more ambitious and enterprising families of the State at this time into the tovviis and cities, where the concentration of wealth and public spirit favored the effort to plant the common school on the true American foundation, graded from the lowest primary to the highest secondary department, free to all classes and both races. It was greatly for the advantage of these towns that such a system of graded schools should be established, for their gain in desirable population often more than compensated for the additional expense of a thorough school system. Of course, the country members of the legislature were in no mood to approve such a hegira to the towns, leaving the country districts deserted and with less means of sustaining church, school, and other public institutions. It was therefore left to each of these towJis and cities to approach the legis¬ lature and often to fight its way to a special act authorizing it to do this good thing ; but this was done with such persistence that ten y«irs later a num¬ ber of these cities and villages like Raleigh, Goldsboro, Charlotte, Winston, Wilmington, Salem, Greensboro, Fayetteville, and others had established this class of schools. These schools, in the ability of their superintendents, the enthusiasm of their teachers, and the activity of their pupils, were probably superior to any public seminaries at that time existing in the South. A remarkable group of young men, several of them graduates of the University 1004 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. of Tennessee, in which Doctor Joynes, one of the most accomplished of college men interested in the public school system in the Southern States, was a pro¬ fessor, had by travel and study made themselves familiar with the most approved methods of graded common school organization, instruction, and discipline. Nearly every one of these gentlemen has since become the head of some important educational institution, college, normal school, or a State or city superintendent. In many of these towns there was still remaining a spacious pile of school buildings, in an ample inclosure, formerly the town or city academy. These buildings and grounds were often passed over to the public school, and saved the expense of preparing houses of sufficient size and impor¬ tance to shelter the great numbers of children attending. For several years the common schools of North Carolina were really carried on the shoulders of these town and city graded school systems, whose super¬ intendents and leading teachers, men and women, became enthusiastic mission¬ aries of the gospel of the new time. The slow movements of the political machine named the “ State department,” at the capital, which did so little to move the sluggish waters in the 90 great counties of the Commonwealth and lift the great niountain realm of western North Carolina from its educational destitution, went on in their own way, and not unfrequently some of the reactionary wealthy men of the towns would, by lobbying in the legislature and at times by legal injunction, attempt to block the wheels of progress in their own communities. But the good work went on. Unfortunately, some¬ times the colored people were not included in these opportunities, although in the larger cities and progressive towns much was done in this way. But it had become a bad habit in some of these places to push the colored schools of the incorporated town outside the municipal limits, leaving them to the meager support of the State distribution. The Peabody fund in 1872-1874 assisted 33 towns and cities and G institutes to the extent of .$12,155, giving from $.300 to $1,000 to each. The State university was by the State superintendent declared “ in articulo mortis, and we are called upon to do something now or never to save it from death. The university should be the head of the common school system.” In 1873-74 it was estimated that the expenditure for schools showed an increase. There were 2,820 schools for white and 1,200 for colored children — 4,020, against 3,311. In 1873, the number of children in school was 174,000, against 146,000 the previous year. Superintendent Mclver thought public senti¬ ment was becoming more favorable. “ There would be no complaint about taxes if the law would provide the right kind of schools.” But still his ” sum¬ mary of educational statistics is only an approximate estimate, as the counties do not seem to trouble themselves to report.” He presents the amount of $496,405.23 as the entire sum of the public school fund raised by the several county treasurers in the State for the year ending June 30, 1874. Only $297,595 of this was distributed, and $198,810 left in the hands of the county treasurers at the end of the school year. The grand total of children and youth of school age is put down at 369,960, of whom 242,768 were white and 127,192 colored. What portion of the 174,000 reported as in school were in daily attendance we are not informed; 2,875 persons had been examined and approved as teachers during the year.* In most of the counties the school term was only two months, the average length being ten weeks. At this juncture a meeting of the State teachers’ association assembled in Raleigh in July, 1874. A committee of five was appointed to prepare an address to the general assembly, suggesting the improvements needed in the then existing system of public schools. The sixth amendment of the constitution of the State in 1873 provided that the University of North Carolina should be COMMON SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAROLINA^ 1803-] 900. 10 0 5 put into the hands of a board of trustees elected by the general assembly, and C4 gentlemen were elected, who effected an organization, chose officers, and appointed a committee to obtain possession of the university. After the usual struggle in the courts this provision was maintained. It appears, by Table No. G in the report of the superintendent, that the number of children at any time in the public schools in 1874 in 73 counties was 99,000 white and 4G,000 colored. The average daily attendance probably reduced this number by one- half. The administration of Superintendent Mclver terminated about this time. Whatever may have been his merits as a friend of education — and they were very decided — his great mistake in persuading the legislature to change the entire system of public schools from a public to a semiprivate character was a hindrance that did not cease to operate for years to come. In 1877 Mr. John C. Scarborough assumed the office of State superintendent of public instruction, and reported to' Governor Z. B. Vance that “ the changes in the school law have met with general favor.” His impression from communica¬ tions received at his office from different sections of the State is ” that there is a general awakening among our people on the subject of public schools, which will, as I think, finally furnish the means to make our system much more effi¬ cient than it is at this time.” He says : ” The old system, if system it could be called, has been in operation since 1872. The schools were poor beyond com¬ parison. The school taxes were collected and spent and no adequate returns of benefit were made. The schoolhouses were in a state of decay and ruin. The incapacity of the public school teachers with few exceptions was proverbial. The system was a failure and a farce, and the people paid taxes unwillingly for its support.” Four years after his accession to his post of State superintendent, Mr. Scar¬ borough declares (in 1881) that “the legislature .of 1881 found this condition of affairs, and the people clamoring for better public schools or none.” In 1880 there were 2,G2G public school districts without houses. The habit of dividing and subdividing the township into little school districts to accommodate per¬ sonal claimants was a mischievous policy and minimized the value of the schools. Many of the schoolhouses reported hitherto had not been worthy of the name and might be termed mere “shanties.” The average value of 8,7GG schoolhouses in 1880 was $47.G0. The superintendent says that “ the constitutional limitations to taxation make the provision for a four months’ public school impossible, and the expenses of the State and county governments absorb too much of what is received.” As late as 1881 only twelve and one-half weeks had been secured, and that by paying white teachers .$21.11 and colored teachers $19.93 per month, on an average. “ It is manifestly impossible to provide schools for the education of all the children in the State when the number of dollars from all sources for educational purposes barely exceeds the number of children of school age.” In that year (1880) there were 145,294 voters in North Carolina who could not read, 58,218 white and 87,07G colored. The people 10 years of age and over who could not read were 3G7,890, being 38.3 per cent of the entire population over 10. According to a record based on the ability to write, 4G3,975 over 10 years of age were illiterate, 48.3 per cent of the entire population over 10. Of the total white population 10 years and over (G0S,80G), there were 192,032 who could not write, 31.5 per cent, and 77.4 per cent of the colored. The census of 1880 showed a decrease of 7.4 in the percentage of colored illiteracy. The seven years of the administration of Superintendent Scarborough closed by a strong effort made against this condition of apathy, reaction, and open hos¬ tility to the progress of the common school so plainly set forth in the educational reports addressed to the governor and legislature, although probably obtaining 1006 EDUCATIOK" EEPOET^ 1904. very little circulation among the people of the State. During the administra¬ tion of Superintendent Scarborough Governor Thomas J. Jarvis was a warm friend of education, and has so remained during the years past. But the difficulties of extended travel, especially among the more destitute counties of the State, were almost as great as in the days of Doctor Vviley. There was no l>rovision for the payment of traveling expenses to the superintendent, and his yearly bills were presented to be voted upon by the legislature, while his salary seems not more than sufficient for his comfortable support. At the best, the promenade of a State official through the State, at his own expense, with no power to act in anything, only authorized to report progress on what the county commissioners and local school boards were i)ermitted to do by their people, with no power of su])ervision lodged anywhere in the State, the educational field a wild wilderness of extreme democracy, each little district going on “ after its own sweet will,” was not encouraging. The outcome of this until 1881, the date of a change in the school laws, was a gain frojn 1877, when the total expenditure for public education was 8-80,213.32 for a total enrollment of 210,459 and an average attendance of 104,173 pupils, with 2,382 teachers, to 8o09,736 for 233,071 pupils enrolled and 132,540 in aver¬ age attendance, with 3,857 public schcolhouses, valued at 8307,071.08, presided over by 5,173 teachers. For the proof of advancement in the common school system during these years vre must look chieity at the two agencies almost entirely confined to a number of the larger to^vns of the State, and for which they were largely indebted to the group of young men and progressive educators at the head of affairs in these centers of population. The first of these was what are called, in the reports of the State superintendent, ” normal schools.” T'hese were in reality, as far as concerned the white people, summer schools for teachers of four to six weeks each. By a law of 1877, entitled “An act to estab¬ lish normal schools,” the State board of education made an arrangement with the trustees of the State University at Chap, el Hill for the conducting of a school of instruction for white teachers during six weeks of the summer vacation, with the use of the college buildings and the full service of its faculty. To some extent they received aid from Doctor Sears, of the Peabody fund, for the means of paying the expenses of the attending pupils; 235 pupils were enrolled, with a daily attendance of 157, from 42 counties. This school became an established institution of the university, and indeed at this time seems the most important service rendered by that venerable institution to the people of the State. Its numbers increased with every year, at times 500 teachers being present. The i]]struction was of a high character. A State colored normal school at Fayetteville had also been established under the act of 1877. The State board had 82.000 to offer and the Peabody fund fur¬ nished the balance. A proper school for eight months in the year was estab¬ lished under the principalship of Mr. Robert Harris. The three classes repre¬ sented the three grades of certificates awarded to teachers. A large building had been secured, with board from 85 to 88 per month. In September, 1877, the school opened with 40 pupils, increasing to 58, of both sexes. It was inevitable that this movement should expand and have a potent influ¬ ence in awakening the people of the State to the need of better things. In 1883 a summer school was held at the university, with 405 students and a model school of 229. The attending teachers had taught 9,599 pupils during the year. The superintendent of the school was E. P. Mo.ses, of Goldsboro, one of the most competent and enlightened of the superintendents of the graded schools. At AVilson another school had been held, with 303 teachers, under Superintendent Tomlinson, of that village; at ‘Elizabeth City, one with an attendance of 108,' only 20 of whom were public school teachers, was held four weeks. The school COMMOX SCHOOLS OF XOETH CAKOLIXA. 1863-1900. 10 0 7 at Fayetteville, eolorel, reports 105. Salisbury, colored, held a six months’ school, with 49 pupils. The Franklinton school, colored, continued eight months, with 77 pupils and increasing interest, xit Newbern IIG people were taught for five weeks, under excellent teachers from Washington and other localities. The Plymouth school, colored, continued for six months, with an enrollment of 55. In 1883, 2,129 white and 963 colored teachers had attended normal schools and institutes, 3,092 teachers in all, three-fifths of the entire body at work in the State. Tlie graduates of these schools natirrall^’ sought occupation in the more pros¬ perous of the numerous academies with which the State swarmed at this period or were secured by the few graded schools of the large towns. But, of course, the majority did continue to teach in such places as offered, and thus became a potent force in the movement that lifted the State legislature for a year above its usual level in 1881 to the establishmenJ: owcoiinty superintendency and the recognition of county institutes. In 1881 42 teachers’ institutes were held in 18 counties, with 683 white and 169 colored teachers, 852 in all. Another movement, perhaps of more importance, was the growth of the graded school system in the larger villages and cities of the State. An increas¬ ing number of these towns appeared in the State every year coming up to the legislature with a demand for a charter for a graded school. This included a local tax imposed by the people to supplement the State distribution. There were two distinct obstacles to this movement. First, the numerous private and denominational academies of the State had. between them monopolized all the secondao’ and most of the primary education of the better-off people. The pub¬ lic schools had already successfully appropriated the elementary department; and the graded'school, as good, and often better, in the secondary studies than the private academies, threatened to supplant these institutions altogether. In fact, in almost all .these communities the graded school was established in a building that had been for years associated with the academical activities of the place. Another obstacle appeared in the habit of legal injunctions against the charters given by the legislature for this puri)ose, vrhich in several instances involved tedious legislation, although always in favor of the people. But the fact was soon demonstrated that a good graded school in a North Carolina vil¬ lage or county town was the most enlivening business venture possible. The trend of well-to-do people was already from the open country to these places, started often by manufacturing enterprises and the development of the rail¬ roads. These places offered every facility for the education of children at a reasonable rate, and the parents of families were drawn to the towns, where, with only the payment of a moderate school tax, not equal to the private tuition of one pupil, a whole houseful of children could receive free schooling of a superior sort. The graded school also enriched the educational life of the country districts, attracting their ablest people to frequent visitations, and, especially on Saturday, gathering the county teacliers in meetings, besides the stirring up of the teachers to frequent associations for mutual improvement. But despite all this there was a certain disadvantage in this development. The graded school, although public and a reenforcement to the State system, was separated from the open country by a vigorous snperintendency and a local board, and often by the support of the most progressive and prosperous class of people. It vras chartered by the legislature and did not always report to the State superintendent, so that his annual communication to the State board gave no indication of its existence. For the 5,000 district schools in the 90 counties of the State there was, up to 1881, practically no efficient supervision. Each of these little districts was getting on in its own way, generally without attention from the county school commissioners, or even its own local board, none of whom 1008 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. were salaried officers, the interest of the district trustees often centering on the employment of their own friends or members of their own families as teachers. '• The examination of teachers in too many cases was only a form, and the brief term of two or three months left the children open to all the demoralizing influ¬ ence of life outside of a good school. Indeed, the school funds did not keep pace with the growth of the State in population and productive industry. The legislature in 1881 raised the school tax from 83 to 121 cents on the $100 valuation of property, with an increase of the poll tax, and made provision for county supervision and teachers’ institutes, to be conducted by the county superintendents and attended by the teachers. ITie studies to be taught in the schools were particularized, and a standard for examination of teachers was flxed for the guidance of the county superintendents. Additional provision was also made for summer normal schools for both races. The arrangement for superintendents of the counties took effect in June, 1881. The superintendent reports that these officers upon assuming their duties found the school system and the schools in very bad condition. There was a want of properly directed interest on the part of the people and of the district school committeemen, often ignorant of their proper duties. The people were seeking to bring school- houses next to every man’s door. Hundreds of these little schools had opened with funds only sufficient for a term of four weeks. Confusion and division reigned supreme. Even the public schools were reduced in number and the attendance was anything hut hopeful. The large number of schoolhouses which had been partially repaired were either in a dilapidated condition, needing repairs, or were continued without regard to either numbers or comfort. One hundred and twenty-three teachers’ institutes were held in 58 counties during 1881-82, in which 2,260 white and 050 colored teachers were instructed in matter and methods. County associations had been formed in several counties and educational books read. The amount paid in 1882 for- schoolhouses and furniture was more than four times the sum in 1880, $74,712 against $16,132. The county superintendents received $18,732, and the total amount paid for education was .$509,736. But the ensuing year witnessed a reaction in the legislature, which, at the session of 1883, in obedience to a violent agitation in the less-favored sections of the State, carefully nursed by the opponents of the system, so cut down the salaries and restricted the duties of the county superintendents as to drive out of office the men most competent and throw back the county schools upon their former condition. The unfortunate action of the legislature in 1883 cut the life and energy out of the system and greatly crippled the work by destroying the efficiency of the county superintendency. The report of 1883-84 was the valedictory of Superintendent Scarborough. A portion of this document consists of a valuable table, containing an account of the States that had adopted county superintendency or its equivalent, prepared by Hon. John Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education. Twenty-nine States had adopted county suiier intendency, under different names of the offi¬ cial, and other States, as in New England, had a most effective system of super¬ vision in their township management of public education. In 1883 an effort was made to survey and put on the market the extensive swamp lands in the eastern part of the State, with the hope of benefit to the State educational fund. The feature of race distinction, mentioned before in the organization of several of the graded schools, whereby the colored schools were left out of the management, had been challenged and was to be tested before the courts. In 1884 Mr. Scarborough was followed in the occupation of the office of State superintendent of public instruction by Mr. S. M. Finger. Mr. Finger was a native of the Biedmont section of the State and a student at Bowdoin College, COMMON SCHOOLS OF NOIITFI CAEOLINA, 1863-1900. 10 0 9 in Maine, when tlie civil war broke out. lie returned to bis State and entered the Confederate service, in v/bicli be rose to tbe rank of major. An experience of several years as a teacher introduced him to this important post, well quali¬ fied for its complicated duties. His administration of eight years covered a very important period in the history of i^opular education in the State. In the concluding remarks in his report for 1891-92 he speaks of “ intense application to work and years of responsibility, the weight of which I have continually felt, almost as a burden,” and, it may be added, a burden that probably short¬ ened his life, as he lived but a short time after his retirement from the office. Among the difficulties enumerated by him on assuming his office were; (1) The schooling of two separate races before the old antipathies and prejudices awakened by the emancipation of the slaves by the military power and their subsequent elevation to full American citizenship had time to wear off — preju¬ dices from wdiich he seems himself to be as free as could reasonably be ex¬ pected ; (2) the impossibility of meeting public expectation of results with the money provided; (3) the circumstance that a great many people of intelligence and influence in the State had opposed any system of public schools, while many others had been willing to have only a sort of charity system; (4) the constant effort to keep improper books out of school; (5) the conflict between the extreme advocates of the new and those of the old methods of school keep¬ ing; (6) successful opposition to the necessary legislation. Superintendent Finger issued, under date of February 20, 1S8G, his first report, which v*'as a partial one, the biennial session of the legislature requiring a full report only once in two years. He is able to say that there was an increase of $51,693.38 in the receipts from ordinary taxation for 1885, and a corresponding increase of about one week in the school term. Of the 530,127 children of school age 298,166 attended the public, and more than 20,000 the private schools, niak- \ ing about 320,000 in all. He laments the fact that so many of the poorer peo¬ ple do not send their children to school, and urges influential people by advice and assistance to encourage them to improve the opportunities offered. The teachers are improving under the influence of the normal schools, institutes., and teachers’ associations. The State is sadly deficient in good schoolliouses, although the graded schools are an exception in this as in all respects. The one discouraging aspect is the lack of sufficient money. There is not enough to meet the constitutional requirement of a four months’ school. A judgment of the supreme court had deprived the school fund of money raised by taxation in excess of a $2 poll tax and 66t mills on $100, The average attendance for 1885 was 185,578, an increase of 12,583. The average length of the school term was twelve and one-half weeks ; the average salary of teachers, $25.75 white, S23.30 colored. Fifty-four teachers’ institutes had been held for white and 43 for colored teachers, attended by 2,040 white and 681 colored. Another decision of the supreme court seems to have given a quietus to the bad habit of evading the constitutional question of equal rights in education by applying the tax on the property and polls of the people of one color exclusively to the education of children of that color. An act embodying this feature was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court of the State ; also a law that permitted the white people to levy a special educational tax on their oven race for graded schools, while that received from the negroes could alone be used for them, was decided in the same way. Several of the new graded schools of the State were affected by this decision. It finished the course of some, while others were kept alive by private subscription. In the report of 1887-88 the superintendent returns to the general subject with additional facts and arguments. The reason why the schools “ provide ED 1904 M - 64 1010 EDUCATION" EEPORT^ 1904. blit poor and unequal facilities and do not meet the requirements of the con¬ stitution ” is that “ in the amount of money we spend in proportion to popu- latioii, and in length of school terms, we are far behind even most of our sister Southern States." By a table giving the latest statistics of public educa¬ tion in all the 38 States of the Union the superintendent brings out the impor¬ tant fact that in 1887, about twenty years after the rehabilitation of the school system in ISGS, North Carolina expended less money for schools per capita of population than any of the States excepting South Carolina (“a State far less wealthy in natural resources, and more burdened by a considerable numerical excess of colored population"), only about half as much as Arkansas, and less than half as much as Virginia. If all the school funds in all the States were raised from a tax on property, the rate in North Carolina would be lower than in any of the 38 States, excepting Georgia. Arkansas, and South Carolina, The rate in such a case would be 39 cents on ^100 in Maryland, 31 in North Carolina, 30 in South Carolina, 42 in Tennessee, 40 in Virginia, 22 in Georgia, 30 in Ala¬ bama, 65 in ^Mississippi, GO in Arkansas, G1 in West Virginia. 59 in Florida, and G2 in Missouri. In the whole country, States and Territories, with an estimated population of 57,929,009, there were spent in 1887 .$115,103,880 ; about $2 for every man, woman, and child, while North Carolina spent the small sum of 79 cents per head on an entire population of 1,GG7,8G8, The superintendent faces the fact that “ there is a very strong opposition to taxation for public schools, and no good can come from trying to disguise the fact. Very frequently we hear the statement that it is robbery to tax a man to educate another man’s children." In his report of 1889-00 Superintendent Finger comes up to the good fight for the children with the declaration, “ In the beginning of this report I desire to say, with as much emphasis as possible, that our schools, except in a few of the cities, are not satisfactory to any class of »)ur citizens. For one class there is too much taxation. But for the increasing number who believe in liberal educa¬ tion of all the people for all the people’s benefit and for the s.afety of the State the schools are unsatisfactory, because of the small amount of money applied and the consequent shortness of annual terms and want of proper qualifications on the part of many teachers." The tables by which the .assertions of the superintendent are supported are among the most reliable that had ever been offered to the educational public of North Carolina. In his last report (1891-92) Superintendent Finger returns to the charge by stating that the length of school term provided for by the general tax is about thirteen weeks. No district outside the cities and towns has any special tax, and only 15 of these levy one for schools. A large part of tlie towns and all the country districts are solely dependent on the general school fund levied by the general assembly, which supplies the average term of thirteen weeks. The general assembly of 1890 increased the tax on property from 12^ to 15 cents on the .$100, and on polls from 374 to 45 cents. But the real Increase of income from this would be only $G0,000, whicli would give but one week additional school term. About G^- per cent of the white and 28 per cent of the colored polls were never collected. The colored people in 1892 paid school taxes on property and polls to the extent of $99,081, and the whites $575,204. The property of the colored people was assessed at about $8,000,0{K1, and their entire contribution to the State was $125,000, about one-half the amount used in their schools. But while the financial support of the country and townsliip schools, where nine-tenths of the cliilJren received all their education, was inadequate, and the legislature seemed almost impervious to the persistent representations of the leading educators of the State for reform, there were other indications more favorable to an educational advance along the whole line. Es[>ecially was this COMMON SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAEOLINA^ 1863-1900, 1011 evident in tlie increaging interest in the summer assemblies, called normal schools, for the instruction of teachers of both races. The legislature, by v.nth- holding a portion of its annual supply from the State University, had shut up the summer school of instruction that inaugurated this campaign against inca¬ pacity in the schoolroom, greatly to the disappointment of its friends who desired to make this, the most valuable of all the foundations for the higher edu- ca,tion in the State, a leader in the training of young men for this profession. But in 1885-86, in compliance with the request of Superintendent Finger, arrangements had been made by which nearly $10,000 aimually were expended in the support of ai number of summer schools for white and some schools of longer session for the colored teachers. These schools were under the direction of the ablest superintendents of graded schools in the different cities and their leading women assistants, who gave their vacations to this service, in some instances without compensation. This was a positive adAmntage, as these gentle¬ men and ladies as a body were probably, at that date, the most accomplished group of graded school inaiiagers in any Southern State, fully prepared by study, long observation, and, best of all, exiAerience amd knowledge of home conditions to deal with the croAvds of jmung and inexperienced men and Avomen Avho thronged these halls during the debilitating heats of a southern summer. These men and women in North Carolina Avho Avere thus brought before the people in these summer days during the eight years of the administration of Superin¬ tendent Finger, Avith the assembled teachers Avho toiled in the trenches, repre¬ sented the poAver that brought forth the remarkable aAvakening of the State to popular education at a later period. Four thousand dollars Avere also appropri¬ ated annually to the support of five normals for colored teachers. Tavo thou¬ sand of this sum was giAmn to the school at Fayetteville, in session eight months of the year, the remaining $2,000 being divided among seAmral of these schools. In 1891 the general assembly was brought up to the point of legislation in behalf of the teachers by the reestablishment of the North Carolina Normal and Industrial School for young women at Greensboro. The State Teachers' Asso¬ ciation, in 1886, had opened a vigorous agitation on the subject of a normal college, and appointed a committee to memorialize the legislature. EAmry succeeding legislature received the same petition, the State superintendent directing the Avork. In 1889 the bill passed the senate, but Avas lost in the house. In 1891 GoA’ernor FoAvle urged the reconsideration of the subject. The Farmers’ Alliance and other organizations had joined in the petition. Dr. J. L. M. Curry appeared at the capitol in one of those educational thunderstorms, by which he combined an unansAverable statement of reasons with a torrent of noble elo¬ quence, to revive the desponding spirits of the faithful, supplemented, as in other cases, by an offer of pecuniary aid from the Peabody education fund to support the action of the State. The type of in.stitution finally decided upon AA’as that set by the State of Mississippi, in its Normal and Industrial College for white girls, first established at Columbus, Miss., and which has been pat¬ terned in Georgia, Alabama, and the tAAm Carolinas. It includes a compre¬ hensive curriculum, elective, comi>ining industrial training in domestic and Avage- earning branches, with an academical, collegiate, and pedagogical course of study. The flourishing city of Greensboro, one of the iieAV’ manufacturing centers of the State, and located almost in the educational center of the Com- moiiAvealth, offered $.30,000 in money, and a 10-acre site adjacent to the heart of the city Avas donated by tAVO citizens of Raleigh. In 1892 the school had 200 pupils, under the able presidency of Dr. Charles D. Mclver. It has since become one of the most valuable institutions of the sort in the South. In 1889-90 the legislature had made an important step forvvmrd in concentrating the AVork of the Avhite normal schools under the direction of Profs. Edwin A. Alderman and 1012 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. Charles D. Mclver, who, with salaries of $2,000 each, by election of the State board, held institutes of a week's duration in as manj^ centers as possible. A grant from Dr. J. L. M. Curry, agent of the Peabody education fund, enabled the board also to employ in this serv ice several of the best educators in North Carolina and other States. Another vital agency in the reform of popular education that was in progress during this decade was the graded school movement in cities and villages. In 1890 twelve cities were supporting this class of so-called graded, but really city systems of schools, some with a high school department, for terms of eight to ten months, nine of them by levying a local tax. Under the arrangement for the concentration of normal school work, a valuable series of institutes was in¬ augurated during the months of June, July, and August, by which 135 meetings were held, attended by 5,775 teachers, a number larger than the entire corps of white public school teachers in the State. Under the regular arrangement there were also held 7 institutes for white teachers and 21 for colored, attended by 700 teachers. Among the valuable features of this summer work were the reports presented by Professors Alderman and Mclver. They were both ex¬ tended treatises on public educational affairs in addition to the details of their own work. Both emphasized the demand of the superintendent for more money, and without fear or favor exposed the defects of the then existing condition of affairs. The higher education, as far as it depended on the fostering care of the State, was still neglected. The superintendent reports, in 1890, that the State Uni¬ versity was greatly in need of the means to repair its old buildings and gen¬ erally to put it in the condition of a college settlement of 1890 rather than 1820. After one hundred years the legislature had been moved to comply with the original demand of the constitution of North Carolina, by the establishment of the Industrial and Normal College for women in Greensboro. The general assembly, in 1887, had taken away $7,500 of the usual income of the university, and with it the normal professorship and the summer school of teachers. In 1888 the State appropriation was $20,000, which was nominally under the control of a board of eighty trustees elected by the general assembly, one-fourth going out each year. The governor was ex officio its president, and ten members con¬ stituted a quorum. An executive board of seven trustees, elected by the gen¬ eral board, practically managed the affairs of the university. The pleasant village of 'Chapel Hill, the seat of the university, was situated in Orange County, and was under a statute prohibiting the sale of spirituous liquors within 10 miles of the university. The session of the university extended from the last day in August to the first Thursday in June, with only a ten days’ vacation at Christmas. The test for admission, on paper, was certainly ample to insure a class of well-prepared students. Among the three courses of study was a special course in pedagogics, under the direction of President Kemp P. Battle. A law department was connected with the university. Provision for student aid was made by two funds. The annual expense of an education was estimated at $200 to $300. The Oxford Orphan Asylum received a State appropriation of $10,000. It contained 250 orphan children from 5 to 12 years of age. Education in letters and industry was a permanent feature. In 1885 the Wautega Club in Raleigh memorialized the State legislature in behalf of a school of industries, in connection with the State department of agri¬ culture, under the direction of Professor Kerr and afterwards of Dr. Charles Dabney. Under this able management the department had become the most vital and best known of all the public educational agencies of the State. A bill embodying the views of the petitioners became a law in March, 1885. It COMMOI^ SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900. 1013 provided that the county which made the best offer of material aid should have th.e school, and have joined with it the department of agriculture, the latter giving 1^5,000 toward its maintenance. A great throng of farmers from 40 counties in 1887 proposed a change of the school to a proper college of agricul¬ ture and the mechanic arts, supported by the Congressional land grant of 1862, and ill the same year the plan was recast to conform to this arrangement. The board of trustees was appointed by the ^governor and senate, with the governor as president ex officio. A subsidy of $21,000, with a yearly appropria¬ tion of $20,000 in addition to the income from the land grant was provided for its support, and the institution was established on an estate of 60 acres 1 mile from Raleigh. Superintendent Finger during the last four years of his administration had made earnest efforts to obtain correct returns from the private schools of the State, and 650 returns from such organizations appear in his report. In his estimate these institutions, on the whole, were doing a good work. Their teach¬ ers seem to have been moved by the stir among the public schools, attended institutes, and carried the improved methods of study and teaching into their own work. Tliere had been a constant tinkering ” with the school laws, the most sensi¬ tive department of legislation, since the rehabilitation of the school system in 1S67-GS. By gradual additions the code had reached the status in v/hich it was left in 1892 when Superintendent Finger retired from office. The school laws had been printed as an appendix to the superintendent’s reports of 1889-90 and 1891-92, with such exiilanation as made them easy of comprehension to the average member of the legislature. Among the provisions they contain, the following indicate the progress made; (1) The provision that the school money shall be apportioned to the counties on the basis of the school population. (2) The State board of education shall recommend a series of text-books to be used for a term of three years, the prices to be fixed by the board, and no political or sectarian worirn to be included. (3) A provision for the accommoda¬ tion of the State superintendent in an office in the statehouse ; that he shall be director of the system of public schools and correspond with other States for the benefit of public education, and shall supply the educational wants of the State by counseling with the county school officials, by lectures before teachers’ institutes, and by public addresses. (4) The justices of the peace and county commissioners of each county shall elect a county school board of education of three persons. The county superintendent shall be secretary and the county treasurer also treasurer of the board. Their compensation shall not exceed $2 per day each and mileage. This board shall be charged with the general man¬ agement of the schools, obey the instructions of the State superintendent, and accept his construction of the school laws. The county superintendent shall be elected for the term of two years by the county board of education, county commissioners, and justices of the peace in joint session. The county board shall lay off the county into school districts, apportion the school funds, two thirds in proportion to the school population and one-third with regard to the equality of school term between the two races. (5) The county boards shall elect district school committees of three for each district. A provision is made that any committeeman who can not write shall make his mark. The county superintendent shall examine all teachers for certificates of appropriate grade, the test being 70, 80, and 90 per cent of correct answers by the applicant, to entitle him to a first, second, or third grade certificate, as the case may be. (6) The county superintendent shall have charge of the teachers’ institute, the teachers being obliged to attend ; and not exceeding $100 of the county funds ntay annually be appropriated for its support. The district school committees 1014 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. are authorized to employ and dismiss teachers and fix their salaries. (7) T'welve and one-half cents on every $100 of property and 374 cents on polls shall be levied for the support of schools, in addition to the State and county capitation taxes appropriated by the constitution and other revenues. These rates were changed in 1892 to 15 cents and 45 cents, respectively. In addition the county commissioners shall levy a tax for the support of graded schools under certain conditions, namely, that one-third of the freeholders of any city or to^vn apply to the commissioners of the county asking for such tax, and the Qualified voters of the place order it, but not to exceed one-tenth of 1 per cent on the value of property and 30 cents on polls. (8) All teachers or superin¬ tendents of schools supported by public funds shall report to the State superin¬ tendent. (9) In 1889, among other laws, one was passed .abolishing “partial third-grade” certificates. (10) An important first step was taken toward the system of district supervision of schools, recommended by Superintendent Finger, and now adopted in the State of Massachusetts, by the union of two or more contiguous districts by a majority vote of the local committees and the em¬ ployment of a practical teacher as superintendent of the public schools in the united district. (11) The white normal schools should be abolished, and the $4,000 previously applied for their support be employed to hold institutes, which the teachers were required to attend, and conduct examinations of teqchers. These were not to supplant but to supplement the institutes held in the 90 counties by county superintendents. (12) A long provision is made for instruc¬ tion in the nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics in the public schools. Here, after a struggle of twentj'-five years, the State found itself with a code of State legislation under which any wide-awake county could establish and support a complete systen:i, of free public education for both races. The entire enrollment for 1892 was 335,358 and the average attendance 198,747 out of a school population of 598,250. There were some 35,000 cliildren and youth in private schools. The a^'erage salaries of teachers continued low, $20.20 for white males and $22.72 for white females, and $23.33 and $20.14 for colored teachers. The value of public school property was $892,304, and the number of public schoolhouses 0,100. During the four years from 1893 to 1897 the public school system was again placed under the superintendence of Hon. John C. Scarborough, whose previous administration from 1877 to 1885 has already been described. According to his report (1895-90) the condition of education on his first assuming office had been “ deplorable,” and he found himself “ helpless in any effort to organize a system and develop the educational spirit of the people.” The new school law passed by the legislature of 1879 “ by some accident was found without the signature of the two speakers [of the general assembly], and the supreme court declared it inoperative.” In 1881 Superintendent Scarborough drew a bill which in its main features became a law. This increased the State school tax to 124 cents on the $100, and provided for county superintendents and teachers’ institutes, but failed to provide for county boards of education. In 1885 he succeeded in obtaining separate school boards of education. Under the vigorous administration of Superintendent Finger the striking advance already noticed was made. Under these conditions Superintendent Scarborough was able to report a fair degree of progress during the fifteen years from 1877 to 1892. He opens his second campaign of education by vigorous demands for “ advance along the w'hole line.” (1) He recommends an additional State levy for the support of common schools, as the constitution of the State commands that “ one or more public schools in each school district shall be maintained at least four months in every year.” Tlie sum of $777,079, available from all sources, only provided for a school session in 1893-94 of less than thirteen weeks, six- COMMOIM SCHOOLS OL NOLTH CAEOLIHA^ 1863-1900. 1015 teen days short. An additional amount of $200,000 was needed to carry the schools to eighty days, at the average rate of paying teachers then current, less than $25 per month. (2) A recommendation even more vital to a public school system was for the passage of a law making it easier to hold school elections in each township, city, or district on the subject of local taxation for public schools, and that the maximum of one-tenth of 1 per cent at least be doubled. The superintendent well remarks, “ the greatest defect in our school system, as at present constituted, lies just here.” (3) A suggestion M'as made for a State appropriation for teachers’ institutes, llie annual appropriation of $4,000 begun in 1891 had been diverted to the support of the white woman's 'normal and industrial college at Greensboro. The agent of the Peabody educational fund had withdrawn his distribution for this purpose on the ground that the State no longer contributed to the support of the teachers’ institutes. But the superintendent did not find the legislature in a mood for response to any of his suggestions. The demand for additional taxation. State and local, fell upon ears attuned to the plea of economy. Not only was this urgent demand and the plea for teachers’ institutes neglected, but in 1895 the legisla¬ ture proceeded to knock out of place the most essential vcheel in the entire educational machinery, by the abolition of the county boards of education and the county superintendency. In 1895-9G the retiring Superintendent Scarborough declares that “ very little has been saved, in the matter of expense, by the abolition of the county boards of education, the county sni>erinten dents, and the teachers’ institutes. On the other liand, the school interest has languished, the teachers have failed to make progress, the school districts, left to them¬ selves, have multiplied neighborhood disputes, communities have been hope¬ lessly divided, and confusion reigns in many places for the want of a wise executive officer to settle matters and to urge forward educational sentiment and work, and to put teachers cn lines of study and improvement for their responsible work.” At the same time the legislatime I’eacted on the most hopeful of all the State educational institutions, the State Woman’s Normal and Industrial School, disregarding a report of their own committee upon examina¬ tion, which requested an annual gift of $11,250 for two years for necessary impro'^'emeiits, and substituting therefor $5,000 per year. IMeanwhile the general fund had risen from $751,608.11 in 1893 to $824,238.08 in 1896. The school population had risen from 618,541 in 1893 to 634,185 in 1896. The entire enrollment in 1894 vras 359.385 (235,486 white, 123,899 colored) ; in 1896 it uais 348,610. 'The average attendance was 220.294 in 1894 and 204,203 in 1896. The percentage of average attendance on the enrollment in 1896 was 62.5 white and 59.6 colored. The average length of the school term in 1894 was 12.S5 weeks for wiiite and 12.12 for colored; in 1896, 12.42 white and 11.75 colored. The average salary of the teachers of both races had fallen from 1886, being $24.75 per .month for white males and $21.64 for white females. The value of school irroperty had fallen from $1,118,297.88 in 1894 to $888,132.35. The number of public schools was 142 more in 1896. But during these four years an imi>ortant iwint had been made. A school like the Woman’s Normal and Industrial Seminary at once took a front place among the numerous female seminaries of the State, and one of its numerous advantages was the stimulus imparted to the entire system of schooling for girls. Another very important feature ums the distribution of its constituency. Large numbers of its pupils were gi’adnates of other schools, all over 16 years of age, and the average age 19 and 20 ; 88 of the 96 counties in the State were represented in the first two years. During the second year (1893-94 ) 391 students were enrolled, of whom 127 defrayed their own expenses. The parents of 153 were farmers, and those of only 30 were of the four liberal professions ; 1016 EDUCATION BEPORT, 1904. 317 had been wholly or chiefly educated in the public schools, and 24G would not have attended any other woman’s college in the State. Several of the young women were supported by their fellow-students and the two literary societies. P>oard in the college dormitory was furnished at a fraction less than $8 per month. During the first two years the school received $8,000 from the Peabody fund, whose agent. Dr. .1. L. M. Curry, had been highly influential in persuading the legislature to its establishment. The report of the school for 1895-90 was even more favorable, although the State had given it at the start, in 1891, only half the support it bestowed on other institutions, with no provision for a site and none for buildings, and had only slightly increased its appropriation in 1893 and 1895. The people indorsed the new movement by sending 445 of their daughters, crowding the building and compelling the purchase of 112 acres of additional ground for a park and school of horticulture. The department of pedagogics and the school of practice and whatever related to the education of teachers v;ere under the direction of Professor Claxton. During the four years of the administration of Superintendent Scarborough the Peabody educational fund, through its agent. Doctor Curry, contributed $100 per annum for two years for the education of each of 20 students in the Peabody Norma! College at Nashville. These young men and women were appointed by the superintendent, after a competitive examination. Although the State in 1891 had diverted the $4,500 annually appropriated for teachers’ institutes to the industrial and normal school at Greensboro, and the Peabody fund had con¬ stantly refused further aid, several institutes were held for both races under the direction of President IMcIver and his faculty, and other contributions to the colored normal school were receivedv The legislature also inaugurated a valuable new departure in subsidizing several graded schools which had estab¬ lished a department for the training of teachers ; and one of them, Cullov/hee High School, at Painter, in the remote western portion of the State, in Jackson County, became a valuablti agency of general education. The State extended aid to the extent of $1,500 annually to six normal schools for the colored race. The Slater Colored Normal School at Winston was established in 1895 with an annual support of $1,000, under the vigorous principalship of Mr. S. G. Atkins. This school, also aided by the Slater fund, is regarded an important addition to the work of training teachers for the public schools of the State. The graded school of Goldsboro, one of the oldest in the State, was subsidized as a training school for white teachers. By a liberal contribution from the Peabody fund several institutes for teachers were kept in operation during the years of the [idministration of Superintendent Scarborough. A radical change in the political affairs of the State of North Carolina brought to the office of State superintendent of education in 1890 Mr. Charles H. Mebane and sent up to the statehouse a legislature whose attitude to the educational affairs of the Commonwealth was in almost startling contrast with the spiritless and reactionary feeling of the few years preceding. The legisla¬ ture thus brought to tlie statehouse was, without exception, the most remark¬ able for its liberality of any in the educational history of the Commonwealth. Its only rival was the one which elected Doctor Wiley, first State superintend¬ ent of common schools, a generation earlier, in 1852. The record of their work is as follows: (1) The State board of education was required to appoint a State board of school examiners, consisting of three professional teachers, together with the State superintendent, who was ex officio chairman. This board was required to prepare and recommend, through the county supervisors, a course of reading and professional study and such outlines of methods of instruction and discipline as would be helpful to the teachers of the State ; it was also authorized to grant life certificates to teachers on examination. The COMMON SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900. 1017 board was to meet at the call of the State siiperintendent. Its members re¬ ceived no compensation save board and traveling expenses when on duty. (2) The county commissioners, together with the clerk of the superior court and the register of deeds of each county, once in three years were required to elect a county board of education consisting of three men of adequate intelligence who favored public education. This board, with the clerk of the superior court and the register of deeds, was directed to elect a county supervisor of schools once in two years — a practical schoolman of liberal education — who, under the direction of the county board, was to perform the duties usually assigned to a county superintendent. (3) The county board was directed to divide each county into as many school districts as there were townships in the county and elect a school committee of live men from each district, only three to be of the same political party. The schools of each district should not contain an aver¬ age of less than Go pupils. The county school board, with the supervisor, should apportion the school fund to the districts per capita. (4) The county super¬ visor should examine teachers ; the third-grade certificate was abolished and only the second retained. He was to inform himself of educational affairs at home and abroad, visit schools by direction of the county board, and suspend incompetent or immoral teachers, with the concurrence of the district school committee. (5) County institutes were to be held for teachers, lasting a week for each race. The State superintendent was required to report to the county board any defect of the county superintendents. (6) The general assembly of IS97 made the annual appropriation to the normal and industrial college for white girls $25,000. An additional appropriation of $5,000 was made for a new water supply and repairs to the State university. Several graded schools were chartered during the session of 1S97. The normal graduates of the Ashe- ■^ ille Normal and Collegiate Institute for white girls were permitted to teach in common schools without examination. ' Twenty thousand dollars for two years was appropriated for a school building at the institution for the deaf and dumb and $11,000 for the support of a similar institution for the colored race. The normal and industrial college for colored teachers received an annual subsidy of $5,000. The North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, at Raleigh, for white pupils was separated from its relation to the depart¬ ment of agriculture and placed under the direction of a board of 15 trustees appointed by the governor v/ith the consent of the senate. (7) The State school tax was raised from 18 to 20 cents on $100, thus securing an addition of $50,000 to the State school fund. (S) The county commissioners were re¬ quired to cause an election to be held in every township district, at which the question of a local tax of at least 10 cents on each $100 and 30 cents on each poll should be decided, to be obligatory for three years, and then only to be reduced at an election called for by one-third the voters and by a majority vote. If any township failed to adopt the tax, the election should be repeated every two years until a majority was secured. On the adoption of this tax the State should contribute a sum equal to the tax raised as long as the $50,000 assigned for this purpose should last. Eleven townships voted a special tax under this law in 1897. (9) Four thousand dollars, in addition to the regular sum appropriated, was voted to the seven normal schools for the colored youth. Five thousand dollars for two years wnas given to the State agricultural and mechanical college for colored students. Here, certainlj^ was an advance along the whole line, which indicated a decided revolt against the spirit of reaction which had prevailed since the close of the administration of Superintendent Finger. The new superintendent in his first report, covering the years of 1896 to 3898, appears in hearty and even 1018 educations" KEPOKT; 1904. enthusiastic sympathy Avith the temper of the legislature. This remarkable document reminds one of the eloquent and inspiring reports of Superintend¬ ent Wiley in the first j’ears of the common school, before, the civil war. His counsels to the county supervisors, boards of education, teachers’ institutes, and the general public are full of positive and practical suggestions. His attitude before the legislature is not only independent, but almost imperious, and his first recommendations cut deep into the old abuses and proposed radical changes in the local administration of educational affairs. He is especially positive in his denunciation of the mischievous mixing of partisan politics in educational affairs, which had been the ha))it during the previous years and which largely- accounts for the arrested development of the cause of universal education in the State. The superintendent devotes a large portion of his recommendations to the subject of text-books. He publishes a valuable table of the practice of all the States in respect to the supply of text-books, and suggests that the State board of examiners should adopt a list, and that the maximum price should not exceed 75 per cent of the published wholesale rate. He presents with great cogency the fact that local taxation is the soul of the public school system. The great neglect of school attendance and the abuse of child labor is an argument for some “ mild form of compulsory attendance.” Under the title “ Thoughts hy the way,” the superintendent informs the legislature that he began work on Januaiy 13, 1897, and that his entire time and ” whole interest of mind, heart, and soul had been thrown into the work.” He has tried to show the people that the office is not a sinecure, wdiere the duties of the superin¬ tendent are merely to “ furnish some blanks for records and the preparation of some few statistics.” He was bound to “ remove the office and its duties as far as possible from partisan politics ; ” and in contrast to some of his predecessors, he had taken no active part in any political campaign. He has also ” endeavored to cultivate a closer sympathy and common interest betwmen the public and private and denominational schools and colleges, believing that good public schools will mean well-filled academies and colleges.” He returns with emphasis to the idea of increasing the power of the supervisors, and more than intimates that the county boards are a restraint on the functions of the county supervisor in that, for the sake of a narrow' economy, they practically nullify his chief function — the constant supervision and visitation of the schools. Seldom has the legislature of North Carolina been addressed in a manner so direct, straightforward, and effective, and, with a few' exceptions, so Aviso and practical as in this remarkable report of Superintendent Mebane. And even more valuable for a permanent influence on his constituency was his editing of the material which fills up the remaining 900 of his bulky A'olume of nearly 1,000 pages. Most original and e'utertaining of all is the essay of ex-President Dr. Kemp P. P>attle, of the State imiA'ersity, on the extinct private and denominational schools of the State. Here the author goes over ground hitherto almost untrodden, and, in his deeply interesting record of the Aarious attempts to realize a given ideal of the secondary and higher educa¬ tion at an early colonial and subsequent period, explains the fact that Avhile in the matter of illiteracy North Carolina has alAA'a^'S remained among the loAvest of the States in the Union, still there Avas alAA'ays an educated public Avhich endeaA'ored to supply the lack of educational opportunity by the founding of a series of academies and embryo colleges, from Avhich came forth successive generations of men and AA'omen Avhose reputation has been among the foremost in the countiT. Among the younger men none has done more excellent w'ork than Dr. Stephen B. Weeks, late of the United States Bureau of Education, in COMiVION SCHOOLS OF NORTH CAKOLIjSTA^, 18G3-1 000. 1019 his History of Public Schools in North Carolina. Superintendent Mebane did great service to the cause of education in his State by quoting 70 pages of this work in his report. A sketch of the history of education in North Carolina, by Dr. C. II. VCiley, compiled while superintendent of education in 1855, also a sketch from the History of Education in Nortli^ Carolina, by Mr. Charles Lee Smith, are given in the report. This portion of the report is further enriched by an historical sketch of the office of superintendent of public instruction, by the superintendent. No such collection of entertaining and important material for the appreciation of the past and encouragement for tlie present condition of edu¬ cational affairs had ever been placed before the legislature of the Commonwealth. In addition to this, the superintendent published in the same bulky volume the proceedings of the meeting of county supervisors of public schools in Raleigh, December 30, 1897, Avith several of the more important addresses delivered, besides his OAvn addre.ss at the teachers' association, and other institute papers. Even more suggestiA'e are the numerous comments from 20 of the county super¬ intendents, expressions of interest in the public school system by the presidents of the 10 leading colleges of the CommouAAmalth, and especially the reports of the State institutions ; and valuable, as aP.A ays, is the report of the neAV industrial and normal college for Avhite girls, by President Charles D. Mclver. Every feature of the State interest in education is here brought into the light. The report of the board of examiners, eA idently prepared by the superintend¬ ent, is in itself an excellent treatise on the training of teachers, and could be consulted with good effect beyond the limits of the old North State. The reports of the schools for the colored race — those supported by the State and others Avith headquarters in Northern boards — are excellent reading. The examination for first-grade life certificates, the explanation of the school legislation of 1897, the lists of county superintendents and boards of education, and the record of institute work of the counties are also included in this most valuable document. Another extremely A'aiuable feature of the report is the account of the leading denominational colleges and private high and academical schools of the Common- Avealth. No Southern State has made a better record than North Carolina in several of these seminaries. The school for girls established by the Moravian Brotherhood at Salem in 1802 Avas one of the first institutions of its kind in the South and one of the first in the Union, and has sent forth a roll of distinguished Avomen. Others are fully described, like St. Mary’s College at Belmont and Peace Institute at Raleigh, the later established college for girls at Asheville, the system of schools established by the Friends in and near the city of Greens¬ boro, and the Bingham School, founded near Wilmington in 1793 by Rev. Wil¬ liam Bingham, Avho came from Ireland in 1785 and left the Avork to his son and grandsons, under Avhose administration it has outgroAAUi seA^eral removals and noAV occupies one of the most sightly hills OA'erlooking the mountain city of Asheville. There are at present not less than ICO of these private high and denominational schools in the State. IVhen we turn from this exposition of education in its application to the mass of the people to the actual results of the neAA’ legislation and the outburst of zeal and labor iioaa^ put forth, Ave are not so fully encouraged by the figures in the tables of statistics. The total receipts of State funds in 1897 Avere $830,500.18, and in 1898, $980,514.85, the last including an additional appropria¬ tion of $100,000 by the legislature and both exceeding the receipts of 1894, 1895, and 1896. Meanwhile an increase of children and youth of school age for 1897 and 1898 does not appear, the figures of 1896 being some 0,000 in excess of 1898. The public-school enrollment for 1897 Avas only 5,000 more than in 1890, although it reached nearly 400,000 in 1898, the actual figures being 399,375. The average attendance in 1898 Avas al)out 213,000, several thousand less than in 1020 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. 3-892 and 1893 and little more than half of the enrollment. The average length of the school term in 1898 was 14.0G weeks for the white and 12,79 for the col¬ ored race, a gain of about two weeks for each over the previous year. The average salary of teachers was less for white teachers than in most of the ten jears from 188G to 189G, viz, $24.GG for males and $22.9G for females, Vvdth a similar showing for the colored schools. In 1898 the total value of school prop¬ erty was .‘?9S0,214, being less than in 1893, 1894, 1895, hut $50,000 more than in 1897. In G3 townships and districts $8,59G.G3 had been raised by special dona¬ tion, in sums of from $12 to $500, which were duplicated by the State, causing an addition of $17,193.20 to their resources, hut only 12 townships had voted to tax themselves to the amount of $2,200.07, in small sums of from $50 to $483. In short, in the moderate response of the people to their legislature and the eloquent and zealous superintendent of public instruction, v'e discern the same characteristic as that suggested by President Mclver in his earnest plea for more aid to the most vital and original of all the State educational institutions — the industrial and normal college for white girls. He says : “ North Carolina does not, as a rule, take to nev things with great enthusiasm, and it is charac¬ teristic of her caution and conservatism that she should have established this institution [a century after her tirst experience as a Commonwealth] by giving it a small appropriation for support — about half what it gave to other institu¬ tions— no appropriation for a site, and almost no appropriation for buildings. But,” he adds, “ it is also characteristic of our sturdy, sensible, old State that, as her faith in the usefulness of the institution has grown, she has gradu¬ ally increased her investment in its development.” The cheerful confidence of all its leading educators in the slow but sure characteristic of this great Commonwealth is justified by the fact, especially by what is shown in the record of the two years 1897 and 1898. The second biennial rei^ort of Superintendent Mebane for the years 1898-99 and 1899-1900, proceeds along the same line of urgent demand for reform. The superintendent declares that the standard of requirement for teachers is exceedingly low in some counties, and he calls for uniformity of requirement. He advises that the county boards of school directors he required to publish annually an itemized statement of the receipts and disbursements of the school fund, and that they should be required to keep posted in every public school- house a list of the text-books adopted to be used in the schools. Each county superintendent should be ex officio the treasurer of the public scliool fund of Ids county. He protests against the loose management of the school funds for the past twenty years, and calls for more thorough qualifications for the office of county superintendent. He declares that “ the public schools have been in the galling grasp of the court-house politicians for twenty years in some of the counties.” He recommends that the county superintendent be elected by the teachers and educators of the county. The average compensation of this official is $128, and he is responsible for the expenditure of more than $5G,000. ” The present school law is too much burdened with machinery. We have too many officers — too many that have ‘ a little brief authority.’ ” Every school committeeman or trustee ” should be in favor of public education and public taxes for schools.” The annual school should not be divided into two terms. The State board of examiners had prepared a course of study for the colored normal schools. A great part of the work done in these normals should have been done in the graded schools of the colored people in the towns where normals are located. Much of the work is not thorough and not practical. ” The normals are normal only in name.” They should be consolidated. He earnestly pleads for the enactment of a rigorous law for uniform text-hooks, and publishes a table with extensive information of the action of different States in COMMOiq^ SCHOOLS OF NOKTH CAEOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1021 this respect. On the subject ot finances he says : “ We must have more money before we can ever hope to educate the great mass of our people.” Four hun¬ dred thousand dollars more can be secured for the public schools by the enforce¬ ment of a law passed in 1897 for the taxation of railroad and other companies. One way to increase the public school fund, he recalls to mind, is by local taxa¬ tion. The superintendent publishes lists of States having and not having compulsory-attendance laws, and shows the per cent of illiteracy of the popula¬ tion 10 years of age and over in each, according to the census of 1890. The State of North Carolina had 36 per cent, including 23 per cent of white illiteracy, a greater percentage of white illiteracy than in any other State or Territory except New Mexico. “ The people of the State have never yet realized the importance of supervision in public school work.” In retrospect of his four years of official life, he declares : ” The longer T was in the work the more I was impressed with its greatness and its consequences for the uplifting of the great mass of the people.” The difficulties he had had to overcome in the beginning were new’ sets of officials in 1897 and radical changes in the school laws. A new legislature made radical changes again, and a decision of the supreme court caused confusion in several counties. In 1897 he invited the leading educators of the State to a consultation. The press w’as generally favorable to the new^ impulse of reform. Even the politi¬ cians had observed which way the wdnd waos blowdng. “ We have reached the period in North Carolina history w'hen the politician is a great friend of public education. He speaks long and loud for the dear children.” “ Since January, 1897, more money has been given to colleges and more spent for school buildings and equipments than ever before during so short a period,” namely, 81,000,000. A table of the different colleges, high schools, and academies of the State that have been benefited in this wmy is given. An appropriation of 8100,000 to the public schools in 1899 gave hope of encouragement. More graded schools had been established during the four years of Superintendent Mebane’s term than in any similar period of the State’s history. The superintendent recommends the legislature to make an appropriation to erect a monument to the memory of Calvin II. Wiley, the superintendent of public schools previous to 1860. The office of State superintendent in 1901 w^as filled by Gen. Thomas Fentress Toon. Superintendent Toon only lived for thirteen 'months after his election, and his place wms supplied by Mr. J. Y. Joyner, wdio in December, 1902, made the report for this biennial period. Superintendent Joyner takes up the good work of educational reform under the administration of Governor Charles B. Aycock wdth great vigor, and in his elaborate report enforces all the advanced ideas of the previous administration. He, howmver, calls the attention of the people to the actual condition in wdiich the schools are still found, notwithstanding the decided advance of the preced¬ ing four years. In 1902 there w’ore 676,615 children of school age in the State — ■ 454,657 w’hite and 221,958 colored. For the education of these children the State wms spending 81)287,275.70, exclusive of 8161)363 raised by local taxation. There were 314,871 white and 149,279 colored children enrolled, and an average of 185,598 wdiite and 80,972 colored children in daily attendance. The total annual amount expended for each child of school age in North Carolina, includ¬ ing local taxes, was 82.17, the average amount in the United States being 89.50. North Carolina expended for each child enrolled 83.17 to 820.29 in the United States. The average monthly salary of teachers was 826.78 per month for w^hite and 822.19 for colored teachers, and in the United States the average monthly salary was 848. The length of the public school term in North Caro¬ lina was 76.15 days; the average length in the United States, 145. The super- 1022 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. intendent gives the statistics of illiteracy, saying that “ the i>er cent of white illiteracy in North C-arolina is more than three times as great as the average for the United States.” The average value of the schoolhouses in the State was, for white .$231.4.1, colored $13G ; 830 districts were without schoolhouses ; S29 had log houses. In different counties of the State schools were closed during the winter on account of the buildings not being habitable in cold weather. A woman’s association for the betterment of public schoolhouses was organized. During the year 1902, 332 new schoolhouses were erected. The superintendent suggests that the funds arising from the sale of lands belonging to the State board of education, amounting to $194,159.18, be used for school- houses. A great hindrance to effective education in a State so large and sparsely popu¬ lated is the multiplication of district schools to satisfy special families. Nearly one-half the white school districts of the State, and 44 per cent of the colored districts, contain less than G5 children of school age. The process of consolidat¬ ing school districts has been well begun, 318 having been consolidated since June 30, 1901, and several counties having made commendable efforts in this direction. The average annual salary of white public-school teachers is about $100, “ less than is received for the most menial service in almost any other business.” The superintendent had addressed’ letters to the different leading institutions of learning in the State, suggesting normal departments in each, lie reads a vigorous lecture on the subject of school supervision. The average salary of a county superintendent is $355. He urges the necessity of a compe¬ tent man as county superintendent in e^ ery county in North Carolina. He also demands an increase in the supervisory power of the State board of education by the addition of five deputy State su])erintendents or State suiyeiuusors of edu¬ cation, to serve for two or four years, at a salary of $1,250 a year, and expenses not to exceed .$500 a year. Since 1874 the general State and county tax for school i^urposes has been raised from 8^ cents to 18 cents on $100. Three- fourths of all the State and county poll tax is devoted to public schools. The school fund has been increased from $297,090.85 in 1875 to $1,209,714.30 in 1902. He urges the great importance of local taxation. Since 1900 there has been an increase of 7.8 per cent in enrollment and 0.5 per cent in dail^^ attendance in the white and 8.1 ])er cent in enrollment and 3.5 per cent in daily attendance in the colored schools. He urges the importance of laws for the protection of children in manufacturing communities. Several important educational meetings had l)een held during the year. Eighty-two per cent of the population of North Carolina is rural and agricultural. Among “ signs of hope and evidences of progress ” he notes the steady increase in taxes and appropriations for public schools ; the increase in amount raised for schools by local taxation ; a growth in sentiment and demand for consolidation; the increase in the number of schoolhouses built and improvement in their character ; the increase in amount raised by pri^-ate subscription for public schools ; the increase in the attendance of the colleges and high schools of the State; the increase in the attendance of public schools ; a reduction of white illiteracy during the decade ending in 1900 from 23.1 to 19.5 per cent, and of colored illiteracy from 00.1 to 47.0; an increased attendance at educational gatherings ; strong declarations in plat¬ forms of political parties in favor of education, and, finally, the adoption of the constitutional amendment by an overwhelming majority, making intelli¬ gence an absolute qualification for suffrage after 1908 and recognizing it as one essejitiai of citizenship. COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAKOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1023 SOUTH CAROLINA. Tlie very interesting history of tiie persistent attempts of the white people of South Carolina, led by a zealous educational public among the leading classes, to establish a system of common schools for themselves, is told m Chapter VII of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1899-1900. Several of these schemes were well devised, and only failed of effect by the radical weakness of the majority of the Southern attempts at the educating of the masses previous to the civil war. They all were constructed on the plan of “ local option,” and depended for their adoption on the disposition of the differ¬ ent counties of the State. A good deal of money, first and last, was distributed tlirough South Carolina for this purpose, which was probably used to subsidize the different private and denominational schools for the training of a number of children of the poorer classes. The South Carolina College had among its professors and presidents men like Cooper, Lieber, Preston, and Thornwell, who made it a broader and probably more influential representative of the higher culture in its adaptation to ail classes and conditions of the people than any of the Southern universities of the period, up to the breaking out of the civil war. Previous to 18GS there was no provision in the constitution of South Carolina for universal education. The city of Charleston by special charter had estab¬ lished a creditable system of public schools for white pupils in 1860, largely taught by Northern instructors, under the leadership of Hon. C. G. Mem- minger. At the close of the war he returned to his native city and gave the remainder of his life to the reestablishment of its public schools. It was not until 1868 that, under the new regime of the State, South Carolina acknowl¬ edged its obligation to educate all the classes of its citizens. The constitu¬ tional provision governing the matter, the first of the kind that ever was made in the State, is as follows : CONSTITUTION OF SOUTH CAROLINA, APRIL 11-16, 1868. Article X. — Edncaiion. Sec. 1. The supervision of public instruction shall be vested in a State super¬ intendent of education, who shall be elected by the qualified electors of the State in such manner and at such time as the other State officers are elected ; his powers, duties, term of office, and compensation shall be defined by the general assembly. Sec. 2. There shall be elected biennially in each count3q by the qualified elect¬ ors thereof, one school commissioner, said commisssiouers to constitute a State board of education, of which the State superintendent shall, by virtue of his office, be chairman ; the powers, duties, and compensation of the members of said board shall be determined by law. Sec. 3. The general assembly' shall, as soon as practicable after the adoption of this constitution, provide for a liberal and uniform sj’stem of free public schools throughout the State, and shall also make provision for the division of the State into suitable school districts. There shall be kept open at least six months each year one or more sciiools in each school district. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the general assembly to provide for the com¬ pulsory attendance, at either public or private schools, of all children between the ages of 6 and 16 years, not physically or mentally disabled, for a term equivalent to twenty-four months at least : Provided, That no law to that effect shall be passed until a system of public schools has been thoroughlj- and com¬ pletely organized and facilities afforded to all the inhabitants of the State for the free education of their children. Sec. 5. The general assembly shall levy at each regular session, after the adoption of this constitution, an annual tax on all taxable property throughout the State for the support of public schools, which tax shall be collected at the same time and by the same agents as the general State levy, and shall be paid into the treasury of the State. There shall be assessed on all taxable polls in 1024 EDUCATION EEPOET^ 1904. the State an annual tax of one dollar on each poll, the proceeds of which tax shall be applied solely to educational purposes : Provided, That no person shall ever he deprived of the right of suffrage for the nonpayment of said tax. No other poll or capitation tax shall be levied in the State, nor shall the amount assessed on each poll exceed the limit given in this section. The school tax shall be distrilj^iited among the several school districts of the State in proportion to the respective number of pupils attending the public schools. No religious sect or sects shall have exclusive right to or control of any part of the school funds of the State, nor shall sectarian principles be taught in the public schools. Sec. 6. Within five years after the first regular session of the general assem¬ bly, following the adoption of this constitution, it shall be the duty of the gen¬ eral assembly to provide for the establishment and support of a State normal school, which shall be open to all persons who may wish to become teachers. Sec. 7. Educational institutions for the benefit of all the blind, deaf and dumb, and such other benevolent institutions as the public good may require, shall be established and supported by the State, subject to such regulations as may be prescribed by law. Sec. 8. Provision shall be made by law, as soon as practicable, for the estab¬ lishment and maintenance of a State reform school for juvenile offenders. Sec. 9. The general assembly shall provide for the maintenance of the State University, and, as soon as practicable, provide for the establishment of an agri¬ cultural college, and shall appropriate the land given to this State for the support of such a college by the act of Congress, passed July second, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, or the money or scrip, as the case may be, arising from the sale of such lands, or any land which may hereafter be given or appropriated for such purpose, for the support and maintenance of such college, and may make the same a branch of the State University, for instruction in agriculture, the mechanic arts, and the natural sciences connected therewith. Sec. 10. All the public schools, colleges, and universities of this State, sup¬ ported in whole or in part by the public funds, shall be free and open to all the children and youths of the State, without regard to race or color. Sec. 11. The proceeds of all lands that have been or hereafter may be given by the United States to this State for educational purposes, and not otherwise appropriated by this State or the United States, and of all lands or other property given by individuals, or appropriated by the State for like purposes, and of all estates of deceased persons who have died without leaving a will or heir, shall be securely invested and sacredly preserved as a State school fund, and the annual interest and income of said fund, together with such other means as the general asembly may provide, shall be faithfully appropriated for the purpose of establishing and maintaining free public schools, and for no other purposes or uses whatever. Ordinance X. — AN ORDNANCE instructing the general assembly to provide for appro¬ priating the citadel for educational purposes. Passed March 16, 1868. We, the people of South Carolina, in convention met, do ordain : That the general assembly is hereby instructed to provide, by suitable law^s, for the appro¬ priation of the citadel grounds, in the city of Charleston, for educational pur¬ poses, said building and grounds to be devoted to the establishment of an insti¬ tution of learning, which shall be a body politic and corporate, and shall be managed by a board of trustees, and their successors, who shall be chosen by the general assembly, and shall be subject to visitation by and under its authority. Said institution of learning shall have power to establish schools of law and medicine and to issue diplomas that shall entitle the holders to practice said professions, as shall be prescribed by law. At the election held in the same month (April, 1808) Mr. Justus K.'i Jillson was chosen State superintendent and the several counties elected school com¬ missioners. “An act to provide for the temporary organization of the educa¬ tional department of the State ” was passed and ratified September 15, 1808. On September 28 Superintendent Jillson sent a copy of it to the new school commissioners. This act of nine sections provided that the State superintendent of education should hold office through four years, give bonds for $5,000, and receive a salary of $2,500 annually, with the expense of traveling and the use of an office. His official residence was to be at the State capital. He was directed to immediately provide for taking a census of the youth of school age COMMOiq- SCHOOLS OF SOHTFI CAKOLIHA^ 1863-1900. 1025 (5 to 18 years) by the county school commissioners. The school population of the city of Charleston was to be returned by wards. The school commissioners of each county were also directed to report the number of public schools and their attendance, also their condition and methods of support, and these reports were to be consolidated and forwarded to the general assembly by the State superintendent. The county commissioners were to receive $4 for each day actually employed in the foregoing duties, with cost of necessary transporta¬ tion, and the governor of the State might employ assistants for the commis¬ sioners in taking the school census at the rate of $2.50 a day for a limited time. On January 24, 1870, Superintendent Jillson made his first report to Governor Scott and the general assembly. Several of the county commissioners had failed to qualify and others had failed to report. Beside this, “ the failure of the general assembly to pass a school bill at its last regular session has been the means of keeping this department in a state of comparative inactivity for nearly a year. The children and youth of this Commonwealth are daily growing up in a state of ignorance, a state which leads to poverty and crime.” The work contemplated in the act for temporary organization to be done by the county commissioners had been greatly delayed, owing to “ causes entirely beyond my control, and which in some instances have not been satisfactorily explained.” From such reports as could be obtained through them it appeared that there were in 26 of the 31 counties 168,819 children between the ages of 5 and IS, 68,108 white and 100,711 colored, 88,413 male and 80,406 female. From returns from 20 counties it appeared that there were 381 public schools, with 528 teachers, 73 being northern white, 405 southern white, and 50 colored; 16,418 children were “ attending school,” evidently enrolled, as Superintendent Jillson during his entire administration of eight years never gives the average attend¬ ance; the number of white and colored and the sexes were nearly equal. The city of Charleston reported 0,260 of school age, nearly equally divided between the races. There were in the State at this time several schools for colored youth estab¬ lished and supported by different educational and ecclesiastical agencies in the North. It was impossible to ascertain from the reports received from the public school officers the effect of the constitution and school law upon the people of the State. But the commissioners from 18 of the 31 counties declare that the ‘‘ mixed school ” is a practical impossibility, the colored as well as the white parents preferring separate schooling for their children. Very few of the ” poor whites ” could read or write. Whole sections of the country are described as “ filled with poverty and ignorance,” but everywhere the poorest people are said to greatly desire education for their children, and in many cases contribute from their poverty to keep alive such arrangements as they have. On February 16, 1870, was approved ‘‘An act to establish and maintain a system of free common schools.” This act, in connection with the constitu¬ tional provision above given, was sufficient to realize the ideal of the most radi¬ cal schoolman of the State. It, indeed, proposed a scheme in some particulars in advance of the large majority of the Northern States at this period, and in one respect even of the State of Massachusetts, from which the new superintend¬ ent had come. But it was practically impossible that the State of South Caro¬ lina, in 1870 and during the five following years, could support a free system of public schools six months in the year, with the addition of large city and State universities and a normal school. A fatal weakness also in the system was that the new superintendent of education really had no power to act in any region of his almost boundless office. The county commissioners were elected by popular vote, including the votes of the colored race. The State school funds were in no ED 1904 M - 65 1026 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904, respect under the control of the State superintendent save in their distribution to an irresponsible class of officials. His required duties were chiefly those of an official clerk and prevented any visitation through the State or any personal acquaintance with the county commissioners. The election and examination of teachers were beyond his control. For the eight years of his service he was called to stand a helpless spectator of the goings on of the legislative and execu¬ tive departments of the government; to submit to the disposition of the com- juissioners, and deal vrith the statistics of the teachers, and the indifference of the commissioners, with their chronic neglect to make proper reports of their doings, added to several years’ failure to get a quorum for a meeting of the State board. It is not strange that this new school law should at once provoke a concen¬ tration of all opposition to progress in the face of the harassed and confused superintendent, a jmung man elevated from the position of schoolmaster of a Massachusetts town of 1,000 people to the first superintendency of education of 200,000 children and youth in a Southern Commonwealth. In his second report, dated November 15, 1870, he predicts that the mixture of politics with school affairs “ will be the harbinger of disaster, ruin, and failure to our common school sj^stem.” The bottom difficulty of the whole matter, of course, was the almost complete incompetency of the teachers employed in such schools as were placed on the ground, especially those for the colored people. The legislature, although composed of the -party favoring the then existing dynasty and elected largely by the votes of the colored people, was either ignorant, indifferent, or culpably insincere in its dealings with the public school interest through the entire period of reconstruction. While the provisions of the school law were really, in some respects, in advance of the systems in half the Northern States, the legislature only appropriated $50,000, in addition to the poll tax, for the sup¬ port of a system requiring a million for its vigorous administration. The poll tax was a very questionable reliance and very difficult of collection. Only 12 of the 31 counties had made complete returns of the scholastic popula¬ tion, and the superintendent was compelled to rely on the State census of 1809 for information ; 30,000 children of the 197,000 of school age had been enrolled during the year 1869-70, probably not more than 50 per cent in average attend¬ ance ; G30 schools had been either wholly or in part supported l)y the State during the year 1808-09, with 734 teachers and 23,441 pupils, the State contribu¬ tion being $57,320.40. Besides this, Charleston reported 4 schools, 00 teachers, 5,252 pupils in attendance, and $20,029 expended. The University of South Caro¬ lina had been taken in hand. One free student from each county could be admitted — white or colored, male or female. The superintendent submits an estimate of the sum required to carry on the schools of the State during the ensuing fiscal year, amounting to $550,700. On March 0, 1871, was approved an act amending the act of February 10, 1870, “ to establish and naaintain a system of free common schools.” In its amended form it was an elaborate statute, framed to cover the entire field of educational experimenting. By this law the State board of education was to consist of the 31 school commissioners, the State superintendent of education being chairman. The State superintendent was to be elected by the people and serve for four yeai's, with a salary of $2,500 and mileage. He must do the impossible by visit¬ ing every county to inspire the people, and diffuse himself generally. The county commissioner of each county was to be elected once in two years by popular vote. Each county was to be divided into school districts, and district school trustees were to be appointed for two years by the board of county school exam¬ iners. This board was to consist of the county commissioner and two other members appointed by him, “ competent to teach a first-grade school,” and was COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAEOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1027 to examine and certify teachers for one year. The school year \Yas to continue nine months, but countj" commissioners could limit the school year according to the supply of funds. In his third report, issued November, 1871, covering the year ending June 30, 1871, Superintendent Jillson congratulates the legislature “ on a reasonable degree of progress,” of which the proofs are found in an increase in the scholas¬ tic population, which numbered 20(),G10 ; a school attendance of 66,056, more than double that of the preceding year, and about equally divided by races. The number of schools was 1,639, an increase in one year of 870. There were 460 school districts. Only 1,334 of the pupils were reported as in the higher branches, but this was double the number of the previous year ; 1,898 teachers were employed, 1,185 male and 713 female, at equal average salaries of 835 per month. In the public schools of the city of Charleston male teachers received an average of $125 a month, female teachers $40. One hundred and four school- houses had been built in the State, 63 log and 41 frame, at an exjiense of $13,254. Three teachers’ institutes liad been held, attended by about 100 teachers. No school text-books had been distributed. The estimate for the school fund the ensuing year was $344,000 besides the capitation tax. No funds had !>een at hand for the purchase of school records or registers, and consequently none had been distributed to the teachers. The University of South Carolina had an attendance of 68 students of both races and sexes. The legislature had appro¬ priated $31,000 for its support and for repairs. By a report from one of its pro¬ fessors we learn that during the last seven years before the outbreak of the war, when the average number of students was 182, there were 165 froiii the State and 10 per cent from outside. There were also flourishing colleges at Charleston and Greenville, in South Carolina, besides Davidson College, just over the line in North Carolina. JMoreover, there were upward of 200 students from South Carolina in colleges outside the State. All this went to show the prosperous state of the higher education just before the war. In 1866, however, there were only 108 students in the South Carolina University, and 113 in 1867, while in 1868 it further fell to 65, of whom a considerable number were girls and colored pupils. Under these conditions the old professors retired. In 1869 there were but 42 students, and in 1870 and 1871 there vrere 53 and 68, respec¬ tively. During the past four years only 120 students from South Carolina had been found in colleges out of the State. Of those in the university only 22 took the usual academical course, 11 the medical, 14 the theological, and 6 the law. The city of Charleston was the only portion of the State where educational affairs had a cheerful outlook. The city covered an area of 6 square miles, had a tax valuation of $27,565,437, with no local tax for schools. Of a scholastic population of 12,727, one-half coloi'ed, 5,068 were in attendance in the 4 public schools, 3,322 white and 1,746 colored. The schools wei’e in session nine months in the year. There were 68 teachers, 4 males (principals) and 64 females. The great Morris school for colored children of 1,500 pupils was taught entirely by white teachers, all, save the principal, white ladies of Charleston. The teachers’ salaries during the year amounted to $36,828.25, of which $17,408.10 were still due. It was estimated that the sum of $44,680 was required by the schools for 1872. The superintendent was fully alive to the fact that he, as a public official, ” is vested with no jurisdiction, no supervisory and discretionary power whatever, but is, in fact, subject to the will of subordinate officers of the department of which he is only the mere figurehead, and that his functions are simplj' minis¬ terial and clerical.” In this fact is found the key to much of the confusion and mismanagement that involved the public school affairs of the State during the eight years of the reconstruction period. The superintendent \Yas intelligent. 1028 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. earnest, and by nniversal consent regarded as lionest and deeply concerned for the education of the people. The people responded by an encouraging attend¬ ance during the last year of his administration, amounting to nearly 100,000. And doubtless there '.vas a good deal of respectable teaching in the Common¬ wealth. But the legislature persistently refused to funiish the proper means for the payment of even what was done, every year witnessing a deficiency, while the means actually raised were not distributed. At the termination of this administration the deficit, largely due to the teachers, was so large as to be a continual embarrassment during the four years’ administration of Supt. Hugh S. Thompson. During the financial year ending October 31, 1871, the free school fund consisted of $150,000 and the capitation tax. The superintendent did not believe that any provision of law for local taxation for schools could be enforced. “ The people of this State are not, as a general rule, sufficiently advanced in civilization and public spirit to impose voluntarily upon themselves a tax to be applied to the education of their children,” and if such a tax were levied “the work of assessing and collecting it will be extremely difficult,” besides, the Attorney-General had pronounced the penalty on districts for fail¬ ure to raise tax required by law as unconstitutional. lie recommends a special State tax for the support of free schools, and that it be declared a misdemeanor for the State treasurer to divert the proceeds of such school tax to any other purpose. The county treasurers should be held to a strict accountability for their handling of the school funds. A special appropriation of $44,080 made for the city of Charleston should be the entire sum received by that city. The com¬ missioners of only 22 of the 31 counties attended at the meeting of the State board of education in October, 1871. A committee of the board reports ” an unfortunate state of affairs ” in the distribution of the State school fund. “ But little of the general appropriation has been paid, and several unpaid balances of previous appropriations are yet due.” This is regarded “ an irreparable injury to the cause of education in this State.” The State had collected taxes to the extent of perhaps over $1,000,000. A special committee of five was appointed to procure a mandamus to compel payment of the orders of the State superin¬ tendent and enforce the provisions of the lave. In 1808 the legislature had accepted the donation of public lands for an agricultural and mechanical col¬ lege. The old College of South Carolina had been reorganized in 1809 as the University of South Carolina, with no distinction of race. Seven trustees appointed by the general assembly established a tuition fee of $50 for the departments of law and medicine and $15 for all other departments. A pre¬ paratory school veas established. Even the teachers for the year 1807 had not been paid as late as 1808-09. The general delinquency of the legislature was shown in the perpetual ignoring of the claims of the school department, where no one was clothed with power to enforce any law. The fourth report of the superintendent, covering the school year ending June 30, 1872, only confirms the impression that “ there are inevitable vreaknesses in the organization of the system that can not fail to work its ruin.” The number of children had increased, there being 209,347 betvreen 0 and IG, and the attendance was increased by 10,2GG to 7G,322, Charleston County having the largest attendance (7,834) and Georgetown the least (823) ; there was a corre¬ sponding increase of 280 in the number of schools, 1,919 in all, although 11 counties show a decrease ; 2G counties report an average school term of five jnonths, and 5 make no returns. There were 462 school districts, reporting 22G schoolhouses as having been erected during the year at a cost of $11,505.50, namely, 127 log, 98 frame, and 1 brick. The city of Charleston reports a school attendance of 3,970 out of its 12,727 school population, only 17G being in the higher branches. COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAEOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1029 Bnt while the majority of the people, despite the profound dissatisfaction with the mixed system, were earnestly bent on education and were making up their minds to get it at all hazards, the difficulty at the State House was more exasperating than ever. The school-teachers seemed to he shouldering the heavy end of the system, and their service was largely a labor of love. The sum of $268,091.67 was paid for salaries of teachers during the year. In his general remarks the weary superintendent frees his mind to the legislature concerning the impending collapse of the entire school system as then mis¬ managed at the statehouse, asking that, “ in behalf of humanity,'’ the legis¬ lature shall mend its ways in respect to the schools. “ The whole system is, in its present condition, a reproach to those Avho claim to be its friends and advocates.” ” Our whole State policy, as far as common education is concerned, has been from the beginning narrow and illiberal. While other enterprises and interests have received due attention and proper care, the education of the people has been a matter of the last and least consideration. The rights of bondholders have been guarded and made secure; railroads have received material encouragement ; those boundless fields of wealth, the phosphate de¬ posits, have been carefullj' fenced in and developed ; liberal and elastic charters have been granted to banks and other corporations ; victims of political perse¬ cution have found consolation in the enjoyment of lucrative and dolce far niente ]wsitions ; even the birds of the forest and the fishes in the rivers have been protected, Imt the schools have been left to take care of themselves, and the poor school-teachers have been constrained to toil and starve or else to abandon the profession.” Superintendent Jillson's fifth report (1872-73) stated that the population of South Carolina, according to the census of 1870, was ; Colored, 415,814 ; white, 289,667; Indians, 124; Chinese, 1; total, 705,606. The State ranked 22 in popu¬ lation, with an average of 23.39 persons to each square mile, the entire area being 30,170 square miles. The property valuation of 1873 was $167,481,092.67 as assessed, although the United States Census of 1870 placed the true valua¬ tion at $208,146,989. The school population had risen to 230,102 in 1873, an increase of 32,923 in four years. There had been an increase of 98 common schools in the last year, although a decrease occurred in 11 counties. The superintendent seems to have made few visits, not having been present at many of the State teachers’ institutes. The university had 69 students ; the superin¬ tendent had no information concerning the disbursement by the State treasurer of the appropriation of $27,850 for its support, bat he knew that no portion of the appropriation for repairs of buildings ($2,000) had been paid by him. The superintendent bewails the ‘‘humiliating fact” that thousands of the children of the State are growing up in ignorance. He repeats the protest of former years and urges reform. A ‘‘ great awakening ” at last persuaded the legislature to authorize a school tax of 2 mills on the dollar on all taxable property of the State and to anticipate its collection by the appropriation of $300,000. Two hundred and seventy thousand dollars of the tax had been col¬ lected. Only $56,492.70 had been received from the poll tax. From the constant complaint of the neglect, incompetency, and delay of the county commissioners it is evident that there never had been at the State superintendent's office any correct knowledge of what was going on through the State. From Superintendent Jillson's sixth report (1873-74) it appears that the superintendent of the public schools of Charleston reports 5,512 in attendance, and requires $54,760 for the support of the system; $23,640 had been received from State appropriations and $23,358 was from a local tax, with other funds, making $62,589.16 in all. The State superintendent had attended meetings of the National Educational xVssociation and Department of Superintendence in 1030 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904, the North, although he emphasizes the fact tliat he will be obliged to neglect official visits at home, his presence being required in his office through lack of clerical assistance. The State Normal School had been opened in September, 1874, with Mr. M. A. Warren, late of the Shaw Institute, of Charleston, as principal, assisted by 1 lady. Thirty-eight students had been admitted from 9 counties. The lack of funds withheld by the State treasurer had caused serious difficulties. “ The credit of the State being well-nigh gone, it vras impossible to obtain any neces¬ sary supplies except upon payment of cash.” By the act of the legislature the portion of the Congressional land grant for agricultural schools due the colored race was appropriated to Clatliii University, a flourishing school for colored youth established in Orangeburg by the aid of the family of Governor Claflin, of Massachusetts, under the management of Rev. E. Cooke, D. D. In 1875 there were 209 students in attendance, and it offered courses of study ranging through graded and high school work, includ¬ ing the ancient and modern languages, but with special attention to the training of teachers for the colored schools. The legislature had made it a portion of the State system of education l)y subsidizing it from the agricultural and mechanical fund, although at this time the appropi'iations were very limited. At a subse¬ quent date this school was included in the university system of the State and became the possessor of a valuable landed property, with a notable reputation for industrial training and the largest attendance of any institution of this class then in the South. The State Normal School, located on the campus of the State University, had received grants during the three years ending October 31, 1875, amounting to $35,000, of which only $10,458.53 had actually been paid in, leav¬ ing an unpaid balance of $19,141.47. Superintendent Jillson calls attention in his seventh report (1874—75) to the fact that the 2-mill school tax in 1875 amounted to $11,378.13 in excess of the $240,000 appropriated by the legislature for the support of public education, and that this sum “ was swallowed up in the so-called suspension of the South Carolina Bank and Trust Company,” and demands the refunding of the same. Several county treasurers had school funds on deposit in this bank. The $130,721.17 (an increase of $19,985.85 over the previous year) raised by local and district taxes suggested to the superintendent that ” the future success, and efficiency of our common school system will depend upon the public spirit of the people on the question of local taxation.” The last report of Superintendent Jillson, the eighth of the series, was made in 1870, and gives the results of his troubled administration of eight years. The population of the State had increased 219,539 from 1870 to 1875, or 31 per cent in five years ; the assessed valuation of taxable property in 1876 was $133,133,338 ; the United States census of 1870 gives nearly twice the amount in true value. The school population was stated as 237,971, of whom 123,085 were said to be in attendance on 2,770 schools taught by 3,008 teachers at average monthly wages of $30.40 for males and $28.80 for females, while one county paid an average of but $15.34 by the month for the term of four and one-half montlis to males. The schools were in session in different counties for terms varying from seven to two and one-half months, and the public schools of Charleston ten months. The school revenue was stated at $457,259.84, of which $140,493.57 was from local taxation, $202,002.05 from the State, $02,250 from the poll tax, $3,850 from the Peabody fund, and $42,003.98 from other sources. It was esti¬ mated that for a school term of nine months $900,000 would be needed; for six months, $000,000 ; for three months, $3(X),000. The State board of education seemed to be defunct, as “ no quorum had been reported for three years.” This COMMOIT SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAKOLINA^ 1863-1900, 1031 year the superintendent visited 10 counties of the State ; 26 visits in all. A long list of unpaid State appropriations was reported. It has seemed important to give this somewhat extended report of the begin¬ nings of the common school system for all children and youth in the State of South Carolina from the year 1868 to 1876. Whatever may he charged upon the reconstruction government during the period of eight years, there can be no doubt that the best thing effected by it was the introduction of the American sys¬ tem of schools for all people. For two hundred years the common school public of South Carolina, including some of its most eminent men, had labored in vain to plant outside the city of Cliarleston anything like a successful system of pub¬ lic education for its white children. Now for the first time, amid almost impos¬ sible conditions, the act was consummated, including the entire school popula¬ tion of the State. It was a mistake that well-nigh swamped the enterprise to endeavor to school the races together. It was ajiparently a visionary idea to imagine that the people of the State at the close of the war, or ten years later, were able to support the elaborate system of public instruction drawn up for its use by men inexperienced as educators, thoroughly unconnected with southern society, and uninformed with regard to southern affairs. But with all its mis¬ takes the experiment did not fail. It was a great thing to commit the old Com¬ monwealth to the American idea of universal education ; to secure appropriations from the legislature, even if they were not paid with regularity ; to awaken into life a body of 3,000 native teachers, however destitute many of them may have been of high qualifications for this great profession, and make it possible that the people should tax themselves to the extent, in 1876, of .fl30,000, for the sup¬ port of the district schools. The change wrought by the decision of the contested Presidential election of 1876 was nowhere more appreciated than in the State of South Carolina. This decision brought to the front a State government containing several of the most eminent public men of the Commonwealth, Gen. Yv^ade Flampton being the governor. But among this body of men no man was intrusted 'with a more important function than the new State superintendent of education. Col. Hugh S. Thompson. This gentleman was a native of the Piedmont region. As a graduate from the military academy of Charleston Mr. Thompson entered the Confederate service, and through the war was retained in and around the city. On the coming of peace he found himself at Columbia, and, by the destruction of the large property of his father-in-law, was thrown entirely on his own resources. He opened a school for boys, and during the years of reconstruction made an impression on the foremost people of the capital city which secured his nomination and election to the post of the State superintendent of education. “ When the general assembly met in April there was no one who could give information as to the operations of the public schools up to that time,” Superin¬ tendent Thompson states in his first report (1877). It was believed that the public schools had generally been closed since January 1, and that the $100,000 voted for the support of them and the poll tax would be a.vailable for their opening. Certain changes in the school law were at once made by the legisla¬ ture, among which was the provision to levy local taxes for schools by the aided districts, also the provision for free scholarships in the State University. The university itself was placed in the hands of a board of competent men to hold and keep the leadership, with instructions to reorganize the university system on the plan of one institution (the State college) for white, and another for colored students. The State university, thus created by the reorganization of the State college, at Columbia, and the Clafiin University, at Orangeburg, for colored students, was placed in charge of a board of trustees consisting of the 1032 EDUCATION REPOST, 1904. governor, State superintendent of education, the chairman of the committees on education in the house and senate, and seven additional members elected by the general assembly for four years. The South Carolina Military Academy, at Charleston, was also made a branch of the university, the three institutions being under the direction of the one hoard. The agricultural and mechanical depart¬ ment established from the Congressional land grant of 18G2 was included in this arrangement. The tuition fees were all included in $40 a year. But while these changes were being made, with the more important work of promoting the ratification of a constitutional amendment concerning the method of support for common schools and the framing of a new school law, the affairs of the department were found in a state of very great confusion. The rock that stood across the path was the heavy load of debts due the teachers for past services. At the last accounting, in 1877, the State \vas indebted to the teachers of the different counties in the sum of $184,704, and this large sum was only an estimate, as several of the counties had not reported and a mass of disputed claims hovered like a threatening cloud over the treasury. A law of 1874 had appropriated the poll tax to the payment of this class of deficits. This act, though declared unconstitutional by one, was officially estab¬ lished by another decision of the supreme court as constitutional, in August, 1877. This decision annulled the action of Superintendent Thompson in ordering the poll tax to be included in the fund available for school support and deprived the schools of this important addition to the general appropria¬ tion. The superintendent recommends that the law of 1874 be repealed and that some plan be arranged by the legislature for the payment of the debt. He also urges the ratification of the constitutional amendment authorizing the laying of a State tax for education of 2 mills on the dollar, the avails to be held by the treasurer of each county and paid out for the support of its own schools. This plan, although different from that usually adopted in the North, in which the avails of State taxation are distributed per capita or otherwise among the entire school population, seems to have been as far as the people of this State could be persuaded to go under the circumstances prevailing in 1877. During the political campaign of 187G both the political parties were pledged to the liberal support of a public school system. The constitutional amendment authorizing the tax had been indorsed by a popular vote of 25 to 1 at a subsequent election. The superintendent accordingly urges its ratification by the general asseml)ly. The amount raised under it would not be excessive. It would juake the school fund, exclusive of the poll tax, not over $250,000 the next year. Allowing the meager salary of $30 per month for the 3,0G8 teachers of the 123,085 pupils in the schools, $02,000 a month will be needed to pay the teachers’ salaries alone. The passage of an act similar to the lavv" in force in Charleston, permitting all incorporated towns to levy additional taxes for the support of schools, was recommended. The superintendent boldly declares that many of the county commissioners “ are unequal to the task which they have to perform. The boards of trustees appointed by such school commissioners are generally unfit for their duties.” The State superintendent ” had no power to remove any school officer for any cause.” Dr. Barnas Sears, general agent of the Peal)ody education fund, had made a grant of $200 to pay the expenses and board of certain persons assisting in the revision of the school laws of the State. These were six in number, and were all men of learning and ability, summoned by the State superintendent for tlie purpose stated. For three days they went over the ground, with the result that a new law was framed, which proved a great agency in the progress of the schools. Superintendent Thompson in all his remarks on the past enforces the fact that, with all its defects and too often deplorable infirmities, the COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900. 10 3 3 comiiioii school system established in 1867 was a great and good new departure for the public. Despite the inexperience and often questionable policy of the legislature of the reconstruction period, and especially the overdoing of the entire movement by officials who had no practical knowledge of the affairs of the State, it already in those troubled years had lifted the school attendance from 25,000 to 123,000, appropriated a sum of $200,000 to $300,000 annually, called into being several thousand schools, and summoned 3,000 young people of the Commonwealth to the responsible post of teachers of the children. After a careful estimate of the value of every provision, aided by a consideration of the laws of other States in all sections of the Union, a new school law was framed which was subsequently enacted by the legislature without material alteration, and which, with occasional amendments, has been retained for years past as the foundation for the school system of South Carolina. The main provisions in which the new school law differed from the old were : (1) The change of the old State board of education to a State board of exam¬ iners, composed of the State superintendent of education and four persons appointed by the governor with consent of the senate. To this board large pow¬ ers were assigned, making it a central board with power to interpret the school laws and enforce its decisions. (2) The law requiring the payment for school books by the State was omitted. (3) The taking of the special census of school children by the local school authorities was left out and reliance placed on the national and the State general census. (4) Important changes in the manner of paying the county school commissioners were made. (5) County boards of examiners vrere to be appointed by the State board of examiners, and not by the county commissioners. Each county board of examiners was to consist of the county school commissioner and two additional members appointed by the State board from men “ competent to teach a first-grade school.” This board of county examiners was required to examine all teachers, to divide the county into school districts, and appoint three school trustees for each district for two years. (G) The district trustees should take the management and control of the local educational interests of the district, subject to the supervision of the county board of examiners. (7) The poll tax should be disbursed in the dis¬ trict where it was collected. Here was a law which, as far as protection from the abuses of the past was concerned, was a great check against plunder and incompetency in official places. Indeed, it was a great thing even to get on the ground a free-school law for white pupils alone, much more for all the children of the State. This law, as already stated, was adopted by the legislature substantially as framed by the superintendent, and remained, with occasional changes, the school law of the Commonwealth until 1896. Under it the State has grovrn up to the establish¬ ment of a broader and more effective educational policy. In 1877 the scholastic population, 6 to 16, was reported to be 228,128 — 83,813 white and 144,315 colored — but the returns are declared to be ” very defective.” There were 437 school districts and 2,483 public sqIiooIs ; 11 counties reported an increase and 21 a decrease during the year 1877. The school attendance was 102,396, a loss of 20,689 for the year, largely in the colored pupils ; 2,674 teach¬ ers were employed, 1,725 white and 949 colored, only 957 of first grade. The average salary was $28.32 for male and $26.87 for female teachers per month, ranging from $121.66 for males and $39.23 for females in Charleston city to $7.55 for male and $6.13 for female teachers in Oconee County. Only 2,546 pupils are reported as pursuing the “ higher branches.” The average school term was three months ; 2 counties had five and 1 county one ; the city of Charleston ten months. Only 25 new schoolliouses had been erected, 13 of which were log, but “ information concerning schoolhouses was very incom- 1034 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. plete.” The school receipts for the pear were ^180,352 (excluding poll tax) and the expenditure $226,020.02. The city of Charleston had a revenue of $64,202.19 and levied a local tax of 14 mills on the dollar, yielding $53,965. Its school attendance was 6,713, about equally divided by race ; 401 pupils in the higher branches. Such was the condition when the new superintendent, Thompson, assumed the duties of the office, which he administered with such conspicuous ability for six years, during 3 terms of two years each, and from which he was promoted to a service of 2 terms (four years) as governor of South Carolina, followed by a period of service in the National Government, as assistant United States treasurer and chairman of the United States Civil Service Commission, from v/hich he retired to an important position in a life insurance company in the city of New York. At the opening of his second report, dated November 25, 1878, the superintendent declares that daring the past year the public school system of the State has made gratifying progress. “ While the results v’hich have been accomplished may not yet be fully apparent, it is believed that an examination of what has been done will encourage the friends of public education.” He claims, as evidences of progress, (1) the provision of the constitution requiring a tax of 2 mills on the dollar for the schools; (2) the new school law, approved March 22, 1878; (3) the increased attendance on the public schools, 116,239, being 13,843 bej'ond that of the year 1877 ; (4) the adoption of a uniform sys¬ tem of text-books by the State board of examiners; (5) the interest which the teachers are showing in their work gives promise of greater usefulness in the future; (6) the management of the school funds has been better than at any previous period; (7) the formation of a State board of examiners has created a new era in puljlic school affairs, since only in this way can be obtained a body of teachers under the control of the State authority com])etent to preside over a State educational system. The executive wisdom of the superintendent is apparent in his plain statement of ” some of the obstacles in the way of rapid progress,” These are, (1) the results of popular election for school commis¬ sioners; (2) the indifference in some localities to education and prejudice against public schools; (3) the delay in the collection of the school tax; (4) lack of nornml schools — “ normal schools for training teachers must be estab¬ lished before the public school system can be made to do all the good it is capa¬ ble of doing; ” (5) the insufficiency of the school fund. Superintendent Thompson followed the precedent set by Horace Maim, of Massachusetts, and Superintendent Ruffner, of Virginia, in devoting a good por¬ tion of each of his annual reports to a discussion of the subject of common school education and answering the oft-repeated disparagement of the system. With a majority of 200,000 colored population less than twenty years emanci¬ pated from chattel slavery, the State of Soutli Carolina should have at heart but one supreme problem — to find out the most expeditious method of lifting at least an influential minority of this vjv^t body into the range of the new American civilization offered them by the National Government. The superin¬ tendent in his third report (1878-79) asserts that ” tlie improvement in the schools for the colored iwpulation has been specially marked.” He shows that while during the period of reconstruction, from 1869 to 1876, the average school attendance of the colored pupils was 41,691, their average attendance during Ins administration from 1876 had risen to 60,723, an increase of more than 45 per cent. A notable instance of this enlightened policy of encouraging negro education is set forth in the city of Charleston. In 1867 the Morris street public school was opened for colored pupils, the members of the school board Iteing leading citizens of Charleston. The attendance previous to 1870 at no time exceeded 900. During the period from 1871 to 1879 the attendance had in« COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, 1863-1900. 1035 creased to 1,400, with an average attendance of 93 per cent, under 26 teachers.’ The white principal of the school was a distinguished ex-officer of the Confed¬ erate anny, and the remaining teachers, white, were all natives of the city and State, Before the earthquake the city of Charleston taxed itself a larger rate on the dollar for education than many of the leading cities of the North, although still not able to reach more than half the school population. In addi¬ tion to this, the superintendent called attention to the fact that the only institu¬ tion for the higher education in South Carolina which then received State aid was Claflin University and College of Agriculti;re, devoted solely to the educa¬ tion of the colored race, subsidized l3y |7,500 aiinualiy. Here, during the three terms, an average of ISO pupils were instructed by a corps of chiefly white teachers, two of whom were natives of the State. The superintendent calls attention to the fact that “ during the past year the public school cause has attracted unusual attention ” at public meetings and in the press. He devotes a considerable space in his report for 187S-79 to answer¬ ing the popular objections to the system. The objectors he divides into three cla,sses : (1) Those who deny the right of the State to control education; (2) those who object to public school education; (3) those opposed to the system then adopted. Tie points to the schools of Charleston and Winnsboro in the State as illustrations of what the public schools had already accomplished in South Carolina and are accomplishing on a more extended scale in other States. A reliable table is published showing the method of support of the public school system in 27 States of the Union, in 23 of them the local tax income being greatly in excess of all received from State taxation or from other funds. Another table gives the exjienditiire per capita of the school population and of the average attendance. Another plea is put in for the establishment and support of a State normal school. An unappropriated fund could be made available to some extent, and the agent of the Peabody education fund would contribute 85,000. The Claflin University for colored students was already shaping its course of study in the direction of normal training. The public school attendance had increased 6,224 during the year. The year 1880 closed the second term of two years of the administration of the educational affairs of the State by Superintendent Thompson. He improves the opportunity to set forth the progress already made since 1876, including an increase of 31,676 in school attendance; the doubling of the State school fund and its improved management and disbursement; one-half month added to the school term ; 407 additional teachers employed and 490 additional schools establtshed ; good progress in the payment of the indebtedness of $210,000 owed by the counties to their teachers, chiefly through the diversion of a portion of the poll tax to this purpose; the State school tax of 2 mills established; a new school law enacted ; a uniform series of text-books prescribed ; a steady improvement in the teaching force, and the payment of teachers’ salaries at the par value of their certificates of payment. All this could be honestly claimed as the results of his administration of four years. The most important new departure of this year was an effort, more vigorous than before, to increase the value of the education imparted and to stimulate the demand for more by the improvement of the quality of the teachers, which became a notable characteristic of the administration of Superintendent Thomp¬ son. In 1880 Doctor Sears, agent of the Uealwdy education fund, offered $1,000 to be expended for teachers’ institutes. It vras wisely concluded to expend this sum in the organization of a State institute for the white teachers of the Com¬ monwealth, at the city of Spartanburg. The faculty of Wofford College gave the free use of its buildings, and the people of that interesting city welcomed the coming of the teachers with the hospitality characteristic of the State. Dr. F. 1036 EDUCATION REPOKT^ 1904. Louis Soldaii, the principal of the Missouri State Normal School, subsequently superintendent of the public schools of St. Louis, Mo., \Yas the principal of the institute. Prof. E. S. Joynes, of the State university of Tennessee, at Knox¬ ville; Mr. Henry P. Archer, afterwards superintendent of the public schools of Charleston, and others were engaged in the work of instruction. The amount paid these gentlemen was barely sufficient to cover their expenses, and their united work was in the best sense “a labor of love” for the teachers. In connection with the course of instruction, both academical and professional, and lectures by the faculty of the institute, there was offered a series of valu¬ able popular addresses by several of the leading educators and public men of the State. It is difficult to estimate the influence of this new departure, which had already been taken in several States of the South, but had an especial signifi¬ cance in South Carolina. The greatest obstacle, as has already been stated, to the development of the common schools of the State was the absence of any common educational public opinion and cooperation ; the exaggerated idea of personal, local, district, county, and city independence that looked askance at all attempts at concentration, even in a matter so important as the schooling of the children for good citizenship. Under these circumstances such meetings as were called and held year by year by the State superintendent were of ex¬ traordinary importance, as they instructed the professional and amateur teach¬ ing force of the Commonwealth in the great art of ” working together for good.” During the month of October, 1880, a county institute for colored teachers was held in the city of Charleston, under the supervision of Bishop P. F. Stevens, the school commissioner of the county. The entire outfit of the State of South Carolina at this time for the higher education was confined to 8 institutions of proper college grade, including the South Carolina College of Agriculture and ^Mechanics, at Columbia, and the Claflin IJnivei-sity for colored students, at Orangeburg. Five of these institu¬ tions were in connection with the different religious botlies of the State. With the addition of several female seminaries of the better sort there were 12 col¬ leges. In addition to these there were 49 public academies or high schools, 81 private academies or high schools, 208 private elementary schools, and 2,973 connected with the public system of the State. In 1881 the State school fund had reached the sum of .?452,000. The average school term was three and two- thirds months; in 1 county, six; in 5, from five to five and three-fourths; in 5 from four to four and two-thirds; in 15, from three to three and three-fourths, and in 0 from two to two and one-half months. School attendance remained about as during the preceding year. All the favorable indications mentioned in former years could be repeated at this time. In Dr. ,T. L. IM. Curry, the successor of Doctor Sears in the general agency of the Pea])ody education fund, the State of South Carolina found an able and zealous friend and cooperator with the State authorities. With the aid of a State appropriation added to the constant donation from the Peabody fund a second State institute was held in the city of Greenville under the same able supervision as the first. Professor Soldan and Doctor Joynes labored during four weeks in the buildings of the Furman University in that city. There were 335 teachers enrolled; nearly all the counties of the State were represented; 270 persons were in attendance on several of the morning exercises. A corre¬ sponding institute for colored teachers was held at Columbia, the capital city, during the four weeks of July, which was attended by 200, under the direction of Mr. H. P. ]Montgomery, of Washington, D. C. The six years closed by the retirement of State superintendent of education. Col. Hugh S. Thompson, who had been for three terms of two years each elected COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900. 10 3 7 to^ that office, in more than one respect should be classed with the memorable periods of service of Horace Mann, of Massachusetts, and Dr. William H. Knffner, of Virginia, as the revival period in the interest of popular education in their respective States. On his retirement in 1882 the superintendent shows that, since 1876, the number of schools in the State had risen from 2,483 to 3,183 ; the number of teachers had increased from 2,674 to 3,413 in all ; the school attendance had increased from 102,396 to 145,974, the largest number ever attending school in the State. The school fund in 1881 was $452,965.44, an increase in four years of $263,613, and the largest sum ever appropriated for public schools in the Commonwealth. The average length of the school session was four months, a gain of a full month. The average length had suffered from the diversion of a portion of the poll tax to the payment of the deficit of $209,000, besides a number of unpaid claims which were left by the outgoing government of 1867-1876. Twenty-seven counties had resorted to this method of paying off their portion of the debt. At the close of Superin¬ tendent Thompson’s administration there was a deficit of $34,575.13, all save a few small portions dating from the year 1877, the heritage of the then incoming administration. The toniiig-up of the examinations of teachers, the regular payment of their small salaries, and especially the influence of the three State institutes, had succeeded at last in developing a superior class auiong the 3,000 persons engaged in the work of instruction, who henceforth were everywhere in the Common¬ wealth to become a permanent agency for improvement. The third session of the State Teachers’ Institute, held in 1882 at the State capital — Columbia — during the month of August, under the direction of State Superintendent M. A. Newell, of Maryland, was one of the most profitable sessions ever held in South Carolina in behalf of universal education. The legislature had at last been awakened to the importance of this movement, and had appropriated $1,500 for each of the tvco last sessions, supplemented by grants ($1,400 in 1882) from the Peabody education fund. Dr. J. L. IM. Curry, agent. Several county institutes, or rather associations, had meanwhile been held, and a State insti¬ tute for colored teachers had been one of the features of the movement for the elevation of the profession. The establishment of a permanent State school tax was one of the vital achievements of the administration of Superintendent Thompson. It relieved the system from its previous dependence on the members of the legislature for annual appropriations. The constant effort of the superin¬ tendent was to supplement this by a general law, authorizing tlie towns to vote a local tax for graded schools under safe limitations of the suffrage. But this proposition failed, as other good things failed at this time. Two important steps in the development of the higher education were taken during the closing year of Superintendent Thompson’s administration — the reorganization of the South Carolina College at Columbia, and of the State Military Academy at Charleston. The South Carolina College had been partially reopened in ISSO and supported exclusively by the income of the agricultural and mechanical college land fund donated by Congress in 1862, but with a very limited attendance. During the session of 1882 the general assembly voted a provision that raised this old and important college to its former condition, and a similar appropriation for the opening of the State Military Academy gave to the trustees the power to place that school on even a wider basis than ever before ; the United States Government had withdrawn from its occupation of the citadel buildings, and the school once more resumed its accustomed work. In addition to these tvN'o State institutions for the white and a third for the colored race, there were now six colleges for white students and a variety of academical schools, in some respects better than ever before. The superin- 1038 EDUCATION E.EPOET, 1904. tondent visited officially nine of the comities, including the leading cities of the State, during his closing year, 1S81-82. The Peabody fund gave to South Caro¬ lina $5,375 for the year 1881-82; $2,150 of this went to the public schools; $1,400 for teachers’ institutes; $1,575 for scholarships at Hampton (colored), and at Nashville (white) ; and $250 for Claflin University (colored). The record of the State teachers’ normals for 1882 fills 24 pages in the final report of Superintendent Thompson, fairly crowded with readable matter for the benefit of teachers and the enlightenment of the iieople. Especially was this true of the long and elaborate report of Superintendent Newell, who was never more in his element than at the head of one of the.summer schools in Virginia, North Carolina, or South Carolina. Dr. E. S. Joynes still holds the professor¬ ship of English literature in the South Carolina College. The colored normal at Columbia was again under the direction of Prof. H. P. Montgomery. In his farewell to his official position. Superintendent Thompson writes: “ Popular education in South Carolina is no longer an experiment. The results already accomplished have amply repaid the State for all the money expended in the effort to establish a system of public schools. A public school system can not be created ; it must be the result of watchful care, of persistent trial, and of perpetual labor. Now that the foundation has l>een laid, the friends of P'opular education may look forward with confidence to the steady development of a school system which through all the coming years shall extend its manifold ^ blessings to the people of South Carolina.’’ A fair estimate of the condition of popular education in the year 1882 will Mastify the claim of the retiring superintendent. Hon. Hugh S. Thompson. In 1882 the State had finally made up its mind to the constant and increasing sup¬ port of common schools for both races and all classes, by a State tax levied by the counties and expended within county limits for the oleiiientary schools of both races, by legislation for the imposing of a local tax to support gradeil schools with high school annex in a number of villages and cities, and by the annual support of institutions for white and colored students and also of teachers’ institutes for both races. The teaching force had been so improved by the reformed examinations, reliable payment of salaries, and attendance up'on the three important State institutes, that in many cities and villages could have been found a group of teachers filled with enthusiasm, eager to profit by every opportunity, and assuming logical leadership for the mass of their asso¬ ciates. South Carolina is the only State that even for a time has included a colored seminary as a department of the State University while under the conduct of its own people, and no southern city has done more in proportion to its means for the schooling of the colored race than Charleston. But still, in 1882, the free graded school, forming the department of secondary instruction, had made but little progress in South Carolina. Outside the half a dozen larger cities of the Commonwealth the public schools of the towns and villages were under the control of the county authorities, and little better in quality and length of school term than in the rural districts. Even the city of Columbia, the capi¬ tal, early in 1882, had voted against the establishment of a system of graded common schools, although two years later it adopted and organized a system that placed the State capital alongside of Charleston as an educational center. This movement increased steadily, so that during the following ten years the majority of the considerable towns in the State were supporting a. graded system of schools. The university at Columbia had not yet risen to the height of its former position, although receiving the income of the agricultural and mechanical col¬ lege land-grant fund. As an accomplished fact, the steps taken toward higher education in South Carolina in 1880-1800 were bnt the beginning of a movement which was bound to bring forth fruit at a later period. As an illustration of COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900. 10 3 9 what a generation of educational leaders could do under conditions tlie most discouraging, the status of education at tliis point was a spectacle full of hope and cheer. The people of the State of both races had fixed their minds and hearts on the enjoyment of the blessings that attend universal education, indus¬ trial, social, and religious, and no side-tracking of any great interest by a tri¬ fling political policy and no aggression from any class of its people could perma¬ nently hope to hold back its Commonwealth from this great agency of American civilization. During the next four years, 188*2-1886, the educational interests of the State of South Carolina were cared for by Mr. Asbury Coward, who succeeded Super¬ intendent Thompson, v ho was promoted to the oflice of governor. Mr. Covrard, with commendable modesty, declares in the opening sentences of his first report that “ on taking up the duties of the office of State superintendent of education 1 entered upon an unlrnovrn held. The school law, the precedents established under it, and the details of its working had to be studied by iiie for the first time, and this work has hindered to a considerable extent the free¬ dom of action and feeling of confidence necessary to the successful discharge of all the functions of the office.” But this disclaimer simply tells the people that their new superintendent of education was not a lawyer or a politician. He was an educator of established reputation in the nortliwestern portion of the State — the Piedmont country — from which almost every educational leader for the previous half century had come ; the manager of a well-known classical and academical high school, an eloquent public speaker, and a thorough, de¬ voted, and untiring worker in the cause of universal education. He does not hesitate to disclaim all merit for the success of -the schools dur¬ ing the opening jmar of his service, but lauds “ the wise and energetic adniinis- tration of my distinguished predecessor.” It was, indeed, a great blessing, not only to the incoming superintendent, but to the State, that the governor’s chair for four years was filled by the man who had practically established the system of public schools, and was responsible for what was best in it, and had put on record the history of its development. The record of the administration of Superintendent Coward during the four years from 1883 to 1887 bears witness to the conflict between the warring elements of progress and reaction. The more hopeful signs were the increasing determination of the people of the State to support an effective sj^stem of public education for their children, to develop the system along the lines of the American common school in every gratle from the plantation primary to the State university, and to continue to extend to the children of the freedmen the same opportunities offered to the v-ffiite children. In 1S82-83 the enrollment in all the schools was 173,095, a gain of 27,121 over the previous year. The school sessions had been held an average of four months. The cost per pupil vras less that 82.50. The increase in the number of schools was 86 ; in school houses, 104, and in the number of teachers, 81. The superintendent rightly declares that where the schools have proved a failure it has been due “ to the iliiberality and narrovv prejudices of the com¬ munity or to the incapacity and want of loyalty on the part of the officials who have assumed the charge of the local administration of the school law.” The superintendent recommends that the teachers’ course in the College of South Carolina be further developed, and that in Claflin College the normal depart¬ ment be given State aid, in order to better meet the grovring demand for pro¬ fessional training for the teachers of laoth races. The State board of examiners adopted the excellent works. Methods of Teaching, by John Swett, superintend¬ ent of the public schools of California and city superintendent of San Fran¬ cisco, and the Art of School Management, by Dr. J. Baldwin, the veteran of nor- 1040 EDUCATION KSPOET_, 1904. mal school instruction in the three States of Indiana, Missouri, and Texas, as books of reference in the preparation of teacliers. There had been a decided increase of students in the three institutions grouped together as the State University, namely, the College of South Carolina at Columbia, the Clatlin College for colored students at Orangeburg, and the State Military Academy at Charleston. Meanwhile the attendance on the other colleges of the State had not diminished. The superintendent was impressed by the commencement at the Clatlin College for colored youth, and believed that institution to be a great agency in the “ best and truest development of the colored citizens of the State.” In 1882-83 tJie chief support of the two colleges of the State University was derived directly from the funtl of 1862, specially appropriated by the General Government for the maintenance of agricultural and mechanical colleges. Recommendations of the superintendent included the standard suggestions concerning some way of increasing the funds, lengthening the school term, appointing rather than electing the State superintendent and commissioners, increasing their terms of service to four years, and giving better compensation to the county officials. The county institute is commended as bringing the benefits of the State institute within reach of a larger number of teachers. A limitation of the school age to G to 16, with a provision for compulsory school attendance for at least twenty-four months, is suggested. The Universiy of South Carolina in its three institutions was well cared for by a board of trustees, consisting of the governor. State superintendent of education, three judges of the supreme court, the two chairmen of the committees on education in the general assembly, two gentlemen representing the State Agricultural and Mechanical Association and the State Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, respectively, and seven elected members. The president of the South Carolina College was ]Mr. John M. :McP>ryde, one of the most competent educators among the coming men of the South. Col. J. P. Thomas was superintendent of the ]M i 1 i ta ry Aca demy. Notwithstanding the adverse circumstances of short crops, a severe winter, and an unusual financial stringency, added to a revival of the opposition to the common school waked up by the discussion of national aid to education. Superintendent Coward is happy in 1883-84 to announce “ that the steady progress of tlie work has been in nowise checlced. The great heart of the Com¬ monwealth has adopted the public schools ; the great movement has acquired too much momeiitum to be stopped by threadbare theories or caviling criticisms. The spirit of progress has lifted the living present above the prejudices of the past.” There had been the unusual increase of 12,524 pupils, with an increase of average attendance of 3,118, in number of teachers of 190, and in number of schools of 213, with a four months’ average length of school term. “A spirit of professional pride has been developed in a large number of teachers,” shown by ” improved methods of teaching and discipline.” The symmetry of the school lav/ was being endangered by the practice of granting privileges of vari¬ ous sorts to local schools, through special acts of the legislature, and the super¬ intendent puts in the plea for a general law authorizing local taxation for graded schools under proper limitations. In his third report, the seventeenth of the annual series, for 1885, Superin¬ tendent Coward enumerates the special features of what lie regards a general condition of unchecked progress. These are, a higher standard for teachers, better schoolhouses built, a truer appreciation of the importance of school work, more regular and punctual school attendance, and an increasing resolution to supplement the school fund by voluntary contributions or local taxation for a longer term, and all that makes for improvement. It is unnecessary to refer COMMOiT SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAKOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1041 to the continued protest of the highest executive official of public education against the chronic weakness from the instability of official life in the county school commissioners, and against their selection by immediate popular election. Such evils as were ingrafted into the constitution and school laws of the State were certain in time to so impair the general usefulness of the entire system that a reactionary movement was at any time imminent. The superintendent speaks with encouragement of the increasing interest in the higher education, both in the State institutions and those under denominational and other control, and enters his protest against the separation of the State University from con¬ nection with the management of the common schools. This year the State board of examiners turned a new screw on the examination of teachers, requir¬ ing 80 per cent for a first-grade certificate, 70 for a second, GO for a third, and not less than 40 in any one branch. The State institute for white teachers in 1883 was held in Charleston, with Mr. Henry P. Archer, afterwards city superin¬ tendent, as princii^al. Dr. F. Louis Soldan was a visiting lecturer. The veteran friend of common school education in the city, Hon. C. G. Memminger, Mayor Courtenay, and other well-known friends of the schools, were on hand with a cordial welcome. The important subject of manual training came to the front in this institute. Governor Thompson made an address, closing with the memorable words “ The teachers of this country are the peace army of the Republic.” The legislature enacted that no persons under the age of G should be entitled to free education in the public schools. The superintendent asks for the privi¬ leges of the floor of the legislature during debate on measures introduced by himself. The general fact seems to be that, outside of half a dozen of the lead¬ ing cities and towns of the State, the rural schools were going on with little hope of immediate help for the chronic disability of short terms, crowded enroll¬ ment, and the other common hindrances to education in the open country. Although the University of South Carolina did not report in detail to the State superintendent, the general facts concerning its condition were published in his report. The annual cost of education for a student of the South Carolina College was $149, and 184 students were in attendance. Claflin University reports gain in the educational outfit, an attendance of 405. The venerable Doctor Cooke, under whose able and devoted administration this useful institution had risen to be one of the best of its sort in the South, had retired, and Rev. L. M. Dun- ton had been elected to the presidency. Gen. George D. Johnson had succeeded Colonel Thomas as the superintendent of the military academy at Charleston. In his closing report for 188G Superintendent Coward speaks of a steady progress in the common schools of the State since the year 1S7G. The average attendance had risen from 101, 81G in 1882 to 12G,G9G in 188G ; the teaching force from 3,413 to 3,835 ; the number of schools from 3,183 to 3,GG0. During the year 188G there had been 183, 9GG enrolled, of whom 12G,G9G, nearly G9 per cent, were in average daily attendance for three and one-half months. The number and quality of schoolhouses was increasing. There were 34 special school districts empowered to levy a supplemental tax in 188G, against 14 in 1882, and the desire for the establishment of the well-organized graded school system was widening and deepening year by year. Since the inauguration of this movement in tlie city of Columbia 10 of the leading towns of the State had follovred in the establishment of graded schools, and this meant much more than better schools for the places thus supplied — namely, the consequent growth from the acquisi¬ tion of good people from the surrounding country districts. Each well-conducted graded school in Soujth Carolina became a new educational center and object lesson for the county. A reduction of the taxable property in the State to the ED 1904 M - 66 1042 EDUCATION EEPOET; 1904. extent of $5,500,000 caused a loss of $11,000 to the common school income of the year. The legislature of 1885 had made several amendments to the school laws. I’he first was a provision that no examination for a teacher’s certificate should be required of any person who could present a diploma from any chartered col¬ lege or university certifying to his proficiency in the common school studies. The second had struck out the provision for a j’early examination, making every certificate good for two years, to be renewed at the discretion of a local board of examiners with or without examination. Thirdly, the examiners were to serve without compensation. The superintendent protests that the second of these changes, if it remains in force, “ will soon destroy the patient efforts of the State board of examiners during the last ten years to build up the profes¬ sional pride and increase the efficiency of the teachers ; ” and this, “ in connec¬ tion with the third change, will eventually destroy the most important func¬ tions of the county boards.” The provision enforced on the College of South Carolina and the South Carolina Idilitary Academy, that every student enjoying a free scholarship should be recpiired to teach in the common schools of the county from which he was appointed two j^ears after graduation, could not be carried into effect, as the appointment of teachers rested solely with the district trustees. The manager of the State institutes for teachers returned to the original practice of placing this important service under the control of a distin¬ guished educator from abroad, and this year invited Dr. A. J. Kickoff, the former superintendent of schools in Cleveland, Ohio, and in Yonkers, N. Y., but at that time engaged in the work of making schoolbooks, who, with his accomplished wife, Mrs. Rebecca D. Kickoff, also Dr. L. R. Klemm, of Hamilton, Ohio, and Prof. C. L. Floyd, of Atlanta, Ga., and others, had conducted this meeting. A daily attendance of 250 to .300 and a large additional evening audience was the result. The colored institute was held at Columbia, under the presidency of Mr. M. A. '\Yarren, of Connecticut, remembered as the principal of the State normal school during the period of reconstruction. The State superintendent made special visits this year to IG counties, giving addresses in 11. The Pea¬ body education fund appropriated $11,500 to the State. In bidding farewell to his office in ISSG Superintendent Coward bears testi¬ mony to the aid of the board of examiners in constant support of his efforts. The attendance of the College of South Carolina had risen to 213, and a new department of meclianics had been added to its industrial branch. Claflin reports 410 i)upils, with an average attendance of 303, all but 3 counties in the State being represented. The retirement of Superintendent Coward, after his four years' term, left the common schools well along in the progressive stage of suc¬ cess. After sixteen years, tlie first eight under the reconstruction policy, the system had been practically adopted by the people of the State, and in the face of a faulty school law, legislative indifference, the jealousies and prejudices of locality, and the incessant though every year less aggressive opposition of its enemies, it had made creditable progress. Indeed, Charleston, for a city of its population, in 1SS7 could not be exceeded as a center of education by any city in the Southern Atlantic or Gulf States. The city of Columbia had entered on a very successful career of graded school instruction, so good that it speedily absorbed all the leading private schools for white girls in the city. At an early period the girls’ high school was associated with a free training school for teachers, which was later incorporated by the legislature, receiving the first appropriation in the State for the higher schooling of white girls, whereby two pupils from each county were entitled to free instruction. In due time this school opened up to the normal and industrial college for white girls, established at Rock Hill, in the northwestern portion of the State, one of the most impor- COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAKOLINA^ 1863-1900. 1043 tant institutions for the education of girls in tlie Southern States, and still under the presidencj" of President D. B. Johnson, During the twelve years following the retirement of Col. Asbury Coward from the office of State superintendent of education, held by him for four years, the position of superintendent was occupied by only two men, Mr. James H. Rice, from 1S87 to 1890, and Mr. W. D. Mayfield, from 1891 to 1898. The office of governor was held from 1887 to 1890 by Hon. John Peter Richardson, from 1890 to 1894 by lion. B. R. Tillman, from 1894 until 1890 by Hon. John Gary Evans, and from 1890 until 1898 by Hon. William H. Ellerbe. The closing decade of the century was ushered in by a radical political change in the ex-Confederate States, especially the southwestern and those of the Atlantic coast, in which South Carolina was the most conspicuous leader. Until the year 1800 the polit¬ ical power of all the slave States had been to a great extent monopolized and all public offices held by the representatives of the slaveholding class. It was inevitable that' not only was the possession of tlie vast property of these Common¬ wealths in the handsdargely of thfe class, but here was also located the aggre¬ gated supremacy in education, and in social, ecclesiastical, and administrative ability. But although this formidable body of people had been greatly depleted by the war and their property almost annihilated bj* the abolition of slavery, yet until 1890, for almost fifteen years after the complete restoration of political autonomy to the reconstructed States in 1S7G, the younger generation of this class, trained in the armies and in the affections of the Confederate soldieiy, were retained in the administration of State and national offices. There are no very reliable statistics concerning the per cent of illiteracy among the nonslaveholding classes previous to the outbreak of the civil war, but from various indirect sources of information and the assertions of the representatives of the general educational public in all these States, many of whom were among the most emi¬ nent public characters of the South, it must have been very large. From 1870, the practical beginning of the new public school movement in the 11 ex-Con- federate States, educational initiative and administration were in the hands of the class that had always been distinguished Iw -superior cultivation. It was only too apparent after 18G5 that the American common school system was the only, practical method of recruiting even the educational ranks of the families who were superior before the war. Fevc of the colleges of these States had resumed their functions and but few of the impoverished families had the means to educate their children in the higher class of schools. The educated women of many of the most distinguished families were also compelled to resort to some means of self-support, and the common schools opened at once a large number of positions to them. Outside the great effort for the schooling of the colored freedmen, assisted by the foremost people of the North and the nation, the negro really owed all the public schooling that was given him to the old master class ; and as long as this class held the reins of popular affairs he was reasonably sure of this agencj" for his elevation to responsible citizenship. During the twenty-five years from the close of the war to 1890 there had been a great upward movement also among the masses of the white southern people. The four years spent in the war had been to the soldiery of the Con¬ federate armies a great university, carrying more than half a million of the young men farther from home than their fathers had ever wandered and intro¬ ducing them to all the IG States of the South. At the close of the war they were, in fact, the chief gainers from the great change in the social organization of the Commonwealth. Large quantities of good land came into the market, and the number of farmers was doubled, even in some instances quadrupled, especially in the States of the Southwest. The children of the old soldiers were able during these years to gain at least the elements of learning even 1044 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. from the country district school of three months in the year, and many of these youth pushed upward and soon crowded the halls of the old-time semi¬ naries and colleges. It was inevitable that the time would soon come when the natural ambition of the people, always largely turned upon public life, should be manifested by the superior youth of this class coming forward with their claim to the enjoyment of political opportunities and functions. In South Carolina the up-country people for half a century had regarded them¬ selves as deprived of their rightful places in the government of the State, the distinction wrought by the property qualifications for representation in the general assembly throwing the power into the hands, practically, of a small minority of people on the seaboard. So it was only to be expected that in South Carolina, the most intense and revolutionary of the IG Southern States, this movement would begin. Virginia was only saved from it by the seces¬ sion of the entire western part of the State at the outbreak of the war and its organization into a new Commonwealth, which at once inaugurated a move¬ ment for a complete common school system in 1805. In South Carolina, practi¬ cally, in 1890, the movement had been inaugurated under the leadership of the Farmers’ Grange, but really as an independent undertaking by the majority of the white people, to help themselves to the emoluments and opportunities of public life. Chief among the leaders of this movement was Mr. B. R. Tillman, a man of large endowed native ability and great power of leadership of such a constituency. Already during the four years of office of State Superintendent James H. Rice, the successor of Supt. Asbury Coward, and one of the most devoted and inde¬ fatigable educators of the State, a question had come up which boded no good for the present administration. The son-in-law of John C. Calhoun, Mr. Clemson, still resided on the ancestral property in Oconee County, in the western portion of the State. The estate was not largely available, neither was it in good condition nor with valuable buildings, but such as it was its owner offered it to the State, with a considerable sum of money, for the estab¬ lishment of an agricultural and mechanical school, supported by the Congres¬ sional land fund of 1862, on condition that his own terms of organization be accepted. In connection with this offer a lively debate came up in every educational circle. The University of South Carolina consisted of the old South Carolina College at Columbia, the military academy at Charleston, and the Claflln University for colored youth, named from the father of Gov¬ ernor Claflin, of Massachusetts. These three institutions were governed by the same board of trustees. The income from the agricultural and mechanical land fund was divided between the white and colored people ; the portion for the former going to the South Carolina College, which, under the administra¬ tion of President McBryde and an able faculty, had largely regained its old position and increased its capacity for usefulness. But it was not difficult to wake up a jealousy against this institution among the masses, who had little interest in such a college and were also not specially inclined to encourage the union of the white and colored institutions under one board of university trustees. The name of Calhoun was a spell to charm with, and the closing years of the administration of Superintendent Rice were troubled by this debate, that was only an overture to the general movement for a complete reor¬ ganization of the political life of the State. It is not the purpose of this essay to discuss the merits or demerits of the remarkable movement which, after 1890, effected a change in the government of the State. The fact of this overturn of the master class in southern affairs, beginning in South Carolina and steadily capturing every Southern State, will appear in history as one of the inevitable results of the great civil war, and COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA^ 1863-1900. 10 4 5 undoubtedly as a great element in the development of these Commonwealths. From the year 1890 the history of popular education in the State of South Car¬ olina will only be well understood in connection with the fact that Ihe legis¬ lature was administered by the representatives of the new “ third estate.” Much of the present misunderstanding of southern affairs, educational, social, industrial, and political, is owing to the confused notion of this great reaction at the close of the first generation after the close of the civil war, which is fraught with results as important as the more violent and radical events of the war period. According to the message of Governor Richardson in 1887, the public debt of South Carolina amounted to $0,400,000, a portion of which, $277,000, was of questionable character. By the constitution and law the entire debt was to be readjusted in 1893, The governor believed the State capable of entering the markets of the world and making a favorable loan at 4 or 44 per cent inter¬ est. He referred to the subject of lands forfeited to the State for nonpayment of taxes, already to the large amount of 1,054,252 acres. The failure to pay taxes had added 100,155 acres to this vast domain during the past year. All previous efforts to arrest this deficiency by legislation only exaggerated the evil. In regard to the public schools the governor, evidently heartily in sympathy with public education, bears testimony to his predecessor. Governor Thompson, as “ an educator as well as a statesman,” lie gives a favorable view of the progress of the school system. He urges “ local taxation to supplement the school fund wherever the taxpayers of a community desire the establishment .of schools of a higher grade, and liberal efforts should be made by the legislature to give greater facilities for the training of teachers in schools specially adapted to that end.” The nineteenth annual report of the State superintendent of education, the first of Supt. James H. Rice, reports the favorable condition of the common school interests of the State. The new superintending broom had swept clean. During the year the superintendent had visited every county of the State and addressed the people on the great question. He returns to his work convinced that the people “ were more than ever interested.” He endeavors to map out a policy by which the work can go on into a broader and better fulfillment. He suggests (1) that there should be a general statute for local taxation and that all school districts sliould be organized under it. (2) The law respecting the election of county^ school commissioners should be changed, taking this impor¬ tant office out of partisan politics. Every county commissioner should pass examination by the State board of examiners before assuming the duties of his office, and, failing to pass this test, the governor should appoint his successor. The salary should be raised to $1,000, and his whole time should be given to edu¬ cational work. (3) A State normal school should be established. The Win- throp Training School, in the city of Columbia, had already begun this work under the direction of Supt. D. B, Johnson and his able assistant. Miss Leonard, of the Bridgewater Normal School, Massachusetts, The board of county ex¬ aminers should have their positions and salaries restored at once. (4) Insti¬ tutes had been held in 10 counties, in 2 under the direction of Dr. L, R. Klemm, of Ohio, The agent of the Feabody fund had donated $10,000 to the State in 1887, besides $4,000 to Charleston in viev/ of the ruin by the recent earth¬ quake. Hon. William A. Courtenay, mayor of the city, had been appointed to a position of trustee of the Peabody educational fund. The school population of South Carolina, as given by the United States census of 1880, was 281,(364, of whom 101,189 were white and 180,475 colored. An increase of 100 during 1887 brings the number of public schools up to 3,760, The public schools of one county had eight months’ session during the 1048 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. year ; 175,017 pupils had been enrolled in 1887, an increase of 8,949, with an average attendance of 120,090 ; 3,994 teachers were working at salaries of 828.70 for men and $25.19 for women; $308,585 were paid to all. The average length of the schools was three and six-tenths months ; the longest term in Charleston, seven and seven-tenths months, and the shortest in Horry, two months, where of the SO scliool houses 6 were log ; 805 of the 3,445 in the State were of this construction, only 105 with inclosed grounds. The total amount for schools in 1880 was $538,253.50, of which $4.53,852.09 was collected during the year, the remainder being unexpended balances from previous years. The higher education not being under the direction of the State superintendent, only the condition of the ordinary schools was reported. The history of the three remaining years of the administration of Superin¬ tendent Rice is virtually a repetition of his first report. During this period of three years of his administration we note the constant increase of enrollment (18,417 in 1888, G,830 in 1889, G,919 in 1890) and the increase in the number of public school-teachers, some 200 in 1899. In 1888 IG county normal insti- • tutes were reported, but in 1889 the superintendent reports that “ for various reasons the institute work is not satisfactory.” The local boards are allowed $200 per annum for his purpose, but only in a few which have an advanced board of examiners have institutes been held, and in some no institute has ever been organized. He urges that the teachers should all be compelled to attend and each county support a summer school of instruction. The popular disaffection was so great with the county commissioners elected by popular vote that the legislature pas.sed a resolution to strike the words ” school commissioner ” from the constitution, but the people had not yet acted upon it. An important move was made in 1888 by the legislature in the estab¬ lishment of a normal school for young men in the South Carolina University. Its head was Dr. E. E. Sheib, son of a Lutheran clergyman and schoolman of Baltimore, INId., educated abroad, and for several years the principal of the State Normal School at Natchitoclies, La. As a conductor of summer schools he had made a favorable impression. The students in this school and in the Winthrop Training School for females were admitted to the lectures of both colleges and to the practice classes of the Winthrop School. The Winthrop School was praised by everybody. The oration at the commencement season m 1888 before it was by INIr. J. P. Kennedy Bryan, son of Judge Bryan, of Charleston, and one of the most promising of the young lawyers and publicists of the State. The establishment of special graded schools by the legislature, supplemented by local taxation, had been going on for four years. Besides the general good word from the increasing efficiency of a class of rural schools there seems to be, in 1890, only a gradual improvement. The closing report of Superintendent Rice in 1890 is not a cheerful document. Apart from the yearly statistics it covers but 4 pages of original matter, and much, of this is by way of criticism of the situation. The public schools, he says in effect, need monej'. There are too many schools. The tendency to mul¬ tiply schools has not been sufficiently guarded hitherto. Under the stress of political influence in every neighborhood schools have been sought and located without regard to the public good. There is a great demand for the right sort of teachers. Eighty-seven trained teachers have been sent out from the 'Win¬ throp Training School at Columbia during the four years of its existence, and it was the best public school in the State in 1890. Fifty State certificates admit as many girls from the different counties to free training in the Winthrop School. It is subsidized by the Peabody education fund and State appropriations, with buildings from the city of Columbia. The institute work demands very careful COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, 1863-1900. 1047 consideration. Tlie meager salaries and delayed payments of them in many cases do not enable the mass of rural teachers to attend. The school commis¬ sioners should have nothing to do with the control of the institutes. It is rec¬ ommended that the whole business of the institutes be placed in the hands of the State superintendent ; that a certain sum be given for this purpose by the State, and a committee of two or more persons be appointed to supervise county work and give support to the State institutes. Superintendent Rice declares ; “ It is idle to have our statute book filled with school laws and place it in the hands of a superintendent with no powers to act. He is overwhelmed with duties and his powers are infinitesimal.” The total amount received for the public schools in 1890 was $527,846.57, a few thousand dollars less than in 1887. There can be no doubt that under the able presidency of Doctor McBryde in the South Caro¬ lina College, Superintendent Johnson in the military college. President Dunton of Clafiin University, and Supt. D. B. Johnson of the Winthrop School, these institutions were doing a more valuable work than at any time before in their history. But the real problem — how to educate the 280,000 children and jmuth betvreeii 6 and 16 years of age, 180,000 of them colored— was not yet settled. The real difficulty was in the people of the State, who clung to their hereditary faith in the localization of all public affairs vrith an inevitable jealousy of anything like concentrated government for any community. The State superintendent was but a respectable figurehead, and only unusual ability, great devotion, and the physical constitution of a giant could enable him to perform the indefinite duties of his position. But, as has been said of a corresponding change in Virginia, the common schools had been found to be such a necessity to the people that no change, however revolutionary or radical, in partisan politics could seriously impair their usefulness, and the changes which were made, all in due time, seem to have worked for the advantage of the children. The superintendent of the common schools in the new State administration, of which Mr. B. R. Tillman for ten years remained the most conspicuous figure, was ]Mr. W. D, IMaj^field. Although younger and less known than any of his predecessors, his long administration of eight years was characterized by sev¬ eral of the most important developments of the educational life of the State, During these years, when party political agitation was stimulated almost to the verge of revolution by the most important change that had come upon the State since the close of the civil war, namely, the elevation of the old nonslave¬ holding white farmer class to the responsible position of administration in all public affairs, the agricultural and mechanical colleges for white and colored pupils were established through the partial absorption or dismemberment of the State university system. The university normal college for white girls was located at Rock Hill. The new constitution of 1895 took a forward step in raising the State tax for education to 3 mills on the dollar, and appropriated several other funds, especially the net income of the liquor dispensary system, to the same use. It also provided that until the fund in its distribution amounted to $3 per capita on school enrollment the State might impose a fur¬ ther tax, and directed that no school should be kept for less than three months in the year. The amended school law provided virtually for a general system of local taxation in all districts for the establishment of graded schools, which opportunity was largely improved. Meanwhile additional power for efficient administration was conferred upon the State superintendent by requiring all the State institutions of the higher education and all the special graded schools to report directly to him. An arrangement was made by which the children could obtain school books at cost prices by purchase through the county com¬ missioner from a somewhat extended list prepared bj^ the State board of exam- 1048 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. iners. The county institutes were gradually improved, while a modified t5'pe of State institute was still preserved. The private and denominational colleges were encouraged to establish chairs of pedagogy by the provision that their normal diplomas should entitle a graduate to full authority to teach. A chair of normal instruction was established, with a class of some 30 students, in the South Carolina College, which admitted women to all its opportunities. The beneficiary graduates of the South Carolina Military Academy at Charleston were held strictly to their obligation to teach two years, and their appointment was urged upon the city boards and local trustees. The enrollment in the public schools in 1898, the closing year of Superintend¬ ent Mayfield’s administration, reached 275,889. At that time there were 550,000 persons of school age — G to 21 — a majority of 150,000 colored. During the eight years the enrollment had increased 72,749, an average of 9,000 each year, the increase of the closing year being 17,706, the largest in the history of the schools. During these years 1,148 schoolhouses had been built at a cost of 8234,743.58, although the trustees of the rural schools were forced to use many inferior private houses. Many buildings owned by the State were declared by the superintendent “ a disgrace to the cause, and but few are wholly sufficient and properly equipped.” The lack could only be supplied by more money, and the local trustees were said to have generally done their best with what was to be had. The financial state of the system had greatly improved, as was confirmed by the steady increase of school expenditure. In 1898 the aggregate was $754,- 741.50, and the average length of the school term was, for the white 4.82, and for the colored 4.20 months. Several of the counties had come to a cash basis and others were approaching it. But the superintendent declares that ” the school fund is too small to provide pro])er schools and continue them a suffi¬ cient length of time. The demand of the people is for better schools and longer terms, and this can not be secured to them witliout more money.” In the opin¬ ion of the superintendent the common school teachers “ will compare favorably with the teachers of any other Southern State.” All the counties save two had supported institutes for teachers in 1898. The agent for the Peabody fund continued to show great interest in the State, and furnished $2,000 for Win- throp College, $700 for Olafiin University, $1,500 for teachers’ institutes, and $850 for the colored schools of Charleston. In the closing words of his official report Superintendent Mayfield writes: “The period 1890-1898 has been one of unusual political agitation and of great financial embarrassment. Our people have encountered hardships and diffi¬ culties that the educational department has had to share with them. Yet a comparison of the statistics of public education to-day with the conditions exist¬ ing in 1890, when the reform faction came into office, would show results in the highest degree gratifying and encouraging to the friends of public education.” That there was a growing interest in popular education was shown by a hasty record of school legislation during this period. As early as 1888 the county treasurers were required by law to carry forwad the unexpended funds of each year to the subsequent year, instead of turning them into the general county treasurer, as had probably been often done. In the last year the sum of $77,250 refunded by the United States Government to the State for the use and injury of the Charleston citadel buildings of the military college was appropriated, $57,000 to rebuilding and $20,000 covered into the State treasury for general use. In the same year separate districts, not only in cities, villages, and chartered towns, but in the open country, were authorized to establish graded schools by local taxation, voted by all who paid a tax on $100, to the extent of 2 mills on the dollar. C0MM0:N schools of south CAROLIHA, 18G3-1900. 10 49 Ill 188S Mr. Thomas G. Clemson, the son-in-law of John C. Calhoun, living on the ancestral estate at Oconee County, near the State border line, died and left a will with a bequest of his estate of 840 acres, ^ Fort Hill plantation, and of his other property, real and personal, with a considerable sum additional, to establish an agricultural college on the place. In 1888-89 the State accepted the bequest, although the gift was accompanied with great commotion in the educational public, especially for its evident relation to the future agitation concerning the State university. The most important of the conditions attached to the bequest was that 7 of the 13 trustees were to be of the donor’s own a])pointment, and they were known to be persons influential in the new political movement. The remainder were to be chosen by the legislature for terms of four years. The studies were to be liberal, but all centered on industrial training. The number of professors to be elected by the trustees was limited to ten. Each student was to be charged $40 tuition, although there was to be a provision for indigent boys. All future bequests from any quarter were to be received without compromising any of these arrangements. The sum of $3,000 was voted for the preparation of ])lans for the buildings. Governor Richardson at first refused to sign the bill in 1888, but it became a law in 1889. The legislature of 1889 appropriated one-half the income of the general land fund of the agricultural and mechanical college to Clemson College, to be under the direction of four of the six trustees elected by the legislature. This grant consumed one-half the sum of $191,800, namely, $95,900, the portion of the fund applied to the education of the whites, invested at G per cent. The other half vrent to Claflin University for colored youth. In addition there was voted to the new institution the amount of $15,000 from the Hatch fund and $10,000 from the tax on fertilizers, taken from the State board of agriculture, which was a'Dolished and ail its duties and emoluments turned over to the Clem¬ son College. Until the completion of the necessary buildings of the new Clemson College the mechanical department of the South Carolina University was kept in motion by an appropriation of $4,000 and a general grant of $43,000 ; $5,000 was bestowed on the Claflin College department of the university, representing an investment of some $80,000 reserved for the colored portion from the Congres¬ sional educational land fund ; $20,000 went to the military academy, recently reopened in the citadel, partially rebuilt from the destruction of war, and $8,000 was given to the Winthrop Training School. But with the opening of Clemson College came the predicted dismantling of the University of South Carolina, including the South Carolina College, the Claflin University, and the South Carolina Military Academy under the same board of trustees. By act of the legislature of 1890 the South Carolina College and Claflin were left under the board of trustees of the university, while the mil¬ itary academy was placed under the domination of its own board of visitors. The governor, chief justice of the supreme court. State superintendent of edu¬ cation, the chairmen of the two legislative committees on education, and nine additional members chosen for six years by the general assembly were appointed as trustees of the university. A majority of the number was necessary to elect the president and faculty, to expel a student, or to elect a board of visitors. All matters connected with the agricultural experiment station were to be turned over to Clemson College. In 1891 the school and course of study were reor¬ ganized in South Carolina College, limited to “ theoretical science, law, litera¬ ture, and the classics.” Everything connected with the agricultural department was transferred to Clemson, and at a later date everything relating to the mechanical interest followed. ‘‘ No atheist or infidel could be appointed presi¬ dent,” and one of the professors was to fill the office of chaplain. The State 1050 EDUCATIOJSr BEPOKT; 1904.' board of agriculture was also a])olisbed and its work handed over to the new agricultural and mechanical college. In ISOl a law was passed, which was afterwards amended, to compel the more effectual collection of the poll tax, which was appropriated to the educa¬ tional fund of the State. The year 1893 was made memorable in the annals of the later educational growth of the State by the organization of the normal and industrial State college for white girls. It was first named the South Carolina Industrial and Winthrop Normal College, hut was later known as the Winthrop Normal School. This school, the flower of the public school life of the State, owed its existence (having been established in 1886 as the \yinthrop Training School) to the superintendent of the graded school system of the city of Colum¬ bia, IMr. D. B. .Johnson, who secured an appropriation by personal application to Mon. Robert C. Winthrop, president of the board of the Peabody education fund, for a local training school department in the Columbia graded schools for the teachers of that system. ]Mr. .Johnson was a native of Tennessee, one of the number of young men who owed to the influence of Prof. E. S. Joynes, of the University of Tennessee, at Ivnoxviile, the direction which made them first knovrii as superintendents of the graded schools of several cities in North Car¬ olina, and afterwards sent them to important positions in other Southern States. He ivas called from Newbern. N. C., to the establishment of the first system of graded common school instruction at the capital city of the State of South Caro¬ lina, which work he accomplished with such success that it captured the better side of the community and declared its superintendent as one of the most suc¬ cessful of the younger educators of the South. In due time the legislature was persuaded to make the first appropriation ever voted for the higher education of young women in South Carolina in a provision for a class of beneficiary students, two girls from each county, a movement which lifted the local Winthrop Train¬ ing School to a position of general usefulness. The friends of the scliool ascribe its further elevation to the influence of Governor Tillman, who, in the face of a prolonged and bitter political opposition, did certainly, in his plans for the build¬ ing of the Clemson Agricultural and Mechanical College, and later for the Win¬ throp Normal College for Girls, and, partially, in the support of the State union with Clafiin University, for the first time in the history of South Carolina make it possible for any large number of the sons and daughters of the white masses to aspire to a proper college education. In 1893 this school received its final organization. The governor, State superintendent of education, 7 additional trustees elected by the legislature for six years, and 2 afterwards added as local trustees were appointed for its man¬ agement. The objects aimed at in the establishment of the institution were named, as (1) the training of teachers; (2) expert instruction in all industrial pursuits suitable for the sex; (3) each girl should be compelled to take one industrial art. The tuition was fixed at ^40 per year, vrhich was remitted to indigent students. The graduates of the normal department were entitled to first-grade State certificates as teachers in the common schools. Each graduate ^was supposed to cost the State $1.50 per year. The county of Anderson was authorized by the legislature to bond itself to the extent of $100,000 to secure the location of the school, but for some reason this movement failed, aiid the enterprising little city of Rock Hill, York County, in the northwestern hill country, made a donation of land, material, and money which fixed the location there. This school was in its internal features of organization largely a copy of the girls’ normal college of Mississippi, which had been established several 3mars before, and has been followed bj' the foundation of similar institutions in North Carolina, Georgia, South Carolina, and Alabama. The original idea was the giving to the masses of white young women an opportunity'' for a COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA^ 18G3-1900, 1051 complete education — academic, collegiate, professional, and industrial. By its fundamental idea of industrial training it first introduced the daugfitfirs of the poorer classes of the white people of South Carolina to the great field of expert industries and professional teaching, that for twenty-five years had been open to the colored youth of the South through the great schools established by northern churches at the close of the civil war. President Johnson was thus able to direct the new stream of influence in the college to the training of a new generation of common school teachers. lie organized the normal and industrial departments in mutual proportions, and made them the most attrac¬ tive features of the school. The teachers were not elected at the suggestion of politicians or social dignitaries, but were called for personal ability from all sections of the Union ; and under them the pupils were thus brought in connec¬ tion with every section of the country, and were trained in the genuine Ameri¬ can ideal of American culture, character, and aspiration. In 1891 the law provided that the public school fund should be apportioned in proportion to school attendance, and authorized the county boards of examin¬ ers to apportion $200 a year for teachers' institutes, 13 counties being exempt from the latter provision. The State board of examiners was authorized to enlarge the common school curriculum at its own discretion, a necessity brought on by the rapid increase of special graded school districts. In 1893 these dis¬ tricts were permitted to impose a tax of 4 mills on the dollar, and the liberty, to do this was extended to the extent of making it a general law. The same legislature granted to the graduates of the Winthrop Normal and' South Carolina colleges and the military academy what was at first a privilege extended to the graduates of the Peabody Normal School at Nashville, namely,* that of receiving a perpetual State certificate to teach, and this privilege was later extended to all the colleges of the State which supported a chair of pedagogy, xin historical commission was instituted by the legislature in 1894, consisting of the secretary of state and five additional members appointed by the governor, to collect materials for a history of South Carolina. In 1895 the final act of dismemberment of the University of South Carolina was taken, in the rupture of the union of the State with Claflin PTniversity and the establishment of the Colored Normal, Industrial, Agricultural, and Mechanical College of South Caro¬ lina. This institution was e.stablished at Orangeburg, alongside of Clafiiii University ; but although containing a large number of students it seems never to have detracted from the continued success of Claflin. In 1897 text-books were offered at cost for the entire State, provided by the State board of examin¬ ers. The special graded schools of the State were ordered to report to the State superintendent of education. h In 1898 the 3d of November was named for tlie observance of Arbor Day in all the schools. Several of the academies and colleges of the State established a course of manual training, as approved by the State board of education, and .. their graduates vrere entitled to a first-grade teacher's certificate. Despite the opposition of many of the friends of public education, awakened by some careless and mischievous attempts at legislation, the constitutional convention of 1895 brought forth a somewhat improved indorsement of the common school system. It provided for a State superintendent of education, elected for two years by popular vote, and a State board consisting of the governor. State superintendent, and seven additional members, nppointed by the general assem¬ bly. It authorized a State school tax of 3 mills on the dollar ; provided still for the election of the county commissioners, superintendent, and three trustees for rural schools ; continued the appropriation of the poll tax to the school fund ; and provided that for three years, unless the income of the State fund amounted to $3 per capita of the school enrollment, there should be assessed, 1052 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. Jit the discretion of the State authorities, an extra tax to supply the deficiency. After 1899 a tax \yas to be laid on the people of the State sufficient to provide for lifting up the school system to the position indicated. The history of the eight years’ administration of Superintendent Mayfield, beginning with 1891, the twenty-third year of the existence of the common school system in the State of South Carolina, is chiefly interesting for its demonstration of the* fact that while the masses of the people of both races v/ere fully determined to hold on to the schooling they had gained and obtain as much in the way of improvement as was possible, there was still a formidable clement in opposition to the entire policy of “ educating other people’s children.” But during this period the general assembly found itself between “ the upper and the nether millstone.” The real tax-paying contingent of the community were not enthusiastic over the new complication of public affairs and formed a strong conservative force opposed to any increase of taxation. The masses below had no special objection to following their leaders in the appropriating of large sums of money to establish schools like Clemson, Winthrop, and the new college for the colored jmuth, ])rovided they were not drawn upon to pay the bills and all tbe advantages were practically to be enjoyed by themselves. The “ first call ” of the new superintendent of the State system, who as a teacher had been in the actual service of the common schools, was the “ last call.” “ There can be no better schools in the State without money.” His second call was also unheeded — that the present mode of electing the county commissioners of schools by the means of political partisanship had produced a state of affairs in which ” the utter inferiority and impotence so frequently found in this office is lamentable.” It vmuld be better to appoint a sufficient number of assistant superintendents of education, with living salaries, to do the work in the entire State. One such assistant for each Congressional dis¬ trict, or perhaps a lesser number, could do much more and far better work than that done by the commissioners. But this reform could not be secured as long as the mass Of voters, who now held the State in their hands, insisted on placing their own favorite leaders in county affairs in this important position. The utter lack of “ power to act ” in the State superintendent made his entire representations of little effect on the general assembly, which had always deprived him of a suitable office in which to keep his records and do his work. Me was confined to a small room without shelving or casing, with no space to arrange the material in his charge. fi'he number of students in the South Carolina College was 182. The radical change in the organization of the university had lost to it the valuable services of President McBryde and several of the professors, and Prof. James Woodrow had been appointed as president. The enrollment of pupils in the schools in 1891 vcas 209,557, an increase from 1880 of 55.41 per cent, and 18.20 per cent of the entire population (1,151,149) ; there had been an at'erage term of 3.51 months, while most of the cities and towns had voted for the imposition of an extra tax to establish graded schools, generally from eight to ten months. The legislature had appropriated $150 a year to each of the 34 counties of the State. In 188G ex-Snperintendent Asbury Coward had been elected president of the military academy, with ten professors and a four years’ course of study. Each county was entitled to a number of beneficiary candidates, supported at public expense, 5 for Charleston and 1 for several of the smaller counties. The beneficiary candidates were pledged to teach in the schools of the State for two years after graduation. There were 34 graduates in 1892. A list of colleges, academies, high schools, and graded schools of the State aided by private funds was provided in the report of this year. COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAKOLTNA^ 1863-1900. 1053 In 1893 the number of school children enrolled nnmbered 223,150, an increase of 13,501 over the previous year. The report of the superintendent opens by the renewed demand for more money, but the legislature provided only 8183,170.55, $30,000 less than for the previous year. After the retirement of Superintendent Mayfield, the schools were under the administration of Mr. John J. McMahan, who held the office from the year 1899 until 1903. This gentleman entered upon his term of service of four years in 1899 under more favorable auspices than any of his predecessors. Four years before, in 1895, a constitutional convention representing the new order of public affairs had to some extent improved the public school facilities of the State. The new constitution imposed a 3-mill tax on property, the proceeds within each county to be apportioned among the districts according to the number of pupils in the schools of each. It further provided that each district be authorized to levy an additional tax for the support of its own local schools. The act of the general assembly passed under this constitution provided that this extra levy should not exceed 4 mills. But these provisions, the new superintendent declares, although they compel or encourage local contributions to local schools, “ fail to guarantee a general system of well-supported schools — wealth is so unevenly distributed, some districts and some counties are so much poorer than others and, moreover, voluntary actions are so uncertain and irregular. The distinct tendency of our times is for wealth to center in towns and cities. While, therefore, the town, while levying upon itself an additional tax of but 2 mills, may provide an admirable and complete system of schools, the country district with the maxiinum levy of 4 mills additional may be unable to raise a fund adequate to the support of a poorly paid teacher for even six months.” Superintendent McMahan opens his first report by a disparagement of what is called statistical information, which he declares is “ of little practical value. The average length of session for the State and for each county, although it shows that the period of instruction is much too short, by no means shows the extent of this deficiency. The statistics of each class of schools should be given separately.” He enumerates cases in the statistical information hitherto presented as unreliable, owing to the neglect of local officials and the confusing of accounts. “ There is a great and growing demand for better schools. The increase of the school funds by the constitutional convention has operated to awaken a keener sense of the need of still greater improvement. A general State tax for school purposes, which some years ago would not have been thought of, is not improbable in the near future, unless the liquor busi¬ ness pays to the schools more than it has paid thus far. The best proof of interest in education is the willingness to bear an extra local burden. The number of extra levies made this year is known to be remarkable. Many dis¬ tricts have failed only by a few votes of making this levy, but are assured of future success. That town is an exception that has not for some years borne an extra tax and maintained an efficient system of graded schools, and this year's record has considerably reduced the number of exceptions. The town graded schools are an evidence of local educational awakening and an assur¬ ance for better schools for the surrounding country. A large number of country districts in different counties have been maintaining, through extra levies, flourishing schools. We have 3,000 white teachers and 2,000 negro teachers in this State, many of them poorly fitted for their work, ill-informed even in the subjects which they attempt to teach. The normal colleges can not in a gen¬ eration supply a considerable proportion of teachers to supplant those now in the schools. At the rate of 50 a year fiom Winthrop, if all become teachers for life, thirty years would not supply more than half the number of white teachers uoav being employed. The graduates of all the colleges of the State, 1054 EDUCATIOI^ EEPOKT^ 1904. if all should l>ecome teachers, could not supply the needed number. Poor teachers, where tolerated, drive out good teachers.” An appropriation of $5,000 from the surplus dispensary profits was used for the support of 40 white and S negro teachers. ' The superintendent urges the claims of industrial traUiing for the benefit especially of the negro population, also for the white race, showing that outside of Clemson College and perhaps one graded school there are now no industrial schools for white boys in the Commonwealth. The chief duty of the State super¬ intendent of education is wdth the country schools. The one need of these schools is efficient teachers ; back of this lies the need of sufficient money and of wise management and supervision. The vital points are thus stated : (1) Want of local taxable values, as the corporations and the rich men for the most part make their homes in towns. (2) Want of sufficient enrollment in a given area to insure a good school. (3) Want of efficient business management, and skilled, close supervision of teachers and schools. The backbone of the school fund is the constitutional county 3-mill tax, which is distributed to rich and to poor dis¬ tricts alike in proportion to the number of children enrolled in the schools of the respective districts during the preceding jmar. Among other provisions, the new constitution declares tliat besides the poll tax and the 3-miIl tax the general assembly shall cause to be levied annually on all the taxable property of the State such a tax in addition as may be necessary to keep the schools open throughout the State for such length of time in each scholastic year as the gen¬ eral assembly may prescribe ; it also dedicates to the cause of education all the net income to be derived by the State from the sale or the license for the sale of all spirituous liquors, and only when this fund is sufficient to meet and equalize the deficiencies does the constitution relieve the general assembly of the duty of levying supplementary taxes. But the legislature has never levied these taxes, and schools are supported within county limits only to the extent of the dis¬ pensary profits that have been distributed, and there is a tendencj” to divert the liquor profits from the school to ordinary county expenses. The criticism of the superintendent on supervision is even more thorough and searching than in other respects. The salaries of county superintendents, out¬ side of one county, range from $fi00 to nothing, the usual salary being $300 or $400. Of course, the superintendent must give most of his time to his own pri¬ vate business. A table is presented showing the results of this arrangement in different counties. The superintendent says, “ It is a penny-wise and pound-fool¬ ish policy if the best management is not provided for such large and extensive operations as are involved in the expenditure of public school funds. It is not by this policy that railroads, cotton mills, and other enterprises are operated successfully. The other county officers are paid more than twice the salary of the superintendent of education, who alone is treated as of little or of no value to the county. The county supervisor, wlio has general care of the poorhouse and the chain gang, is usually paid twice as much as the superintendent of education, who has charge of the children and who handles more money than the supennsor. Besides his executive duties, the county superintendent has a boundless field for work as an expert teacher and trainer of teachers, and by kindly private criticism and suggestion aiding the teachers. Through his effi¬ cient work the whole body of teachers will gradually be raised to a higher plane, and eveiT child will receive a better education.” He recommends that the salary of each county superintendent be raised to $1,000. “ During the past three years the State has enjoyed a phenomenal industrial development. The increased taxable values in newly built railroads, cotton mills, lumber mills, and other corporate enterprises will divide with the former property of the State the so-called burden of taxation for higher education, and will take up COMMOiSr SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAEOLIUA^ 1863-1900. 1055 cheerfully the burden of the 3-mill tax for lower education.” He complains that the State superintendent of education has no office room, except at the courtesy of the committee on agriculture. The office is not supplied with suitable cases or furniture, even if proper rooms were assigned. The clerical force of the office is entirely inadequate. The State superintendent of education should spend most of his time in work among the schools, the teachers, and the school officials of the different counties. In his second report for the year 1900 the superintendent returns to his work of criticism on the defects of the public school system. He “ is gratified at the evidences of awakening and improvement in educational matters. The teachers have continued to show keen appreciation of the opportunities afforded them by the summer schools. The National Education Association met in Charleston from July 7 to 13, and exerted a quickening influence upon the educational thought and aspirations of the State. The summer school has become one of the fixed institutions of the State, appreciated and cherished. The South Caro¬ lina Kindergarten Association, originating in Charleston, is directing attention to this method of instruction, and a department has been established in IVinthrop College.” The various colleges and collegiate institutes in the State have begun the work of the present scholastic year with unprecedented attendance. The capacity of each is taxed to the utmost. But with all these evidences of increas¬ ing interest, the superintendent puts his finger on the radical defect of the system. He says, “It is a misnomer to say that we have a system of public schools. In the actual working of the great majority of the schools in tins State there is no system, no orderly organization. Each county supports its own schools with practically no help from the State as a whole. Each district has as poor schools as its people will tolerate, and in some districts anjThing will be tolerated. Each teacher works along in her own way, whatever that may be, almost uninfluenced by the existence of any other school or school authority. Isolation reigns. This is not inspiring or stimulating.” ^ Although he deprecates any sudden attempt at the concentration of a school system so hostile to the training and political and civil traditions of the State, yet he says : “ I am convinced that our educational system has certain fatal defects, and that all efforts at improvement must fail of substantial results until by the neces¬ sary legislation these defects are removed and the system is put on a sound and safe basis for growth and development.” In detail he takes up the different departments of the system. “ The State superintendent,” he saj's, ” is compelled to confine himself to clerical duties, when he should be abroad and dealing vrith the public schools, as the lavv’ demands visiting every county in the State for the purpose of inspecting the schools, awakening interest, and diffusing by public addresses and personal communication any knowledge of existing defects. The county superintendent of education should be a skilled professional superin¬ tendent or inspector. But this can not be while the salary is so inadequate, the tenure short or uncertain, and the choice by popular election. The average salary is $423.75 ; the usual salary $300 or $400. There is a change in the official every two or four years, and his holding the office is dependent upon the political ring of the county. The lavr prescribes no qualification for the office of county superintendent, and only in a few counties is there a sentiment that he must have been a teacher. In many counties it is not expected that he shall be an educated man. In a few he is utterly incompetent. The important duties that belong to the office are rendered almost impossible of performance by his dependence on political influence for holding and retaining the position.” “ The county superintendent of education should be employed by a county board of education, which should have ample power over the schools of the county and should be selected in such a way as to guard against sudden changes in its 1056 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. personnel and policy". It should be composed of five reiiresentatlve progressive citizens, with terms of from one to five years and finally five years each. The salary of the county superintendent should be $1,000 in every county, and in several of the counties $1,500. The teachers neglect to make a final report to the trustees or tlie county superintendent, hence school statistics are only imper¬ fectly presented. Many schoolhouses are built at considerable expense with no regard to ventilation and light. I'here is need of an expert school man travel¬ ing over the county acquainted with all the conditions. Schoolhouses are fre¬ quently unnecessarily located. The division of counties into suitable school districts is indefinitely neglected. The certification of teachers in some counties contemplates the qualification to teach, and in others it means nothing. The school trustees, occupied with their private business, without special informa¬ tion on school management and without time or thought to study the question, frequently take but a superficial interest in the work of their schools and fail to lend the teachers needed aid and encouragement simply because they don’t know. Very few teachers will follow a course of study prepared by the State board of education without the stimulus of the visits of a capable inspector or superin¬ tendent. Many teachers pay no attention whatever to published instructions. We should look to the establishment of county high schools in the near future.” Remarks on instruction, discipline, management, weeding out incompetent teachers, and teacher training, are in the same direction. “'J'lie great need of the schools is more money, altliough without better organization more money will be of little use. The legislature at its last session came near appropriating $100,000 additional for the public schools, but the movemenr was defeated. In 1899 the liquor dispensary paid to the schools $130,000, only a part of the earn¬ ings which by law belonged to the schools. The State's share of the net profits in that year amounted to $193,089.49. In 1899 the dispensary owed the school fund $514,379.95. The tendency of the legishiture is to appropriate these earn¬ ings to the ordinary purposes of government in the counties.” The superin¬ tendent urges on the legislature an appropri;;tion of $200,000 to be apportioned to the schools. The taxable property of the State is nearly $179,000,000, so that 14 mills would raise over $200,000. “ The legislature have heretofore been against the principle of State aid to common school education. They appro¬ priate to everything but schools for the people. The unequal ‘distribution of wealth renders it impossible that common schools should prevail through the State unless the legislature comes to the aid of weak sections. The wealth of the State should educate. An appropriation of $200,000, v^hen divided, wmuld be an inconsiderable aid to districts with teachers at $75 to $100 a year, no more than the wages of a negro plowboy, with schoolhouses only fit to give pneumonia to teachers and children. If the news should go forth that South Carolina’s legislature had made an appropriation insuring to every child at l^ast a six months’ school, she would in one month be the best advertised State in the Union. We have reached the point where any further advance of our school system must be of the country schools. The work of colleges and town schools has prepared the way. The masses of the people, who recognize the county schools as the only college for them, begin to feel and assert their rights. No power can much longer postpone the day of better common schools.” The super¬ intendent calls for (1) an assistant, and recommends the enactment of a law insuring the employment of an expert superintendent for each county, with a salary of $1,000 to $1,500, and responsibility not to the general electorate, but to a board of five members, of whom only one shall be subject to displacement every year ; (2) the levy of an additional tax on all the property of the State suf¬ ficient to raise $200,000, this sum to be distributed in accordance with the com¬ mand of the constitution; (3) the provision by the legislature of a liberal sys- COMMON SCHOOLS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, 1863-1000. 105T tern of public schools and the bringing up of the schools in weak sections to a general standard; (4) the creation of the position of assistant State superin¬ tendent of education at a salary of $1,500. In his report for 1901, covering the operations of the school system from July, 1900, to July, 1901, the following statistics appear: The average annual sal¬ aries for teachers were $188.91 for white and $80.30 for negroes; in Charles¬ ton County the annual average salary was $504.78 for white and $190.22 for colored. The average length of school term was, for white, 21.17 weeks ; for negroes, 14.12 A^eeks. The enrollment was 127,230 white and 157,970 colored, with 94,548 average attendance for white and 113,500 for negroes. The total school population of the State in 1900 was 500,773, of whom 50 per cent were enrolled and 37 per cent in average attendance. The superintendent declai-es : “Allowing for students in colleges and private schools, and for all boys and girls over 10 years of age, we still should be alarmed at the number of children who don’t attend school.” He urges a compulsory education law which should require every child between the ages of 8 and 12 to attend school at least 12 weeks in the year. Forty-four summer schools for teachers were held, namely, for white, 1 State and 30 county schools ; for negroes, 1 State and 0 local schools. The enrollment of whites for 1891 was 1,729. “ Nearly every white teacher in the State has attended a summer school for teachers.” Manual training, school physics, drawing, and kindergarten methods were among the subjects treated in these schools. The venerable Doctor Carlisle, formerly president of Wofford College, gave in six lectures personal reminiscences of men and conditions in South Carolina before the war. Dr. William H. B, Burnham, of Clark University, lectured on pedagogics. An effort was made to induce the county superintendents to attend these schools. A fatal weakness in the administrative system is the apix)intment of local trustees by the county boards of education every two years, with a probability of an entire change of policy. The superintendent returns again to the discussion of the county boards of education and the county superintendency, repeating his recommendations that the county superintendents should be appointed by the county boards. “ By the law of 1900 schoolbooks are sold to the children at the lowest price at which the books are sold anywhere outside of the State to dealers at whole¬ sale.” Several important meetings of teachers of different departments of the school system have been held during tlie year. The recommendations of the superintendent are: (1) the school fund should be increased; (2) immediate provision should be made that teachers’ salaries shall in every district be paid, without discount; (3) terms of members of boards of school trustees should expire at different times; (4) county boards of education should be composed of five members elected by the people, the term of only one member to ex¬ pire in any one year; (5) members of school and college boards should not by reason of such service be disiiualified to hold office; (G) the office of county superintendent of education as now established should be abolished. The county boards should be charged with the responsibility of employing a county superintendent as supervisor of schools for the county, and fixing his salary, (7) The salaries of the present county superintendents should be increased, (8) The law in regard to teachers’ certificates should be changed. (9) An ap¬ propriation of $200 should be made to enable the State superintendent to secure the services of an architect in designing plans for suitable schoolhouses for the country and for small towns. (10) Normal scholarships for teachers, two from each county, of the value of $150 each, should be provided in the normal department of the South Carolina College. (11) School districts should be authorized to vote upon themselves bonds for the erection of suitable school- ED 1904 M - 67 1058 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. Louses. (12) A law should be enacted to require, with compulsory penalties, that all children between the ages of 8 and 12 years should attend school each year. (13) The compensation for clerical services and necessary assistants in the office of the State superintendent of education should be $1,200 for the chief clerk and $G00 for the stenographer and type\^'riter. With this picture of the system of public education supported by the State of South Carolina this essay closes. It is unnecessary to multiply the details of the different departments. It is, however, evident, that at the close of the century the State of South Carolina had encountered the same problem which the State of Massachusetts was called to face during the decade previous to the year 1900. These two States, so different in some respects and so unlike from the beginning in other tendencies, had resembled each other in their stubborn attachment to the idea of local school government. In both these States, in Massachusetts from the beginning and in South Carolina from the beginning of its present system of public instruction, the emphasis of administration and operation has been on the school district. Horace Mann declared that the law incorporating the single school district in the New England town was the most mischievous ever placed on the statute book relTiting to education. Only within the past twenty years has the State of Massachusetts been thoroughly awakened to the fact that under the policy of suiq^orting public schools chiefly by local taxation, with little help from the State, an increasing number of its 350 towns were being left in a condition really less favorable to educational success than half a century ago. By the great effort of a succession of State superintendents and almost a cam¬ paign from town to town, the State is now attempting, without imposing a considerable levy for general distribution, to assist the smaller towns by special appropriations and to place them under a vigorous local supervision. All this is comparatively easy in a State with the great wealth of Massa¬ chusetts, whose people for two hundred and seventy-five years have been trained in the policy of universal education. In South Carolina, with its various disadvantages of sparsene.ss of population, preponderance of colored citizens, and only the recent dawn of financial prosperity and progress, the problem is far more difficult. But since the administration of Superintendent qfiiompson, who organized the system from 1876 to 1880, no superintendent has done more valuable service than Mr. John J. McMahan, by placing before the legislature and people the actual condition resulting from the same policy, and predicting the consequences of persistence in the isolated method of educating the people. t But here, as in every Southern State, the interesting fact has been developed that whatever may be the changes of political policy, through whatever peri¬ odical excitements the mass of voting population may be carried, and however unpropitious and discouraging may be occasional phases of legislation, yet the mass of the people has set its heart on the education of its whole population for good American citizenship. With this pi-esent determination and the steady growth in this direction the ancient Commonwealth of South Carolina has no reason for despondency, but may look forward to the gradual reform of the weak side of her educational system and to the greatly desired harmony of races and classes in a united American citizenship. GEORGIA. The State of Georgia may honestly claim the honor of being the only one among the 15 Southern States that began its life as a colony by the prohibition of negro slavery and the sale of intoxicating liquors, and that signalized the COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA, 1863-1900. 1059 opening of its career as a State of tbe American Union by an educational policy wbicb, if persisted in, \yould bave realized tbe ideal of Tbomas Jefferson in tbe * establishment of tbe people's common scbool. How this great and financially able and progressive Soutbern State should bave found itself in 1850 with 25 per cent of its 213,903 white adults unable to read and write; in 1860 with 18 per cent in tbe same condition and practically with no organized common scbool system on tbe ground ; in 1890, after twenty years of common schools, tbe fifth in tbe Union from tbe bottom in general illiteracy (38 per cent), with 400,000 of its 600,000 colored people (67 per cent) in mental darkness; in 1898 engaged in a band-to-hand conflict in its iegislature to prevent tbe reduction of half its appropriation of $1,000,000 for public education, and only succeeding in a compromise securing a reduction of $250,000 ; is a problem wbicb has always been in controversy between tbe friends and enemies of tbe common schools in tbe State. Tbe details of the rise and slow growth of the common scbool idea in Georgia up to tbe period of tbe outbreak of tbe civil war are set forth in Chapter VII of the Report of tbe United States Commissioner of Education for 1899-1900, relating to tbe history of education in tbe different Soutbern States from tbe year 1830 until tbe outbreak of tbe war. An attempt, after tbe close of tbe civil war, to establish and support a system of common schools for tbe white popula¬ tion of Georgia only lasted for two years and left tbe State indebted to tbe teachers and officials of tbe system in tbe sum of $300,000. In tbe seventeen years from 1872, tbe real beginning of tbe present system of common schools, until 1889 it is estimated that tbe State expended $6,070,038 for rural and $1,686,007 for city and village schools, tbe grand total being .$8,756,623. For tbe forty-three years previous to 1860 it is estimated that tbe entire expendi¬ ture for poor white people's, schooling was $1,290,000, in annual contributions such as $18,556, $12,000, and at tbe last $40,000 for tbe entire tuition of children of this sort. In short, since tbe establishment of its constitution, tbe State of Georgia bad expended for common schools inside of $10,046,623 by 1889. From 1865 to 1889 it is estimated that tbe expenditure for colored common schools, 250,000 children, was $2,800,000. Until 1860 tbe education of tbe white people of Georgia, save tbe indigent poor, who received three years’ tuition at public expense, and tbe few university students, was virtually in tbe bands of tbe different churches of tbe State. Tbe colleges and academies (and numbers of tbe latter assumed tbe college title) were almost exclusively denominational. Their presidents and professors vrere clergymen, and almost tbe entire manage¬ ment was in tbe bands of church members. This type of education gave tbe tone largely to tbe entire educational life and spirit of tbe people, and was more than any other influence responsible for tbe educational policy of tbe Common¬ wealth ; it was also responsible for tbe fact that up to 1860 tbe same policy as reflected in tbe legislature left this great old Commonwealth at tbe foot of the ladder of white illiteracy. In tbe year 1856, after a visit of Dr. Henry Barnard, of Connecticut, to the South in tbe interest of public schools, a movement was made for tbe establish¬ ment of a system of education, open alike to rich and poor, supported by public tax. State and local, and administered by district, county, and State commis¬ sioners. Tbe plan met with favor in tbe legislature, as did a similar plan in 1854, but failed to secure tbe needed vote. In connection with this agitation the Hon. A. H. Stiles, speaker of tbe bouse, descended from tbe chair and took tbe floor with this impassioned appeal : Let os by tbe passage of this bill inaugurate a system of common schools in Georgia. In tbe name and in behalf of 150,000 Georgians between 5 and 20 years of age who are grovvflng up in ignorance of tbe duties and relations of 1060 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904, civilized life I demand it. In the name of 42,000 of my countrymen over the * age of 20 years who are daily hurrying to the grave without being able to read for themselves the way to eternal life; in the name and in behalf of the whole State, which we proudly call the Empire State of the South, I demand it. “ Most of the States of the South,” writes Dr. Gustavus J. Orr, “ in adopting new constitutions under the reconstruction acts incorporated into the funda¬ mental law the public school policy.” Georgia was no exception to the rule. In 18G8, while the State was yet under the reconstruction government, the new constitution included in the most complete manner the American idea of a scheme of universal education under the direction of the whole people as represented in their political organization. This provision reads as follows; akticle VI. — Ecluca tion . Section 1. The general assembly, at its first session after the adoption of this constitution, shall provide a thorough system of general education, to be forever free to all children of the State, the expense of which shall be provided for by. taxation or otherwise. - i Sec. 2. The office of State school commissioner is hereby created. He shall be appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, and shall hold his office for the same term as the governor. The general assembly shall pro¬ vide for the said commissioner a competent salary and necessary clerks. He shall keep his office at the seat of government. Sec. 8. The poll tax allowed by this constitution, any educational fund now belonging to this State, except the endowment of any debt due to the State uni¬ versity, or that may hereafter be obtained in any way, a special tax on shows and exhibitions and on the sale of spirituous and malt liquors, which the general assembly is hereby authorized to assess, and the proceeds from the commutation for militia service, are hereby set apart and devoted to the support of common schools. And if the provisions herein made shall at any time prove insufficient the general assembly shall have power to levy such general tax upon the property of the State as may be necessary for the support of said school system. And there shall be established, as soon as practicable, one or more common schools in each school district in this State. ; But it was two years later that the legislature, still under the same political administration. Governor Bullock being chief executive, passed the first free school law ever recorded in the statute books of Georgia. This law of 1870 owed its inception, and largely its enactment, to the i^ersistent labors of the first State teachers’ association. This body, not large in numbers, but strong in weight of character and influential advocacy of the common school, held a meeting at the city of Atlanta, just rising from its destruction, in August, 1869. A committee chosen to report upon a school system for the State reported to a subsequent meeting at the city of Macon. This committee was composed of Gustav us J. Orr ; Bernard Malion, the city superintendent of the public schools of Savannah; John M. Bonnell, president of the Wesleyan Female College; Martin V. Calvin, a representative to the legislature from Richmond County and a rising writer and speaker on popular education, and David W. Lewis, of the North Georgia Agricultural College at Dahlonega, and by that position a representative of the’ State university system of the Commonwealth. A paper prepared by Mr. Calvin advocated not only a system of common schools for both races, but graded and State normal schools. In this he had been anticipated by Hon. William H. Stiles in 1856. Mr. Calvin still “ lingered shivering on the brink ” of the new departure, the education of the freedmen, and suggested that the colored race should be schooled by the appropriation of their own poll tax and other taxes and such sums as the people might see fit to donate. This paper was placed in the hands of the committee, and its ideas were largely indorsed in the report written by Doctor Orr. The report ran the gauntlet of another committee, on which we find the names of Presi¬ dent LeRoy Broun, Superintendent Malion, and others. Thus edited it was COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA^ 1863-1900. 1061 brought before the State Teachers’ Association, assembled at Macon several months later, which appointed a committee to put it in the form of a bill and urge it upon the legislature, A political agitation in that body suspended oper¬ ations for a time, but eventually the results of this action of the teachers’ association appeared in the public school act of 1870. By this law the gover¬ nor, attorney-general, secretary of state, and State school commissioner were declared the Georgia State board of education and the State commissioner the chief executive oiiicial. This body was to hold all public school funds, select school text-books, and annually report to tlie legislature. The State commissioner was to be appointed by the governor, with the consent of the sen¬ ate. The commissioner, as the representative of the board, was authorized to prepare rules for the organization and management of the public schools, to visit the different senatorial districts in the interest of education, to dis¬ tribute all school funds on the basis of the school population, and to report to the legislature. His salary was fixed at $2,500 and traveling and other official expenses, and $1,200 was voted for the salary of one clerk. ,, A county board of education, composed of one member from each military district and one for each ward of a city and incorporated town, was to be elected by popular vote in each count^x to hold office for two j'ears from January 1, 1871. It was authorized to divide the county into school districts and take the general charge over city and graded schools. Each school should be com¬ posed of 30 pupils. A system of ambulatory schools was suggested, by which the same teachers could “ keep school ” in a region surrounding their central schoolhouse. The board was the custodian of all school property. It could establish graded schools, teaching subjects in addition to the common school curriculum — orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, and geography — and could examine candidates for teachers according to a pro¬ gramme made out by the State commissioner of education. The compensation of each member was $3 per day. The trustees of the school districts were to be elected by the people after three years. They could hire teacliers from the certified list, visit schools, supervise the building, hiring, and furnishing of schoolhouses, and exercise the usual functions of local school trustees. The white and colored children were to be educated in separate buildings, but afforded the same facilities for instruction. The trustees were required to report to the county commissioners. All school property was exempt from tax¬ ation. Thirty-five pupils was the minimum number which warranted opening a school. All graded and high schools should be free of tuition. Evening schools should be established for youths above 14 years of age. The schools should remain in session at least three months in the j^ear, a district failing in this respect not receiving State aid. The support of the system was to come from (1) a poll tax of $I upon each voter; (2) the tax on shows and exhibitions; (3) a tax levied on the sales of liquors; (4) the tax for exemption from military service; (5) all State educa¬ tional funds not belonging to the university; (6) one-half the net earnings of the Western and Atlantic Railroad, owned and operated by the State. Under the authority of this act of October 13, 1870, an organization was effected. Gen. J. II. Lewis was appointed school commissioner by Governor Bullock and schools opened generally. But the first essay, as usual, was a leap in the dark. At the time of the opening of the schools there was not more than $75,000 of school money in the treasury of the State. An act of July 28, 1870, had opened the door of the treasury to drafts on the school fund. To secure the indebtedness to the school fund arising from the drafts made upon it under this act, a deposit of bonds of the State amounting to $268,000 was made August G, 1870, nearly a year before the opening of the schools ; no other deposit 1062 EDUCATION- EEPOKT, 1904. was made. The fund was nearly exhausted before a single school was opened, by the favorite expedient of diverting the school funds to other purposes and the failure to collect tlie poll tax of 18G8, 18G9, 1870. Strange as it may seem, the teachers and school officials of the counties v-ere left in entire igno¬ rance of the impecuniosity of the State. An act of the legislature attempted to meet this emergency. But the result was that, on the appointment of Dr. Gustavus J. Orr as school commissioner, in 1872, there was due to the teachers and school officials the formidable sum of $300,000. •' ■ •• IMeanwhile another turn of the wheel of political organization had occurred which finally relieved the State of the domination of the reconstruction experi¬ ment and vested the complete administration of public affairs in its own people. jThe new governor, James M. Smith, appointed Dr. Gusta’\'us J. Orr, already knowui as the practical author of the school law of 1870, as State school com- 'missioner, a position which he held until his death on December 13, 1887, a period of fifteen years. His first act was an attempt to ascertain the actual condition of affairs after the general wreck of the attempt in 1870-71. It was extremely diificult to ascertain how much was actually due the teachers and officials, from the irregular manner of doing business in the premises. The commissioner advised the suspension of another effort until the facts could be ascertained, and meanwhile urged the State to provide for the payment of the first obligations due to its citizens, not only as a debt fairly due, but as the condition that the people would have faith in the stability of any future system of public school administration. In 1872 this course was taken and the old school debt paid as far as its validity could be ascertained. The school law of October 13, 1870, had been amended by an act approved January 19, 1872. An examination of this statute will reveal several vital amendments, whose influence has been largely accountable for much of the ill success in the rural school keeping of the State until a late day. It placed the selection of teachers in the hands of the county boards of education. It con¬ ferred on them the direction of the county in school matters. But most important of all, it placed the election of the county board of education, the real driving wheel of the entire machine, in the hands of the grand jury of the county. The county school commissioner, as usual, was the secretary of the board, which was to consist of five members to serve four years. The duties of |the board were greatly restricted, it not being permitted to remain in session ]nore than two days at a time, at a compensation of $2 for each member. The actual power in the system was thus removed from the people and transferred to a body of gentlemen, the grand jury, supposed to be especially qualified by superiority in character and official position, but not necessarily interested in the cause of popular education or informed concerning the methods of conduct¬ ing a system of common schools. The appointment of the county board would naturally be gre.atly iiifiuenced by personal, political, and local conditions. The grand jury also was to be intrusted with the power of imposing a tax to bring the school session up to six months. Any city having 5,000 people could procure the passage of a special law providing for a system of schools sup¬ ported by public taxation, separate from the general system, receiving also its quota of the State funds, with only the obligation of reporting to the State commissioner of education. By another provision of the law the entire system, as far as it related to the common rural schools, which included the vast majority of the children of the State, was practically changed from a common school of the American type to a combination school on the British pattern of 1867. For by this provision any school that was engaged in the work of ele¬ mentary education could be subsidized by the State funds to teach the common school children for the time during which the funds would hold out. This was COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA, 1863-1-900. 1068 ill effect a return to the old system of poor schools, for the pupils of the private and district schools could create a local public opinion against common school attendance which would diminish the number entering and depending upon the public school and also discourage the people from any effort at taxation to increase the public funds. Whoever was finally responsible for this scheme must rightly bear the heavy responsibility of the slow progress of common schools among the masses of the rural people of’ both races in Georgia for the past thirty years. The superintendent in his first report, made July 17, 1872, protests at once against the economy that appeared in the amended law of 1872, regarding it a well-understood plan for reducing the State superintendent of education to a clerk overworked by the routine demands of his office. He demands that the county board shall he made a tribunal for hearing and determining all matters of controversy in reference to the construction or administration of the school laws, with an appeal from it to the State commissioner and finally to the State board. He proposes p. general law enabling a suhdistrict to vote on the question of graded schools on the approbation of the county board. Fie also suggests that the county hoard should be authorized to build schoolhouses, either by voluntary labor or by a tax on the school district, leaving any taxpayer to work out his tax in the labor necessary for its construction. He finally announces the law of all successful school life ; that any public school system must be sup])orted mainly by local taxation levied by the voluntary acts of the people. He protests with great energy against the fatal permission by which any group of people in the open country could share the responsibility of establishing and supporting a common school system by subsidizing a denominational school. The first report of Superintendent Orr, in fact, covers the entire distinction between the ideal of common school education, as comprehended by one of the most broad¬ minded and progressive educators of Georgia, and a politico-educational policy, at every step dictated by a despotic leadership in public affairs. At the request of one of the State senators a bill was drawn up by Doctor Orr to “ perfect the public school system and to supersede existing school laws.” This bill was introduced in due season, and became a lavv" August 23, 1872. Many minor changes have since been made in this law, some of which were tried for a time and then repealed ; others still stand. Some of these changes have been wise and salutary. Several determined efforts have been made from time to time by the opponents of the public schools to overturn the system, but on every occasion defenders have arisen who have battled for and secured its existence. The most signal triumph of its friends was when the constitution of 1877 placed in the fundamental law the provision that there should be “ a thor¬ ough system of common schools.” Under the operations of the school law of 1870 a system of public schools had been attempted, under the direction of State Commissioner J. B. Lewis. In his report made October 1, 1871, he states “ that no public money for the pay of teachers had been appropriated for want of a census of school population, but that the sum of $432,282 was in the State treasury to the credit of the school fund.” By the aid of Doctor Sears, of the Peabody education fund, good schools had been started in several of the leading cities in advance of the State system. Seven hundred and nineteen public wliite schools, with an attendance of 34,558 pupils, and 97 public colored schools, with an attendance of 5,208 pupils, were opened in the State and continued an average term of forty-six days during the first year. There were also G34l white private schools, with 3,021 pupils. Then came the financial catastrophe which found Superintendent Orr in official posi¬ tion in January, 1872. The State owed the teachers $.300,000. The school popu¬ lation, 6 to 18, was about 370,000. In 1872 there were no schools maintained by 1064 EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. the State, and the time was passed in clearing the field of the debris of the cyclone and laying a suitable foundation for coming work. The State board of education had determined that the State fund consisted of (1) all the poll tax; (2) the taxes on shows and exhibits and on spirituous liquors that had been levied since the year 18G8 ; (3) the interest due the bonds issued under the act of December 2, 1858; (4) all ^dividends that had accrued on 180 shares of the capital stock of the Georgia Railroad not hitherto used for educational purposes, several shares having been set apart by the act of January 22, 1852. It was also decided that the question should he submitted to the general assembly whether there was not due the educational fund one-half the monthly payments made by the lessees of the Western and Atlantic Railroad, according to the statute of 1870. ...... The opening year of Superintendent Orr’s administration was distracted bj^ bitter contentions in the legislature concerning the appropriation of funds for the common schools. The result was that in 1872 he informs the county authorities that there is no safety in opening the public schools without hope of meeting the expense of their conduct. Ilis advice was complied with. * In 1873 the new system was launched, with 1,379 white and 350 colored schools, including 70,157 pupils. The average length of the school term was sixty-six days ; $174,000 of the old debt was paid, and $250,000 applied by the legislature for the support of public education. Meanwhile, under the gifts of the Peabody education fund, attempts had been made in several of the larger cities of the State to establish what were called normal schools. The city of Savannah led the way. The Chatham Academy dated from the year 1788, when it was established as one of the county seminaries subsidized by the State. It inherited the original foundations of Bethesda College, which was established by Whitefield through the aid of Lady Huntington, the great English benefac¬ tress of the early Methodist evangelists, the Wesleys and Whitefield. By 1810 a building was erected. In 1813 the academy was opened. Under varied for¬ tunes this school had gone on, virtually a public school of the original Georgia type, until 1887, when, by an enlargement, it was converted into a spacious school building for the use of the public schools. The system was inaugurated in 1800 by special act of the school trustees. It was confined entirely to the use of white children. By a special act the authority of the school board was extended over the county of Chatham as well as the city of Savannah. In 1878 the superior court by an amended charter placed these schools in correspondence with the State system, by ordering that the education of the colored children from 0 to 18 should be placed under the direction of the city and county board. The superintendency of the schools at the time was in charge of Mr. Bernard Mallon, a gentleman from the State of Ohio, whose services during the opening years of the new educational dispensation in the two foremost cities of the State, Savannah and Atlanta, and subsequently in the State of Texas, were second to none. On January 13, 1874, Mr. Gustavus J. Orr, first State school commissioner of Georgia, made his second report to Governor James M. Smith, the first to report progress in the reorganization of the schools. His predecessor, Lewis, laid resigned after the fiasco of attempting to carry on a system of public edu¬ cation in a State containing one-fourth of a million of school iwpulation by the financial policy of “ living on nothing a year.” The real beginning of the com¬ mon school was effected in 1873, and then began the herculean labors of this noble old Roman of southern educators. Doctor Orr, continued through fifteen y(‘ars of exhausting service, from which this good man was relieved hy the pro¬ motion of death, leaving his name as one^ of the luost truly memorable of the long roll of able servants of the Empire State of the South. One of his previous COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA^ 1863-1900. 1065 services to the State was running the sectional boundary line between Georgia and Florida, an enterprise that led him as an explorer tbrougb the mysterious wilderness indicated in the old-time school geographies as the Okefenokee Swamp. But certainly he found nowhere in the swamp land a “ slough of de¬ spair ” more deep and disheartening than in the effort to lead a people, only half persuaded, up from the sloughs of an illiteracj' more dangerous than all. the perils of all wild lands and wild beasts, to the plateau of a fairly educated Commonwealth. There were two conditions favorable to the establishment of “ a thorough system of common schools ” afterwards spoken of in the constitution of the State. One was the already apparent determination of the masses of the people that the children should go to school. At one bound the enrollment leaped from 49,578 in 1871 to 83,677 in 1873. Doctor Orr was afterwards enabled to state, with satisfaction to himself, that in no southern State during the fifteen years of his administration had the school attendance gone on increasing without the excep¬ tion of a single year, as in Georgia. In no year was the increase less than 4,000, and in all except two years it reached from 10,000 to 12,000, 14,000, 24,000, and in the closing year of his administration to 34,000. In 1887 there were 342,294 pupils enrolled and 226,2eration or the direction of their instruction. In his second and final biennial report (for 1889-90) Commissioner Hook repeats the substance of his former communications to the legislature concern¬ ing the possibility of securing the entire rental of the Western and Atlantic’ Railroad, and reviewing the act of 1858 issuing bonds to the amount of $350,000 as a school fund. As the former suggestion was never adopted, and the legis¬ lature brought the elaborate discussion over the latter contribution to a sudden finish by burning these bonds, which had never been negotiated, these with sev¬ eral other plausible suggestions for increasing the school funds without the necessity of the people putting their hands in their pockets, drifted downstream. A series of printed replies by the commissioners of 70 counties to a circular generally encouraging, but all insisting on the need of longer school terms and more money, are cheerful reading. It is interesting to note that Washington County, one of the first in the State to show its interest in education, v/as still in advance, its population of 30,000, with a school population of 10,000, being served by 100 satisfactory schools (60 white and 40 colored), new schoolhouses ED 1904 M - 68 1074 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904, going up, and the school terms being generally six, but often eight or nine months. A practical suggestion is repeated from his former report by the com¬ missioner, namely, that the laws which practically are a barrier against local taxation for the improvement of schools be changed to a local-option statute, by which every county may tax itself to supplement the State fund, and thereby lift from the people of the rural districts the necessity of abandoning the open country and crowding into the cities and villages to educate their children. A publication of the doings of the commissioners concerning that portion of the school laws peculiar to the State of (Georgia, whereby a practical union of the public and private and even denominational schools is secured, is reliable as being drawn up by a commissioner of legal acquii’ements. The practical result of all the school legislation in tke State at this period was that the State of (ieorgia had not yet adopted fully the American system of common school edu¬ cation, the fundamental idea of which is that the whole people educate the children, and no public funds are to be disbursed for private, corporate, or de¬ nominational schools. The commissioner urges the necessity of better provision for the training of teachers, stating that in 1890 Georgia was “ one of the four or five States in the great Union of 42 States that had no normal school.” His own plan was the one adopted from the practice of some of the Western States, which support a corps of iustitute conductors who, during a portion of the year, are connected officially with the work of its normal schools. He proposes that a central school should be established, with six well-chosen normal instructors, who would serve in the institution for two, three, or four months for the convenience of teachers desiring to attend, only giving instruction in methods of teaching, AVhen the term closed each of these should be detailed as a sort of supervisor of normal institutes for a district of 20 to 22 counties, and, with the help of local educators, hold a normal for the training of the negroes. The Peabody Institutes, though supported by the supply of funds from Doctor Curry, Vv'ere not largely attended, owing somewhat to the fact that the teachers were not able, on their small salaries, to enjoy this summer outing. The enrollment of the common schools in 1889 exceeded by 200 that of 1887, reaching 342,490, and was the largest since the origin of the school system, in 1871. The average attendance was 230,384, the largest on record. The State school fund for 1890, including the poll tax, was $826,056.05. The commissioner disapproves of the law by which the entire supervision of the schools of a rural district is in charge of the county school board. The entire sum, includ¬ ing local funds, received in 1890 was $1,021,195.03, the people of 20 localities, not exceeding one-fourth of the entire State, expending one-half as much as the countryside. The administration of .Judge Hook had one important feature, in furnishing as the working head of the school system a man of approved legal reputation, which too often can not be said of the official on whom the responsibility for educational affairs is placed. In 1891 Mr. W. J. Northen was inaugurated as governor of Georgia. Gov¬ ernor Northen entered upon the administration of his office with a deep sense of the importance of education and the determination to remove some of the existing defects of the public school system, already for twenty years on the ground. The predecessor of Governor Northen, Gen. John B. Gordon, in his closing message to the general assembly, in November, 1890, deals thoroughly with the subject of reform in the criminal administration and the common and university systems of schools. Concerning the system of criminal administra¬ tion he presents an argument which might well have justified the declarations of his successors, that the convict system of the State, as then administered, was a nursery of crime. He speaks of the proper disposal of the Congressional land fund for the establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges, and the COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA^ 1863-1900." 1075 additiGiial grant of $15,000 by Congress for the further supply of these Institu¬ tions, a fund destined to increase for ten years until it should remain a perma¬ nent annual gift of $25,000 to every State. Both the act of 1862 and that of 1890 contained the provision that no distinction should be made between the two races of people, white and negro, in their application. Acting on this line, the legislature had given to the colored youth of the State $8,000 a year under the act of 1862. A department in the University of Georgia had been estab¬ lished for the carrying out of this purpose in instruction and experiment¬ ing. The $8,000 appropriated to the colored race had been given to Atlanta University for several years. It was withdrawn about this time, and for three years the money was covered into the State treasury, to the amount of $25,000. Governor Gordon proposed that this should be used for the education of the colored youth in such a way as might be deemed expedient by the legislature, and the entire subject of the use of the fund for this race was referred to the generai assembly. In regard to the common schools of the State, the governor strongly urges the establishment of a permanent common school fund. In 1889 the schools had received $165,000 and in 1890 $.330,000 from the State school tax, besides $-50,575 in 1890 and $110,000 in 1891 from taxes on property in excess of a valuation of $.360,000,000. They had also received $150,000 from one-half the annual rental of the Western and Atlantic Railroad, with smaller amounts from several sources. But the governor declares that there is no permanence in this matter of supplying the schools. Any of these gifts can be withdrawn. He reminds the people of the law dedicating one-half the rental of the railroad permanently to the schools, and the further inauguration of “ measures looking to the crea¬ tion of a permanent school fund which shall be sufncient to support the schools six months and make them independent of the constantly changing opinions and policies of different legislatures.'’ Also he advocates the establishment of normal schools in the State as a matter of primar^'^ necessity, and suggests that a fund of $15,000 supplied by the State treasury and the amount received from the Peabody fund might well be so appropri.ated. The school of technology is warmly lauded “ as the basis of industrial progress iai the State.” The legislature of 1888 had given the sum of $18,000 for the support of this school in 1890, but had omitted the intervening year 1889. In consequence, the faculty of the school had carried it on their shoulders and loaded it with a deficit of $12,166, half of it- a debt to the professors. Of the students, 40 per cent were sons of farmers, 24 per cent of mechanics, and only 9 per cent of manufacturers. In 1890 a law had been passed authorizing the establishment of a college of agriculture and manufactures for colored youth, as well as the continuance of the university department for white students. In his message to the adjourned legislature, .January 8, 1891, Governor Northen indorses the recommendations of the board of the university concern¬ ing the establishment of a normal school for white teachers at .Athens, with the tender of the use of Rock College building, and 6 to 10 acres of land and the net income of the fund of Governor Gilmer, $1,000, for the education of teachers. The governor heartily supports this plan and argues strongly for the establish¬ ment of this school. The strong appeals of Governor Northen in behalf of a decided and permanent State school fund brought from the legislature, on Sep¬ tember 26, 1891, the provision for an increase in the State school tax for the year 1891-92 to 34 mills on the dollar, with an additional tax of 14 mills for 1891 and 1892 ; all this to be given for elementary instruction in the public schools. In addition to this the same legislature provided for the establishment of a teachers’ institute in each county, compelling the attendance of all public school teachers and providing a fund to be applied to the establishment of 1076 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. sucJi institutes, $25 being appropriated from the county fund to provide an expert in conducting the session of one week. The law of the same year for the more complete and severe examination of teachers was also a decided step forward ; also the provision given to county boards of education to employ teachers on a regular salary, estimated on an enumeration of the attendance of the pupils. The State commissioner was also directed to make a full biennial report concerning the public and private schools of the State, including all colleges. Mr, S. D. Bradwell was appointed State commissioner of schools in 1891. His first impression is that “ the common school system is more popular than it has ever been, and fresh impetus has been given to all the interests of popular education.” The State fund under the quickening stimulant of increased taxa¬ tion had risen from $038,656 in 1890 to $935,611 in 1891 and $951,700 in 1892. The addition of the poll tax to the State fund, which was derived from ten different sources, brought the entire amount in 1891 to $1,144,351.69. The com¬ missioner had taken advantage of this increase of the fund to increase the school term *to fi^'e months. The school population of 1892 was 560,281 (296,388 white and 263,893 colored). It was evident that the coming year would show a school population of 600,000 between 6 and 18 years of age. In 1891 the enrollment was 360,268 and the average attendance 205,226, 37 per cent of the school children of the State, this enumeration only including the rural districts. The cities would have made a more favorable showing. The school fund was apportioned on the basis of school population, but paid out on the basis of average school attendance. There were 7,022 schools in the State system, 7,420 teachers, and 360,268 pupils, with an average attendance of 205,226, Of these, only 82,227 were reported as studying English grammar and 105,369 geography. The terms of office of the county school commissioners, four years in duration, generally expired during the year 1892, and the examination and election of their successors was held on the same day. The commissioner flatters himself that his efforts to secure competent occupants for these offices were successful, and that “ in a large majority of cases faithful and efficient officers were secured.” But as far as the conduct of the schools was concerned, even in the towns, the majority of which were under the sui>ervision of the county officials, this officer was oftener than otherwise the least efficient agency in the service. The reports from these county officials give undeniable evidence that this radical feature of the State rural system was sorely in need of reform. In 1892, 25 counties had failed to collect State taxes sufficient to meet the appropriations allotted to them for schools, and the deficit had to be made up from the State treasury. Several combined sessions of the teachers’ insti¬ tutes were held. The problem presented to the trustees of the State normal school for white pupils at Athens was “ to operate a college without money.” This body solved the problem by making it, during a portion of the year, a teachers’ institute. The legislature in 1890 finished the controversy concern¬ ing the $350,000 of bonds appropriated as a school fund in 1858, under the governorship of Hon. Joseph E. Brown, by ordering the destruction of the bonds, none of which had been negotiated. An important decision of the supreme court of the State was quoted in this report, which holds that the State makes no provision whatever for secondary education, the elementary (or primary) and university being alone provided for. But this decision, although correct in theory, left out the fact that all the branches of the university, including the normal and industrial college and other schools, the normal schools for white and colored pupils, and the school of technology, were all in the secondary or high school department of school life. In 1891 Doctor COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEOEGIA, 1863-1900. 10 7 7 Curry, agent of the Peabody fund, had contributed $3,500 for teachers’ institutes and public schools, and $3,800 in 1892 for the same purposes. The recommendations of the State commissioner to the legislature in 1891 were: (1) That the powers of the local school authorities should be more accurately defined; the county board of education should be the decisive authority, and the county school commissioner its executive officer and servant; (2) that the State commissioner should make an annual instead of a biennial report to the governor; (3) that all school funds, including the poll tax, be paid into the State treasury ; (4) that a portion of the salaries of the teachers be paid each quarter; (5) that $50 instead of $25 be appropriated from the school fund of each county for the payment of two expert conductors of teachers’ institutes; (6) that a maximum allowance of $2 per day for each day’s actual attendance be made to the members of the county boards of edu¬ cation ; (7) that the power of county boards be restricted in the location of schools, that their expenditure for supplies and maps and furniture be limited to one-twentieth of the educational school fund of the year, and that their power to build schoolhouses be enlarged; (8) that a history of the State for elementary schools and the constitutions of the United States and the State of Georgia be added to the list of text-books. The legislature of 1892 enacted an amendment to the school law ordering an annual report from the State commissioner of education, and Commissioner Bradwell sent in his second communication to the general assembly October 25, 1893, repeating his account of the oi>eration of the common school system. The State board of education had adopted the title “ common ” in place of “ public ” schools, as is the ordinary title in the South. The commissioner congratulates the legislature on the steady growth of the common schools, especially due to the adoption of the principle of State taxation in 1889. From this source alone the following sums had been derived, in addition to other sums ; 1889, $165,000 ; 1890, $380,575; 1891, $640,092; 1892, $597,555; 1893, $688,560. In 1893 the State school fund, apart from the amount raised by the 25 cities and counties under local laws had reached the sum of $1,058,532.52 (poll tax not included). The commissioner urges — (1) quarterly payments to teachers; (2) the payment of all school moneys into the State treasury, including the poll tax; (3) the employment of teachers at a fixed salary; (4) improvement in supervision, with several matters of minor importance. On October 24, 1894, Commissioner Bradwell made his third and closing report to the general assembly of Georgia, for the year 1893, with a brief account of what had been done since the close of that year. The State school fund (including the poll tax) in 1893 amounted to $1,274,412.09, of which $88,560 was from tax on the $30,000,000 excess of State valuation. The appropriation by the legislature was $600,000, and the largest of the extraneous receipts were from the half rental of the State railroad ($210,006) and the liquor tax ($115,868.47). With this sum in sight it was decided to operate the schools for five months, or 100 days. The enrollment of 1893, excluding local systems, showed an increase of 20,737, and the average attendance one of 17,641 ; there were 147 more schools and 192 more teachers ; the local systems showed an increase of 303 in enrollment and 979 decrease in average attendance. The tax levy for 1894 had been fixed at 1.44 mills, and it was estimated that in 1894-95 there would be no excess. The act for the quar¬ terly payment of teachers changed the school year so as to run from July to July, and $300,000 were borrowed from other funds in the State treasury to make the first of the quarterly payments. The commissioner argues that “ the people are more willing than- ever to support the common school system. The teachers are on a higher plane of usefulness and the children are improving 1078 EDUCATION EEPOKT^ 1904. more rapidly than ever before.” During the three years of the existence of the State normal school at Athens the legislature had persisted in its determination not to support it by the State. In 1894 the trustees decided to keep the school open one month on the $1,000 from the Gilmer fund of the State university and a grant of $750 by the grand jury of Clark County. The railroads cooperated. No tuition fees were charged. Board was furnished at the college building for $3 per week, each teacher furnishing his own bedding and table, furniture, text-books, and stationery. From G a. m. to 10 p. m. the days were filled with the numerous exercises of the school ; nine evening lectures were delivered in 1904. A librai’y of educational reading was furnished by the university and the city of Athens. The enrollment was 175, from 51 counties, the average daily attendance being 125. After this proof of the public spirit of the teachers and faculty, an appeal was made to the general assembly by the school in 1894 to “ establish on a per¬ manent basis a normal sehool thoroughly equipped for training teachers of both sexes.” The four years’ administration of Governor Northen and State Commissioner Bradwell closed in 1894. No governor of Georgia had ever manifested the interest in or displayed the persistent resolution to favor the common school system of the State to the degree of this ofhcial, rightly named ” the friend of education.” Like all men in his position, he had not been able to accomplish much that he had anticipated. But he had arrested the tendency to reaction that always gathers head unless a policy of administration is formulated and pushed with vigor, and he had succeeded in impressing upon the legislature the absolute necessity of the common school interest and of the special furtherance of industrial, normal, and the higher education. Such an administration does its best work by building a school platform on which its successors can stand and press onwmrd to better things. Without this advance of the four years from 1890 to 1894, the record of popular education in Georgia under the leader¬ ship of the eminent successor of Commissioner Bradwell would have been far different from what it was. The successor of Commissioner Bradwell was Mr. G. R. Glenn, vcho on Novem¬ ber 1, 1895, submitted his first annual report, covering the year 1894. Under the governorship of lion. W. Y. Atkinson and the administration of Commis¬ sioner Glenn, whose term was extended beyond the date of this record (1900), the public school interest was lifted up to a condition of progress, which, with one brief period of reaction in the legislature, was prophetic of ail the success proposed but never realized by all his predecessors. The commissioner declares at the outset : “ We have no problem before us in Georgia to-day whose solution is attended with such grave results a« is this problem of the education of our children.” The private schools had nearly all disappeared, and even the build¬ ings in which the majority of these schools had been housed were well-nigh gone, and in their place we find, in 1894, according to the commissioner, “ a great many small schoolhouses, wretchedly uncomfortable, and unfit for school purposes.” “ The teachers in charge of these schools,” he writes, “ are receiv¬ ing the pittance that comes from the public fund, and, as a rule, receiving no other fees in the way of tuition. The best teachers have all abandoned the rural districts and gone to the towns and cities, or else they have left the school¬ room altogether for some other means of livelihood.” During the year 1894 the commissioner had visited 90 counties and learned that the country people through all sections of the State were fast leaving the country and inoving to the towns ; the explanation that they gave being that the inefficiency of rhe country schools was driving them to the towns and cities to educate their chil¬ dren. “ For several years past there has been a decreasing valuation of the farm lands of Georgia, which will go on unless the public school system of the COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA^ 1«G3-1900. 1079 country is improved. The remedy for this drain to the cities is the establish¬ ment of a school system for the rural districts that ^yill make the-conditions of life more endurable. The country people have come to rely on the State for education, and have well-nigh ceased to contribute anything to the salaries of the teachers in the way of private tuition fees. Although the public schools have a nominal term of five months in many places, for one cause and another the children only get a three months' school.” In the early part of the year the commissioner had sent a circular of inquiry to all the county' commissioners of the State concerning the condition of the schoolhouses. The answers to this inquiry “ present an appalling condition of the schoolhouses of the country.” The commissioner seriously questions whether the children should be compelled to go to school at all during the sum¬ mer months. “ Yet in Georgia the rule is that the child in the country is com¬ pelled to go to school in the summer or not go at all. So one-half the children are not going to school at all, simply because they are compelled to be on the farms during the short school term. The remedy is a local tax upon all the counties that have not already imposed such a tax, for a continuous school term during the winter months of at least eight months, and out of this fund provi¬ sion to be made for building and furnishing schoolhouses.” A college president informs the commissioner that of 250 boys graduated during the past ten years from his college, 175 began life teaching, yet of these only 20 are now in the schoolroom. He says : “A school system that promises no better pay for the teachers than our school system of Georgia provides will eventuate in driving out of /the system all the teaching talent necessary to sustain a good system of schools.” In relation to the institutes, the commissioner proposes that “ a graded course of study for three years should he given to the teachers, and permanent licenses only to such as had completed this course, and that a corps of efficient experts or conductors should have exclusive charge of the institute work.” The normal school at Athens had 140 pupils in attendance during the year 1894 and a faculty of 0 teachers. The school was conducted during six or eight weeks in the summer of 1894 on the same terms as in the two former years. In 1894 the legislature voted $10,000 a year for the two years of 1895 and 1890, which made the normal school permanent. Ex- Superintendent Bradwell was promoted to the presidency of the reconstructed normal school at Athens, with a salary of $1,800, and six associate teachers were paid salaries running from $150 to $500. The commissioner closes his report with a strong appeal to the general assembly to “ give heed to this paramount question before the people of this great and rapidly growing Commonwealth.” Mr. E, C, Branson, one of the ablest of the rising young educators of the South, had been engaged during three summers studying the condition of city school teachers and public education in the State. In 1895 he conducted 11 institutes in as many counties. He reports : “ When I came to Georgia twelve years ago the State was certainly behind all other States in the Union in this matter.” The failure of the two Chautauqua assemblies attempted in the State was significant, but under the circumstances of the present year he declares the condition hopeful. He advises a more complete organization of this work — counties to be taken in groups of 20, and a coiq^s of official experts to be engaged in the work of training the teachers. The State Industrial College for colored youth had 20 pupils in 1894, including 100 in the model school, under the presidency of Mr. R. R. Wright, a graduate of Atlanta University. The official circulars of the new commissioner are often stringent appeals for an increased activity, and convey important information, as well as submit the most radical representations of the actual condition of affairs. It was evident that the day of writing a State report of education for 1080 EDUCATION" EEPOKT^ 1904. the purpose of excusing the defects of the common schools or their administra¬ tion was past, as far as this able and uncompromising educator was concerned. The commissioner urges that the schools already established in the counties of which the cities are a unit should be brought under the same control, with equal appropriations for all children and youth, and preliminary to this a consolidation of county schools by erecting school buildings at proper centers and persuading the people to remove to these portions of the county. Commissioner Glenn heartily indorses the policy of educating the negro for his new citizenship in the State and the nation. He truly says : “ We can not afford to leave the negro in the South without giving him education. If he remains here he must be educated. The only safety to our homes, the only safety to our women, the only safety to our public and private institutions is to elevate the colored man out of his animal propensities and his natural infirmities.” The State of Georgia, first and last, had received $200,000 from the Peabody education fund. The commissioner suggests that the legislature “ should make a formal recognition of this great gift of George Peabody, and aid in per¬ petuating his name among our people as one of the world’s greatest philan¬ thropists, by setting apart his birthday.” Doctor Curry was a native of Georgia, born in Lincoln County, and had always taken a great interest in her educational affairs. At a recent visit he had made one of those notable speeches that have done so great a work in the States of the South. In October, 1804, 125 of the 137 county school commissioners assembled in con¬ vention for the discussion of the great educational interests of the State. The fact that so large a proportion of these men could be brought together was itself a proof of the increasing interest in education among the people. By an over- vchelming majority they recommendetl, among other things, the imposition of a local tax upon the counties of not less than 3 mills for prolonging the school term . and improving the public school system. The commissioner urges that the report of the State commissioner shall cover the entire educational work of the State. The Georgia Normal and Industrial College for Girls was the most prosperous of all the institutions for sui:>erior education in the Stiite. Under the vigorous and intelligent administration of President J. Harris Chappell it had grown into a great seminary of all work, including the academical, colle¬ giate, industrial, normal, and artistic training of 365 pupils, 309 engaged in college studies, and 56 children in the model school. Nearly 90 per cent of them were boarding pupils, “ the largest boarding school that now exists or perhaps has ever existed in Georgia.” They come from 96 counties of the State, “ an extensiveness of State re])resentation unequaled either nov/ or in the past by any educational institution in Georgia.” Seventy per cent of them were country girls; 76 had earned every cent of the money they expended during the year, chiefly by teaching in country schools, and a very large number were poor girls who, without such aid, could never have been educated. Over 50 per cent of the entire body — 158 — were in the normal department, the nor¬ mal school being supported by a gift from the Peabody fund. The Northern Georgia Agricultural College, at Dahlonega, among the foothills of the Blue Ridge, in Lumpkin County, was evidently the most successful of the different annexes of the State university. It received a portion of the national fund for agricultural and mechanical instruction for the support of teachers, and every county was permitted to send a pupil. The attendance in 1894 was 189. A fund for student aid in 13 counties in Georgia and 3 in South Carolina, con¬ tributed by Governor Joseph Brown, distributed $1,000 a year. The college was coeducational, the first of the sort established by the State of Georgia. It rarely happens that the legislature of any American State is addressed by a public official in a manner at once so complimentary to its intelligence, so COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA^ 1863-1900. 1081 adapted to the mind and heart of every member, so relentless as a searchlight upon the lowest depths of a great public necessity as the general assembly of Georgia at its session in 1896 by the State commissioner of education, Mr. G. R. Glenn, in his second report, dated October 1 of that year, and covering the school history of the year 1895. This report had been printed and mailed in advance to every member of the legislature before the meeting in general session. The commissioner declares that his object in this is to secure, if possible, the read¬ ing in detail of its contents. He says: “ Our present system [of common schools] is totally and radically inadequate. Our schools at present, as far as the rural districts arc concerned, last from three to five months. Neither' the three months’ system nor the five months’ system is sufficient to educate Georgia children.” With this trumpet blast of an introduction, the commissioner goes on through page after page in the most searching exposure of the radical defi¬ ciencies of the people’s school system, now twenty-five years since its first organization under Docdor Orr, and despite the faithful services of this i)ioneer of education and his three able successors. During the past year the commis¬ sioner had put in an appearance in all save 10 of the 137 counties of the State. He declares ; “ I have been studying the people as I find them, noting the trend of their thinking, not only on the gold question or silver question or tariff question, but on the educational question. I do not know how much tariff is necessary to protect ‘ infant industries,’ but I do know that we need more pro¬ tective tariff for the children. I do not know the true natural relation between gold and silver, but I do know that the illiteracy and ignorance of the masses of our people is far too high for a great State like Georgia.” The general impression is that “ while nearly all the other States of the Union have com¬ pleted their system of popular education, we have hardly begun. There are more than 40 States which rank higher than Gtx)rgia in the scale of intelli¬ gence, and only 3 States are lower in the scale of illiteracy than Georgia. Under the present state of things we shall soon bring all of the wealth and intelligence to the city centers and shall have an ignorant peasant population in the rural districts. The people are leaving the farms, simply because there are not schools sufficient to educate the children in the country. With all the educational advantages concentrated in the towns and cities, and scarcely any educational advantages in the country, the towns and cities will continue to increase in population and wealth, while the rural districts will continue to diminish in population and in wealth. In the year 1895, out of the 600.000 school population, about 250,000 did not attend school at all, and a large majority of these w'ere in the rural districts. The schoolhouses were so notori¬ ously incomplete that the scholars could not be cared for in the winter. The little short-term school was necessarily held in the spring and summer, at a time when nearly all the country children vvTio veere large enough to work were compelled to be in the fields. The remedy for all this is ” a compulsory local tax that will provide better schoolhouses and more capable teachers for the country children.” The commissioner returns to his discussion of the education of the negro, which he opened in his first report. He says, “ as a rule the negro makes the most of the opportunity vchich the State has provided for the education of his children.” The statistics of 1895 are but little in advance of those of 1894. The school fund, all told, amounted to $1,639,761.54. The value of the school- houses in 111 counties was $589,771, and of the jails $601,572. The school census in 1896 would probably show 650,000 between 6 and 18. The average school attendance in 1895 was 218,519. At least 250,000 children in the country who labor on the farms could not attend schools only held in the season of farm labor. Of the 7,982 teachers in the country schools of Georgia, only 695 had 1082 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. normal training. The average value of the country schoolhouses was JplOS. “ This condition of affairs is a strong argument for local taxation for the better* ment of the education of the vast majority of the children and youth who are outside the towns and cities.” The movement for gathering school libraries deserves encouragement. In behalf of the claim of the State University upon the people the commissioner declares that 200 among its graduates have held high positions in various departments of public life, 3 have been elevated to the United States Supreme and district courts, and 100 have been made judges of different courts in Georgia and other States ; nearly 150 clergymen of the dif¬ ferent Protestant churches, 7 governors of Georgia, 1 of Alabama, and 2 lieu¬ tenant-governors of Mississippi, 80 members of the State senate and 115 of the house of representatives, 1 Secretary of the United States Treasury, G members of the United States Senate, 38 of the National House of Representatives ; also the recent Confederate vice-president, 3 members of his cabinet, 2 of the senate and 16 of.the house in the Confederate congress, and more than 60 college presi¬ dents are numbered among its graduates. The State normal reports an enroll¬ ment of 354 from 18 counties, some remaining from ten to twenty weeks, but the majority during the entire session. The attendance has outrun the accommoda¬ tions, and Principal P>radwell represents the necessity of more room and other facilities. The State School of Technology, under the presidency of Lyman Hail, a lineal descendant of the first governor of the State, and the new Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical State Institute for colored youth are making progress. The Normal and Industrial College for Girls reports that over 300 young women from 95 counties appeared for the session of 1896, and that the number could have been doubled if there were more room in the college buildings to accommodate them. On October 1, 1897, Commissioner Glenn renews the good fight for the children, in his third report, submitted to Governor Atkinson with the significant request, “ I trust that this report will be carefully studied by your excellency and by every member of l>oth branches of the legislature.” He fortifies the assertions con¬ tained in his statement of the present status of the schools by the fact that “within the past two years I have visited personally every one of the 137 counties in the State. I have traveled 60,000 miles, and have delivered more than 500 addresses on education.” He is happy to report, “ there are many hopeful indi¬ cations of an educational revival in the State.” In a State like Georgia, where the fundamental difficulty seems to be the inability to support a thorough system of universal education, it is a great mistake to separate the cities and counties most distinguished by wealth and leading power from the masses of people inhabiting the great all-out-of-doors rural districts, on the one hand, and the university and the academies from both city and country common schools on the other. • It will be only a plain necessity to put on record the condition of the local systems of graded city schools in Georgia, although the limits of this essay pre¬ vent a detailed account of this department of education. But each of these communities has a peculiar educational history, whose study would be one of the most profitable for all who are called to labor in this field. There had been during the year 1896 an increase of 143 teachers, and there were 242 more trained teachers than before. The common school enrollment had increased 23,120. The county commissioners had made 1,873 more visits to the schools in 1896 than in 1895. There was an increase of 144 schoolhouses, with $19,820 addition of value. There were 163 more white schools and 3 more colored schools in 1896 than before, there being 7,419 in all. There had been a “ marked improvement ” in the school buildings of the State during the past two years. The iK^ople of the country districts contributed to the furnishing of the new COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEOEGIA^ 1863-1900. 1083 selioolliouses. The commissioner returns to the original subject of local school taxation, and shows that, under the then existing system, the action of the grand juries often prevents the submission of the subject to the people, and such action is liable to increase the popular indifference. “ The settlement of the rural school problem is the most vital question in Georgia.” Another good sign noted by the earnest commissioner is “ the interest displayed in popular educa¬ tion by the women’s clubs in the State.” But the coming of the long-delayed revival of education was at hand, as shown by the action of the legislature in increasing the common school fund by $400,000. This act had “ provoked favorable comment all over the country.” There was now $1,000,000 raised by taxation for the public schools of Georgia. With 2,000;000 population its tax was about 50 cents per capita for the entire people. The statistics of common schools showed an increase for several years. The local systems represented 337 schools, 1,13G teachers, 57,114 pupils, and 40,951 in average attendance, educated at a per capita expense of $12.79 ; $191,109.04 contributed by the State, and $358,353.51 — more than one-third the common school fund — raised by local taxation. The school fund for the year 1897 Vvas estimated at $1,169,945. The Normal and Industrial College had received 379 students from 100 counties. The State Normal School was flour¬ ishing, having an attendance in 1897 of 500, and the possibility of 1,000 if the students could be received. The salaries of teachers range from $1,900 for the president, through $1,600, $1,500, $1,200, to $200 for the janitor ; $20,229 were being expended. We shall look in vain to any deliverance of any prominent educator of the South for a more concentrated and forcible presentation of the radical signifi¬ cance of the American public school movement to these States than is found in the first 10 pages of the report of Commissioner Glenn to the governor and gen¬ eral assembly of Georgia, submitted October 1, 1898, and nominally covering the operations of the system during the previous year, 1897. The superintend¬ ent had spent the three most laborious years of his administration largely among the people, leaving to competent assistants at the State house the manage¬ ment of the details of the office, which so often absorb the attention of that offi¬ cial. His powerful and eloquent characterization of the radical problems before the people of the State is enforced and applied by an equally conclusive discussion on industrial education, which he lifts quite above the crude mate¬ rialistic notion that the laboring class of either race can be made to do better work and avoid the old-time waste by any other method than a gradual effort of an education that in wmking up the mind and heart and soul results in “ making its subject a man or woman of might w^herever the light may be cast.” In a return to the conduct of the teachers’ institute, the commissioner shows that the meager sum of $25 can not be trusted to attract to these gatherings the people that are necessary to secure a permanent success in their conduct. He cites the example of the State of New York, which has probably made the most of this important agency, which relies on select persons appointed by the State board of education, wfith sufficient salaries, to do the work of the institutes. “If the State wmre divided into 5 districts, five capable men could organize and carry on the work in a way to be felt all over the Commonwealth.” The State now contributes enough money — $1,660,000— to the common school system. The people, through local taxes, should do the rest. The school census of 1898 show^s a school population of 660,870; in 1893, 604,971. The number of illiterates among the school population in 1893 was 114,527 ; in 1898, 83,616, a decrease of 30,911. The school population of the negro race is gaining more rapidly than the white. The value of the school books in use in the State was $400,000 ; the cost for one year, $125,000. There had been an increase of 28,408 in the average 1084 EDUCATION REPOET^ 1904. attendance in one year, making the number 234,140. There had been an increase of $4,703.10 in the payment to teachers from 1890 to 1897, 147 additional normal-trained teachers, and $27,253.94 increase in the sum of $415,007.45 raised by local taxation. The recommendations of the commissioner are: (1) The broadening of the course of study in the common schools and the addition of industrial features, (2) the monthly payment of teachers, (3) compulsory grading of certain schools, (4) longer contracts with teachers, (5) a commission to formulate a proper industrial course of study for the common schools. The total of the State apportionment for the year 1898 was estimated at $1,040,381, about $470,- 000 more than for 1897. The reports from the State schools of the higher and secondary education do not differ materially from those of the previous year. Probably the most important addition to the faculties of this grade of schools was the appointment of Prof. E. C. Branson to the department of pedagogy in the normal and industrial college for girls. But it would be too much to exj^ect that a movement such as was inaugu¬ rated by Commissioner Glenn, even if apparently triumphant for a season, would have free course without encountering a reaction proportioned to its suc¬ cess. In his report for 1897, rendered October, 1898, the commissioner stood upon the pinnacle of success. But meanwhile there was “ a lion in the way,” which was to be met and overcome. For some cause not connected with the subject of this essay, a deficit in the State funds compelled a public campaign of ” economy.” Governor A. D. Candler was elected on this issue. On assum¬ ing office in 1898 it appeared to him and the legislature that the only oppor¬ tunity to apply the knife of “ retrenchment ” was offered by the State school fund. The direcd appropriation under the vigorous campaign of Commissioner Glenn had been increased $400,000 and amounted to $1,000,000, while the poll tax and other sources of income made the total sum apportioned by the State $1,000,000, which, with the $400,000 derived from the local tax communities, increased the sum to $2,000,000. Without consulting with the commissioner, it is said, a bill was introduced in the legislature reducing the annual appropria¬ tion to its former sum, $600,000, and forced through one branch of the general assembly with the indorsement of the governor before the fact was realized. A vigorous rally of the educational public, represented by the county commis¬ sioners, led by the courageous commissioner, arrested the progress of this revo¬ lutionary movement and forced a compromise on a $200,000 reduction of the State appropriation. The brave commissioner, although baffled in his hopes and disappointed in his estimate of the staying quality of the legislature, returns to the war in his report covering the year 1898, when this act went into operation, lie tells the general assembly that “ the legislature can not afford to lessen the school privileges of the children.” The school iwpulation is increasing at the annual rate of 12,000 to 15,000. During the last five years it has increased 60,000. By 1903 there will probably be an increase from 1898 of 75,000. “Any reduction in the school fund lessens our ability to provide for this increasing number of children that must be added to our school rolls. If the school fund remains the same next year as it is this year many of the counties will con¬ tinue to have only four months of school term. Any half-hearted educational policj^ or time-serving political expedient is little short of suicidal. If educa¬ tion is worth anything, it is worth everything.” The commissioner presents the needs of the State Normal School, and again enforces the importance of a local- option law providing for local taxation. The attendance on the higher educa¬ tional institutions had been larger in 1898 than in any previous year. Hon. Walter B. Hill had been elected chancellor of the State university in place of Chancellor Boggs, resigned. The average attendance in the common schools COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA, 1863-1900. 10 8 5 was 231,060. There had been a decrease of .$59,539 in the amount raised by local taxation for the local school systems. The Normal and Industrial College reported as nsnal that the attendance was only limited by the accommodations for students ; 442 was the total number for the year 1898-99, 90 of the counties being represented ; 165 young women, nearly 50 per cent of the student body, were preparing for the profession of teacher. The North Georgia Agricultural College had 237 students from 60 counties, the collegiate department being on a par with other colleges and the State University. The normal department aimed chiefly at the preparation of students for secondary school work. The State Normal School reached an en¬ rollment of 714 in 1899, although, as many of the students were teaching five months in the year, the average attendance was not more than one-half the en¬ rollment. The majority of the students spend portions of each year for four years in going through the full course. The legislature cut down the appropria¬ tion from $22,500 to $16,000 for the yeai-s 1899 and 1900. It passed a law pro¬ viding for the monthly payment of teachers, and gave to the county school boards free authority to fix the length of school terms in the counties and the time best for the sessions of the schools, so that “ the entire responsibility for the conduct of the schools was referred to the county board.” The commis¬ sioner says : “ We will have for 1899 $242,000 less than v/e had in 1898. It will not do to sit down and complain because the school fund has been cut.” He urges a new’ outburst of energy and fidelity among the people. “The people will respond as fast as they are made to see the value of the schools.” In February, 1899, there was not enough money in the treasury to pay for the first month’s school work and but one month’s payment could be made on March 1. A meeting of the county commissioners waas called at Atlanta and held on May 16, 17, 18. The demonstrations at that gathering, the largest ever held in the State, were such that it would seem that no governor or legislature would again try the experiment of “ economizing ” at the school end of the Commonw^ealth. Among the suggestions of the county superintendents, published in the report of the commissioner, was one that the county commissioner should be called a superintendent, so that the title wmuld correspond to the performance of the duty, and that he should receive a suitable compensation ; also, that the schools should be removed from the “ church houses ” and placed in public school- houses ; that the commissioner should be relieved from clerical wmrk in order to give more attention to the proper supervision of the schools ; that a local tax should be levied that would touch every parent and w’ake up the people from their dream of “ glorious independence ” and indifference ; that a proper school of manual training should be established in every county and a permanent insti¬ tute fund be voted by the legislature. A free high school should be established in each county. Better supervision of schools and the reduction of the number are also urged. The educational affairs of this great Commonwealth w’ould be very improperly appreciated were not the record of the w’orking of the State system proper, which wms concerned wdth only the low’er story and the summit, supplemented by an account of the secondary aijd graded school systems then adopted in nearly all the cities and in many sections of the open country. Here, in nearly 100 of the foremost communities of the State, wdiere wms concentrated in 1898-99 a majority of the w’ealth, culture, and leadership in all directions, a sum nearly half as large as that raised by State taxation waas expended on less than one-fourth of the children. But unfortunately the educational system of the State, as its foundation, wms modeled on the plan of the State of New York, wherein the State University waas supposed to include the entire schooling of the higher and secondary education, leaving the elementary schools of the 1086 EDUCATIOK^ REPORT^ 1904. masses to be brought into proper connection with the superior departments only through many years of organization and reorganization. In October, 1902, Supt. G. R. Glenn writes his final word to the State at the end of eight years of strenuous service to the people of Georgia. He reiterates his constant assertion that a system of schools that will give all the children a fair chance in the race for life can not be maintained on an expenditure of $2.31 per child of school age and 89 cents per capita of population. He be¬ lieves that no State has done more than Georgia on a sum so inadequate. The great obstacles are one class who do not believe in a common school system at all, and another class who believe in it only for the white population, leaving the colored people, 45 per cent of the >^’hole, uncared for. As it is, the white population, 55 per cent, receive SO per cent of the school fund. He leaves his office with a petition for the kind treatment of his successor. But although this record of the operations of the common school system, as concerned with the rural schools of the State, reveals elements of discourage¬ ment that for a time arrested the revival of interest which has since come to I)ass, it would be unjust to this great Commonwealth to omit other features of its educational history during the thirty years since the organization of the present system of popular education. In 1900 there were 390 “ schools under local laws ” which do not appear save incidentally in the reports of the State commissioner, but which include the entire secondary department of the public school system. They consist of the graded schools of the large number of towns, cities, and counties, each of which has organized its educational system under a law providing for local taxation to supplement the State distribution of school funds. Under these laws, as applied, we find in 1900 a body of 1,099 teachers and 55,000 pupils, educated at an expense of $622,252.61, of which $423,287.88 was raised bj" local taxation. These schools receive nearly one-half the sum expended on the 600,000 school population of the State. They are generally under a superintendent, who with his teachers represents an order of ability superior to that usually found among the teachers or county school commis¬ sioners of the open country. The cost of education per capita of enrollment in these schools was $11.64, and the school terms are continued to six, eight, and nine months. Under the comparatively meager arrangements for the proper training of teachers in the State it is probable that a large proportion of the superior instructors are found in these communities. Doubtless one explana¬ tion of the reluctance of the legislature to supply adequate schooling for the country people, many of whom, of course, belong to the colored race, is the steady drain of the more enterprising and ambitious of the white people from the open country to the 400 centers of population, many of them thriving vil¬ lages and small cities, where the children can obtain a much larger quantity and a better quality of schooling. This would leave the people of these communities practically unconcerned for the condition of the people left behind, while the great majority of the country folk would be open to all the influences, political, economical, and antieducational, that are always at work to undermine the building for the children. Besides this, there is, in addition to all the departments of public education, still a powerful body of denominational and private seminaries of the secondary and higher education in Georgia ; possibly a number as large in proportion to the entire population as remains in any State of the South. In 1900 there were 130 of these schools, 30 of them under the name of “ college,” besides the State University and its annexes, including the Institute of Technology. These schools provided for 10,000 students, remained in session for nine to eleven months in the year, and were conducted at a cost of nearly $500,000. Several of them were proper colleges, of the average reputation of such institutions. COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA^ 18G3-1900. 1087 The State of Georgia has also been favored with an iinnsual development of the secondary and higher education of the colored race. In the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1902, chapter 5, will be found an account of the establishment of several of the best known of the seminaries, Vv'hich, under the name of “ college ” or “ university,” have been established in the South by the different religious bodies of the Northern States. The city of Atlanta has been specially favored with no less than seven of these great schools, which, in the number of their students, ability of their teachers, and extensiveness of their buildings and facilities for the secondary and higher training, have not been surpassed in the State. Indeed, so marked has been their impression on the city of Atlanta that so far it has not been found necessary to supplement its system of common and grammar school training with a high school department for the colored people. It is not improbable that the city of Atlanta receives as much income from the location of these great schools as it pays for the public schooling of this entire class of its popu¬ lation. Among these seminaries is the Gammon Theological School, with a location and provision for students and an endowment perhaps equal to any in the Southern States. It is impossible to estimate the influence of these schools upon the colored people of a State like Georgia, since the superior teachers of the colored public schools are veiy largely supplied from this source, and the great general uplift of their students mentally and morally can not be denied. There are no proper statistics of the large number of private and church elementary schools in Georgia which are able to maintain a session of eight months a year, because their income is eked out by a subsidy from the public school fund, managed by the authorities of the open country. Of course, in estimating the amount of schooling received by the people of any State all circumstances like these must be taken into account. Still the fact that in 1898 12.G per cent of the total population of the State was reported by its State commissioner of education as illiterate, G.7 per cent of the white and 1S.9 per cent of the colored, furnishes one of the most cogent arguments for an effective system of public instruction that will lift the whole people out of a situation so hostile to its material and every other type of prosperi^vv One of the most interesting points in the great work of educational develop¬ ment that has gone on through the past thirty years in the State of Georgia is the record of the establishment of the graded school system in the different cities. Of these, perhaps 20 of the 400 under city administration support com¬ plete local systems. Of these systems, 9 in 1900 contained each over 1,000 pupils, among them Atlanta, 14,000 ; Savannah, 8,700 ; Macon, 7,300 ; Augusta, 6,400 ; Columbus, 2,700 ; Rome, 2,500. The schools of all these and of a num¬ ber of those containing more than 500 pupils are among the best in the Southern States. Their superintendents and teachers in the past and present are rep¬ resented by men like Mallon, Ziegler, Branson, Evans, Miss Laura Haygood, and others only less eminent. One of the most interesting problems for the student of municipal history in the United States is found in the establishment of the American common school system and its development and influence on the entire community in cities of this kind. Unfortunately tlie local reports of even these leading cities of the State are not sufficiently ample to furnish the material for a detailed account of their success in this, the most vital depart¬ ment of municipal life. In several of the larger cities of Georgia an excellent habit prevails of includ¬ ing the entire c^ounty in the general graded system of education, giving to the pupils of the suburban region practically equal advantages with those of the city. One of the earlie.st of the towns in the State to take advantage of the original offer (in 1783) of 1,000 acres of wild land for a free school was Augusta, 1088 EDUCATION REPOKT;, 1904. then the seat of government. this allotment the town was able to establish the Richmond Academy, which for nearly a century had gone on, with the usual experiences of similar institutions in the Southern States. In 1872 the people of the city and adjacent country, despairing of their ability to improve the dis¬ trict and ward school system under the obstacles furnished by the public school laws, formed “ a confederate board of city trustees,” a practical union of the several districts in a proper school system. Under this arrangement the city established several new schools and improved others. There were four high schools, two in the city and two in incorporated villages in the country. Of these the Richmond Academy, regarded one of the best of its kind in the State, was the summit of the entire system. Normal classes for white and colored teachers were a part of the scheme. The fifth report of the new arrangement, in 1877, shows a population of the entire region of 23,768 white and 15,163 colored. There were 8,345 school children, of whom 4,912 were in the city. The schools remained in operation nine months ; the attendance in the country was 2,016. In the country the schools were in operation six and one-fifth months ; the expenditure was $22,706. For several years the system was greatly favored in the president of the board of education, Mr. John S. Davidson. In 1883 Mr. Lawton B. Evans appeareopulation in the entire school territory of 8,764, with an average attendance of 6,611, and 180 teachers. There were 18 schoolhouses, valued at $190,000, besides 34 buildings not belong¬ ing to the county board, 29 of which were occupied by colored schools. The entire expense for the system was $125,000. The location of the agricultural and mechanical college for colored youth was in this school district. In Bibb County, including the city of Macon, organized under the same sys¬ tem, the enrollment includes 7,346 (3,119 colored), with 153 teachers, 64 of whom are claimed as normal graduates. An average monthly salary of $45 is paid for the white and $30 for colored teachers. The total expense is $80,277.82. The city of Atlanta presents the most complete example in Georgia of the organization of a common school system according to the methods prevailing in the majority of the larger municipalities of the Union. At an early period of the uprising of the city from its almost complete destruction at the close of the civil war, in 1871, the present school system was organized. The city was favored in securing the services of the Hon. Joseph Brown, ex-governor of the COMMON SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA, 1863-1900. 1089 state and United States Senator, as the president of the school board, a position occupied by him until his death. His successor was the lion. Hoke Smith, the son of a distinguished educator and, during the second term of President Cleveland’s Administration, Secretary of the Interior, also a steady and intel¬ ligent friend of education. The first superintendent of the new system was Mr. Bernard Mallon, called from a similar position in the public schools of Savannah. Under the administration of this able and devoted executive the schools were so organized that, in the sixth reiwrt (for 1877-78), we learn that after a temporary reaction the schools were well established. In 1875 the population of Atlanta was 32,000. The number of children of school age was 10,302 (7,238 white and 3,124 colored). The total attendance was 3,280; the average attendance, 2,400; 214 were enrolled in the two high schools. There were 53 teachers of the nine schools. There were said to be 800 pupils in attend¬ ance on private schools in the city. The value of school property was $65,000, The expenses of the system were $35,002.05. Superintendent Mallon had taken charge of the girls’ high school, which he made also a seminary for the training of teachers, as well as one of the most promising schools of the kind in the State. Under this administration the schools continued until 1879, when Super¬ intendent Mallon resigned, having supervised the system during the seven jears of his incumbency and made it a model for the imitation of the other cities of the State. In that year the population of the city had risen to 40,000, with a school population of 10,340 and 4,000 pupils. The number of days the schools W'Ore in session wms 197. The successor of Superintendent Mallon was Mr. W. F. Slaton, who has held tile position until the present day. Superintendent Mallon wms followed in his principalship of the girls’ high school by Miss Laura Haygood, sister of Bishop Atticus Haygood. Under her administration the school wms developed into one of the most attractive of its class in the State or in the South ; it remained under her charge until 1887, when she resigned to enter the missionary field as an organizer of a high school for native girls in China. Mr. H. H. Smith, the father of Hon. Hoke Smith, Miss S. McKinley, and Miss N. E. Sargent have succeeded in the principalship of this high school, now’ one of the most flour¬ ishing of its kind. In 1900 the number of children of school age in the city of Atlanta wms 18,299, of w’hom 11,200 w’ere enrolled, the average attendance being 10,109. The sum appropriated by the city was $128,928.02, w’hich, with $39,- 804.70 from the State, made the total expenditure $108,793.32. From the report of the Hon. Hoke Smith, president of the school board, to the mayor and gen¬ eral council of the city in 1900, wm learn that “ the schools of xAtlanta are all crowaled to an extent that prevents the best w’ork from being done. Forty chil¬ dren are as many as one teacher should undertake to control and instruct. We have been compelled, in a majority of our schoolrooms under one teacher, to place 00 children. To relieve this pressure we really ought to increase 50 per cent the grammar schools of the city. We can not hope, how’ever, to obtain so large a sum from a single year’s appropriation. The grow’th of the city has caused an average increase of attendance by the children upon the schools of betw-een 7 and 10 per cent annually. For the past ten years w’e have built only 2 grammar schools for w’hite children, and the negro schools have received only the increase recently made by the additions to the Houston Street School. The appropriations to the schools have not increased wdth the growTh of the city. During the past year the city appropriated for ix>lice purposes $150,358.03, wdiile it appropriated for the erection of new schoolhouses and for the education of 13,000 children only $128,928.02. The last council was the first to give money to build a new schoolhouse since 1893. The city of Atlanta gives less than 10 ED 1904 M - 69 1090 EDUCATION^ REPOET^ 1904. per cent of her revenue to the schools of Atlanta.” In a table published in his report it appears that the schools in 11 .American cities of population similar to Atlanta receive from 20 to 36 per cent of the entire revenue. “ There is need for 3 white grammar schools, with additions to others, and 4 new negro schools, with an additional girls’ high school.” ” We are confronted with the neces¬ sity for so large an increase of school buildings now on account of the failure of the city council to furnish enough money for buildings during the past four years.” The schools of Atlanta in 1001 received ?;40,000 from the State, and in addition to this the board of education reports that the schools will need ^200, 000 from the city. A lady Iward of school visitors is mentioned with appre¬ ciation for its excellent work, and the president of the board remarks that the only mistake in the matter was in not adding the ladies to the board of education. In no State of the South has the recent revival of interest in public educa¬ tion met a more hearty response than in Georgia. Several important meetings of distinguished educators from within and without the State have been held there during the past year. A committee for a general waking up of the popula¬ tion of the rural districts has been appointed during the present year, of which the president of the Atlanta board of education, Hon. Iloke Smith, is one of the most active members. No American State that has once heartily adopted the American system of universal education has permanently repudiated it ; and we are confident that the coming years of the new century will bring a hearty lesponse to the original announcement concerning the importance of general education made by the Empire State of the South a century ago. CHAPTER XVIL INTRODUCTION OF REINDEER INTO ALASKA. I.— PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE GENERAL AGENT OF EDUCATION FOR ALASKA TO THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, 1890.« By Sheldon Jackson, General Agent of Education for Alaska. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., December 20, 1S90. The Secretary of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Sir: On the 5th instant I had the honor of transmitting to you a report from Dr. Sheldon Jackson, general agent of education for Alaska, in which he stated that the Eskimo of arctic Alaska were on the verge of starvation, and recommended that we avail ourselves of the benefit of the several acts of Congress for promoting instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts, and thereby provide a way of introducing into Alaska the domesticated reindeer of Siberia. On the loth instant you very kindly transmitted the above communications to Congress for such action as might be necessary, and on the 19th instant a joint resolution w^as intro¬ duced into the House of Representatives authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to extend to Alaska the benefits of the act approved March 2, 1887, creating “agricultural experiment stations,” and of an act approved August 30, 1890, for the better support of agricultural schools in the several States and Territories. If this very desirable legislation is granted, and under its provisions a suitable school is established, it will be a comparatively easy matter to purchase in Siberia a herd of domesti¬ cated reindeer, transport them to Alaska, and give instruction in their care and management. This would be a great step forward in lifting the native races of that boreal region out of barbarism and starting them toward civilization — a step from the grade of wild hunter to the grade of herdsmen who live on domesticated cattle — and besides this furnish an article of exportation and commerce. The native tribes on the Siberian side are thriving with their herds of reindeer. It seems that all northern Alaska is filled with moss meadows (tundra ) which furnish the very food that the reindeer requires. Once started, tlie business wmuld grow into large proportions, and tlie most serious prob¬ lem that threatens Alaska will be solved. Since the subject has been agitated a number of calls have been received by this Office for information wdth regard to it. I would, therefore, respectfully request permission to publish in a small pamphlet the inclosed report of Dr. Sheldon Jackson with accompanying papers. Respectfully, yours, W. T. Harris, Commissioner. 1091 a Reprinted from the original document (Government Printing Office, 1891). 1092 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Alaska Division, W ashingion, D. C., November 12, 1890. Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., Commissioner of Education of the United States. Dear Sir: In advance of a full report of operations in Alaska, I desire to call your atten¬ tion to the need of legislation by Congress in order to secure for Alaska the benefits of the acts of Congress in 1887 and 1890 to promote instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts. And I do this now — ■ 1. Because it is the short session of Congress, and whatever is done should be done at once; and 2. Because of the starving condition of the Eskimo on the arctic coast of Alaska, which condition will be relieved by the proposed legislation. (Appendixes A and B.) From time immemorial they have lived upon the whale, the walrus, and the seal of their coasts, the fish and acjuatic birds of their rivers, and the caribou or wild reindeer of their vast inland plains. The supply of these in years past was abundant and furnished ample food for all the people; but fifty years ago American whalers, having largely exhausted the supply in other waters, found their way into the North Pacific Ocean. Then commenced for that section the slaughter and destruction of whales that went steadily forward at the rate of hundreds and thousands annually, until they were destroyed and driven out of the Pacific Ocean. They were then followed into Bering Sea and the slaughter went on. The whales took refuge among the ice fields of the Arctic Ocean, and thither the whalers followed. In this relentless hunt the remnant have been driven still farther into the inaccessible regions around the north pole and are no longer within reach of the natives. (Appendixes C, D, and E.) As the great herds of buffalo that once roamed the western prairies have been extermi¬ nated for their pelts, so the whales have been sacrificed for the fat that encased their bodies and the bone that hung in their mouths. With the destruction of the whale one large source of food supply for the natives has been cut off. Another large supply was derived from the walrus, which once swarmed in great numbers in those northern seas; but commerce wanted more ivory, and the whalers turned their attention to the walrus, destroying thousands annually for the sake of their tusks. Where a few years ago they were so numerous that their bellowings were heard above the roar of the waves and grinding and crashing of the ice fields, this 3mar I cruised for weeks without seeing or hearing one. The walrus as a source of food supply is already practically extinct. The seal and sea lion, once so common in Bering Sea, are now becoming so scarce that it is with difficulty that the natives procure a sufficient number of skins to cover their boats, and their flesh, on account of its rarity, has become a luxury. In the past the natives, with tireless industry, caught and cured for use in their long winters great quantities of fish ; but American canneries have already come to some of their streams, and will soon be found on all of them, both carr^ung the food out of the country and, by their wasteful methods, destroying the future supply. Five million cans of salmon annually shipped away from Alaska — and the business still in its infancy — means starva¬ tion to the native races in the near future. With the advent of improved breech-loading firearms the wild reindeer are both being killed off and frightened away to the remote and more inaccessible regions of the interior (Appendix K), and another source of food supply is diminishing.'^ Thus the support of the people is largely gone, and the process of slow starvation and extermination has commenced along the whole arctic coast of Alaska. Villages that once numbered thousands have been reduced to hundreds; of some tribes but two or three a The reindeer have long since been driven away. (John W. Kelly, in Ethnographical Memoranda Concerning the Arctic Eskimos in Alaska, A. D. 1889, page 9.) INTEODUCTION OF EEINDEEK IKTO ALASKA. 1093 families remain. At Point Barrow, in 1828, Captain Beechey’s expedition found Nuwuk a village of 1,000 people; in 1863 there were 309; now there are not over 100. In 1826 Captain Beechey speaks of finding a large population at Cape Franklin; to-day it is without an inhabitant. He also mentions a large village of 1,000 to 2,000 people on Schismareff Inlet; it has now but 3 houses. According to Mr. John W. Kelly, who has written a monograph upon the arctic Eskimo of Alaska, Point Hope, at tlie commencement of the century, had a population of 2,000; now it has about 350. Mr. Kelly further says: ‘ ‘ The Kavea country is almost depopulated, owing to the scarcity of game, which has been killed or driven away. * * * The coast tribes between Point Hope and Point Barrow have been cut down in population so as to be almost obliterated. The Kookpovoros of Point Lay have only 3 huts left; the Ootookas of Icy Cape, 1 hut; the Koogmute has 3 settlements of from 1 to 4 families; Sezaro has about 80 people.” Mr. Henry D. Woolfe, wdio has spent many years in the arctic region, writes: “Along the seacoast from Wainwright Inlet to Point Lay numerous remains of houses testify to the former number of the people. * * * From Cape Seppings to Cape Krusenstern and inland to Nounatok Kiver there still remain about 40 people, the remnant of a tribe called Key wall ling nach ah mutes. They will in a few years entirely disappear as a distinctive tribe.” I myself sa.w a number of abandoned villages and crumbling houses during tlie summer, and wherever I visited the people I heard the same tale of destitution. On the island of Attou, once famous for the number of its sea,-otter skins, the catch for the past nine years has averaged but 3 sea-otter and 25 fox skins, an annual income ef about S2 for each person. The Alaska Commercial Company this past summer sent SI, 300 worth of provisions to keep them from starving. At Akutan the whole catch for the past summer was 19 sea otters. This represents the entire support of 100 people for twelve months. At Unalaska both the agent of the Alaska Commercial Company and the teacher of the Government school testified that there would be great destitution among the people this winter because of the disappearance of the sea otter. At St. George Island the United States Treasury agent testified that there was not sufficient provision on the island to last through the season, and asked that a Govern¬ ment vessel might be sent with a full supply. At Cape Prince of Wales, Point Hope, and Point Barrow was the same account of short supply of food. At the latter place intimations were given that the natives in their distress would break into the Government warehouse and help themselves to the supply that is in store for shipwrecked whalers. At Point Barrow, largely owing to the insufficient food supply, the death rate is reported to the birth rate as 15 to 1. It does not take long to figure out the end. They v/ill die off more and more rapidly as the already insufficient food supply becomes less and less. INTRODUCTION OF REINDEER. In this crisis it is important that steps should be taken at once to afford relief. Belief can, of course, be afforded by Congress voting an appropriation to feed them, as it has so many of the North American Indians. But I think that every one familiar with the feeding process among the Indians will devoutly wish that it may not be necessary to extend that system to the Eskimo of Alaska. It would cost hundreds of thousands of dollars annually, and, worse than that, degrade, pauperize, and finally exterminate the people. There is a better, cheaper, more practical, and more humane way, and that is to introduce into northern Alaska the domesticated reindeer (Appendixes F and G) of Siberia, and train the Eskimo young men in their management, care, and propagation. This would in a few years create as permanent and secure a food supply for the Eskimo as cattle or sheep raising in Texas or New Mexico does for the people of those sections. It may be necessaryto afi’ord temporary relief for two or three years to the Eskimo, until the herds of domestic reindeer can be started, but after that the people will be self-supporting. 1094 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. As you well know, in the arctic and subarctic regions of Lapland and Siberia the domesti¬ cated reindeer is food, clothing, house, furniture, implements, and transportation to the people. Its milk and flesh furnish food; its marrow and tongue are considered choice delicacies; its blood mixed, with the contents of its stomach, is made into a favorite dish called in Siberia ‘‘manyalla;” its intestines are cleaned, filled with tallow, and eaten as a sausage ; its skin is made into clothes, bedding, tent covers, reindeer harness, ropes, cords, and fish lines; the hard skin of the forelegs makes an excellent covering for snowshoes.<^ Its sinews are dried and pounded into a strong and lasting thread; its bones are soaked in seal oil and burned for fuel; its horns are made into various kinds of household implements^ into weapons for hunting and war, and in the manufacture of sleds. Indeed, I know of no other animal that in so many different ways can minister to the com¬ fort and well-being of man in the far northern regions of tlie earth as the reindeer.^ “The reindeer form their riches; these their tents, Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth supply; Their wholesome fare and cheerful cups.” Under favorable circumstances a swift reindeer can traverse 150 miles in a day. A speed of 100 miles per day is easily made. As a beast of burden, they can draw a load of 300 pounds. They yield a cupful of milk at a milking; this small quantity, however, is so thick and rich that it needs to be diluted with nearly a quart of water to make it drinkable. It has a strong flavor like goat’s milk, and is more nutritious and nourishing than cow’s milk. The Lapps manufacture from it butter and cheese. A dressed reindeer in Siberia weighs from 80 to 100 pounds. The reindeer feed upon the moss and other lichens that abound in the arctic regions, and the farther north the larger and stronger the reindeer. Now, in central and arctic Alaska are between 300,000 and 400,000 square miles (an area equal to the New England and Middle States combined, together with Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois) of moss-covered tundra and rolling plains of grass that are specially adapted by nature for the grazing of the reindeer and is practically useless for any other purpose. If it is a sound public policy to bore artesian wells and build water-storage reservoirs, by which thousands of arid acres can be reclaimed from barrenness and made fruitful, it is equally a sound public policy to stock the plains of Alaska with herds of domesticated reindeer, and cause those vast, dreary, desolate, frozen, and storm-swept regions to minister to the wealth, happiness, comfort, and well-being of man. What stock raising has been and is on the vast plains of Texas, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, reindeer raising can be in northern Alaska. In the corresponding regions of Lapland, in arctic Norway, and in Sweden and Russia are 27,000 people supporting themselves (besides paying a tax to the Government of $400,000, or $1 per head, for their reindeer) and procuring their food and clothing largely from their 400,000 domesticated reindeer. (Appendix H.) Also, in the corresponding regions of Siberia, with similar climate, soil, and environment (and only 40 miles distant at the straits), are thousands of Chukchees, Koraks, and other tribes fed and clothed by their tens of thousands of domesticated reindeer. During the summer I visited four settlements of natives on the Siberian coast, the two extremes being 700 miles apart, and saw much of the people, both of the Koraks and Chuk¬ chees. I found them a good-sized, robust, fleshy, well-fed, pagan, half-civilized, nomad people, living largely on their herds of reindeer. Families own from 1,000 to 10,000 deer^ These are divided into herds of from 1,000 to 1,500. One of these latter I visited on the l^each near Cape Navarin. In arctic Sil:>eria the natives with their reindeer have plenty; in arctic Alaska without the reindeer they are starving. Then instead of feeding and pauperizing them, let us civilize, build up their manhood, and lift them into self-support by helping them to the reindeer. To stock Alaska with reindeer a Kerman’s Tent Life in Siberia, p. 188. l> Without the reindeer the Laplander could not exist in those northern regions; it is his horse, his beast of burden, his food, his clothing, his shoes, and his gloves. (Du Chaillu’s Land of the Midnight Sun, vol. 2, p. 199.) INTKODUCTIOAT OF EEIFTDEEE IXTO ALASKA. 1095 and make millions of acres of moss-covered timdra conducive to the wealth of the country would be a great and worthy event under any circumstances. But just now it is specially important and urgent from the fact, stated in the opening of this report, that the destruction of the whale and walrus has brougb.t large numbers of Eskimo faco to face with starvation and that something must be done promptly to save them. The introduction of the reindeer would ultimately afford them a steady and permanent food supply. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Passing from northern Alaska with its adaptation to reindeer raising, we find the whole southern coast, stretching for thousands of miles, to possess a temperate climate. This is due to the “Kuro-siwo” or ‘‘Japan current” of the Pacific Ocean. In this “temperate belt ” it is probable that there are areas of greater or less extent that are adapted to agri¬ culture, At least it is known that there are small farms or vegetable gardens on Kodiak and ryognak islands, on the shores of Cook’s Inlet, and in southeastern Alaska. It is also known that wild berries grow in great profusion and abundance in many sections. But no intelligent and continued experiments have been made to test the agricultural and horti¬ cultural capabilities of the country. Until a quite recent period (1867) the European population were fur-trading Russians. They were followed by fur-trading Americans, and more recently by the gold seekers. No one expected to remain long in the country, and there has been no incentive to carry forward intelligent experiments in agriculture. As early as my first report to the Commissioner of Education (1885) I called attention to the fact that there v/as a very wide diversity of views concerning the agricultural and horti¬ cultural capabilities of Alaska, and necessarily very great ignorance; that no systematic effort intelligently prosecuted had ever been made to ascertain what could or what could not be raised to advantage; that it was of very great importance, both to the people of Alaska and the country at large that careful experiments should be made, extending over a term of j^ears, to ascertain the vegetables, grains, grasses, berries, apples, plums, trees, flowers, etc., best adapted to the country; the best methods of cultivating, gathering, and curing the same; the planting and grafting of fruit trees; the development of the wild cranberry; cattle, hog, and poultry raising; butter and chee.se making, etc. In 1886 my recommenda¬ tion was taken up by the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, who, in his annual report for that 3"ear (p. 20), says: “Something in the line of experimental work might also be undertaken in Alaska, possibly with profit. It is well knov/n that the Department of the Interior has established an agency for the promotion of education in that Territory". “It has been suggested that a line of experiments, to be undertaken by this Department, would easily prove whatever of agricultural and horticultural capability may exist in the Territory. No careful attention seems to have been given there, as yet, to this branch of industry, and the resources of the country are quite unknown and undeveloped. “The industrial training school at Sitka would furnish an admirable basis for a station, where could be conducted careful experiments to ascertain the agricultural products best adapted to the climate and soil of the Territor}^ and what breeds of cattle and other domestic animals are miost suited to its climate and soil. “Such an experiment ought to extend over a series of years, and the result would amply repay any expenditure that Congress may choose to make in this direction. ’ ’ In view, therefore, of the national importance of introducing the domesticated reindeer of Siberia into northern Alaska, and testing the agricultural capacity of southern Alaska, I most earnestly recommend that you secure the establishment of an “ agricultural school and experiment station” in connection with the system of industrial education in Alaska. By an act approved July 2, 1862, Congress made provision for schools for the ‘ ‘ benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts.” By an act approved Mareh 2, 1887, provision was made for “agricultural experiment stations-^’ in connection with the agricultural schools. And by the act approved August 30, 1890, certain of the proceeds of the sale of public lands were set aside for the better support of these agricultural schools. 1096 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. These acts of Congress require the assent of tlm legislature of the State or Territory in order that their provisions may become available. But Alaska has no legislature, and is governed directly by Congress. On this account, and partly because nineteen-twentieths of the children to be benefited belong to the native races, Congress has committed to the Secretary of the Interior the duty of making ‘^needful and proper provision for education in Alaska.” It is, therefore, eminently proper that he should be authorized to extend to Alaska the benefits of the agricultural acts of 1887 and 18C0 (Appendix J), and secure the establishment of a school that can introduce reindeer into that region and teach their management, care, and propagation, and also to conduct a series of experiments to determine the agricultural capabilities of the country. To reclaim and make valuable vast areas of land otherwise worthless; to introduce large, permanent, and wealth-producing industries where none previously existed; to take a barbarian people on the A^erge of starvation and lift them up to a comfortable self-support and civilization, is certainly a work of national importance. It Avas my good fortune to make my visit to the Eskimo in the United States revenue steamer Bear, commanded by Capt. Michael A. Healy, who has made an annual cruise in those waters for ten ^mars past. HavVing seen much of the native population and taken a great interest in their welfare, he has probably a better knowledge of their condition and necessities than any other person. His attention was early called to the advantage that the introduction of domesticated reindeer would be to the inhabitants of northern Alaska, and he has given the subject considerable thought. When, therefore, I suggested the feasibility of introducing the domesticated reindeer of Siberia into Alaska in connection with the Government industrial schools, and my purpose to recommend it, he immediately indorsed the proposition, and rendered me much assist¬ ance in pursuing my inquiries with regard to the subject. He is also ready to cooperate in carrying out any plan that may be devised. Feeling sure that this important matter will have your hearty assistance, I remain, with great respect, very truly, yours, Sheldon Jackson, United States General Agent of Education for AlasTca. Appendix A. U. S. Revenue Steamer Bear, San Francisco, Cal. , December 6, 1890. lion. AV. T. Harris, LL.D., United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: Under orders from the Secretary of the Treasury, I have been ten years on the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean station of the United States Revenue-Marine Service. My duties have brought me very closely in contact with and greatly interested me in the native population. On account of this interest, I have watched with pleasure the coming among them of the missionaries of the several churches and the teachers of the Government schools. I have also seen with apprehension the gradual exhaustion of the native food supply. From time immemorial they have lived principally on the whale, seal, v/alrus, salmon, and wild rein¬ deer. But in the persistent hunt of white men for the whale and walrus, the latter has largely disap¬ peared, and the former been driven beyond the reach of the natives. The white men are also erecting canneries on their best fishing streams, and the usual supply of fish is being cut off; and with the advent cf improved firearms the vdld reindeer are migrating farther and farther away. AVith the disappearance of the whale, walrus, salmon, and reindeer a very large portion of their food supply is taken away, and starvation and gradual extinction appear in the near future. On m.y recent cruise I was accompanied by Dr. Sheldon Jackson, United States general agent of education, and together we have made the question of a future food supply the subject of special thought and investigation. AA'e have consulted with a fev/ of the leading teachers, missionaries, traders, and whaling captains whom we have met, and they, without a single exception, agree with us that the most practical relief is the introduction of domesticated reindeer into that portion of northern and arctic Alaska adapted to them. INTRODUCTION OF REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1097 In Lapland there are 400,000 domesticated reindeer, sustaining a population of 27,000. In Siberia, but a few miles from Alaska, wdth climate and country oLsimilar conditions, are tens of thousands of tame reindeer supporting thousands of people, and it will be a very easy and comparatively cheap matter to introduce the tame reindeer of Siberia into Alaska and teach the natives the care and man¬ agement of them. This it is proposed to do in connection with the industrial schools established among the natives by the Bureau of Education. As in connection with the industrial schools in Dakota, Indian Territory, and elsewhere, the Indian boy is taught the raising of stock, so in the industrial schools of Alaska it is proposed to teach the Eskimo young men the raismg of tame reindeer. A few thousand dollars expended now in the establishment of this new industry will save hundreds of thousands hereafter. For if the time comes when the Government will be compelled to feed these Eskimo it will cost over $1,000,000. In northern Alaska there are about 400,000 square miles that are adapted to the reindeer and are unfit for anything else. This region has a present population of about 20,000, all of whom will be ultimately benefited by the new industry. With an assured support such as will come from herds of tame remdeer, there is no reason why the present population shall not be increased in numbers and advanced to the position of civilized, wealth- producing American citizens. Asking for your favorable consideration and earnest advocacy of this matter, I remain very respect¬ fully, M. A. IlEALY, Captain, United States Revenue Marine. Appendix B. DESTITUTION AMONG THE ALASKA ESKIMO. [An interview with Capt. M. A. Ilealy, United States Revenue-Marine Service, in San Francisco Chroni¬ cle, December 12, 1890.] For several seasons past the Eskimo of northwestern Alaska have experienced grea't hardships m obtaining a supply of deer meat for their winter stores. It is to be feared that when the Bear makes her annual visit to the Arctic next summer many of the villages will be found to have lost their residents from starvation. The latest advices from the Arctic report a failure not only in the autumn deer hunt, but in the entire catch of whales, walrus, and seals. Naturally of a timid disposition the deer have learned that the natives with breechloading arms are far more formidable foes than when bows, arrows, and spears were employed m the chase. Again the Eskimo spare neither young or old when a herd is found, and httle suckhng fawns as well as does carry¬ ing young fall victims to their guns. Formerly on the lo’ver Yukon around St. Michael’s on Norton Sound, and in the country known as the Kotzebue Sound district, numbers of deer made yearly visits. Now it is rare to find that the natives living at these points have seen or tasted deer meat. The Alaskan deer of the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions have been confounded with the reindeer of other localities, but v/hile certainly belonging to the rangifer family, they are the true barren-ground caribou, differing from the upland caribou and domesticated reindeer of Lapland and Siberia in being smaller in body and horns. From July to September the instmets of the deer induce them to come from the interior to the seacoast to obtain rest and freedom from the tortures inflicted by the hordes of mosquitoes that infest the inland swamps, and also to get saline matter from the herbage and mioss growing in proximity to the ocean. In September they commence their inland migration, and from July until the middle of October they are ruthlessly pursued by the natives. Some rest is afforded to the. animals during the dark days that prevail in the Arctic Zone from November until January, but as soon after the early part of February as the weather permits the food seekers again take the field. The does have their young during April, and by a provision of nature the horns of the female only attam size during the time she is suckling the fawn and until it reaches such an age that it can feed— about 2 months. When it is considered that a deer weighing on an average 125 pounds is consumed at a single sitting by five or six natives it may be readily perceived that the average returns of a successful hunting party must be large to feed a village. During the past season in the Arctic the attention of Captain Healy of the U. S. revenue steamer Rear, has been directed in a very pointed manner to the attainment of some method whereby the supply of deer for food and clothing purposes may be increased in northwestern Alaska. This year, taking advantage of the presence on the Bear of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, United States commissioner of educa¬ tion for Alaska, the captain, in conjunction with Commissioner Jackson, intends to present to the Secretary of the Interior data upon the subject. Within a radius of 100 miles inland from the shores of the ocean on the Siberian coast, from Cape Navarin to Plover Bay, there are people known as deer men. They belong to the Chukchee tribe of 1098 EDUCATION KEPOETj 1904, Siberians, and are essentially a nomadic race, wandering from East Cape, on the northern coast, to Cape Navarin, southward. Accompanied by their herds of tame reindeer, aggregating in many instances thousands, they roam in search of food. These reindeer, while resembling the Alaskan species in the main, differ in the texture of their skins, the pelts being spotted brown and white, with a smooth surface. These deer men subsist mainly on the products of their herds, bartering the skins Muth the coast natives for tobacco, seal oil, walrus hides for their boot soles, and other minor commodi¬ ties such as powder, shot, lead, and flour. At Cape Navarin and East Cape, Siberia, they some¬ times meet the whaling ships and sell them deer meat and skins for tobacco, etc. Captain Ilealy’s ideas are to propose to the Government that he be empowered to purchase a number of these deer of both sexes and transport them on the Bear to some point on the Alaskan coast where moss and feed are plentiful. These deer are to form the nucleus of a herd, and from the yearly increase they can be distributed over other portions of the Northwest Territory. As the Alaskan Eskimo are not skilled in herding the deer, Captain Ilealy intends, if permission be granted by the Government, to endeavor to enlist the services of some experienced Siberian natives to instruct them. Unless some measures be adopted, as suggested by Captain Ilealy, it is sure that a decade will witness the extermination of the people of our arctic province on its northwest shores. The results of the active and unscrupulous chase of their pelagic food supplies by the whalemen have already become evident; walrus are almost invisible on the ice-floes within reach of the native hunters, while the flurried -and galled whale makes its passage to the unknown regions of the Arctic Ocean at a speed which defies the natives to capture it. The proposition of Captain Healy will be communicated to the Washington authorities at an early date. Appendix C. DESTRUCTION OF THE WHALES. [From Bancroft’s History of Alaska, pages 668 and 669.] Of whahng enterprise in the neighborhood of the Alaskan coast mention has already been made, but a few statements that will serve to explain the enormous decrease that has occurred in the catch within the last three decades may not be out of place. Of the 600 or 700 American wdialers that were fitted out for the season of 1857, at least one-half, includ¬ ing most of the larger vessels, wem engaged in the North Pacific. The presence of so vast a fleet tended of course to exhaust the whahng grounds or to drive the fish into other waters, for there are no perma¬ nent whahng grounds on any portions of the globe except those encircled by ice for about ten months in the year. In the seas of Greenland not many years ago whales were rarely to be seen; in 1870 they were fairly plentiful. The sea of Okhotsk and the waters in the neighborhood of the Aleutian Islands vrere a few decades ago favorite hunting grounds but are now' almost depleted, while in 1870 the coast of New Siberia was swarming with v/hales. Schools of sperm whale are occasionally seen between the Alaska Peninsula and Prince William Sound, and the humpback sometimes makes its appearance as far north as Baranof Island. Between Bristol Bay and Bering Strait a fair catch is sometimes taken, but most of the vessels forming what is termed the North Pacific whahng fleet now pass into the Arctic Ocean in quest of their prey. Probably not more than 8 or 10 of them are employed on the whaling grounds of the Alaskan coast. In 1881 the whahng fleet of the North Pacific mustered only 30 and in the follow'ing year 40 craft, of wdiich 4 were steamer. The catch for 1881 was one of the most profitable that has occurred smce the date of the transfer, being valued at $1,139,000, or an average of about $57,000 for each vessel, some of them returning with cargoes worth $75,000 and few' with cargoes w'orth less than $30,000. In 1883 the catch was inconsiderable, several of the whalers returning “ clean,” and few making a profit for their owners. The threatened destruction of these fisheries is a matter that seems to deserve some attention. In 1850, as will be remembered, it was estimated that 300 whahng vessels visited Alaskan v/aters and the Okhotsk and Bering seas. Two years later the value of the catch of the North Pacific fleet was more than $14,000,000. After 1852 it gradually decreased until in 1862 it was less than $800,000; for 1867 the amount v/as about $3,200,000; in 1881 it had agam fallen to $1,139,000; and for the season of 1883 there was a stiU further reduction. INTEODUCTIOJT OF EEINDEEK INTO ALASKA. 1099 Appendix D. DECREASE OF THE FOOD SUPPLY IN WESTERN ALASKA. [From Petrofi’s census report, 1880.] The whaling industry may be expected to decline gradually here as it has done in other sections of the globe. The danger mdicated lies in the fact that the trading vessels coining to this region, chiefly from the Sandwich Islands, have carried such quantities of alcoholic hquorthat the natives have acquired a craving for the same that can no longer be subdued, and this causes them to look for no other ecpiiva- lent for their furs, oil, and ivory than the means cf intoxication. At the same time they become utterly reckless in their pursuit of fur-bearing and other animals, thuiking onlj^ cf satisfyuig their desire for the present vdthout the shghtest thought of the future; and if this state cf affairs be continued the extermination of the people, consequent upon the exliausticn cf their means of subsistence, can only be a question of time. Appendix E. CATCH OF WHALES IN ALASKAN WATERS. [From Senate Ex. Doc. No. 34, Forty-second Congress, second session, pages 4 and 5.] Year. Number of ships. Average barrels. Total catch, oil, sperm and whale. Total value, m- cluding bone. 1845 . 163 953 Barrels. ! 250, 600 253, 800 187, 443 185, 256 $5, 337, 780 1846 . 192 869 5, 542, 990 4,519, 330 4, 198, 637 5, 085, 716 7,186,549 2,812,350 1847 . 177 1,059 1,164 1,334 1,692 1848 . 159 1849 . 155 206,850 243, 648 86, 360 373, 450 218, 135 1850 . 144 1851 . 138 626 1852^ . 278 1,343 14,118, 900 7, 264, 470 6, 506, 976 8, 038, 914 6, 651, 156 5, 158, 760 4, 625, 620 3,459,060 2,297, 511 1,792,900 1853 . 238 912 1854 . 232 794 184, 063 1855 . 217 873 189, 579 146, 410 113,900 121,650 94, 160 62, 678 55, 024 1 856 . 178 822 1857 . 143 796 1858 . 196 620 1859 . 176 535 1860 . 121 518 1861 . 76 724 1862 . 32 610 19, 525 36, 010 35, 490 36,415 785, 217 1,855, 770 2, 725,612 1863 . 42 857 1864 . , . 68 522 1865 . ' . 59 617 3, 092, 160 4, 301,250 3, 192, 380 1866 . 95 598 56, 925 1867 . . 90 640 57, 620 20,817 1885 . 1889 . 49 12,231 1890 . . . 48 7,452 Appendix F. REINDEER. [From Encyclopedia Britannica, volume 7, pages 24 and 25.] The reindeer ( Tarandus rangifer) , the only domesticated species of deer, has a range somewhat similar to the elk, extending over the entire boreal region of both hemispheres, from Greenland and Spitz- bergen in the north to New Brunswick in the south. There are several well-marked varieties differing greatly in size and in form of the antlers— the largest forms occurring farthest north, while by many writers the American reindeer, which has never been domesticated, is regarded as a distinct species. The antlers, winch are long and branching and considerably palmated, are present in both sexes, although in the female they are slender and less branched than in the males. In the latter they appear at a much earlier age than in any other species of deer, and Darwin conjectures that m this circumstance a key to their exceptional appearance in the female may be found. The reindeer has long been domesti¬ cated in Scandinavia, and is of indispensable importance to the Lapland race, to whom it serves at once as a substitute for the horse, cow, sheep, and goat. As a beast of burden it is capable of drawing a weight of 300 pounds, while its fleetness and endurance are still more remarkable. Hamessed to a sledge it will travel without difficulty 100 miles a day over the frozen snow, its broad and deeply cleft 1100 EDUCATION EEPOKTj 1904. hoofs being admirably adapted for traveling over such a surface. During summer the Lapland rein¬ leer feeds chiefly on the young shoots of the willow and birch; and as this season migration to the coast leems necessary to the well-being of the species, the Laplander, with his family and herds, sojourns nr several months in the neighborhood of the sea. In winter its food consists chiefly of the reindeer aioss and other lichens, which it makes use of its hoofs in seeking for beneath the snow. The wild reindeer grows to a much greater size than the tame breed, but in northern Europe the former are being gradually reduced through the natives entrapping and domesticating them. The tame breed found in nortliern Asia is much larger than the Lapland form and is there used to ride on. There are two distinct varieties of the American reindeer, the barren-ground caribou and the woodland caribou. The former, which is larger and more widely distributed of the two, frequents in summer the shores of the Arctic Sea, retiring to the woods in autumn to feed on the tree and other lichens. The latter occu¬ pies a very limited tract of woodland country, and, unlike the barren-ground form, migrates southward in spring. The American reindeer travel in great herds, and being both unsuspicious and curious, they fall ready victims to the bow and arrow or the cunning snare of the Indian, to whom their car¬ casses form the chief source of food, clothing, tents, and tools. Appendix G. WILD REINDEER IN ALASKA. [Charles II. Townsend, in the report of the cruise of the LTnited States Revenue-Marine steamer Corwin, 1885, Capt. M. A. Ilealy, commanding, pages 87 and 88.] Reindeer are found more or less regularly throughout Alaska. They were found by Mr. McLenegan on the Noatak, as well as by our i>arty on the Kowak. Traders in the service of the Alaska Commercial Company told me of their common distribution over the Yukon, Kuskokwim, and Aleutian divisions of the country. They have even been shot on Ounimak Island, at the end of the peninsula. But rein¬ deer are restless animals, irregular in their migrations and habits. Sometimes they desert whole sec¬ tions of the country for months together, and they appear to have withdrawn from many regions where firearms have been introduced. Notwithstandmg the fact that large herds of reindeer are kept in a state of domestication by the Chukchees at East Cape and other well-known places on the Asiatic side of Bering Straits, with whom the natives of the Alaskan side communicate regularly, there appears to be no domestication of the species whatever in Alaska, nor indeed in any part of North America- In time, when the general use of firearms by the natives of upper Alaska shall have reduced the num¬ bers of this wary animal, the introduction of the tame variety, which is a substantial support to the people just across the straits, among our own thriftless, alcohol-bewitched Eskimos, would be a phil¬ anthropic movement, contributing more toward their amelioration than any system of schools or kindred charities. The native boats could never accomplish the importation, which would, however, present no difficulty to ordinary seagoing vessels. The taming of the American reindeer is impracti¬ cable; for domestication, vvdth this animal at least, is the result of subjection through many generations. Something tending to render a wild people pastoral or agricultural ought to be the first step toward their advancement. In our management of these people, “purchased from the Russians,” we have an opportunity to atone, in a measure, for a century of dishonorable treatment of the Indian. Appendix II. DOMESTIC REINDEER IN LAPLAND. [From Du Chaillu’s Land of the Midnight Sun, volume 2, pages 167 and 168.] The Fjeld Lapp’s time is engaged in adding to his herd, to which he and his family devote all their energies, for their welfare depends on the growth of the animals. It is difficult to ascertain exactly the increase or decrease of reindeer according to the districts, for the people often change, and there has been of late years in the north a large immigration of Norwegian Lapps to the territory of Sv/eden, especially to Keresuando, but taken as a whole the population and the reindeer are increasing. There is a greater number in Norway than in Sweden, owing to the number of stationary bonder (farmer) and sea Lapps, which far outnumber the nomads. According to the late census there are: In Sweden (1870) 6,702 Laplanders, with 220,800 reindeer; in Norway (1865) 17,178 Laplanders, with 101,768 reindeer; in Finland (1865) 615 Laplanders, with 40,200 reindeer; in Russia (1859) 2,207 Lapland¬ ers, with 4,200 reindeer. With those that belong to farmers and others I think we may safely say that the reindeer number about 400,000. The Samoides have the largest and finest breeds, which are not numbered among those of the Lapps. In Kautokeino there are Lapps who own 2,000 reindeer; in Sorsele, in Sweden, one is said to own 5,000, and others 1,000 and 2,000. Some of the forest Lapps have 1,000. In Lulea Lapp- mark there are herds of over 2,000; in Finmarken, of 5,000; and some Lapps have owned as many as 10,000. A herd of 2,000 to 2,509 is said to give about 200 to 2.50 calves yearly. IISTTKODUCTION OF KEINDEEE INTO ALASKA. 1101 Every owner has his own mark branded upon the ears of all his reindeers, and no other person has a right to have the same, as this is the lawful proof of ownership; otherwise when several herds are min¬ gled on the mountains the separation would be impossible. According to custom no one can make a new mark, but must buy that of an extinct herd. If these are scarce the price paid to the families that own them is often high. The name of the purchaser and each mark have to be recorded in court, like those of any other owner and property. The tax paid is according to the pasture land occupied. Appendix J. JOINT RESOLUTION TO EXTEND TO ALASKA THE BENEFIT OF THE LAWS ENCOURAGING IN THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. Whereas Congress passed an act, approved March second, eighteen hundred and eighty-seven, enti¬ tled “An act to establish agricultural experiment stations in connection with the colleges established in the several States under the provisions of an act approved July second, eighteen hundred and sixty- two, and of the acts supplementary thereto,” and an act approved August thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, entitled “An act to apply a portion of the proceeds of the public lands to the more complete endowment and support of the colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts, established under the provisions of an act of Congress approved July second, eighteen hundred and sixty-two;” and Whereas these several acts require the assent of the legislature of the State or Territory before their provisions become available; and Whereas Alaska has no legislature, and on that account Congress has committed the charge of edu¬ cation in that section to the Secretary of the Interior: Therefore, be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of the Interior is hereby authorized and empowered to extend to Alaska the benefits of the above-cited acts, and to receive and disburse through the Bureau of Education for the benefit of the said Territory all moneys now or hereafter appropriated under said acts. Appendix K. San Francisco, December 18, 1890. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: Referring to your desire to obtain information relative to the introduction of reindeer into the northwest portion of the Territory of Alaska, I would say that in my opinion the project is entirely feasible. My experience in Alaska permits me to state on authority that the next decade will witness the extinction of the American reindeer, or rather caribou. In 1881, when I first visited the district of Norton and Kotzebue sounds and the loAver Yukon, deer were plentiful. This past winter (1889) not a single animal had been seen within a radius of 200 miles. Similar conditions are coexisting from Port Clarence to Point Barrow, and where in former years the hunters had to travel but 50 miles to reach the deer haunts to-day they traverse twice that distance. These contingencies arise from three causes: 1. The indiscriminate slaughter of young and old animals. 2. The use at the present day of improved weapons of the chase in lieu of the jirimitive bows, arrows and spears. 3. The conditions of wind prevailing at the seasons when the deer go to and from the coast. It must distinctly be understood that upon a supply of these animals our Alaskan Eskimo depend for clothing, as well as their store of meat, should their pelagic sources of provender fail. The proposition to introduce deer from the Siberian herds can be effected at a cost of but a few thou¬ sand dollars. The location for the first experimental station should be on Choris Peninsula or the vicinity of Kot¬ zebue Sound. This location has climatic similarities with Siberia. The food (moss) supply is abun¬ dant and herding easy. As the results of this initial experiment become manifest additional locations for herds can be estab¬ lished. Within two seasons the Chukchee herdsmen will be able to instruct the Eskimo in the style of herding. I have made inquiries upon the subject and now give you the result. Ten years ago the Russian steamer Alexander went to the Kamchatka Peninsula, and officers of the Alaska Commercial Company bought 7 male and 7 female deer, transporting them to Bering Island (one of the islands leased by the company from Russia). Captains Blair and Greenberg and Superintendent Lubegoil inform me that the herd now numbers 180. From this you can judge the rate of propagation. The revenue steamer Bear can be utilized for transportation, and I know no man more capable of conducting the experiment than Captain Ilealy. 1102 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. I hope that the small sum required will be voted by Congress as, unless something is done for these people, their annihilation is onlj^ a question of a brief period. The whales have so frightened the big fish that the natives are unable to pursue them in their rapid passage, while the extermination of the wahms is almost a fact. These remarks I present as requested. Yours, very truly, Henry D. Woolfe. II.— REPORT ON INTRODUCTION OF DO^^IESTIC REINDEER INTO ALASKA 1892.« By Sheldon Jackson, General Agent of Education in Alaska, LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Wasldngion, January 9, 1893. Sir: In compliance with a resolution of the Senate passed January 6, 1893, directing that the Commissioner of Education transmit to the Senate a copy of the latest report of Dr. Slieldon Jackson on the introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska, I have the honor to transmit said report herewith. Veiy respectfully, W. T. Harris, Commissioner. The President of the Senate. Department of the Interior, BurEx\u of Education, Alaska Division, Washington, D. C., January 2, 1893. Sir: So many inquiries have been made since my return from Alaska concerning the present progress of the plan to introduce domesticated reindeer into Alaska that it seems expedient to make a special report on that branch of the work of the office without wait¬ ing for the regular annual report on education in Alaska. I have the honor, therefore, to submit the following report of progress on the introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska : In the summer of 1890, in accordance with your instructions, I visited northern Alaska and established schools for the arctic Eskimo at Cape Prince of Wales, Point Hope, and Point Barrow. Through the courtesy of the Secretary of the Treasury and of Capt. L. G. Shepard, Chief of the Revenue Marine Division of the Treasury Department, I was per¬ mitted to accompany the U. S. Revenue Marine steamer Bear, Capt. M. A. Healy, com¬ manding, on her annual cruise in Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. In addition to conveying me to the points designated. Captain Healy was under instruc¬ tions from the Secretary of the Treasury to visit the coast of Siberia, and distribute presents to the Koraks around Cape Navarin in return for shelter and food furnished shipwrecked American whalers. He was also under commission from Superintendent Porter, of the Census Office to take a census of the native population along the Arctic coast of Alaska and the islands of Bering Sea, which population could not be reached by the usual enumerators. The trip to Silreria enabled me to make a cruise of 700 miles along that little knowm coast, and study somewhat the character of the native population under conditions corresponding I ith those under which life must be maintained in Alaska. I found them to be a hard}^, { itive, and well-fed people, owning tens of thousands of head of domestic reindeer. cf Reprint of Senate Mis. Doc. No. 22, Fifty-second Congress, second session, omitting maps and illustrations. INTKODUCTION OE EEIXDEER IISTTO ALASKA. 1103 The taking of the census of arctic Alaska furnished me even more extensive facilities for studying the condition of the Eskimo of Alaska. I foimd them, like their neighbors dii the Siberian side, to be a hardy and active people, but because they had never been instructed to depend upon the raising of reindeer as a support, unlike the Siberians, they were on tlie verge of starvation. The whale and walrus that formerly had constituted the principal portion of their food have been destroyed or driven off by the whalers ; and the wild reindeer that once abounded in their country have been killed off by the introduction of breech- loading firearms. The thorough canvass of the native population for enumeration, necessitating a landing wherever even one or two tents were seen on the beach, furnished unusual opportunities for observing the educational needs of that people and leaining the great difficulties under which schools will have to be canied on. Upon my return to Washington I had the honor, on November 12, to address you a pre¬ liminary report of the season ’s work, emphasizing the destitute condition of the Alaskan Eskimo. On the 6th of December this report was transmitted by you to the Secretary of the Interior for his information, and on the 15th transmitted to the Senate by Hon. George Chandler, Acting Secretary of the Interior. On the following day it was referred by the Senate to the Committee on Education and Labor. On the 19th of December, Hon. Louis E. McComas, of Maryland, introduced into the House of Representatives a joint resolution (H. R. No. 258) providing that the act of Con¬ gress approved March 2, 1887, '‘An act to establish agricultural experiment stations in con¬ nection wdth the colleges established in the several States under the provisions of an act approved July 2, 1862, and of the acts supplementary thereto,” and an act approved x\ugust 30, 1860, entitled "An act to apply a portion of the proceeds of the public lands to the more complete endowment and support of the colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the me¬ chanic arts, established under the provisions of an act of Congress approved July 2, 1862,” should be extended by the Secretary of the Interior over Alaska, vrith the expectation that the purchase, improvement, and management of domestic reindeer should be made a part of the industrial education of the proposed college. The resolution was referred to the Committee on Education, and on the 91 h of January, 1891, reported back to the House of Representatives for passage. (See Appendix A.) It was, however, so near the close of the short term of Congress that the resolution was not reached. When it became apparent that it vrould not be reached in the usual way, the Hon. Henry M. Teller, on the 26th of Febraary, moved an amendment to the bill (H. R. No. 13462), making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the year ending June 30, 1892, appropriating $15,(XX) for the introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska, which was carried. The appropriation failed to receive the concurrence of the conference committee of the House of Representatives. Upon the failure of the Fifty-first Congress to take action, and deprecating the delay of tw'elve months before another attempt could be made, with your approval I made an appeal in the Mail and Express of New York City, the Boston Transcript, the Philadelphia Ledger, the Chicago Inter-Ocean, and Washington Star, as well as in a number of the lead¬ ing religious new’spapers of the country, for contributions to this object. The response was prompt and generous; S2,146 were received. (Appendix B.) As the season had arrived for the usual visit of inspection and supervision of the schools in Alaska, you were kind enough to direct that in addition to my regular work for the schools, I should continue in charge of the work of transporting domesticated reindeer from Siberia to Alaska. As the natives of Siberia, who own the reindeer, knov/ nothing of the use of money, an assortment of goods for the purpose of barter for the reindeer was procured from the funds so generously contributed by benevolent people in answer to the appeal through the nev/spapers. 1104 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. The honoraWe the Secretary of the Treasury issued instructions to Captain Healy to furnish me every possible facility for the purchase and transportation of reindeer from Siberia to Alaska. The honorable the Secretary of State secured from the Russian Government instruc¬ tions to their officers on the Siberian coast, also, to render what assistance they could, and on May 25, 1892, I again took passage on the revenue cutter Bear, Captain Healy in com¬ mand, for the coast of Siberia. The proposition to introduce domesticated reindeer into Alaska had excited widespread and general interest. In the public discussions which arose with regard to the scheme a sentiment was found in some circles that it was impracticable; that on account of the superstitions of the natives they would be unwilling to sell their stock alive ; further, that the nature of the reindeer was such that he would not bear ship transportation, and also that even if they could be purchased and safely transported the native dogs on the Alaskan coast would destroy or the natives kill them for food. This feeling, which was held by many intelligent white men (Appendix C), was asserted so strongly and positively that it was thought best the first season to make haste slowly, and instead of purchasing a large number of reindeer to possibly die on shipboard, or perhaps to be destroyed by the Alaskan dogs (thus at the very outset prejudicing the scheme), it was deemed wiser and safer to buy only a few. Therefore, in the time available from other educational duties during the season of >1891, it seemed important that I should again carefully review the ground and secure all possible additional information with regard to the reindeer, and, while delaying the actual estab¬ lishment of a 'herd until another season, that I should determine the correctness of the objections that the natives would not sell and the deer would not bear transportation by actually purchasing and transporting them. The work was so new and untried that many things could only be found out by actual experience. First. The wild deermen of Siberia arh a very superstitious people, and need to be approached with great wisdom and tact. Upon one occasion, when Captain Healy purchased a few reindeer for food, the following ceremonies were observed: Wlien getting ready to lasso the deer the owner’s family seated themselves in a circle on the ground, Vv^here probably some rites Connected w*ith tdieir super¬ stitions were observed. Upon attempting to approach the circle, I was motioned away. After a short time the men w^ent out and lassoed a selected animal, which was led to one side of the herd. The man that was leading him stationed himself directly in front of the animal and held him firmly by the two horns. Another with a butcher knife stood at the side of the deer. An old man, probably the owner, went off to the eastward, and placing his back to the setting sun seemed engaged in prayer, upon the conclusion of which he turned around and faced the deer. This was the signal for knifing, the animal. With apparently no effort, the knife was pushed to the heart and withdrawn. The animal seemed to suffer no pain, and in a few seconds sank to his knees and rolled over on his side. While this was taking place the old man before mentioned stood erect and motionless, with his hand over his eyes. When the deer was dead he approached, and taking a handful of hair and blood from the wound, impressively threw it to the eastward. This was repeated a second time. Upon the killing of the second animal, the wife of the owner ca'^t the hair and blood to the eastward. Since then I have often observed the man who was selling a deer pluck some hair from the deer and put it in his pocket or throw it to the winds for good luck. If a man should sell us deer, and the following winter an epidemic break out in his herd, or some calamity befall his family, the Shamans would make him believe that his bad luck was all due to the sale of the deer. Second. The Siberian deermen are a nonprogressive people. They have lived for ages outside of the activities and progress of the world. As the fathers did, so continue to do their children. :■ . INTKODUCTION OF KEINDEEK I^^TO ALASKA. 1105 Now they have never before been asked to sell their deer; it is a new thing to them, and they do not know what to make of it. They were suspicious of our designs. And in refer¬ ence to this state of mind I have found that being on a Government vessel has been, of great assistance. It impresses the natives with confidence that they will be treated honorably and justly. This moral effect was so great that we secured results that otherwise could not have been obtained so easily. Then Captain Healy, commander of the Bear, is well known for thousands of miles on both sides of the coast, and the natives have confidence in him. With a stranger in com¬ mand I am confident that but little would have been accomplished in the summer of 1891. Purchasing reindeer in Siberia is very different from going to Texas and bujung a herd of cattle. In Texas such a sale' could be consummated in a few minutes or hours. But in Siberia it takes both time and patience. Upon the anchoring of the ship in the vicinity of a settlement the natives flock aboard, bringing skins and furs to exchange for flour, cotton cloth, powder, lead, etc. Once aboard they expect to be fed by the captain, and bucket after bucket of hard bread is distributed among them. They know perfectly well that we are after reindeer, but nothing is said about it. They have to be feasted first. They are never in a hurry, and therefore do not see why we should be. After a little small presents are judiciously given to the wife or child of a leading man, and when everyone is in good humor a few of the leaders are taken into the pilot house and the main subject is opened. After much discussion aiid talking all around the subject one man is ready to sell twenty and another perhaps only two. After all is arranged the leading men send their servants off after the deer, which may be in the vicinity Or four or five days’ journey away. Sometimes these delays consume a week or more at a place. Another difficulty arises from the fact that they can not understand wliat we want of the reindeer. They have no knowledge of such a motive as doing good to others without pay. As a rule the men with the largest herds, who can best afford to sell, are inland and difflcult to reach. Then business selfishness comes in. The introduction of the reindeer on the American side may to some extent injuriously affect their trade in deerskins. From time immemo¬ rial they have been accustomed to take their skins to Alaska and exchange them for oik To establish herds in Alaska will, they fear, ruin this business. Another difficulty experienced was the impossibility of securing a competent interpreter. A few of the natives of the Siberian coast have spent one or more seasons on a whaler, and thus picked up a very little English. And upon this class we have been dependent in the past. It is very desirable that a native young man should be secured and trained as an inter¬ preter who could be employed regularly, year after year. However, notwithstanding all these difficulties and delays. Captain Healy with the Bear coasted from 1,200 to 1,500 miles, calling at the various villages and holding conferences with the leading reindeer owners on the Siberian coast. Arrangements were made for the purchase of animals the following season. Then, to answer the question whether reindeer could be purchased and transported alive, sixteen were purchased, kept on shipboard for some three weeks, passing through a gale so severe that the ship had to “lie to,” and finally landed in good condition at Amaknak Island, in the harbor of Unalaska, having had a sea voj^age of over 1,000 miles. Thus the results of investigations for 1891 were: First. The cultivation of the good will of the Siberians. Second. The actual purchase of sixteen head of reindeer. Third. That reindeer can be transported with the same facility as other domestic cattle, they being safely loaded, kept on shipboard for three weeks, and landed in good condition a thousand miles away. ^ ED 1904 M - 70 1106 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. Upon my return to Washington in the fall of 1891 the question was again urged upon the attention of Congress, and on the 17th of December, 1891, Hon. H. M. Teller introduced a bill (S. 1109) appropriating 815,000, to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, for the purpose of introducing and maintaining in the Territory of Alaska reindeer for domestic purposes. This bill was referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Hon. Algernon S. Paddock, chair-man. The committee took favorable action and the bill was passed by the Senate on May 23, 1892. On the following day it was reported to the House of Representatives and referred to the Committee on Appropriations. A similar bill (H. R. 7764) was introduced into the House of Representatives by Hon. A. C. Durborow and referred to the Committee on Agriculture. On April 15, Hon. S. B. Alexander, of North Carolina, reported the bill to the House of Representatives with the approval of the Committee of Agriculture. (Appendix D.) The bill was placed on the calendar. On the 2d day of May, 1892, 1 started for my third summer’s work on the coast of Siberia and arctic Alaska in the U. S. S. Bear, Capt. M. A. Healy commanding. In accordance with your instructions, all the time that could be spared from the schools was given to the establishment of the experimental reindeer station. Upon reaching Unalaska, May 22, I was much encouraged to learn that the reindeer left last fall on Amaknak and Unalaska islands had wintered successfully and were in good condition with an increase of two. We reached Cape Navarin, Siberia, on the 6th of June, and proceeding north called at various points on the coast. Our progress was greatly hindered by heavy fields of ice. The good ship had two anchors ground up and one of the blades of the propeller broken off by the ice. Upon several occasions we were so surrounded that the propeller was stopped and the ship moored to the ice. A less stanch vessel would have been unable to stand the strain. However, during the season, five trips were made to Siberia, and 175 reindeer purchased, brought over, and landed at the head of Point Clarence, which, being the nearest good harbor to Asia on the American side and a central point for the distribution of deer, I had selected, June 29, as the location of the first reindeer station. The first installment of deer, numbering fifty-three, was landed at the new station at 6 o’clock on the morning of the 4th of July. Mr. Miner W. Bruce, of Nebraska, was appointed superintendent of the station and herd, with Mr. Bruce Gibson, of California, as his assistant. (Appendix H.) Upon the establishment of the experimental reindeer herd at Port Clarence, it became important to gain inform.ation concerning the surrounding country. To secure full and reliable information with reference to pasturage in the vicinity of Bering Straits, I had the previous season employed Mr. W.T.Lopp, teacher at Cape Prince of Wales, to make two trips northward along the coast in midwinter (1891-92), when the moss might be expected to be covered with ice and snow (see Appendix E), and in the fall of 1892 sent Mr. Bmce Gibson, assistant superintendent of the reindeer station, with a party of natives, to the northward of Port Clarence (see Appendix F), and a few weeks later Mr. Miner W. Bruce, superintendent of the station (see Appendix G). These several reconnoissances proved both the abundance of moss and its accessibility for winter pasturage to the new station. A comfortable house, 20 by 60 feet, was erected as a residence for the superintendent and his assistant, and also for the storing of the annual supply of provisions and barter goods. Close to the main house two comfortable dugouts were built for the use of the herders. Four Siberians, well acquainted with the management of reindeer, were brought over and placed in charge of the herd. With the Siberians were placed a few young men from the Alaskan Eskimo, who are expected to learn the management and care of the herd. The present expectation is to increase the number of Alaskan boys, who shall become appren¬ tices to the herders, and when they have sufficiently learned the business and proved their capability to take care of reindeer a small herd will be given each one as his start in life. INTKODUCTIOX OF EEIXDEER IXTO ALASKA. 1107 As from year to year the number of such young men is increased and a number of the natives become herders, the herds will naturally become more and more distributed through¬ out the country, until, eventually, that whole northern region shall be covered with them, as the similar regions of Siberia and Lapland are now covered. (Appendix J.) With the accomplishment of this result several important objects will be attained. PERMAXENT FOOD SUPPLY. In the first place, the population, which is now upon the verge of starvation, will be furnished with a permanent, regular, and abundant supply of food. As has already been stated, the native supply of food in that region has been destroyed by the industries of the white men. (Appendix K.) The whale and the walrus that once teemed in their waters and furnished over half their food supply have been killed or driven off by the persistent hunting of the w'halers. The wdld reindeer (caribou) and fur-bearing animals of the land, which also furnished them food and clothing, are largely being destroyed by the deadly breech-loading firearm. It will be impossible to restock their waters with whale and walrus in tlie same way that we restock rivers with a fresh supply of fish. But what we can not do in the way oh giving them their former food, we can, through the introduction of the domestic reindeer, provide a new food supply. Upon our return southw^ard from the Arctic Ocean in the fall of 1891 Captain Ilealy providentially called at the village on King Island, wdiere vre found the population starving. The appeal for food was so pressing that the captain detailed a lieutenant to make a thorough examination of the village and invited me to accompany him. In a few houses we found that the families in their great distress had killed their sled dogs to keep themselves from starving. In the larger number of families they were making a broth of seaweed, their only food supply. In all human probability, if the ship had not learned their condition, the following summer not a man, woman, or child would have been left alive to tell the story. A few years ago the same thing happened to three large villages on the Island of St. LavrrencR, and when, the following season, the revenue cutter called at the village, the putrefying corpses of the population were found ever3wvhere — on the bed platforms, on the floors, in the doorways, and along the paths, wherever death overtook them. At King Island, having ascertained the condition of things, a purse was made up from the officers and a few others on board the ship, and the captain steam*ed some 200 miles to the nearest tmding post and purchased all the provisions that cauld be obtained, which were taken back to the starving village. This supply sustained the population alive until seal and walrus came, some months later, around the village. The movement of the seal and w’alrus, since their numbers have become greatly diminished, is so uncertain that while a village may have plenty to eat one season they will be on the verge of starvation another. In the winter of 1890-91 there was a sufficiency of food at Point Hope. In the winter of 1891-92 the same population had to leave their village and make their way, in som.e instances hundreds of miles, to other villages to keep from starving. In 1891 one of the teachers on the Kuskokwim River wrote me that the inhabitants of that valley had had but little opportunity during the summer of 1890 to provide a sufficient food supply of fish, that consequently starvation faced them all winter, and that it was with gi’eat difficulty that the}^ survived until the fish returned the following season. A teacher on the Yukon River reported this past summer that some of the natives to the north of him had starved to death. This same scarcity of food exists across the entire northern portion of North America, so that now, under the auspices of the Church of England, subscriptions have been opened in London for a famine fund, out of which to send relief to the starving Eskimo of Arctic British America. This condition of things will go on, increasing in severity from 3-ear to 3mar, until the food supply of the seas and of the land is entirely gone, and then there is nothing left but the extermination of the native population. The general intro¬ duction of the domestic reindeer alone will change this entire condition of things, and furnish as reliable supply of food to that people as the herds of cattle in Texas and Wyo- 1108 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. ming do their owners or the herds of sheep in New Mexico and Arizona. The reindeer is the animal which God’s providence seems to have provided for those northern regions, being food, clothing, house, furniture, implements, and transportation to the people. Its milk and flesh furnish food. Its marrow, tongue, and hams are considered choice delica¬ cies. Its blood, mixed with the contents of its stomach, form.s a favorite native dish. Its intestines are cleaned, filled with tallow, and eaten as sausage. Its skin is made into clothes, bedding, tent covers, reindeer harness, ropes, cords, and fish lines. The liard skin of the fore legs makes an excellent covering for snowshoes. Its sinews are made into a strong and lasting thread. Its bones are soaked in seal oil and burned for fuel. Its horns are made into various kinds of household implements, into weapons for hunting, fishing, or war, and in the manufacture of sleds. Then the living animal is trained for riding and dragging of sleds. The general introduction of such an animal into that region will arrest the present starvation and restock that vast country with a permanent food supply. It will revive hope in the hearts of a sturdy race that is now rapidly passing away. Surely the country that sends shiploads of grain to starving Russians, that has never turned a deaf ear to the call of distress in any section of the globe, will not begrudge a few thousand dollars for the purchase and introduction of this Siberian reindeer and the rescue of thou¬ sands of people from starvation. REPEOPLING THE COUNTRY. In the second place, the introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska will not only thus arrest the present starvation but will assist in increasing the population. With a more generous food supply this population will commence to increase in numbers. Occupying a region whose climatic conditions are so rigorous that but few white men will ever be will¬ ing to make their permanent home in it, it is important, if we v/ould save it from being an unpeopled waste and howling wilderness, that we build up the people who through generations have become acclimated and who are as fervently attached to their bleak and storm-swept plains as the people of temperate and torrid zones to their lands of comfort and abundance. They are a race worth saving. I find that public opinion, gained perhaps by a more familiar knowledge of the Eskimo of Greenland and Labrador, conceives of the Alaska Eskimos as of the same small type. But this is not true. In the extreme north, at Point Barrow, and along the coast of Bei-ing Sea they are of medium size. At Point Barrow the average height of the males is 5 feet 3 inches, and average weight 153 pounds; of the women, 4 feet 11 inches, and weight 135. On the Nushagak River the average weight of the men is from 150 to 167 pounds. From Cape Prince of Wales to Icy Cape and on the great inland rivers emptying into the Arctic Ocean they are a large race, many of them being 6 feet and over in height. At Kotzebue Sound I have met a number of men and women 6 feet tall. Physically they are very strong, with great powers of endurance. When on a journey, if food is scarce, they will travel 30 to 40 miles without breaking their fast. Lieutenant Cantwell, in his explorations of the Kowak River, makes record that upon one occasion when he wanted a heavy stone for an anchor a woman went out and alone loaded into her birch-bark canoe and brought him a stone that would weigh 800 pounds. It took two strong men to lift it out of the canoe. Another explorer speaks of a wmman carrying off on her shoulder a box of lead weighing 280 pounds. This summer, in erecting the school buildings in the Arctics, there being no drays or horses in that country, all the timbers, lumber, hardware, etc., had to be carried from the beach to the site of the house on the shoulders of the people. They pride them¬ selves on their ability to outjump or outrun any of our race who have competed with them. They can lift a heavier weight, throw a heavy weight farther, and endure more than we. They are a strong, vigorous race, fitted for peopling and subduing the frozen regions of their home. INTRODUCTION OF REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1109 Arctic and subarctic Alaska cover an empire in extent equal to nearly all Europe. With the covering of those vast plains with herds of domesticated reindeer it will be possible to support in comparative comfort a population of 100,000 people where now 20,000 people have a precarious support. To bring this about is worthy the fostering care of the General Government. CIVILIZATION OF THE ESKIMOS. Thirdly, tiro introduction of domestic reindeer is the commencement of the elevation of this race from barbarism to civilization. A change from the condition of hunters to that of herders is a long step upwards in the scale of civilization, teaching them to provide for the future by new methods. Probably no greater returns can be found in this country from the expenditure of the same amount of money than in lifting up this native race out of barbarism by the intro¬ duction of reindeer and education. ARCTIC TRANSPORTATION. Fourthly, the introduction of the domestic reindeer will solve the question of arctic transportation. (Appendix L. ) The present transportation of that region is by dog sleds. One load of supplies for the trader or traveler requires a second load of food for the two teams of dogs, and they make but short distances per day. This difficulty of transportation has been one great drawback to the development of the country. It has interfered vrith the plans of the fur trader; it has interfered with Government exploration. Only three 5mars ago,v/hen the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey sent two parties to determine the international boundary betVvTen Alaska and Biitish Ameiica, the small steamer that was conveying the supplies up the Yukon River was wrecked, and it was with the utmost difFicully that the surveying parties were kept from starvation because of the difficulty of sending sufficient food 2,000 miles along that great valley by dog sleds. If reindeer had been introduced into the country there would have been no such difficulty in furnishing food. Bills have been before Congress for several years proposing to estab¬ lish a military post in the Yukon Valle}^. If such a post is established it is not at all improbable that a combination of circumstances may arise some winter by which the forces that shall be stationed there will be reduced to starvation, unless reindeer transportation shall have become so systematized that food can readily be sent in from otlier regions. The same is true with reference to the Government officials whom it may be found neces¬ sary to station in that region. The same is true of the forty or more missionaries and their families that are now scat¬ tered through that vast region; also of the teachers and their families v-hom the Govern¬ ment has sent into that country. These are now separated from all communication with the outside world, receiving their mail but once a year. With reindeer transportation they could have a monthly mail. During the past three years the whalers have been extending their voyages east of Point Barrow to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and wintering at Herschel Island. To the owners of this property it vrould be worth tens of thousands of dollars if they could hear from their vessels in the winter before new supplies and additional vessels are sent out in the spring. But this can not now be done. Last winter letters were sent out from the held, overland, by Indian runners that ascended the Mackenzie, crossed over to the Porcu¬ pine, and descended the Porcupine and Yukon rivers dov.m to St. Michael, on the coast. It was ten months before those letters reached their destination. It was a great satisfac¬ tion to the owners to hear of the welfare of their ships and crews, but the news was too late for business purposes. Millions of dollars’ worth of property and thousands of lives are involved in the whaling business. With the introduction of domestic reindeer into that region it Vvill be both feasible and perfectly practicable to establish a reindeer express during the winter from the Arctic coast down to the North Pacific coast of Alaska. The southern coaet of Alaska on the Pacific Ocean never freezes, and is accessible all the year around to vessels from San Francisco or Puget Sound. 1110 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. A reindeer express across Alaska, from the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean, would have a corresponding commercial value to that section as the telegraph between Nev/ York and London to theirs. It would enable the owners of the whaling fleet to avail themselves of the latest commercial news and keep a more perfect control over their business. COMMERCIAL VALUE. In the sixth place, the introduction of domesticated reindeer will add a new industry to that country, which will go to swell the aggregate of national wealth. Lapland sends to market about 22,000 head of reindeer a year, the surplus of her herds. Through Norway and Sweden smoked reindeer meat and smoked reindeer tongues are everywhere found for sale in their markets, the hams being worth 10 cents a pound and the tongues 10 cents apiece. There are wealthy merchants in Stockholm whose specialty and entire trade is in these Lapland products. The reindeer skins are marketed all over Europe, being worth in their raw condition from $1.50 to $1.75 apiece. The tanned skins (soft, with a beautiful yellow color) find a ready sale in Sweden, at from $2 to $2.75 each. Reindeer skins are used for gloves, military riding trousers, and the binding of books. Reindeer hair is in great demand for the filling of life-saving apparatuses, buoys, etc., and from the reindeer horns is made the best existing glue. One great article, smoked reindeer tongues, and tanned skins are among the principal products of the great annual fair at Nizhni Novgorod, Russia. In Lapland there are about 400,000 head of reindeer, sus¬ taining in comfort some 26,000 people. There is no reason, considering the greater area of the country and the abundance of reindeer moss, why arctic and subarctic Alaska should not sustain a population of 100,000 people with 2,000,000 head of reindeer. In Lapland the reindeer return a tax of $1 a head to the Government, so that they yield an annual revenue to the Government of $400,000. With the destruction of the buffalo the material for cheap carriage and sleigh robes for common use is gone. Bear and wolf skins are too expensive, but with the introduction of the reindeer their skins would to a certain extent take the place of the extinct buffalo. The commercial importance of introducing domesticated reindeer in Alaska was so mani¬ fest that shrew'd business men on the Pacific coast at once appreciated the great possibilities involved, and hastened, through their chambers of commerce and boards of trade, to take action urging their several delegations in Congress to do what they could to secure an appropriation of money for these purposes. (Appendix N.) Under favorable circumstances a swift reindeer can traverse 150 miles in a day. A speed of 100 miles per day is easily made. As a beast of burden they can draw a load of 300 pounds. The progress of exploration, settlement, development, government, civilization, educa¬ tion, humanity, and religion are all largely dependent in that region on reindeer trans¬ portation. If there is any measure of public policy better established than another or more frequently acted upon, it has been the earnest and unceasing efforts of Congress to encourage and aid in every way the improvement of stock, and the markets of the w’orld have been searched for improved breeds. The same wise and liberal policy wdll make ample provision for the introduction of the reindeer, which of all animals is the most serviceable and indis¬ pensable to man in high northern latitudes. If it is sound public policy to sink artesian wells or create large water reservoirs for reclaiming large areas of vialuable land otherwise worthless; if it is the part of national wisdom to introduce large, permanent, and wealth -producing industries where none pre¬ viously existed, then it is the part of national wisdom to cover that vast empire with herds of domestic reindeer, the only industry that can live and thrive in that region; and take a barbarian people, on the verge of starvation, lift them up to a comfortable support and civilization, and turn them from consumers into producers of national wealth. It will be noticed that the sum asked from Congress is only $15,000. I hope that this will not be misunderstood and taken as a measure of the importance of the movement, for INTRODUCTION OF REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1111 if the proposed results could not be obtained vOth any less sum an appropriation of hun¬ dreds of thousands of dollars would be both wise and economical. But so small a sum is accepted on tlie ground of proceeding witli extreme caution. It is the commencement of a great movement that will, if successful, extend its beneficial influences as long as the world stands. Therefore we move slowly and carefully at fu'st in order to secure that success. Commencing in a small wa}^, the first outlay of money is not large. In 1891 the sixteen reindeer purchased averaged S10.25 each. This last season the general average was brought down to 85 each. So far the pm’chase of the reindeer has been defra3"ed from the money contributed by benevolent individuals. REVENUE-MARINE SERVICE. These gratifjung results, however, could not have been attained vdthout the hearty and active cooperation of the Revenue-Marine Sermce. If this office had been required to charter a vessel for the transporting of the reindeer nothing could have been done with the small sum at our disposal. But the Secretary of the Treasury directed that the revenue-cutter Bear, in addition to her regular duties of patrolling the Seal Islands and the coasts of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean, following the wlialing fleet and inspecting the Refuge Station at Point Barrow, should also give what time was possible to transporting the reindeer. To the captain, officers, and crew of the Bear is due much praise for the hard work done by them. Special thanks are due Capt. M. A. Ileal}-" for his earnestness and efficiency in doing his part of the work; also to Lieut. D. H. Jarvis, Surg. S. J. Call, and Assistant Engineer Falkenstein, who were in charge of much of the shore work of loading and unloading the deer. ILLUSTRATIONS. I have the honor of inclosing an excellent map, prepared througli the courtesy of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, also several illustrations kindly loaned by The Californian, Scribner’s, and Harper’s. Also a few other photographs taken by Surgeon Call and Assistant Engineer Broadbent, of the Bear. The map and illustrations will greatly add to the interest of the report. Hoping that Congress v/ill provide the funds necessary for a further prosecution of the work, I remain, with great respect, Yours, truly, Sheldon Jackson, General Agent of Edu cation in Alaslca. Hon. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education. Appendix A. [House Report No. 3414, Fifty-first Congress, second session.] Mr. McComas, from the Committee on Education, submitted the following report (to accompany II. Res. 258): The Committee on Education reports favorably House Joint Resolution, 258 with sundry amend¬ ments recommended by the committee. Congress has passed several acts encouraging the establishment of agricultural schools and experi¬ ment stations in the difierent States and Territories. These several acts require the assent of the legislatui'es of the several States and Territories before their provisions become available; but as Alaska has no legislatui’e, it is the only Territory which is unable to avail itself of the benefits and provisions of these acts. Tliis bill proposes to extend to Alaska the benefits and provisions of the agricultural acts through the Secretary of the Interior in like manner to the other Territories. The acts are recited m the pre¬ amble to the joint resolution. 1112 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1904, There has been very Vvide divergence of views with regard to the agricultural and horticultural capa¬ bilities of Alaska, or whether it has any agricultural capabihties at all. This hill would secure the establishment of an experimental station in southern Alaska, which has a temperate climate, and test the question of what can and what can not he raised to advantage. This would be of very great service, both to the natives, v^ho, through the Government schools, are coming into our civilization, and to the white settlers who may locate in that vast region, which embraces about 580,000 square miles. There are hundreds of thousands of square mules of area within the Arctic regions of Alaska that, there is no question, can never be adapted to ordinary agricultural pursuits, nor utilized for purposes of raising cattle, horses, or sheep; but this large area is especially adapted for the support of reindeer. This bill will enable the Secretary of the Interior, through the Government industrial schools, to make the raising of reindeer the great industrial feature of that region. This will utilize hundreds of thousands of square miles of territory; will build up a large and profitable industry; and, above all, will provide a comfortable support for the native population of that region. This is the more important at the present time, because the American whalers have practically destroyed and driven out the whale and the walrus from the waters adjacent to the coast of Alaska. The destruction of the whale and walms has taken away three-fourths of the ordinary food supply of the Eskimo population, and that population to-day on the Arctic coast of Alaska is on the verge of starvation. The large canneries will soon take away the fish supply. The introduction of tame reindeer from Siberia into Alaska thus has a twofold importance: (1) As the establishment of a profitable industry. (2) As a relief of a starving people — a relief that will become more and more valuable as the years roll round, a relief that once established perpetuates itself. This project is wiser than to pauperize the people of Alaska. The revenue from that country warrants this attempt to m^ake these people self-sustaining. The lease of the Seal Islands by the United States Treasury Department to the North American Commercial Company, on the basis of 100,000 skins, ought to yield a revenue of about $1,000,000 annually. Under the old lease the revenue w’as $317,500 annually. The extending to Alaska of the benefits of the agricultural bill, approved August 30, 1890, would give for the year ending June — 1890 . $15,000 1891 . 16,000 1892 . 17,000 48,000 From the act establishing agricultural experiment stations approved July 2, 1862, the sum of $15,000. The joint resolution would therefore carry for the year ending June 30, 1892, $93,000, and for the fol¬ lowing year $33,000. The committee report therefore this joint resolution with the following amendments, and recommend that it pass: In Ime 4, page 2, after the word “to,” insert “ give any assent required bj^ either of said acts, and to.” In line 4, page 2, after the word "benefits,” insert “and provisions.” In line 6, page 2, after “Territory,” insert “of Alaska.” In line 7, page 2, after the word “acts,” add “in like manner as for any other Territory.” Appendix B. LIST OF CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE REINDEER FUND, 1891. 1891. May 15. Miss II. S. Benson, Philadelphia . $200.00 John N. Browm, Providence, R. 1 . 200.00 Jane N. Grewq Boston . 30.00 Mary P. Gardner, New York . 10. 50 Sarah B. Reynolds, Kingston, N. Y . 10.00 Mrs. H. B. Otis, Roxbury, Mass . 10.00 M. A. and S. II. Foster, Portsmouth, N. H . 10.00 June 10. Boston Transcript for various persons . 289. 00 E. G. Read, Somerville, N. J . 10.00 Efie V. V. Knox, New York . 10. 00 Mrs. N. Williamson, Brunswick, N. J . 10.00 E. E. B., 140 Lanvale street, Baltimore, Md . 1.00 Helen B. French, Beloit, Wis . 10.00 Mary Ellen Smith, Philadelphia, Pa . 10.00 Judge E. R. Hoar, Concord, Mass . . 10.00 INTRODUCTION OR REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1113 1891. June 10. C. H. Barstow, Crow Agency, Mont . $15.00 M. E. D., per Boston Transcript . 1.00 A. F. Allyn, Chelsea, Mass . 1.00 R. P. Wainwright, Asheville, N. C . 10.09 M. A. Haven and Annie W. Davis, Portsmouth, N. II . 10.00 Mary Hemingway, Boston, Mass . 100.00 The Mail and Express . 500.00 Mrs. William Thaw . 50.00 Five children in one family, one reindeer each . 50. 00 Mrs. F. L. Achey . 20.00 M. E. P . 50.00 The young ladies of Rye Seminary, Rye, N. Y . 50.00 Mary L. Parsons . 20.00 Y. P. S. C. E., Reformed Church, Mount Vernon . 1.3.65 Three ladies of East Orange, N. J . 12.00 G. K. Harroun . 10.00 H. G. Ludlow . : . 10.00 Mrs. H. G. Ludlow . 10.00 Mrs. R. C. Crane . 10.00 Mrs. Edwin G. Benedict . 10.00 Mrs. M. C. Cobb . 10.00 E. M. Chadwick . 10.00 Augusta Moore . . . , 10.00 Rev. Wm. T. Doubleday . 10.00 E. M. Eames . 10.00 Chas. H. Wells . 10.00 A. R. Slingushard . 10.00 James M. Ham . 10.00 Mrs. James M. Ham . 10.00 Mrs. Robert 1. Brown . 10.00 William Rust . 10.00 Mrs. Levi S. Gates . 10.00 Bethlehem Chapel Mission School . 10.00 Mrs. Richard L. Allen . 10.00 Miss M. 1. Allen . 10.00 E. Holman . 10.00 C. and family. East Orange, N. J . 10.00 J. Van Santwood . 5.00 James F. E. Little . 5.00 Frederick W. Stoneback . 5.00 J. H. Charles . 5.00 V. Thompson . 5.00 W. T. Bliss . 5.00 Howard Wilson . 5.00 G. H. Fleming . 5. 00 W. S. Quigley . 5.00 J. Lantz . 5.00 From friends . 2.60 Mrs. L. E. Hastings . 1.20 A. E. Barnes . 1.00 Amelia J. Burt . 1.00 W. A. Dee ring . 5.00 L. F. Golding . 5.00 J. A. Hennessy . 5.00 R. H. Stoddard . 5.00 William R. Worrail . 5.00 II. W. Dourmett . 5.05 Betty Derning (a child) . 10.00 John Deming (a child) . 10.00 Anonymous . 10.00 Little Lights Society . 5.00 Mrs. Edmund T. Lukens . 5.00 W. S . 5.00 Cuttenden Hull, A . 10.00 Mrs. Clinton B. Fisk . 10.00 W. U. A . 20.00 1114 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1904. 1891. June 10. Thomas Harrington . $10.00 E . 10. 00 June 18. Mrs. Debbie II. Parker, Charlottesville, Ind . 5. CO Gen. E. E. Whittlesey, Washington, D. C . 10.00 1892. Feb. 1. Miss Mary Burroughs, Philadelphia, Pa . 5.00 11. A. D. Simpson, Christiansburg, Va . 10.00 Total . 2,146.00 Of the above amount $1,158 was collected through the Mail and Express, of New York. Appendix C. TENT LIFE IN SIBERIA. By George Kennan. [Published by George P. Putnam’s Sons, 1870. Page 116.] Among the many superstitions of the Wandering Koraks and Chookchecs one of the most noticeable is their reluctance to part with a living reindeer. You may purchase as many dead deer as you choose, up to 500, for about 70 cents apiece, but a living deer they will not give to you for love nor money. You may offer them what they consider a fortune in tobacco, copper kettles, beads, and scarlet cloth for a single live reindeer, but they will persistently refuse to sell him. Yet, if you will allow them to kill the very same animal, you can have his carcass for one small string of common glass beads. It is useless to argue wdth them about this absurd superstition. You can get no reason for it or explanation of it, except that to sell a live reindeer would be “atkin” (bad). As it was very necessary in the construc¬ tion of our proposed telegraph line to have trained reindeer of our own we offered every conceivable inducement to the Koraks to part with one single deer, but all our efforts were in vain. They could sell us 100 dead deer for 100 pounds of tobacco, but 500 pounds would not tempt them to part with a single animal as long as the breath of life wms in his body. During the two years and a half which w’c spent in Siberia no one of our parties, so far as 1 know, ever succeeded in buying from the Koraks or Chookchecs a single living reindeer. 7\bpendix D. DOMESTICATED REINDEER IN ALASKA. [House Report No. 1093, Fifty-second Congress, first session.] Mr. Alexander, from the Com.mittee on Agriculture, submitted the following report: The Committee on Agriculture, to whom were referred the bill (H. R, 7761) to secure the introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska, report the same wdth a favorable recommendation. This bill does not properly come within the jurisdiction of the Committee on Agriculture, but should have been considered by the Committee on Appropriations. At the suggestion of the chairman of the Committee on Appropriations the Committee on Agriculture, having heard the* testimony of the missionaries from Alaska, the Commissioner of Education, and others in regard to the merits of the bill, have con¬ sidered it and recommend its passage. The testimony showed that there are no reindeer in Alaska; that Alaska could support many times enough reindeer to furnish the inhabitants with food and clothing, and that the reindeerskins are indis- jjensablc for clothing; that the w'hale and walrus, the principal supply of food, have been destroyed to such an extent as to cause much suffering for food; that dogs are used for transportation, and in many places the supply of food is becoming so scarce that the natives are compelled to eat their dogs, thus depriving them of the means of hauling their supplies; that for the development of the country the domesticated reindeer is absolutely indispensable; that the domesticated reindeer can make a speed of 19 miles an hour, and that a fair average rate of speed is 12 miles per hour; and this means of trans¬ portation is necessary to develop the gold fields of the interior, which can only be worked from two to two and one-half months a year; that the reindeer would be distributed at the Government schools, the native youths taught to herd and raise them, the increase to be given to worthy students and native teachers for services rendered; that this will induce the natives to become herders, be self- supporting, and not a charge upon the Government; that the natives have no vessels that can trans¬ port the live reindeer from Siberia to Alaska; that the vessels from San Francisco to Alaska leave the 1st of May to the 1st of June, none later than the last date mentioned, and that if anything be done this year it is absolutely necessary to get the appropriation in time to send the goods for the purchase of the reindeer by the revenue cutter that leaves San Francisco the 1st of June. INTRODUCTIO^T OF REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1115 The description given by the missionaries and others of the country, the habits of the natives, etc., was interesting. The distress caused ))y the continued failure of the food supply shows plainly that the natives will not be able to sustain themselves, and will become a charge upon the Government. For these and other reasons the Committee on Agriculture urge the passage of this bill. Ai’penoix E. MR. Vv'. T. LOPP’S RECONNOISSANCE ALONG THE COAST NORTH OF BERING STRAITS. Cape Prince of Wales, K-lk&kx, January 20, 1892. Dear Sir: Accordmg to your instructions, I have made two expeditions up the coast north of here, and submit you the following report: In November employed Eskimo, dogs, and sled, and explored west shore of Louge Inlet or Lake, just north of Cape Prince of W ales, up to its head, where G rouse River empties into it. The mountains (see chart inclosed) were sloping and rolling, not sharp and rocky, and covered with moss. Portions of these hills were covered with 3 to 5 inches of snow, but all the exposed portions were free from any snow. This inlet is about 30 miles long and has two outlets to the sea. Along the banks of Grouse River are acres of bushes (3 to 6 feet), hundreds of ptarmigan, and nice-sized fish in the river. On December 27 started with boy, dogs, and sled for Ke-gik-tok. Had fine weather— short days — visited about 300 people. Some settlements had plenty of oil, seal meat, and fish, and others had little or none. All were verj- anxious to have deer introduced. Most of them seemed to doubt that owner¬ ship would ever pass into their hands. They complain that they have to pay exorbitant prices to Cape Prince of Wales chiefs for deerskins. They reported moss very plentiful. At that time there was so little snow that it would be unnecessary to graze deer on the m.ountain side. I could see that the smooth expanse of country from coast to mountain was covered with only 3 or 4 inches of soft snow, no crusts or ice. (Unlike last winter, there have been no thaws this winter, consequently no ice crust on snow.) These coast people live on seal meat, oil, fish, ptarmigan, and squirrel. They are not a tradmg people, have had little or no intercourse with ships; are honest, industrious, and healthy. Found a very prosperous settlement at Ke-gik-tok of 80 people. Asked me to bring the school up there, etc. I think several hundred deer could be grazed along the hills from Cape Prince of Wales to Ke-gik-tok. I am satisfied from what I have seen and heard that there are hundreds of acres of good grazing land extending from the coast back to rivers flowing into lakes back of Port Clarence and those flowing into Kotzebue Sound. Settlements are so distributed along the coast from Cape Prince of Wales to Kotze¬ bue Sound that deermen along the mountains could easily be supplied with seal oil and meat. A.nd if inclosures are ever necessary, there are plenty of bushes in small rivers to make them. I think these coast people are better situated and adapted for herding than any other Alaskan people. They are all superstitious and are great eowards after dark. Perhaps it will be necessary to have them stand watch at night in pairs until they become accustomed to the darkness. (One Eskimo never goes any place after dark if he can help it. He sees ghosts, but is all right with a companion.) Hoping and trusting that we may sometime have occasion to make use of knowledge obtained on these two little expeditions, 1 am, very truly, yours, W. T. LoPP. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C. Appendix F. RECONNOISSANCE NORTH OF PORT CLARENCE BY BRUCE GIBSON. Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska, August 2, 1892. Sir: I respectfully submrit herewith report of expedition made by Mr. Gibson into interior, north of station, for the purpose of ascertaining probable condition of grazing for reindeer during winter months, copied from his notes, as follows: “ I started on expedition July 27, leaving station at 12 o’clock noon, taking with me as guide, Charley, as expert on pasturage. Chief Herder Pungen, and 5 natives to pack tent and supplies. Traveled in a northwesterly direction, and for about 4 miles found good feed and several small lakes. I then changed my course to north for about three-quarters of a mile and found scarcely any feed it being very rocky and barren. I then went west again for 7 miles and camped at a river about 30 feet wide. The first quarter of a mile of this last course was very rocky, bowlders from 4 to 6 feet through being plentiful, the remainder of the distance being good feeding grounds. “The next day started north and traveled in that direction for about 9 miles and found good pasturage on east side most of the way, and wild flowers and berriee grew in places; the west side of river is barren and very perpendicular in several places. I then traveled to west and for a short distance on a small river found some feed, but after traveling for 1 mile I retraced my steps and 1116 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. went to northeast for about 3 miles, when men began to complain of being tired, and I ordered a halt for the night on a small stream running toward the east. To northeast I saw good indications of feed, “The next morning I got an early start, taking with me the guide and herder and leaving the others belhnd to try and find a place to camp that night, having to go without fire the previous night and this morning. I crossed the small river and traveled north; for the first 2 miles there was but a small quantity of feed, having passed over some very rocky ground. The next miles there is good pasturage, being plenty of grass and considerable moss. I crossed two small streams in this course. Traveled east to get around some large hills; at about one-ha,lf mile came to a large mound of slaty rock — mound about 30 feet high and 150 feet across. For 1 mile east found good pasture; crossed a small stream running southeast. Changed to north and for 1 mile found good grazing ground; halted at a large cluster of rock for lunch and shelter from rain; found a white surface on one of the rocks and I made the foilowing inscription: ‘ B. Gibson, July 29, 1892, 12 m., from Reindeer Station.’ “ Resumed march to north and for 2 miles found good pasturage; crossed a small stream running to south. About 1 mile south is a lake. Changed course to east for 3 miles, crossed one stream, and found good feed in abundance. The land was of a rocky nature. Started to return to camp and trav¬ eled southwest for 7 miles to where I gave orders for camp to be located, but found they had gone farther east. I crossed over good feeding ground of a boggy nature, similar to that surrounding station. The herder said it was the best seen since starting on expedition; it was mostly lowland and some low rock hills. I found the camp 2 miles east of where I expected it to be. “The fourth day I started east and traveled for 4 miles over low hills, the surface being of a broken nature and containing abundance of feed; coming to high hills, changed course to southeast for 2^- miles, finding fair pasturage and ground slightly rocky. Sent packers on to river to find suitable camping grounds for night. I traveled 5 miles to northeast, finding good pasturage of a boggy nature; crossed one small stream. Changed to southeast 1 mile and south 1 mile, finding good pasturage on low hills; changed to southwest over low, hilly, and rocky land, in some places slightly boggy; the feed on this last course was abundant and of a good quality. “Fifth day.— It stormed hard last night and blew the tent down about 3 o’clock. I broke camp about 7 o’clock and started for the station, taking a southwest course. After traveling for about 5 miles I crossed a small stream running very rapidly toward the northeast. The land was low hills and furnished abundance of feed. I traveled 2 miles farther in same direction and crossed a large stream with swift current and running northeast; the feed and land the same as passed earlier in the day. Continuing in same direction, but a little more to west, for 4 miles I traveled over low hills; good pastur¬ age and plenty of moss. I crossed large hill to north of station; found it barren and very high and rocky. It is about 1 mile from bottom of hill to open land, and from there on to station is good grazing land. I arrived at station at 4.15 in the afternoon. It had stormed hard from the time I left until my return, raining and blowing hard. “In closing, I will say the herder told me the ground passed over was very good and equaled and in places excelled the pasturage in Siberia; he further stated that the pasturage surrounding station was sulficient for a year, providing that in the wnnter there was not over 1 foot of snow nor over 1^ inches of icy emst on top. If the ice comes first and the snow later, it is impossible for the deer to dig out the feed. “I noticed in my travels that the feed was on low hills and lowlands, the high hills being barren. “The guide, Charley, said that for a long distance into the interior the lowlands were the same as passed over, thus showing that, should it be necessary to go to the interior this winter, there will surely be plenty of feed for the reindeer.’’ Very respectfully. Miner W. Bruce, Teacher. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, General Agent of Education in Alaska. Appendix G. RECONNOISSANCE EAST OF PORT CLARENCE, BY MINER W. BRUCE. Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska, August 19, 1892. Sir: In your letter of instructions for the government of this station, dated July 4, ultimo, you suggest, among other things, that two expeditions be sent out for the purpose of ascertaining the prospects for winter grazing for the reindeer, should the country in this immediate vicinity become covered with ice or deep snow, thus preventing the deer from pawing through it for food. One route designated by you was to the north for the station, in the direction of Kotzebue Sound; and in accordance with your instimctions Mr. Gibson, on the 27th ultimo, made a trip in that direction, lasting four days and a half, the result of which I communicated to you officially on the 2d day of the present month. On the 3d instant I started on a trip to the northeast, with an oomeak and seven natives, expecting, if my health permitted, to be gone ten days or two weeks. Our route lay through Grantley Harbor into Imrock Lake, and, having a fair wind, we made a splendid day’s sail, taking us about halfway through the lake, and camping the first night on the west side. INTRODUCTION OF REINDEER INTO ALASKA. 1117 I wish especially to call your attention to the route from Grantley Harbor into Imrock Lake, as it affords, in the event of severe storms, unusual shelter for the deer A narrow passage, probably 6 miles m length, connects these two beautiful bodies of water, and, as it winds its zigzag course along the line of bluffs on each side, which commence immediately on leavhig Grantley Harbor, is unbroken until Imrock Lake is reached. The passage seems to be of nearly an uniform width, and will not exceed, at its widest part, one quarter of a mile. The bluffs on both sides are about 200 feet high, and there appears to be water sufficient to float an ocean vessel. At several places along the route I left the oomeak, and with the Siberian herder went to the top of the bluff and found the country to the north a gently undulatmg table-land, and with my glasses I could see that for several miles this character of country did not seem to change. On the south side the same aspect of country appeared, but 4 or 5 miles to the south the country became more broken, and took in what appeared to be low mountains. The whole surface of the country on both sides was covered with a luxuriant growth of low bushes, occasional patches of grass, havmg the appearance of blue jomt, and what was certainly red-top grass and mosses. Even on this table-land the surface of the country v/as very uneven, being in places hummocky, and the little spots between seemed to be marshy and often filled with water. The Siberian herder seemed much pleased with the character of the feed, and frequently pointed out the different kinds of grasses or shmbbery that the deer were fond of, and always designated the moss as choice winter grazing. From the natives in my party I learned that the snow in this passage does not reach a depth of over 1 foot, and usually less; also, that when one side of the passage is covered with snow, the other is lightly covered. If this be true, it would appear that the deer, if it becomes necessary to move them from the station, can find good grazing either one side or the other of the passage; and in severe •’torms a refuge may be had behind the high v/ails of the bluffs. On the morning following our first day’s sail I took the herder to the top of the liill just back of our camp. It is probably 400 or 500 hundred feet high and runs out to a point into Imrock Lake. From its top a splendid view of the country in every direction is had. The general contour, as far as I could see, was the same as that observed from the bluffs along the narrow passage. My position commanded a view to the northwest, north, and northeast, and for a distance of 25 miles at least the same char¬ acter of country prevailed. As far as the eye could reach, not a mountain was visible and not a speck of snow was seen. To the west there were several miles of what appeared to be a marsh, or a very low land, covered with little patches of water back from the lake. These gradually disappeared in the north, where the land became higher and of the same general character I found farther to the south. From my position I could see the faint outline of the north end of the lake, probably 12 or 15 miles away, and I thought I could discern the winding course of a river coursing through the table-lands to the north, and if so, it was probably the Agee-ee-puk River. On the sides and top of the hill from which I was making my observations there was a thick growth of the same kind of grasses and shrubbery found the day before. I v/as surprised to find along the route to the top of the hill patches of low willow and elder bushes, from the branches of which twittered and flitted small birds, and every few paces we advanced aroused ptarmigan in large numbers. There was nothing in the appearance of the country, so far as I could see, that would suggest any tiling like v/hat one would expect to find bordering on the Arctic Circle. On the contrary, the vegetation, much of it, was such as is found in temperate climates, and the birds and insects of the same variety that abound in country where the mercury never ranges lower than zero. From my position on the top of the hill I could see what appeared to be a break in the range of moun¬ tains on the south side of the lake, and as the v/ind was blowing from the north, thus preventmg farther advance in the present state of the weather, I concluded to sail to the other side and investigate the country in that direction. The distance across was about 4 miles, but the wind died out when about halfway across, and we were compelled to paddle the rest of the way — a very slow process of travel in an oomeak. On reaching shore we went into camp, and after dinner I started with the natives for the mountains. My purpose was to simply get an idea of the country between the shore of the lake and the foot of the mountains that day, and take all of the next for determining the extent of the pass. All the afternoon we traversed the lowlands toward the mountains and found the same general growth of vegetation as that found before. It could not well be of thicker growth or to all appear¬ ances more nutritious. If anything there was more moss, and perhaps the low bushes hung fuller with blueberries than any found before. There were several small mountain streams leading across to the lake, and if they were supplied from meltmg snow it was far up or hidden between narrow gorges, as none was seen from where we traveled. It was after 6 o’clock when we returned to camp, and before retiring the natives understood that on the morrow we were going to try to find a passage into the interior. Accordingly, by 7 o’clock we were ready to begin our tramp. AVe took with us an ax, spade, field glass, and two hard-tack apiece. Our course lay across the lowlands tov.mrd what appeared to be a break in the mountains, and it was at least 7 miles from camp across to the entrance. Part of the distance lay over comparatively smooth land, and a considerable portion over hummocky ground. There did not appear to be any difference in the thickness of the vegetation or the variety in these 1118 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. two different surfaces, but the rough ground was the most tedious I have ever attempted to travel over. The little ridges or hummocks are too wide to step over and too shaky to stand upon, so that our trip over this section was a series of ups and dov/ns, mostly the latter. At our stops for rest I had holes dug with the spade, and was surprised to find a black, sandy soil, from 1 foot to 3 feet deep, in nearly every instance. Sometimes we could not dig more than a few inches on account of encountering stone or slabs of rock, but this was not the rule. I thought I discovered the secret of such a heavy and luxuriant vegetation here, from the rich class of the soil and the abun¬ dance of water. In our way toward the break we passed through two groves of elder and willow trees that were dense, of from 2 to 4 inches in diameter near the butt and from 10 to 15 feet high. It was evident that a little grubbing and thinning out would have improved the size of these trees materially. Our journey up the side of the mountain, near what ai)peared to be a pass, was a tedious one, for he nature of the ground was more or less hummocky. I find that this class of land is as liable to )ccur on high or table land as upon low and marshy ground. It became apparent as we ascended the mountain that the break or pass which appeared to extend through the range was a false one, and when near the top it appeared to be a sort of blow-out, which came to an abiupt perpendicular at the end of a sudden break ahead. From the top of the mountain we had ascended, although not the highest by considerable, we could see that the country to the south was a succession of mountains of perhaps 2,000 or 3,000 feet high, and that there was no pass into the interior unless following the course of some river. Accordingly, we commenced our descent about 2 o’clock, and varied our course somewhat. It took us farther to the east along the base of the mountains and then straight to eamp. On our w’ay back we passed over a section of country that was a complete bed of moss. We could rake it up in armfuls, and in a few minutes, during a spell of rest, we gathered sufficient to feed, as /ur Siberian herder declared, our whole herd of about 150 head of deer for one day. If his estimate was correct, I feel assured that in this particular section a half-dozen men with hand •akes and pitchforks could, in one week, gather enough to feed our herd the coming winter. At different times during the day, as had occurred during the day before, the Sib'erian herder gave me to understand that a trip in search of winter grazing was a useless expenditure of time; that what might appear to te good feeding ground now when winter set in might be covered \vith a thick crust of ice or deep snow; that nothing could be told from the lay of the land whether feed could be gotten at by the deer or not; that a locality which was all that could be desired this winter would be totall3" inaccessible next; that it was the practice on the Siberian side to select what appeared to be a good section for winter grazing, and if it became covered with thick ice or deep snow to move the deer to some locality where feed could be had. This was the same information Mr. Gibson had gathei’ed from our chief Siberian herder, whom he had with him, and I partly resolved, if the wind was not favorable for moving north the following morning, to retrace my steps and return to the station. I had left rather against my judgment, for my work of late had told on me and I needed rest. On my return to camp that evening I was completely worn out, and during the night experienced a slight chill. The morning broke rainy, and I was feeling miserably. The judgment of the Siberian that it was a useless trip was a strong argument in my present condition, and when an hour later, a strong north wdnd settled the matter of progress toward the north against us, at least for that day, but was a fair wind for the station, I ordered everything packed, and after about fourteen hours’ sail reached the station. As we must in a considerable measure depend upon the judgment of the four Siberian herders, who have spent all their lives in the rearing and care of reindeer, it seems to me that in the present state of affairs at the station, with so much to do and so little time before cold weather will set in, when the presence of myself and Mr. Gibson is required, further exploration in search of whiter feed ought to be abandoned, or at least postponed until later in the fall. From this view of the matter I would respectfully ask a modification of your instructions upon this point. I have the honor to be, very respectfully. Miner W. Bruce, Teacher. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, General Arjenf of Education in Alaska, Washington, D. C. Appendix II. INSTRUCTIONS FOR GUIDANCE OF REINDEER STATION. On Board U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Bear, At anchor off Port Clarence, July 4, 1892. Sir : During the months of August and September, 1891, 1 purchased in Siberia and landed (September 21) at Unalaska 16 domestic reindeer. Having no herder to take charge of them, I turned them loose on the small island of Amaknak, where they successfully wintered. IInTBODUCTION of KEINDEEK into ALASKxi. 1119 The landing this morning at this station from the U. S. Revenue Marine steamer Bear (Capt. Michael A. Healey, commander) of a band of 53 domesticated reindeer from South Head, Siberia, together with four herders, marks the establishment of the first herd of the kind in Alaska. This is an event of far more than ordinary importance. If successful, it will create throughout north¬ ern and central Alaska a new food supply in place of the whale, the walrus, and the fur-bearing animals that are yearly becoming scarcer and more difficult to obtain. Furnished a l^etter and surer food supply, the native population, now decreasing in numbers, may reasonably be expected to increase. Changing them from mere hunters to herdsmen, it will be the first upward step in their civilization. AVith the increase in civilization of the natives and the general introduction of domestic reindeer, the vast, bleak, frigid, and now comparatively useless plains of arctic Alaska will be reclaim.ed and become a source of wealth and prosperity to the land. The realization of this desirable condition of things is largely in your hands. The friends of the move¬ ment and the National Government, which has been asked to extend it, will be encouraged to go forward or led to withdraw from further effort as the herd now intrusted to your care prospers or comes to naught. AVith so much at stake, you will make the care and welfare of the herd your first and most constant care. Everything else is of secondary importance. ■WINTER GRAZING. The most trying season will be next winter, when the food that now abounds everywhere will be largely covered up with snow and ice. In Siberia I am informed that the winter grazing is sometimes from 100 to 150 miles away from the summer grounds, the herd being driven back and forth spring and fall. It is essential, then, that you take early steps to find a good location for winter. To this end I would advise that as soon as your house is inclosed you take Charley and the most experienced of the Siberian herders and make a thorough exploration of the surrounding country. I would make one trip through Grantly Harbor, Yoks-hook River, Imrock Lake, to the headwaters of Agee-ee-puk and Cov-vee-arak rivers; also on the trail from Grantly Harbor toward Unala Kleet and St. Michael. I v/ould also advise a trip into and through the mountains north of the station. Charley will be a good guide, and per¬ haps the Siberian will know by the lay and general appearance of the land the most suitable place to winter. I feel great solicitude with regard to this. A mistake may result in the loss of our herd by starvation. The natives around Port Clarence affirm that, while there is not much snow on the plains between the hills and the sea, yet it is covered with a hard, icy crust which the deer can not break through for food. They further say that, years ago, when the wild reindeer frequented the coast, they were only found in summer; that in winter they migrated toward Norton Sound. It may prove that the winter grazing grounds that shall be selected may be too far away; that it will become necessary to close uj) for the winter the present house and establish temporary headquarters in the vicinity of the deer. If this necessity arises, I would suggest that you build a log house (if in a timber country) or a dugout for winter use. PROTECTION FROM DOGS. Another danger to the herd arises from the attacks of strange dogs. You will, therefore, require one of the herders on w’atch to be armed, and instruct him to shoot down any dog attacking the herd and report the same to you for settlement. AA^hen a dog is thus killed you will send for the owner, explain to him the necessity for the step, express your regret at his loss, and then make suitable payment for the dog. AA'hen any visiting natives come into your neighborhood have them notified at once that they must keep their dogs tied up. Deal firmly, justly, kindly, and patiently with the natives, and thus secure their good will. Once a month you will count the herd, and if any are missing or have been killed note it down, with cause (if known), and report same, with all the circumstances, to the Bureau of Education. If any exigency arises by which it becomes necessary to kill a deer for food, you will first use any surplus among the geldings, and after that from among the bulls. None are to be killed, however, except in cases of extreme necessity. HERDERS. The herders consist of two classes: 1. Experienced men from Siberia. 2. Native Alaskans who may wish to learn the management and care of reindeer. The Siberians, being away from their friends and among a strange, selfish, and at times jealous and suspicious people, need your special care and protection. Take pains to make them feel that you have a fatherly interest in them. I hope their treatment will be such that they will choose to remain with us permanently. The second class should be picked young men (one or two from a settlement) , who are expected to take a two years’ training in the care of the herd, and thus become fitted to take charge of future herds in the neighborhood of their own homes. At the close of their two years’ course, if they have been faithful to their duties and mastered the business, it is proposed to give them the deer as their start in life. This 1120 EDUCATION KEPORT, 190i. class will need constant watching. Anyone persistently refusing to obey necessary rules, shirking his dutiesonwatch, or otherwise showing a want of interest in this work, or anyone that proves too dull to learn is to be dismissed from the service and sent away from the station. The second class are to be subdivided into classes corresponding with the number in the first class. For instance, if you should ha,ve twelve in the second class, and, as now, four in the first class, you will place three of the second class under the tuition and oversight of each of the four of the first class; and wdienever he goes on watch they shall accompany him and be subject to his direction. It will then, as a general rule, be necessary for only one of the Siberians to be with the herd at a time. In case of sickness of one of the Siberians his pupils will be assigned duty with the others until the sick one recovers and returns to duty. After conference with the Siberians you will be able to systematize the hours of watch. In this I would defer largely to the method pursued in Siberia. When the seasons of watch are determined upon you will see that each watch promptly relieves the preceding one at the proper time. The herders of both classes are to be housed, clothed, fed, and cared for at the expense of the station. SHELTER. At the home station, when off duty, have the herders construct comfortable dugouts for their own use. If you can spare the large dugout already commenced, that can be turned over to the herders. If it becomes necessary to have the herd a long distance off, buy some walrus hides for a covering, and let the herders make a small tent that can be moved from place to place. You will make an inspection of the dugouts every Saturday, and require them to be kept as cleanly as possible. Allow no slops or offal to bo thrown upon the ground near the door. SUPPLIES. You will furnish them with the necessary iron teakettles and pots for cooking. They are expected to procure driftwood for fuel. Y ou will also furnish them a sufficiency of reindeer skins for bedding. These supplies are Government property, and are to be carried upon the inventory list. CLOTHING. You will supply them with comfortable native fur clothing, according to the season. If the supplies I leave with you for this year are not sufficient, you will emj.lcy some of the native women to make more. As the reindeer clothing can be purchased ready made in Siberia cheaper than made in Alaska, you will make out at each season a list of garments needed and respectfully request the commanding officer of the revenue cutter to have them purchased for you. For this you will furnish him sufficient barter from the reindeer trade goods. Once a month you will inventory all bedding, clothing, cooking utensils, and other Government property used by the herders. Twice a month, if the w'eather is suitable, all bedding should be hung out to air and sun upon a line erected for the purpose. Herders of the second class need special watching that they do not give or sell their clothes, bedding, or other Government property to their friends. FOOD. Flour, corn meal, pilot bread, beans, and tea will be sent from San Francisco. It is best, however, as far as possible, to preserve their native diet. You will therefore purchase supplies of oil, dried and fresh fish, etc. As soon as you can determine it fix upon a regular ration, which you can issue daily or at regular inter¬ vals as experience shall show to be best. Outsiders or friends are not to be allowed to gather in and eat wdth the herders. Nor shall the herders be allovved to give them food. If any food is to be given away it must be done by the superintendent or his assistant, and an account kept of the same, giving date, approximate amount, and number of recipi¬ ents. Y ou wall encourage the herders when off duty to trap for rabbits and foxes both for fur and food. When any garment, bedding, skin, or other property (except food) is issued to a herder or his wife, charge it against him in a book kept for the purpose. This will be a check against wastefulness, prevent anyone receiving more or less than his share, and enable us to keep an account of the expense of training each individual. WIVES. ■ If any of the herders shall be married and have their wives with them you can issue a ration and cloth¬ ing also to the wife, requiring from her in return some sewing or cooking for the herders. If there are several women you can apportion the wmrk among them. SCHOOL. If circumstances permit, you will gather the herders that are off duty, and such others as may wish to attend, into the schoolroom for two or three hours daily (except Saturday and Sunday) and drill them in elementary reading, arithmetic, and writing. Special emphasis wall be given, both in and out of school, to the use of the English language. IITTKODUCTIOISr OF KEINDEEK INTO ALASKA. 1121 FUEL. As far as possible you will procure and use driftwood for fuel at the station. The coal is to be reserved for keeping a fire through the night and for seasons when you may be unable to secure driftwood. MORALS. It is scarcely necessary to write that you will allow no liquor, gambling, profanity, or immorality at the station or among the herders. You will allow no barter or unnecessary work at the station on Sunday. You or your assistant must always be at the station. Both of you must not be absent at the same time. If the station is temporarily removed to the winter grazing grounds then that for tlie time being becomes headquarters. REPORTS. 1. You will keep a log book or brief daily journal of events at the station, extendiirg f rom July 1 of each year to the following June 20. This book is to be mailed to the Bureau of Education. 2. Y on will keep in a book furnished you an itemized statement of all barter for supplies for the station, giving date of transaction, name and quantity of article purchased, and articles and quantities of each given in exchange. A copy of this statement will be annually forwarded to the United States Bureau of Education. 3. On the last day of March, June, September, and December of each year yen will make out an inven¬ tory of ail stores and public property in your possession, including bedding and cocking utensils in use by the herders. This does not include the clothing issued to and in use by the herders. A copy of these reports vdll be forwarded by the annual mail to the United States Bureau of Education. 4. On the last day of June each year you will miake out and mail to the United States Bureau of Education an annual report of operations at the station. In this report you will embody any recom¬ mendations that your experience may suggest for the benefit of the station. 5. On the 1st of August each year you will make a requisition for supplies for the following year. As the work is new and untried, much must necessarily^ be left to your discretion and good judgment Wishing you great success, I remain. Yours, truly, Sheldon Jackson, General Agent. Mr. Miner W. Bruce, Superintendent of Reindeer Station, Port Clarence, Alaska. Appendix J. DOMESTIC REINDEER IN LAPLAND. [From Du Chaillu’s Land of the Midnight Sun, volume 2, pages 167 and 168.] The Fjeld Lapp's time is engaged in adding to his herd, to which he and his family devote all their energies, for their welfare depends on the growth of the animals. It is difficult to ascertain exactly the increase or decrease of reindeer according to the districts, for the people often change, and there has been of late years in the north a large immigration of Norwegian Lapps to the territory of Sweden, especially to Keresuando, but, taken as a whole, the population and the reindeer are increasing. There is a greater number in Norway than in Sweden, owing to the number of stationary bonder (farmer) and sea Lapps, which far outnumber the nomads. According to the late census there are in Sweden (1870) 6,702 Laplanders, with 220,800 reindeer; in Norway (1865) 17,178 Laplanders, with 101,768 reindeer; in Finland (1865) 615 Laplanders, with 40,200 reindeer; in Russia (1859) 2, 207 Laplanders, with 4,200 reindeer. With those that belong to farmers and others I think we may safely say that the reindeer number about 400,000. The Samoides have the largest and finest breeds, which are not numbered among those of the Lapps. In Kautokeino there are Lapps who own 2,000 reindeer; in Sorsele, in Sweden, one is said to own 5,000, and others 1,000 and 2,000. Some of the forest Lapps have 1,000. In Lulea Lappmark there are herds of over 2, 000; in Finmarken, of 5,000, and some Lapps have owned as many as 10,000. A herd of 2, 000 to 2,500 is said to give about 200 to 2.50 calves yearly. Every owner has his own mark branded upon the ears of all his reindeers, and no other person has a right to have the same, as this is the lawful proof of ownership; otherwise v/hen several herds are mingled on the mountains the separation would be impossible. According to custom no one can make a new mark, but must buy that of an extinct herd; if these are scarce the price paid to the families that own them is often high; the name of the purchaser and each mark have to be recorded in court, like those of any other owner and property. The tax paid is according to the pasture land occupied. ED 1904 M - 71 1122 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904. Appendix K. U. S. Revenue Steamer Bear, San Francisco, Cal., December 6, 1890. Dear Sir : Under orders from the Secretarj’ of the Treasury, I have been ten years on the Bering Sea and Arctic Ocean station of the United States Revenue Marine Service. My duties have brought me very closely in contact with and greatly interested me in the native popu¬ lation. On account of this interest, I have watched wdth pleasure the coming among them of the missionaries of the several churches and the teachers of the Government schools. I have also seen with apprehension the gradual exhaustion of the native food supply. From time immemorial they have lived principally on the whale, seal, walrus, salmon, and vdld rein¬ deer. But in the persistent hunt of white men for the whale and walrus the latter has largely disap¬ peared and the former been driven beyond the reach of the natives. The white men are also erecting canneries on their best fishing streams, and the usual supply of fish is being cut off; and with the advent of improved firearms the wild reindeer are migrating farther and farther away. With the disappearance of the whale, walrus, salmon, and reindeer a very large portion of their food supply is taken away, and starvation and gradual extinction appear in the near future. On my recent cruise I was accompanied by Dr. Sheldon Jackson, United States general agent of edu¬ cation, and together we have made the question of a future food supply the subject of special thought and investigation. We have consulted with a few of the leading teachers, missionaries, traders, and whahng captains whom we have met, and they, without a single exception, agree with us that the most practical rehef is the introduction of domesticated reindeer into that portion of northern and arctic Alaska adapted' to them. In Lapland there are 400,000 domesticated reindeer, sustaining a population of 27,000. In Siberia, but a few miles from Alaska, with climate and country of similar conditions, are tens of thousands of tame reindeer supporting thousands of people, and it will be a very easy and comparatively cheap matter to introduce the tame reindeer of Siberia into Alaska and teach the natives the care and management of them. This it is proposed to do in connection with the industrial schools established among the natives by the Bureau of Education. As in connection with the mdustrial schools in Dakota, Indian Territory, Mid elsewiiere, the Indian boy is taught the raising of stock, so in the industrial schools of Alaska it is proposed to teach the Eskimo young men the raising of tame reindeer. A few^ thousand dollars expended now in the establishment of this new industry wull save hundreds of thousands hereafter. For if the time comes when the Government will be compelled to feed these Eskimo it wdll cost over $1,000,000. In northern Alaska there are about 400,000 square miles that are adapted to the reindeer and are unfit for anything else. This region has a present iwpulation of about 20,000, all of whom will lie ultimately benefited by tlie new industry. ■With an assured support, such as will come from herds of tame reindeer, there is no reason wiry the present population shall not be increased in numbers and advanced to the position of civilized, wealth- producing American citizens. Askhig for your favorable consideration and earnest advocacy of this matter, I remain, very respect¬ fully, M. A. IIealv, Captain, United States Revenue Marine. Hon. W. T. Harris, LL. D., United States Commissioner of Education, WcbsMngton, D. C. Destitution Among the Alaska Eskimo. [An interview' with Capt. M. A. Healy, United States Revenue-Marine Service, in San Francisco Chronicle, December 12, ISOO.] For several seasons past the Eskimo of northw'cstern Alaska have experienced great hardblxips in obtaining a supply of deer meat for their winter stores. It is to be feared that when the Bear makes her annual visit to the Arctic next summer many of the villages will be found to have lost their residents from starvation. The latest advices from the Arctic report a failure not only in the autumn deer hunt, but in the entire catch of whales, walrus, and seals. Naturally cf a timid disposition, the deer have learned that the natives with breech-loading arms are far more formidable foes than when bow's, arrow's, and spears were employed in the chase. Again, the Eskimo spare neither young nor old w'hen a herd is found, and httle suckling faw'ns, as well as does car¬ rying yomig, fall victims to their guns. Formerly, on the lower Yukon around St. Michael, on Norton Sound, and in the country know'n as the Kotzebue Sound district, numbers of deer made yearly visits. Nowit is rare to find that the natives living at these points have seen or tasted deer meat. INTEODUCTIO:^^ OF KEIXDEEE INTO ALASKA. 1123 The Alaskan deer of the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions have been confounded with the reindeer of other localities, but while certainly belonging to the rangifer family, they are the true barren-ground caribou, differing from the upland caribou and domesticated reindeer of Lapland and Siberia in being smaller in body and horns. From July to September the instincts of the deer induce them to come from the inte¬ rior to the seacoast to obtain rest and freedom from the tortures inflicted by the hordes of mosquitoes that infest the inland swamps, and also to get saline matter from the herbage and moss growing in prox¬ imity to the ocean. In September they commence their inland migration, and from July until the middle of October they are ruthlessly pursued by the natives. Some rest is afforded to the animals duiing the dark days that prevail in the Arctic Zone from November until January, but as soon after the early part of February as the weather permits the food-seekers again take the field. The does have their young during April, and by a provision of nature the horns of the female only attain size during the time she is suckling the fawn and until it reaches such an age that it can feed — about 2 months. When it is considered that a deer weighing on an average 125 pounds is consumed at a single sitting by five or six natives, it m.ay be readily perceived that the average returns of a successful hunting party must be large to feed a ^’lllage. During the past season in the Arctic the attention of CaiJtain Ilcaly, of the U. S. revenue steamer Bear, has been directed in a very pointed manner to the attainment of some method whereby the supply of deer for food and clothing purposes may be increased in northwestern Alaska. This year, taking advan¬ tage of the presence on the Bear of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, United States commissioner of education for Alaska, the captain, in conjunction v/ith Commissioner Jackson, intends to present to the Secretary of the Inteiior data upon the subject. Within a radius of 100 miles inland from the shores of the ocean on the Siberian coast, from Cape Navarin to Plover Bay, there are a people known as deer men. They belong to the Chukchee tribe of Siberians, and are essentially a nomadic race, wandering from East Cape, on the northern coast, to Cape Navarin, southward. Accompanied by their herds of tame reindeer, aggregating in many instances thousands, they roam in search cf food. These reindeer, while resembling the Alaskan species in the main, differ in the texture of their skins, the pelts being spotted brov/n and white, vdth a smooth sur¬ face. These deer men subsist mainly on the products of their herds, bartering the skins with the coast natives for tobacco, seal oil, walrus hides for their boot soles, and other minor commodities, such as powder, shot, lead, and flour. At Cape Navarin and East Cape, Siberia, they sometimes meet the whal¬ ing slrips and sell them deer meat and sldns for tobacco, etc. Captain Healy’s ideas are to propose to the Government that he be empowered to purchase a number of these deer of both sexes and transport them on the Bear to some point on the Alaskan coast where moss and feed are plentiful. These deer are to form the nucleus of a herd, and from the yearly increase they can be distributed over other iDortions of the Northwest Territory. As the Alaskan Eskimo are not sldlled in herding the deer. Captain Healy intends, if permission be granted by the Government, to endeavor to enlist the services of some experienced Siberian natives to instruct them. Unless some measures be adopted as suggested by Captain Healy, it is sure that a decade vdil witness the extermination of the people of our arctic province on its northwest shores. The results of the active and unscrupulous chase of their pelagic food supplies by the whalemen have already become evident; walrus are almost imrisible on the ice floes within reach cf the native hunters, while the flurried and galled whale makes its passage to the unknovm regions of the Arctic Ocean at a speed which defies the natives to capture it. The proposition of Captain Healy will be communicated to the Washington authorities at an early date. Destettction of the Whales. [From Bancroft’s History of Alaska, pages 668 and 669.] Of whaling enterprise in the neighborhood of the Alaskan coast mention has already been made; but a few statements that vi.ll serve to explain the enormous decrease that has occurred in the catch vithin the last three decades may not be out of place. Of the 600 or 700 American whalers that were fitted out for the season of 1857, at least one-half includ¬ ing most cf the larger vessels, were engaged in the North Pacific. The presence of so vast a fleet tended, of course, to exhaust the v/haling grounds or to drive the fish into other waters, for there are no perma¬ nent Avhaling grounds on any portions of the globe except those encircled by ice for about ten months in the year. In the seas of Greenland, not many years ago, whales were rarely to be seen; in 1870 they vrere fairly plentiful. The sea of Okhotsk and the waters in the neighborhood of the Aleutian Islands were a few decades ago favorite himting grounds, but are now almost depleted, wEile in 1870 the coast of New Siberia was swa rming with whales. Schools of sperm whale are occasionally seen between the Alaska peninsula and Prince William Sound, and the humpback sometimes makes its appearance as far north as Baranof Island. Between Bristol Bay and Bering Strait a fair catch is sometimes taken, but most of the vessels forming what is termed the North Pacific whaling fleet novr pass into the Arctic Ocean in quest of their prey. Probably not more than 8 or 10 of them are employed on the whaling grounds of the Alaskan coast. 1124 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. In 1881 the whaling fleet of the North Pacific mustered only 30 and in the following year 40 craft, of which 4 were steamers. The catch for 1881 was one of the most profitable that has occurred since the date of the transfer, being valued at 81,139 000, or an average of about 857,000 for each vessel, some of them returning with cargoes worth $75,000 and few with cargoes worth less than $30,000. In 1883 the catch was inconsiderable, several of the whalers returning “clean,” and few making a profit for their owners. The threatened destruction of these fisheries is a matter that seems to deserve some attention. In 1850, as will be remembered, it was estimated that 300 whaling vessels visited Alaskan waters and the Okhotsk and Bering seas. Two years later the value of the catch of the North Pacific fleet was more than $14,000,000. After 1852 it gradually decreased until in 1862 it was less than $800,000; for 1867 the amount was about $3,200,000; in 1881 it had again fallen to $1,139,000, and for the season of 1883 there was still a further re¬ duction. San Francisco, December 18, 1890. Dear Sir: Referring to your desire to obtain information relative to the introduction of reindeer mto the northwest portion of the Territory of Alaska, I would say that in my opinion the project is entirely feasible. My experience in Alaska permits me to state on authority that the next decade will witness the extmction of the American reindeer, or rather caribou. In 1881, when I first visited the district of Norton and Kotzebue sounds and the lower Yukon, deer were plentiful. This past winter (1889) not a single animal had been seen within a radius of 200 miles. Similar conditions are coexisting from Port Clarence to Point Barrow, and where in former years the hunters hau to travel but 50 miles to reach the deer haunts, to-day they travel twice that distance. These contingencies arise from three causes: 1. The indiscriminate slaughter of young and old animals. 2. The use at the present day of improved weapons of the chase, in lieu of the primitive bows, arrows, and spears. 3. The conditions of wind prevailing at the seasons when the deer go to and from the coast. It must distinctly be understood that upon a supply of these animals our Alaskan Eskimo depend for clothing as well as their stores of meat, should their pelagic sources of provender fail. The proposition to introduce deer from the Siberian herds can be effected at a cost of but a few thou¬ sand dollars. The location for the first experimental station should be on Choris Peninsula or the vicinity of Kotze¬ bue Sound. This location has climatic similarities with Siberia. The food (moss) supply is abundant and herdmg easy. As the results of this initial experiment become manifest, additional locations for herds can be estab¬ lished. Within two seasons the Chukchee herdsmen will be able to instruct the Eskimo in the style of herding. I have made inquiries upon the subject and now give you the result. Ten years ago the Russian steamer Alexander went to the Kamchatka Peninsula, and oflicers of the Alaska Commercial Company bought seven male and seven female deer, transporting them to Bering Island (one of the islands leased by the company from Russia). Captains Blair and Greenberg, and Superintendent Lubegoil inform me that the herd now numbers 180. From this you can judge the rate of propagation. The revenue steamer Bear can be utilized for transportation, and I know no man more capable of con¬ ducting the experiment than Captain Ilealy. I hope that the small sum required will be voted by Congress, as unless something is done for these people their annihilation is only a question of a brief period. The whalers have so frightened the big fish that the natives are unable to pursue them in their rapid passage, while the extermination of the walrus is almost a fact. These remarks I present as requested. Yours, very trulv, Henry D. Woolfe. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C. Wild Reindeer in Alaska. [Charles H. Townsend in the Report of the Cruise of the United States Revenue-Marine Steamer Corwin, 1885, Capt. M. A. Ilealy, commanding, pages 87 and 88.] Reindeer are found more or less regularly throughout Alaska. They were found by Mr. McLenegan on the Noatak, as well as by our party on the Kowak. Traders in the service of the Alaska Commercial Company told me of their common distribution over the Yukon, Kuskokv/im, and Aleutian divisions of the country. They have even been shot on Ounimak Island, at the end of the peninsula; but reindeer are restless animals, irregular in their migrations and habits. Sometimes they desert whole sections of the country for months together, and they appear to have withdrawn from many regions where firearms have been introduced. Notwithstanding the fact that large herds of reindeers are kept in a state of domestication by the Chukchees at East Cape and other well-known places on the Asiatic side of Bering INTEODUCTION OF EEIXDEER INTO ALASKA. 1125 Straits, \vith whom the natives of the Alaskan side communicate regularly, there appears to be no domestication of the species whatever in Alaska, nor indeed in any part of North America. In time, when the general use of firearms by the natives of upper Alaska shall have reduced the num¬ bers of this wary animal, the introduction of the tame varietj^ which is a substantial support to the people just across the straits, among our own thriftless, alcohol-bewitched Eskhnos, would be a phil¬ anthropic movement, contributing more toward their amelioration than any system of schools or kindred charities. The native boats could never accomplish the importation, which would, however, present no difficulty to ordinary seagoing vessels. The taming of the American reindeer is impracti¬ cable, for domestication with this animal at least is the result of subjection through many generations. Something tending to render a wild people pastoral or agricultural ought to be the first step toward their advancement. In our management of these people, “purchased from the Russians,” we have an opportunity to atone, in a measure, for a century of dishonorable treatment of the Indian. Reindeeh. [From Encyclopedia Britannica, volume 7, pages 24 and 25.1 The reindeer (Tarandus rangifer), the only domesticated species of deer, has a range somewhat similar to the elk, extending over the entire boreal region of both hemispheres, from Greenland and Spitzbergen in the north to New Brunswick in the south. There are several well-marked varieties, differing greatly in size and in form of the antlers, the largest forms occurring farthest north, while by many writers the American reindeer, which has never been domesticated, is regarded as a distinct species. The antlers, which are long and branching, and considerably palmated, are present in both sexes, although m the female they are slender and less branched than in the males. In the latter they appear at a much earlier age than in any other species of deer, and Darwin conjectures that in this circumstance a kej^ to their exceptional appearance in the female may be found. The reindeer has long been domesticated in Scan¬ dinavia, and is of indispensable importance to the Lapland race, to whom it serves at once as a substi¬ tute for the horse, cow, sheep, and goat. As a beast of burden it is capable of drawing a weight of 300 pounds, while its fleetness and endurance are still more remarkable. Harnessed to a sledge it will travel without difficulty ICO miles a day over the frozen snow, its broad and deeply cleft hoofs being admirably adapted for traveling over such a surface. During summer the Lapland reindeer feeds chiefly on the young shoots of the willow and birch; and as this season migration to the coast seems necessary to the well-being of the species, the Laplander, with his family and herds, sojourns for several months in the neighborhood of the sea. In winter its food consists chiefly of the reindeer moss and other lichens, which it makes use of its hoofs in seeking for beneath the snow. The wild reindeer grows to a much greater size than the tame breed, but in northern Europe the former are being gradually reduced through the natives entrapping and domes¬ ticating them. The tame breed found in northern Asia is much larger than the Lapland form and is there used to ride on. There are two distinct varieties of the American reindeer, the barren-ground caribou and the woodland caribou. The former, which is larger and more widely distributed of the two, frequents in summer the shores of the Arctic Sea, retiring to the woods in Autumn to feed on the tree and other lichens. The latter occupies a very limited tract of woodland country, and, unlike the barren-ground form, migrates southward in spring. The American reindeer travel in great herds, and being both unsuspicious and curious they fall ready victims to the bow and arrow or the cunning snare of the Indian, to whom their carcasses form the chief source of food, clothing, tents, and tools. Appendix L. Captain Healy, in January, 1892, writing to Senator Charles N. Felton, says: ‘ ‘ The three great problems of existence of both natives and whites in the Territory of Alaska are food, clothing, and transportation. They are to be solved in a rigorous climiate and rough and almost impenetrable country, and one in which nothing as yet is produced from the ground. The food supply must eitlier be found in the flesh of the wild animals and birds of the country or brought from without. With the wliite population the food might be said to be brought wholly from without. The enormous expense this entails has kept this population down to the narrowest limit of employees of firms or com¬ panies capable of maintaining stations there, and confined these stations to a few scattered well-known points along the immense stretch of seacoast or on some of the principal rivers, as the Yukon. “FOOD SUPPLY. “The native population of the northwest part of the country depend for food upon whale, walrus, seal, fish, and what few wild animals, such as deer and caribou, they can kill. The whale and walrus have been so persistently pursued by white men that they have rapidly diminished and are now so scarce and shy that their capture by the natives is attended with great difficulty and uncertaintju This scarcity of their principal supply of food is greatly felt by the natives along the whole northwest coast and to such an extent that in the short space of winter whole villages have been wiped out. “ I have seen almost the entire population of St. Lawrence Island lying strewn about their huts dead from starvation; and this winter of 1891-92 the same fate may be that of King Island. Upon my visit 1136 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1904. there in September last, the seal and walrus catch having failed them, the natives were"reduced to the direst extremities. Their larders were exhausted and their only means of subsistence their dogs and the kelp and carrion cast up by the tide. What supplies could be spared from the vessel and what bought at St. Michael station were given the people, with the hope that it w'ould tide them over until more successful hunting. But this hope is not without misgiving that upon my return in the spring I shall find many of them whom I count as friends cold in death. The interior natives are dependent wholly upon caribou and deer and v/hat fish come into their streams during the short summer. Car¬ ibou and deer are rapidly diminishing there, as they have in other countries, and the fishing streams-are being taken up by white men, so that the lines of existence are on all sides being drawn tighter and tighter about these poor native Alaskans. “ REINDEEK-SKIN CLOTHING. “Clothing of reindeer skin has been found the best and only kind to withstand the intense and con¬ tinued cold of the country. These skins are now bartered at a high price from the natives of the Siberian coast, and are passed along the Siberian side from village to village, increasing in value the farther they go from the Bering Straits. The experience of white men and natives has been the same, and even in our summer visits to the country we on the vessel use reindeer clothing to keep from suffering. “The methods of transportation now in use in Alaska are by dog trains and boats. By boat it is impossible to travel nine months in the year, and during the three months of summer when the streams are open they can be used only downstream. By dog trains transportation is limited, slow, and uncer¬ tain, and the greater part of the load is taken up with food for the animals. These dogs have been so closely bred that they are now degenerated in size, strength, and sagacity. I have for years been requested by natives to bring them a larger breed to improve their dogs, and the Hudson Bay Com¬ pany has imported the English mastiff for use in trains where the native dog is too sKght. “Among the whites the greatest difficulty experienced by miners, missionaries, explorers, and res¬ idents has been the want of a rapid and assured means of transportation. The history of every expe¬ dition that has iienetrated into the country any distance from the coast has been one of suffering and oftentimes hunger from the difficulty of travel and packing. Horses, cattle, asses, and other beasts of burden, excepting tame reindeer, are out of the question, because they can not live in the country, and it is impossible to provide food for them when snow covers the ground the larger part of the year. On account of this difficulty the country, except along the seacoast and a few of the navigable rivers, is as little known to-day as when it was first bought. And those great mineral deposits which Alaska is said to contain remain as yet undiscovered. “WHAT THE REINDEER MIGHT DO. “ To my mind the only satisfactory solution of all three of these problems, important as they are, is the introduction of tame reindeer into the country. In proper numbers they will transform the native population from a fishing to a pastoral people and prove to them a never-failing supply of food. The hides of the animals already furnish almost the only clothing used, but at a greatly exag¬ gerated cost. And to the white explorers, miners, missionaries, and settlers the reindeer will prove a means of transportation and packing that will enable them to learn and develop the resources of a vast country. “The natives of Siberia have for centuries herded and reared the tame reindeer, and thus been safe against periodical periods of starvation when the whale and walrus fail them. They are a strong, swift, and hardy animal, tractable, and easily broken to harness and packing, and especially adapted, or, in fact, made for the country and climate. In travel they are self-sustaining. The supply of moss upon which they feed covers the whole of northern Alaska, and instinct leads them to secure it in winter as well as summer by burrowing through the deepest snows. It is not necessary for us to speak of the value of such pack animals to the prospector. To the explorer they are equally valuable, and when supplies fail are equally valuable as food. “If I may revert back to the days of the Western Union Telegraph expedition to that part of the country, where reindeer could be procured for drafting as well as for food, the thousand and one obsta¬ cles that at first seemed insurmountable were, through the medium of these animals, easily overcome. “ The natives of Alaska quite see the advantage of such an animal in their midst, have expressed to me their eager wishes for them, and along the ATikon, the most thickly settled part of the countrjq the white people are enthusiastic over their introduction, for in them they see a solution of many of the difficulties of existence there. “ Horses and cattle have been tried in this section, but, on account of the unacclimated nature of the animals and the impossibility of feeding them in winter, with no success. “THE SIBERIANS WULL SELL. “ Some writers and others i-ove claimed that the Siberian natives will not sell reindeer to white men, but Doctor Jackson and I have disproved this by buying during the past summer, at different points on the Siberian coast, 16 of the animals and securing promises to sell us as many as we could take care of the coming summer, should they be wanted. The 16 w^e purchased, the first ones to be introduced into the Territory, we placed at Unalaska for propagation. “ I believe this is the most important question that bears upon the Territory of Alaska to-day, and a small sum donated by Congress for the purpose will in the end develop the country, its character and mTKODUCTIOIT OF EEIKDEEK INTO ALASKA. 1127 resources, and prove a great benefit to the commerce and wealth of the United States in general and the Pacific coast in particular. “ 1 am referring not to the Alaska of the tourist— that narrow strip of island from the southernmost boundary to Sitka— but to that immense territory of 500,000 square miles of the north and west of which the world has no knowledge and no conception, and to which the Alaska of the tourist bears as much relation as the State of Florida does to the whole United States.” APPLICATION FOR A TEAM OF REINDEER. Fortymile Creek, August 13, 1892. Dear Sir: Captain Peterson informs me that you would bring some reindeer, bought by the Gov¬ ernment to distribute in Alaska. If you did get any and send me a pair, or, better, two cows and one bull, I will surely reward your trouble. I am doing freighting here in the winter with dogs, and rein¬ deer would be far ahead of them. You could leave them in somebody’s care in St. Michael for the winter and have them sent up here in the spring. I will pay for all the expenses. If you did not get any this year for the Government and you have a chance to buy some for me I vdsh you would do it, and I will pay for them whatever it is. Respectfully, Fritz Kloke, ' Fortymile Creek, Alaska. Appendix M. COMMERCIAL VALUE OF REINDEER. [N. Width, importer and commission merchant of Scandinavian products, 63 Broadway, room 29. Cable address, “Puncheon, New York.”] 607 Penn Mutual Building, Philadelphia, Pa., April 16, 1892. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Bureau of Education, Washington: I received your favor of the 14th and a pamphlet, which I have read with great interest. If reindeer can be imported into Alaska from Siberia, and if there exists an abundance of reindeer moss in Alaska, the facilities for realizing the plan are rather great. Besides the advantages mentioned in the pamphlet, there exists one to which I want to call your attention— the great commercial importance. To Sweden and Norway it is not only the Laplanders who live on reindeer. Smoked reindeer meat and smoked tongues are sold everywhere in the said countries; and the hides are in great demand, tanned to a soft skin (used for gloves, military riding trousers, etc.). There are merchants in Stockholm the only trade of whom is in Lapland products, and the skins, dried Vvuth the hairs on, are exported by the thousands to Germany and England. I sold myself, in 1878, about 5,000 such skins to a firm in Leipzig, Germany. The Norvregian Preserving Company uses large quantities of reindeer meat for canning, and fresh it is considered a delicacy. Russia exports fresh reindeer meat, frozen, in carloads to Germany. The price of smoked hams is in Sweden about 9 to 10 cents a pound; of smoked tongues, 8 to 10 cents apiece (or a pair, I can not exeactly remember which) ; of dried hides, with hair on, SI. 25 to §1.75 apiece, and more if they are not worm bitten. The Swedish reindeer have mostly a kind of insect which lays its eggs in their skins. This causes holes, which are seen in the skin when tanned and diminish their value. The hairs are in great demand for the filling of life-saving apparatus (buoys, etc.), while they possess buoyancy in a wondrous degree. The best existing glue is made of reindeer horns. If I were sure of getting a trade in these articles and had the money, I would not consider it a moment, but go to Alaska at the first opportunity and make a fortune in ten years. The number of reindeer killed for the trade (besides what the Laplanders use for themselves) is yearly 12,000 to 15,000, in Norway probably 6,000 to 7,000; besides, Sweden imports large quantities of meat and skins from Finland. In 1881 1 visited the fair in Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, and became there acquainted with a merchant from Nuhangel, who had brought to the fair 5,000 pair smoked tongues and 6,000 tanned skins (the tanned skins have a value of 82 to 83 apiece) . A Swedish dragoon regiment vrears trousers exclusively made of tanned reindeer skins (no other material permitted). I tliink these facts might be of some interest. Captain Healy says in his letter: “ If the Government will be compelled to feed the Eskimo it will cost over 81,000,000.” If the Government realizes the plan of domesticatmg reindeer it would probably bring a good yearly income to the United States. Yours, respectfully. N. AVidth. I should be very much pleased to learn later on how far the project succeeds and what steps the Gov¬ ernment will take. If I move to Puget Sound next fall I shall probably make a trip to Alaska. 1128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. Philadelphia, Pa., December 31, 1892. Dear Sir: Your favor of the 29th received, and in answer heg to say that I wrote to a friend in Norway about a book or pamphlet, as desired. I think, however, it would be easier to get such a book from England, as probably some English tourist or other has written about the Laplanders, who always have been an object of great interest to tourists traveling in Norw^ay. The acclimatization of reindeer in Alaska would most certainly considerably increase the revenues from this province as soon as some thousand deer could be j^early slaughtered and the hides and meat brought into the market. I believe I have written to you hereabout on a previous occasion. The tanned skins (soft and with a beautiful yellow color) would no doubt find a ready sale. In Sweden they are paid with 7 to 10 kronor (.'52 to $2.75) and used for military pantaloons, gloves, bed pillows, etc., and the hair, owing to its great buoyant quality, is much used for life-saving material. Russia sends frozen reindeer meat by carloads to Germany.- If I had capital, and if the climate in Alaska were not too severe, I would like very much to start such trade, in which I have some experience. There is also another animal which would suit admirablj^ for Alaska — the so-called “ Thibetan ox,” ‘‘ yak,” also “grunting ox” (probably while grunting as a hog). The animal has feet as a goat, well fitted for climbing rocks and stones. The cow gives an excellent milk, which gives an excellent butter (the reindeer has not this merit); is used in Tibet also very much lor transportation purposes. This ox, which is to the natives in Tibet what the reindeer is to Laplanders, is admirably qualified to sus¬ tain cold, seems even to love the cold, and to thrive best in cold and rough weather. It loves to throw itself into frozen lakes and rivers, to lie in snow and shady places, is always lying in the open air, has to seek its food for itself, only the herders have to take care to bring it down in the winter in the lower regions where the snow melts and the food is accessible. In Tibet these animals are completely left to themselves. If taken some care of they might multi¬ ply quicker and be much improved. They are seen in the zoological gardens in Europe, probably also in this country; might be shipped from Bombay or Calcutta, I presume. This animal might become by and by as abundant in Alaska as formerly were the buffalo on the Western prairies, and make Alaska a visiting place for sportsmen. With my compliments for the new year, I remain, dear sir, yours, respectfully, N. Width. Rev. Sheldon Jackson, Washington, D. C.: P. S.— As a proof of what man can do with a good will and good sense, even in the cold, inhospitable region, I wish to mention that in a place in Sweden, under 67° north latitude, where rich iron ores have been found and bought by an English company, a Swedish colonel and engineer in 1890 planted a grand park and garden, where all kinds of vegetables are growing, even rhubarb, asparagus, cauliflower, raspberries, strawberries, currants, and large pine and birch trees. The park has an area of 2,800 to 3,000 square feet. Appendix N. The Chamber of Commerce of San Francisco, San Francisco, January 20, 1891. Resolecd, That our delegation in Congress be requested to urge the passage of the joint resolution introduced December 19, 1890 (II. Res. 258), extending to Alaska the benefit of laws encouraging instruc¬ tion in agriculture and the mechanic arts. Adopted unanimously by the Chamber of Commerce of San Francisco this 20th day of January, \. D. 1891. Attest: [SEAL.] Tiios. J. Haynes, Secretary. CHAPTER XVIII. I.— A DEFINITION OF CIVILIZATION. An Address by "W . T. Harris before the Graduates at the Commencement Exercises of the Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa., March 2, 1899. It is universally admitted that among the people at present living on the globe the Indians are the proudest and bravest. They prefer their tribal freedom to life. They possessed this characteristic when first discovered by Europeans coming to this country as discoverers and emigrants. It seems a strange thing that a proud people having so much self-respect should not take on a higher civilization if they came in contact with it. In fact, it would seem as if there must be something wrong with a civilization that claimed itself to be of a liigher order if it failed to convert a lower civilization and incorporate it into its own. And jmt in the face of this likelihood it must be admitted that the policy that has prevailed in America has been extermination toward the Indian at the hands of the white man instead of civilization. The hasty conclusion from this fact would be that the white man is all wrong and that the justice is all on the side of the Indian. What right, it is asked, has one nation to impose its forms on another by force, on the ground that it is a higher form of civilization? "What infallible criterion have we, asks another, by vdiich we may be entitled to conclude that we have a higher civilization than the neighboring nations? Why is not the Indian civilization as good as ours? Why is not the Chinese civilization or the ci^filization of the Philippine Islands as good as the civilization that calls itself the United States, or Great Britain, or France, or Germany? This is a serious question and needs to be understood if one is going to sit in judgment upon national conduct. I ask you, therefore, to consider with me the answer which can be made to the cpiestion. What is it that makes one civilization higher than another? What is a high civilization and what is the highest civilization? I offer a definition for civilization. It is this: A people is civilized when it has formed institutions for itself which enable each individual to profit by the industry of all his fellow- citizens; Vvhen it enables each individual to profit by the experience and wisdom, the obser¬ vations and the thoughts of his fellow-citizens; when it encourages each individual into a rational self-activity by which he contributes, either through his industry or through his observation and his thouglits, to the benefit of the people with whom he lives. This definition of civilization can be put in another form which shows its significance. Civilization enables man to conquer nature and make it his servant; to command the services of heat, light, electricity, and of all the inorganic elements; to command also the plant world or vegetation for his uses; to command also the animal life for the same serv¬ ice; in short, to command the services of nature for food, clothing, and shelter. Besides this control over nature, civilization should give man access to the Iiistory of his race; access to his literature; access to its scientific discoveries; access to its various inventions; and, above all, access to its moral and religious ideals. Civilization, in short, should give man command of the earth and likewise command of the experience of the entire race. In the light of this definition v/e may approach the civilizations as they actually exist and inc|uire how far they have realized the ideal, how high they have climbed on tlie ladder 1129 1130 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. of civilization. At once we see how low the tribal civilization is as compared with the civilization of Great Britain, or France, or Germany. There is no tribal civilization on the face of the earth, and never was one, which could compare with these nations in its knowl¬ edge of the uses of mineral substances, chemical substances, and the natural forces such as heat, light, electricity, gravitation, etc. No tribe can possibly command the complete resources of the world as regards its vegetable and its animal life, the products of agricul¬ ture and the mines. The reason for this is that the tribe is too small, and the tribe from the very nature of its constitution can not cooperate with other tribes nor receive their help. It stops at a view of nature which is a mere superstition. The tribe can climb only a little way up the ladder which leads to the control and command of all the substances and forces of nature. Consequently the tribe can not participate to any great degree either in the productive industry of the whole world or in its intellectual investigations and discoveries. Other forms of civilization above the tribe take ranlv as higher or lower, according to the degree in which they realize this ideal of conquest over nature and complete intercommu¬ nication with the rest of the world. No nation that lacks a great commerce can be so high in civilization as Great Britain or France. No nation that lacks railroad communi¬ cation can be so high in civilization as the United States. No nation that lacks steam engines to perform its drudgery can be so high as the nation which has these things. Again, a nation that has no printing presses and that can not buy or read the books of the world can not be said to have a high civilization. And on this scale the nation that has the most printing, that makes the most books, and that reads the great boolss of the world is higher than the other nations. The ideal in this respect is that civilization should make it possible for each man to know the experience of all the past through science and literature, and that he should be able to see, through the columns of a morning newspaper, the history as it is making, day by day, in all the lands of the world. Again, there is another criterion — a very important one. A nation may be very far advanced in its ability to control nature and to command access to the wisdom of the race. But it may do this only for some classes of its citizens and not for all. Such a nation is not so highly advanced in its civilization as one that allows each of its citizens to participate in the product of the whole. The nation that gives schools to tlie humblest classes of its people as well as to its highest classes, and the nation which allows the hum¬ blest people to govern themselves under just laws is a higher nation than one which sepa¬ rates the ruling class into a govermnent apart from and above the mass of the people. The highest ideal of a civilization is that of a civilization which is engaged con.stantly in elevating lower classes of people into participation of all that is good and reasonaljle, and perpetually increasing at the same time their self-activity. Another consideration must be mentioned, namely, that with the increase of individual self-activity along the lines of science and productive industry there is an increase of creature comforts to each and every inhabitant, as well as increase of his ability to enjoy spiritual interconmumication by means of books, magazines, and newspapers. I am aveare that many persons think that an industrial civilization devoted to money- getting and the accumulation of capital is a spurious civilization, and that it is a lower stage of human society than the tribal stage and the village community. This is the rea¬ son vrhy I am explicit on this point of the importance of a man’s conquest of nature. For without this machinery for the creation of wealtli and without the combination of indi¬ vidual savings into vast masses of capital there would not exist as there does now a bond of commerce extending around the world and uniting all peoples. For this material bond must exist l^efore the spiritual interaction can exist which makes each nation participant in the experience of all others. 'When we look at the accumulation of wealth and the combinations of capital we must see how essential they are to the conquest of nature. The inventions of any one people are converted b}" means of commerce into an active help to all other peoples. The sliips A DEFINITION OF CIVILIZATION. 1131 of the commercial marine of Great Britain help to cheapen the cost of the productions of all nations to each consumer. The capitalist who invests $10,000,000 in tenement houses in any city helps all of the citizens of that place to obtain better dwellings at cheaper rents. The capitalists who build railroads lower the prices of freight, and in doing this add something to the wealth of the distant producer as well as cheapen the cost to the consumer. If you study political economy you will be able to see the progress of nations in this particular phase — the material phase of civilization. You will see nations which earn for each man, woman, and child only 3 cents a day on an average. You will find nations that earn 30 cents. The people of France earn over 40 cents for each inhabitant, and the people of Great Britain almost or quite 50 cents. The products of the United States aver¬ age for each inhabitant about 52 cents per day. You have to go back only twenty-five years to find the United States product about 40 cents a day for each inliabitant. In 1850, this was less than 30 cents; and in the year 1800, before steamboats and railroads and power looms, there is no doubt that the product of the United States amounted to less than 10 cents per day for each man, woman, and child. The amount of money earned on an average to each inhabitant of a State measures its rank of civilization so far as the conquest of nature is concerned. A nation that does not use machinery and steam engines can not afford for all its people a full participation in the world’s market. A nation, like the English, that commands the most machinery will com¬ mand the most comfort for its people. Thirty families out of a hundred in Great Britain report an income of $1,0(X) and upward, while only three families in Italy out of each hun¬ dred report the same amount of income. Side by side with the conquest of nature as we have seen develop the two classes of knowl¬ edge, the knowledge of nature and the knowledge of man. The mining for silver and iron and the other metals is not the only kind of mining. Civilized man is mining continually into the history of peoples, excavating buried cities and exploring their monuments and the remains of their literature and trying to discover what motives governed the civili¬ zations of the Nile Valley and the Euphrates; and learn what was the nature of the insti¬ tutions with which the people of the past governed themselves. This spiritual method of mining brings up to light human life as it was in the past, and more and more every day we come to understand how civilization has been evolved out of savagery. We can understand better and better what is our real status in our progressive development toward the ideal of civilization. And we can understand better and better our shortcomings. We can see the idea far above us and beyond us. If we can not come into contact with lower civihzations without bringing extermination to them we are still far from the goal. It must be our great object to improve our institu¬ tions until we can bring blessings to lower peoples and set them on a road to rapid progress. We must take in hand their education. We must emiancipate them from tribal forms and usages and train them into productive industr}^. We must take them out of the form of civilization that rests on tradition and mere external authority and substitute for it a civilization of the printed page which governs by public opinion and by insight rather than mere authority. Such a civilization we have a right to enforce on this earth. We have a right to work for the enlightenment of all peoples and to give our aid to lift them into local self-government. But local self-government can not exist where there is no basis of productive industry nor book learning. Here we have the answer to our question. What is the right one civilization has to sub¬ stitute itself in the place of another form of civilization already existing? Major Pratt has in this Garlisle Industrial School invented a method by which the Euro¬ pean civilization may be brought near to the Indian tribes without exterminating their brave people. He teaches the necessity of setting aside tribal life, and the adoption of a life based upon productive industry. As soon as the Indian learns the arts and trades of civilized life he can make his living in the same way that the white man does. He can live a larger life than the tribal life, because he is able through productive industry to obtain 1132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. the means by wliich he may enter into the consciousness of the highest civilization through the book and the daily newspaper. In this school the pupil learns reading, writing, and arithmetic — those simple tools of thought which enable the individual to learn what the human race is doing and has already done. The Indian may from day to day and ^^^ear to year learn the wisdom of the race stored up for all who can read and understand the printed page. By his trade he may furnish himself food, clothing, and shelter, and he may buy books for himself, books written by the wisest of the race. This school teaches him a trade — it may be how to make shoes or harnesses, it may be how to make bread or to cook other food, it may be the trade of a carpenter, the trade of the blacksmith. He learns here the foundation of the simple trades, and he learns how to make machinery and how to direct and control it. More than all this, he learns the political and social ideas which are most important for him, coming as he does from a tribe and with tribal ideas. He learns how to value the white man’s civilization and how to prefer it to his own, dear as his own has become to him because of early association. All of the Indian’s pride and self-respect, all of his bravery and indi¬ viduality, may be preserved by the blessings of this school and other schools founded on its methods. We are learning each 3-ear some new lesson regarding the capacities of the Indian for entering into the white man’s civilization. On my previous visit to this school I lieard the band perform a piece of Beethoven’s, not only with accurate technique but with the feeling and spirit in which the piece had been written. It is astonishing to know that an individual brought up in a tribal civilization can find expression for himself in the highest musical form of art which German}- has furnished to the world. For German music with its double coun¬ terpoint can express as nothing else is able to do the deepest feelings of the heart. I have called our civilization the white man’s civilization. Wq have read with great interest the new and higher delinition of ‘^The white man’s burden,” as stated by the great¬ est of living poets. The white man proves his civilization to be superior to other civiliza¬ tions just by this very influence which he exercises over the peoples that have lower forms of civilization — forms that do not permit them to conc|uer nature and make the elements into ministers of his power; forms of civilization which do not sum up for each individual the ideas of all mankind through all ages, but rather which limit him exclusively to the experience of his own tribe, and which fail to give him an understanding even of that. The graduates of this school will as citizens of this nation take up the white man’s burden. I will ask the graduating class to come upon the platform and receive their diplomas. Members of the graduating class, allow me to congratulate }mu on the completion of }mur course in this institution. These diplomas will testify to 3'our graduation. But 3-our after lives will testif}- in a much more effective way to the reality of this fact, for if }mu are true to the instructions received here }-our lives will be a continuous progress up the ladder of civilization. You will more and more learn to direct and control matter and force, and you will more and more learn to master the deepest ideas which the thinkers and investigators of the world have left for us preserved in printed words. Through the literature, the music, the paintings, and sculptures of the world you will learn to understand the motives that have governed the lives of men — not onl}- of white men in America, but of men of all colors in Europe, Asia, Africa and the islands of the sea. And above all let me urge upon }mu to study the motives of the people of Rome, those people who spoke Latin. For from them our civilization has received its forms of law by which it executes justice in the world and makes each person reap the fruit of his own deeds. It must surprise 3'ou at first when }-ou find that the civilization of the world is a derivative one, and not one invented by a particular nation. The highest civilization is a compound product coming from all the peoples that have lived and worked on this planet. Each nation has made some contribution to civilization, but the contributions are not all of equal value. Vfhat we get from Rome is of a very high order of value because it enables us to live with more individual freedom than under any other form of government. It enables us to allot our lands in severalty and for each head of a family to have a house or a farm for himself ART EDUCATION THE TRUE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 1133 and direct his own business affairs. This independence of each citizen from another is balanced by a deep sense of the solidarity of the whole, for in his political life in the state each individual devotes his property and his life for the safety of the whole. This lesson of independence witiiin the famil}-, and by means of private property on the one hand and of division of property and life for the safety of the vdiole has been taught us by Rome, and I commend to all scholarly Indian pupils at this institution a careful study of that source of our civilization. I hope that you will all remember Iklajor Pratt’s doctrine as to the necessity of leaving tribal life and adopting a civilization founded on productive industry. But you must con¬ tinue your studies in this line so that you will be ready to solve one after the other the problem.s which arise on your life journey. You must become the teachers of the doctrine which 3"ou have learned. You will find surprising results in stud3ung the influence of the association of 3mur race upon the white race. As I was looking yesterda3^ at the military maneuvers of 3mur highest classes I could not but thinlc of the fact that the Indian’s fight has been a skirmish fight, and not a method of fighting by phalanx or legion — that is to say, the massing of troops into solid bodies by careful discipline — and 3-0^ the Vvhite colonist in America learned from the Indian how to fight by skirmish lines. It has been suggested that the immense extension of skirmishing which developed here in the so-called French and Indian war was carried back to Europe both b3^ the French and by the English, and under the masterl3^ mind of Napoleon, who combined it with the method of concentrating an artilleiy fire upon a certain point, it became a new method of handling armies. Fighting a battle in column succeeded to the old tactics of fighting by lines. I think that you will be able to learn mairf particulars in which the white people of civilization have profited by the life of the Indian. I must close my remarks to 3^011 by repeating for 3mu the definition of civilization, a definition by which 3*011 can rightly measure and criticise the forms of civilization in v/hich you have been trained 3murselves and likewise those forms which are offered to 3*011 as substitutes^ — incjuiring whether a civilization offers to those who embrace it the abilit3^ to know* nature and the abilit3* to apply it by labor-saving inventions so as to decrease human drudger3' and at the same time increase the production of food, clothing, and shelter. You must inquire still more earnestly w*hat means it gives to those w*ho embrace it to enter into a possession of the experience of the race, to undemtand the evolution of human institu. tions — the famil3^, civil society, the state, the church — and see the continuous growth of an ability on the part of each individual to participate in the fruits of all human living. And above all learn to appl3^ the highest and the deepest of the principles of civilization, namely, the principle that makes it the highest honor of each individual to sacrifice his individual life for the lifting up of the downtrodden, the giving of light to those who sit in darkness, and the increase of self-activity and directive pow*er on the part of each, using the means and opportunities with which each one is endow*ed to extend these high privileges to all. II. ART EDUCATION THE TRUE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.^ We have heard much said on the subject of industrial training in recent 3*ears. It would seem that there is no educational subject that occupies the mind of the public more extensivel3" at the present time. There is, however, not an entire agreement among its agitators as to the exact nature of the education demanded for industiy. It is the object of 1113* paper to assist in clearing up this cpiestion of the best form of training for profitable work in the industries. One w*iil concede at the start that tool work is valuable as industrial training, and that especially the course of stud3* and work in the manual-training school is valuable because a A paper read by W. T. Harris before tne Department of Art Education, National Educational Association, Nashville, Tenn., July, 18S9. 1134 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. it teaches how to manufacture tools and machines of all kinds and thereby gives the laborer a sort of command over the instruments of industry that assists him very much in his struggle for excellence in the fields of labor. Still more valuable must we regard the study of natural science, and especially of applied mathematics, in the laws of matter and motion. It furnishes the theory of all machinery' and of ail production of supplies from nature. Besides this, we ma}' claim that general education is of the utmost importance, opening, as it does, the powers of thought and observation, giving each laborer an insight into human nature and fitting him for logical thinking on all subjects; fitting him alike to lead others and combine them in extensive undertakings and likewise, to serve faithfully and intelli¬ gently other leaders when the case requires. Tliis general education is indeed indispensable to the citizen and to the best cjuality of industrial people. But sesthetic education — the cultivation of taste, the acquirement of knowledge on the subject of the origin of the idea of beauty (both its historic origin and the philosophical account of its source in human nature ) , the practice of producing the outlines of the beau¬ tiful by the arts of drawing, painting, and modeling, the criticism of works of art with a view to discover readily the causes of failure or of success in aesthetic effects — all these things we must claim form the true foundation of the highest success in the industries of any modern nation. The dynamic side is needed, but invention of the useful does not succeed in controlling the markets of the world. A nation with its laborers all educated in their taste for beautiful forms will give graceful shapes to their productions and com¬ mand higher prices for them. The graceful shape and the proper ornamentation charm the purchaser, and he willingly pays a higher price for the beautiful article of usefulness if it is made b}^ an artist than if it is made by a mere artisan. On another occasion I have called attention to the backward state of Swedish education in aesthetic art. Sweden is the leader in the manual-training movement, but her educators have not vet seen the importance of developing correct taste among the laborers as a con¬ dition of industrial success. Accordingly v/e find that ingenuity is increasing to some extent in that country, but that there is no improvement in the artistic finish and ornamen¬ tation of their goods. Clumsy shapes and incongmous ornament are the characteristics of Swedish goods. Other nations do not want such ugly shapes in sight and do not buy them. To have ugly utensils perpetually in view gradually worlrs degeneration in one’s taste. The figures of our commercial reports show that we import raw materials from Sweden, but do not buy their manufactures. In the official report of commerce and navigation of the United States for 1881 the imports from Sweden and Norway are reported as pig iron, $111,176; bar iron, $517,959; old and scrap iron, $114,883; total, $744,018; but of man¬ ufactures of iron and steel only $111,749 are reported. It is surprising to note that we imported wood manufactures from them only to the small amount of $137, wliile we im¬ ported rags for paper manufacture to the amount of $39,090, but no manufactured clothing to speak of. The sam.e year Belgium sent us wood manufactures to the value of $118,146, or nearly one thousand times the value of the same item from Sweden and Norv'ay. In 1851, at the World’s Exposition in London, it became evident that English industries were not of such a character as to compete with those of France and Belgium. Prince Albert, wise and thoughtful as he was, set about a deep-reaching system of education that should correct the national defect and recover the prestige of British arts and manufac¬ tures. The South Kensington Museum was established, and day and evening art schools set up in all manufacturing centers. The museum placed at its foundation a collection of works of art showing the history of art — its beginnings, its high-water marks, and its fluctu¬ ations. On this basis instruction was given in those forms of ornamentation that the world has pronounced beautiful. There began from this time a gradual rise in the taste of the English workman; from being an artisan pure and simple he began to be an artist. England has gone forward rapidly in the direction of producing works of taste, and her useful man¬ ufactures, heretofore made without reference to beauty, have improved in tastefulness of design and execution. AET EDUClTIOIT THE TEUE IHDUSTEEiL EDUCATION. 1135 The establishment of a great national art gallery, the Louvre, and the studies of French savants in the canons of good taste had long before revolutionized French manufactures and given France the supremacy in the world market for goods that command high prices and ready sale. Taking hint from England, we have had in this countiy something of the fever for educa¬ tion in art, especially in the lines of industrial drawing. Remarkable as has been our progress in the matter, 37'et there is a prevalent lack of insight into the true direction and sig¬ nificance of this branch of industrial drawing. We have had much stress laid on geometric drawing and the construction of working drawings, as well as the old-fashioned system of drawing pictures of objects, and we have had much invention of original designs, founded on the basis of regularity and symmetry, but we have had very little of a really high order of {esthetic . In order to explain this statement, I ask your attention to a discussion of some general ideas on the theoiy of art with a view to show the object of art and its historical realization. This will help to explain to us why art exercises and has exercised so much influence in the world, and why it dominates still in the market of industrial productions. Wealth demands ^the aesthetic. The days of poverty may be satisfied with the useful. Let us inquire into the scope, of art and see its function, whether serious or trivial, whether elevating or degrading to the soul . Let us study it, in short, in its relations to religion as well as in its relations to industiy, because only in this serious aspect can it justify for itself its high place in the esteem of mankind. There is the theory that the primary function of art is amusement. VvTiat makes this degrading theory plausible is the fact that there is sensuous enjoyment in the contemplation of works of art. But if we analyze this effect we shall trace even it to something higher than sensuous sources. The sensuous elements in art are regularity, symmetry, and harmony. 1. Regularity is recurrence of the same — mere repetition. A rude p-eople scarcely reaches a higher stage of art. The desire for amusement is gratified b}^ a string of beads or a fringe of some sort. It is a love of rhythm. The human form divine does not seem beautiful to the savage. It is not regular enough to suit his taste. lie must accordingly make it beautiful by regular ornaments, or by deforming it in some way; bj" tattooing it, for example. Wh}^ does regularity please? Why does recurrence or repetition gratif3r the taste of the child or savage? The answer to this question is to be found in the generalization that the soul delights to behold itself, and that human nature is ‘ mimetic, ’ ’ as Aristotle called it, signifying symbol-making. Man desires to know himself and to reveal himself, in order that he may comprehend himself; hence, he is an art-producing animal. Whatever suggests to him his deep, underlying spiritual nature gives him a strange pleasure. The nature of con¬ sciousness is partly revealed in types and symbols of the rudest art. Chinese music, like the music of very young children, delights in monotonous repetitions that almost drive frantic an3rone with a cultivateel ear. But all rhythm is a symbol of the first and most obvious fact of conscious intelhgence or reason. Consciousness is the knowing of the self by the seif. There is subject and object, and the activity of recognition. From subject to object there is distinction and difference, but with recognition sameness or identity is perceived, and the distinction or difference is retracted. What is this simple rhythm from difference to identity but regularity. It is, we ansvrer, regularity, but it is much more than this. But the child or savage delights in monotonous repetition alone, not possessing the slightest insight into the cause of his delight. His delight is, however, explicable through this fact of the identity in form between the rhythm of his soul-activity and the sense-perception by vdiich he per¬ ceives regularit}^. The sun-myth arises through the same feeling. Wherever there is repetition, especially in the form of return-to-itself, there comes this conscious or unconscious satisfaction at behold¬ ing it. Hence, circular movement, or movement in cycles, is the most wonderful of all the phenomena beheld by primitive man. Nature presents to his observation infinite differ¬ ences. Out of the confused mass he traces some forms of recurrence — day and night, the 1136 EDUCATION REPOET j 1904. phases of the moon, the seasons of the year, genus and species in animals and plants, the apparent revolutions of the fixed stars, and the orbits of planets. These phenomena furnish him symbols or types in which to express his ideas concerning the divine principle that he feels to be First Cause. To the materialistic student of sociology all religions are merely transfigured sun-myths. But to the deeper student of psychology it becomes clear that the sun-myth itself rests on the perception of identity between regular C3mles and the rhythm which characterizes the activity of self-consciousness. And self-consciousness is felt and seen to be a form of being that is not on a par with mere transient, individual existence, but rather the essential attribute of the divine being. Author of all. Here vve see how deep-seated and significant is this blind instinct or feeling which is grati¬ fied bj^ the seeing and hearing of mere regularity. The words which expres the divine in all languages root in this sense-perception and testhetic pleasure attendant on it. Philologj", dis¬ covering the sun-myth origin of religious expression, places the expression before the thing expressed, the symbol before the thing signified. It tells us that religions arise from a sort of disease in language which turns poetry into prose. But underneath the ses .hetic feeling lies tlie perception of identity which makes possible the trope or metaphor. 2. Symmetry. Begularity expresses only the empirical perception of the nature of self- consciousness and reason. There is, as we have seen, a subject opposed to itself as object. Opposition or antithesis is, however, not simple repetition, but opposition. The identity is therefore one of symmetr\^, instead of regularitj". Symmetiy contains and expresses idenity under difference. vTe can not put the left-hand glove on our right hand. The two hands correspond, but are not repetitions of the same. It is a mark of higher sssthetic culture to prefer symmetry’ to regularity. It indicates a deeper feeling of the nature of the divine. Nations that have reached this stage show their taste by emphasizing the sj'mmetry in the human form by ornaments and symmetrical arrangement of clothing. They correct the lack of symmetr}^ in the human form in the images of their gods. The face is on the front side of the head, but the god shall have a face on the back of his head, too, to complete the symmetr^r. The arms directed to the front of the bod}^ must also correspond to another pair of arms directed in the opposite direction. Perhaps perfect symmetry is still more exacting in its requirements, and demands faces with arms to match on the right and left sides of the bod\n To us the idols of the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans seem hideous. But it was the taste for symmetr}’' that produced them. 3. Harmony is the object of the highest culture of taste. Regularity and symmetry are so mechanical in their nature that the}^ afford only remote sjmrbols of reason in its concreteness. They furnish only the elements of art, and must be subordinated to a higher principle. Harmoiy is free from the mechanical suggestions of the lovrer prin¬ ciples, but it possesses in a greater degree the qualities which gave them their charm. Just as s}unmetry exliibits identity under a deeper difference than regularity, so harmony, again, presents us a still deeper unity underlj-ing wider difference. The unit}" of harmony is not a unity of sameness, nor of correspondence merely, but a unity of adaptation to end or purpose. Mere s^unmetry suggests external constraint; but in art there must be freedom expressed. Regularity is still more suggestive of mechanical necessity. Har¬ mony boldly discards regularity and symnietr\q retaining them only in subordinate details, and makes all subservient to the expression of a conscious purpose. The divine is conceived as spiritual intelligence elevated above its material expression so far that the latter is only a means to an end. The Apollo Belvedere has no symmetry of arrangement in its limbs, and 3"et the disposition of each limb suggests a different disposition of another, in order to accomplish some conscious act upon which the mind of the god is bent. All is different, and yet all is united in harmony for the realization of one purpose. Here the human form, with its lack of regularity and sj-mmetry, becomes beautiful. The nation has arrived at the perception of harmon}", which is a higher s^mibolic expression of the divine than were the previous elements. The human body is adapted to the expression of conscious will, and this is freedom. The perfect subordination of the body to the will is graceful¬ ness. It is this which constitutes the beauty of classic art: To have every muscle under AKT EDUCATION THE TRUE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 1137 perfect obedience to the will — unconscious obedience — so that the slightest inclination or desuse of the soul, if made an act of the will, found expression in the body. When the soul is not at ease in the body, but is conscious of it as something separate, gracefulness departs and awkwardness takes its place. The awkward person does not know what to do wuth his hands and arms; he can not think just how he would carry his bod}^ or fix the muscles of his face. He chews a stick or bites a cigar in order to have something to do with the facial muscles, or twirls a cane or twists his watch chain, folds his arms before or behind, or even thrusts his hands into his pockets, in order to have some use for them which will restore his feeling of ease in his body. The soul is at ease in the body only when it is using it as a means of expression or action. Harmony is this agreement of the inner and outer, of the will and the body, of the idea and its expression, so that the external leads us directly to the internal of which it is the expression. Gracefulness then results, and gracefulness is the characteristic of classic or Greek art. Not only its statues, but its architecture and architectural ornament, exhibit gracefulness or freedom. The Greek religion made beauty the essential feature of the idea of the divine, and hence his art is created as an act of worship of the beautiful. It represents the supreme attainment of the world in pure beauty, because it is pure beauty and nothing beyond. Christianity reaches beyond beauty to holiness. Other heathen religions fall short of the Greek ideal, and lack an essential element which the Greek religion possessed. The Greeks believed that the divine is at the same time human; and human not in the sense that the essence of man, his purified intellect and will, is divine, but human in the corporeal sense as well. The gods of Olympus possess appetites and passions like men; they have bodies and live in a special place. They form a society or large patriarchal family. The mani¬ festation of the divine is celestial beauty. Moreover, the human being may by becoming beautiful become divine. Hence the Greek religion centers about gymnastic games. These are the Olympian, the Isthmean, the Nemean, and the Pythian games. Exercises that shall give the soul sovereignty over the body and develop it into beauty are religious in this sense. Every village has its games for physical development; these are attended by the people who become in time judges of perfection in human form, just as a commu¬ nity that attends frequent horse races produces men that know critically the good points of a horse. It is known who is the best man at wrestling, boxing, throwing tlie discus, the spear, or javelin; at running, at leaping, or at the chariot or horseback races. Then, at less frequent intervals, there is the contest at games between neighboring villages. The successful hero carries off the crown of wild olive branches. Nearly every year there is a great national assembly of Greeks and a contest open to all. The Ol3unpian festival at Olympia and the Isthmean festival near Corinth are held the same summer; then at Argolis, in tlie winter of the second year afterv/ards, is the Nemean festival; then the Pythian festival near Delphi, and a second Isthmean festival, occur in the spring of the third year; and again there is a second Nemean festival in the summer of the fourth year of the Olympiad. The entire people, composed of independent States, united by ties of religion, assemble to celebrate this faith in the beautiful and honor their successful j'outh. The results carried the national taste for the beautiful as seen in the human body to the highest degree. The next step after the development of the personal work of art in the shape of beautiful youth, by means of the national games and the cultivation of the taste of the entire people through the spectacle of these games, is the art of sculpture, by wdiich these forms of beauty, realized in the athletes and existing in the minds of the people as ideals of correct taste, shall be fixed in stone and set up in the temples for worship. Thus Greek art was born. The statues at first were of gods and demigods exclusively. Those which have come down to us cause our unbounded astonishment at this perfection of form. It is not their resemblance to living bodies, not their anatomical exactness that interests us, not their so-called “truth to nature,” but their gracefulness and serenity — their “classic ED 1904 M - 72 1138 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1901. repose.” Whether the statues represent gods and heroes in action or in sitting and reclining postures, there is this ‘‘repose” which means indwelling vital activity and not mere rest as opposed to movement. In the greatest activity there is considerate purpose and perfect self-control manifested. The repose is of the soul, and not a physical repose. Even sitting and reclining figures — for example, the Theseus from the Parthenon, the torso of the Belvedere — are filled with activity, so that the repose is one of voluntary self-restraint and not the repose of the absence of vital energy. They are gracefulness itself. What a surprising thought is this, of a religion founded on beauty! Kow could it have arisen in the history of tlie \vorld, and what became of it? Let us consider a few of the elements wherein the Greek religion was superior to other heathen religions. The Hindoo worshiped an abstract unity devoid of all form, which he called Brahma. His idea of the divine is defined as the negation not only of everything in nature, but also everything human. Nothing that has form, or shape, or properties, or qualities — nothing, in short, that can l)e distinguished from anything else, can be divine according to the thought of the Hindoo. This is pantheism. It worships a negative might which destroys everything. If it admits that the world of finite things arises from Brahma as creator, it hastens to tell us that the creation is only a dream and that all creatures will vanish when the dream fades. There can be no hope for any individuality, according to this belief. Any art that grows up under such a religion wall manifest only the nothingness of individuality and the impossi¬ bility of its salvation. Instead of l^eauty as the attribute of divinity, the Hindoo studied to mortify the flesh; to shrivel up the body; to paralyze rather than develop his muscles. Instead of gymnastic festivals he resorted to the severest penances, such as holding his arm over his head until it v/a,sted away. If he could produce numbness in his body so that all feeling disappeared, he attained holiness. His divine was not di\nne-human, but inhuman rather. The Egyptian laid all stress on death. In his art he celebrated death as the vestibule to the next world and the life with Osiris. Art does not get beyond the symbolic phase with him. As in the hieroglyphic the picture of a thing is employed at first to represent the thing, and by and by it becomes a conversational sign for a word, so the works of art at first represent men and gods, and afterwards Ix'come conventional symbols to signif}^ the ideas of the Egyptian religion. The great question to be determined is this: What destiny does it promise the individual, and what kind of life dees it command him to lead? The Egyptian symbolizes his divine by the processes of nature that represent birth, growth and death, and resurrection, and hence conceive life as belonging to it. The course of the sun— its rising and setting, its noonday splendor, and its nightly eclipse; the succession of the seasons — the germination, growth, and death of plants; the flooding and subsidence of the Nile — these and other phenomena are taken as sym.bols expressing the Egyptian conception of the divine living being. Finally it rises out of the immediate artistic description by symbols, and tells the myth of Osiris killed by his brother Typhon, and of his descent to the silent realm of the under-world, and of his there reigning king, and of his resurrection. The Indian art, on the contrary, dealt with symbols that were not analogous to human life. The}^ reverenced mountains and rivers and the storm winds and great natural forces that were destructive to the individuality of man, but also reverenced life in animals. They founded asylums for aged cows, but not for decrepit humanity. Persian art adored light as the divine; it also adored the bodies that give light — the sun, moon, and stars; also fire; also whatever is purifying, especially water. The Persian religion conceives two deities — a god of light and goodness and a god of darkness and evil. The struggle between these two gods fills the universe and makes all existence a contest. The art of the Persian portrays this straggle, and does not let pure human individuality step forth for itself. In Assyria and Chaldea we have the worship of the sun rather than of pure light. Hence there were artificial hills or towers constructed, with ascending inclined planes on the outside ART EDUCATION THE TRITE IHDE^STREIL EDUCATION. 1139 rising to the flat top, crowned with a temple dedicated to Belus or the Sun god. Images partly human, partly animal, represented the divine. The lion, the eagle, the quadruped and bird, the human face, these were united to make the symbol of a divine being who could not be manifested in a purely human form. The Egyptian religion, though it surpassed the Persian in that it conceived the divine as much more near human Hfe, still resorted to animal forms to obtain the peculiarly divine attributes. There were the sacred bulls Apis and Mnevis, the goat of Mendes, sacred hawks and ibis, and such divinities as Isis-Hathor, with a cow’s head; Touaris, with a crocodile’s head; Thoth, with the head of an ibis; Ilorus, with the head of a hawk; but Ammon and Ptha and Osiris with human heads and bodies. Thus we see that the Egyptian wavered between the purely human and the animal form as the image of the divine. So long as it is possible for a religion to permit the representation of the divine by an animal form, that religion has not yet conceived God as pure self-consciousness or reason. Its art can not arrive at gracefulness. As a consecjuence of this defect, however, it can not account for the origin and destiny of the world in such a way as to explain the problem of the human soul. It is an insoluble enigma whose type is a sphinx. The Sphinx is the rude rock out of which it arises, symbolizing inorganic nature; then the lion’s body, typifying by the Idng of beasts the highest of organic beings below man; then the human face, looking up inquiringly to the heavens. Its question seems to be: ^'Thusfar: what next?” Does the human break the continuity of the circle of nature within which there goes on a perpet¬ ual revolution of birth, growth, and decay, or does the human perish with the animal and plant and lose his individuality ? How can his individuality be preserved without the body ? The Egyptian’s highest thought was this enigma. He combined the affirmative and nega^ tive elements of this problem, conceiving that man survives death but will have a resurrec¬ tion and need his particular body again, which therefore must be preserved by embalming it. The body of Osiris had to be embalmed by Isis. The sacred animals, bulls and others, were embalmed upon death. They had not learned that the image of God is man, and, more definitelj*, man’s reason or self-consciousness. It was a great step beyond the heathen religion of Asia and Africa therefore for the Greek religion to conceive the divine as dwelling in human form, however defective it was in respect to its doctrine of the particular attributes of man that are the true image of God. Hence we have the explanation why it is that Greek art has become the conventional expression of the beautiful for all the civilized world. It alone aims at the expression of personal freedom in the body and therefore always achieves gracefulness. Christian art as such strives to show the soul as struggling to free itself from the body. All cultivated peoples -will prefer ornament and works of art that show the triumph of the soul over matter to the manifestation of the predominance of matter or the struggle of the soul to free itself. Art studies should therefore find their center in the history of Greek art. III.— THE INTELLECTUAL VALUE OF TOOL WORK.« Man, like the animal, has natural wants, which he must gratify in order to live on the earth. While the animal needs food, and to some extent shelter, man needs food and shelter and clothing. In order to get possession of these things he must struggle for them and wrest them from nature, depriving plants and animals of their vital principles and converting them to his own uses. Whereas the plant feeds upon soil and atmosphere in so far as it finds them in immediate contact with itself, and the animal is able to seek a new environment and use its limbs as tools or instruments with which to seize upon the means of supplying its wants, man on the other hand, although less endowed with strength A paper read by W. T. Harris before the National Educational Association, in Nashville, Tenn., July 15, 1889. 1140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. than many of the animals, and with scanty natural provision for clothing, yet is able to surpass the animal in gratification of his wants, by cunningly aiding his natural forces and instruments by invented ones. He devises instruments out of natural materials, min¬ eral, animal, and vegetable substances and their chemic elements, of such efficiency as to enable him to command the resources of land and sea and air. Whatever seems at first a limitation to him, or a hostile might threatening him with destruction, or imposing upon him the necessity of drudgery for daily assistance, becomes by and by an auxiliary power friendly to man after he has conquered it by the magic of his intellect. I^Ian, as inventor of tools and machines and the combiner of nature’s forces, presents for us the most interesting object in the universe. Let us take a survey of him as the maker of tools and the wielder of them. Intellectual and moral power unite to give man this power of invention. It is intellectual cunning which discovers the powers and adap¬ tations of things and converts them to his uses. It is the moral power of self-conquest that enables man to sacrifice the ease and comfort of the present moment and to endure privation, in order by industry and patient attention to accumulate a capital of physical means and acquired experience sufficient to produce an invention. The first step above the brute instinct begins when man looks beyond things as he sees them existing before him and commences to consider their possibilities; he begins to add to his external seeing an internal seeing; the world begins to assume a new aspect; each object appears to be of larger scope than its present existence, for there is a sphere of pos¬ sibility environing it, a sphere which the sharpest animal eyes of lynx or eagle can not see, but which man, endowed with this new faculty of inward sight, perceives at once. To this insight into possibilities there loom up uses and adaptations, transformations and combinations in a long series stretching into the infinite behind each finite real thing. The bodil}^ eyes see the real objects, but can not see the infinite trails; they are invisible except to the inward eyes of the mind. What we call directive power on the part of man, his combining and organizing power, all rests on this power to see beyond the real things before the senses to the ideal possi¬ bilities invisible to the brute. The more clearly man sees these ideals the more perfectly he can construct for himself another set of conditions than those in which he finds himself. Men as tool workers, as managers of machines, participate in this higher kind of per¬ ception in different degrees, but all have it to some extent. The lowest human laborer has the dimmest notions of these ideals; they are furnished him by others; he is told what to do; he furnishes the hands to work with and someone else furnishes the brains or most of the brain work. Unless a directing mind is near by to help at every moment with the details of some ideal, the rude laborer ceases his work, having no knowledge of what is required next. Ilis capacity to grasp an ideal is very sm.all; he can only take it in tiny fragments — small patterns dealt out to him as a hand by the directing brain of the overseer or '‘boss.” It seems a waste of power to have two brains to govern one pair of hands. It is evi¬ dently desirable to have each laborer developed in his brain, so as to be able to see ideals as well as to realize them by his hands. The development of this desirable power we call education of the intellect, and its chief means is science. Science is the systematized results of observation. Each fact in the world is placed in the light of all the other facts. All facts are made to help explain each fact. This is science. Now, each fact represents only one of the many possible states of existence which a thing may have. When one state of existence is real the others are mere possibilities, or, as they are called, potentialities.” Thus water may exist as liquid, or vapor, or ice, but when it is ice the liquid and vapor states are mere potentialities. Science collects about each subject all its phases of existence under different conditions; it teaches the student to look at a thing as a whole and see in it not only what is visible before his senses, but what also is not realized and remains dormant or potential. The THE INTELLECTUAL VALUE OF TOOL WOMv. 1141 scientifically educated laborer, therefore, is of a higher type than the mere ''hand laborer,’’ because he has learned to see in each thing its possibilities. He sees each thing in the perspective of its history. Here, then, in the educated laborer we have a hand belonging to a brain that directs, or that can intelligently comprehend a detailed statement of an ideal to be worked out. The laborer and the "boss” are united in one man. There are, as we have said, different degrees of educated capacity, due to the degree in which this power of seeing invisible potentialities or ideals is developed. The lowest humanity needs constant direction and works only under the eye of an overseer; it can work with advantage onl}^ at simple processes; by repetition it acquires skill at a simple manipulation. The incessant repetition of one muscular act deadens into habit and less and less brain work goes to its performance. When a process is reduced to simple steps, however, it is easy to invent some sort of machine that can perform it &s well or better than the human drudge. Accordingly, division of labor gives occasion to labor-saving machinciy. The human drudge can not compete with the machine and is thrown out of emplo3nnent and goes to the almshouse or perhaps starves. If he could onl}^ be educated and learn to see ideals, he could have a place as manager of the machine. The machine recjuires an alert intellect to direct and control it, but a mere "hand” can not serve its pur¬ pose. The higher development of man produced by science therefore acts as a goad to spur on the lower orders of humanity to become educated intellectually. Moreover, the education in science enables the laborer to easily acquire an insight into the construction and management of machines. This makes it possible for him to change his vocation readily". There is a greater and greater resemblance of each process of human labor to every other now that an age of machinery has arrived. The differences of manipulation are grown less, because the machine is assuming the handwork and leaving onl}’ the brain work for the laborer. Hence there opens before labor a great prospect of freedom in the future. Each person can choose a new vocation and succeed in it without long and tedious apprenticeship, provided that he is educated in general science. If he understands only the theory of one machine, he may direct or manage an}-" form or style of it. He could not so easily learn an entirely different machine unless he had learned the entire theory of machinery. The wider his knowledge and the more general its char¬ acter, the larger the sphere of his freedom and power. If he knows the scientific theory of nature’s forces, he comprehends readily not only the machines, but also all nature’s phe¬ nomena as manifestations of those forces. Knowledge is educative in proportion to its enlightening power or its general applicabiliW. The knowledge of an art is educative because it gives one command in a sphere of activity; it explains effects and enables the artisan to be both brain and hand to some extent. A science lifts him to a much higher plane educa- tively, because he can see a wide margin of possibilities or ideals outside of the processes in use, and outside of the tools and m.achines emploj^ed. Education, then, takes these three steps; First, to do what is directed by authority; secondly, to know the theory of the art or trade as it is and has com.e down b}^ tradition; thirdly, to know the general science of the subject, and comprehend not only the processes that have been realized, but the possibility of others. The civilization in which we live is well characterized as a scientific one, and it is making great strides toward the conquest of nature. It demands, too, as we see, an education for all people. There is less and less place left for the mere drudge — all hands and no brains. Machinery can do his work so cheapl}^ that his wages must be very slender. The education demanded, moreover, is not the training in technical skill so much as in science. For the more general training emancipates the laborer from the deadening effects of repetition and habit, the monotony of attending the machine, and opens up a vista of new invention and more useful combinations. While the student is learning a method of doing something his brain is exercised; when the process has become a habit, it is committed to his hand, and his intellect is not required again except for new combinations. This is true of all machine work, of all tool work. Its theory 1142 EDUCATION KEPORT^ 1904. is soon exhausted, and the deadening process of habit sets in. Science is perpetually living, always educative. The mind goes from principle to principle; it discovers and inventories new provinces of nature, and applies its principles to their explanation. In reaching vaster unities of nature, it finds deeper principles. Not the study of tools and machinery, but that of natural science, is more educative, therefore, because it keeps the mind in perpetual activity. If we pause here and ask ourselves. What is the scope of the inquiry thus far made ? we shall be obliged to confess that we have regarded man only in his animal nature — possessing bodily wants of food, clothing, and shelter. We see at once that this is no inventory of man’s wants — it falls infinitely short of his requirements as a spiritual being. If machinery were invented so that he could get food, clothing, and shelter in abundance and of the finest quality at the cost of a moment’s labor each day, all this would be of small account as an item of civilization unless the human energy saved from drudgery had found chan¬ nels of expenditure in the vocations relating directly to the education of the spiritual nature of man. Here we come to the all-important distinction between that which belongs onl}" to the nature of a means instrumental to something else different from itself, and that which is an end for itself. The human mind or soul is an end for itself. Matter and the body are only instrumental, onl}^ means for the perfection of the soul. What, we inquire, are the ideals of perfection of the soul, then? For it would seem that all through our industrial processes there should have prevailed a guiding purpose to sub¬ ordinate all human endeavor to the interest of the mind. We have already taken note of the science of nature as a purely theoretical study, more educative than any form of art because it is the source of inexhaustible activity in the intellect. Nature in time and space is one world for man’s scientific mastery. Over against this there is another world for his science — the world of mind. Nature is before us as organic and inorganic realms. Mind reveals itself in three forms — thinking, willing, and feeling. Leaving this psychological point of view, it will be more interesting for us to look at the world of humanity in three aspects. Human nature has revealed itself in institutions, social structures organized so as to make the strong help the weak; the mature assist the immature; the wise the simple. These institutions are the family, civil society, the state or nation, and the church. These institutions are the out¬ growth of the human will: In the business of education the youth learns human nature as will in studying history — history taken in a very broad sense. But even history in a nar¬ row sense gives him glimpses of all these institutions acting and reacting upon each of these. One sees the evolution of civilization by the study of history. Here, then, is a branch of study which we must regard as educative in the highest possible degree. Natural science, valuable as it is in emancipating us from drudgery, is rather a science of that which is a means for the development of man as a spiritual being. But history is a science of that w'hich is an end for itself, because it is the exhibition of the structure and evolution of civilization. History is only one of the spiritual sciences. There are sciences that relate to mind as intellect in its essence, such as philosophy and psychology and logic, with kindred sciences like comparative philology offering to us the revelations which different peoples of the earth have made of their mental structure in language. This study deals also with that which is an end for itself. Again, there is the department of literature and art, in which man has portrayed for himself his human nature in the form of feelings and convictions lead¬ ing outward and upward to thoughts and actions. For the heart is in a certain sense the primitive fountain from which flows the life-thread before it is divided into the strands of intellect and will. Literature shows us this deepest source of civilization. Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and Goethe reveal prophetically what after ages work out into clear thoughts and actions. Flere then is another, and a very important, study of what is always an end for itself. THE INTELLECTUAL VALUE OF TOOL WOKK. 1143 History, the revelation of the nature of human will; philology and philosophy, the revela¬ tion of what is essential in the human intellect, or the divine part of it; literature and the fine arts, the revelation of the human heart! First, human nature evolves a dim feeling; then develops it into an idea; then realizes it in a deed, and it becomes an institution to bless the race. There are three departments to the world of human nature, and two departm.ents to the world of nature belov/ man — organic in plant and animal, inorganic in matter and force. With this survey of humian learning, we are now prepared to see what the school has done in the past and present to provide an educative process for the child by giving him a survey of the two worlds in which he lives, the material and spiritual worlds — the world of means to an end outside of itself, and the world which is an end for itself. School education should open five windows of the soul, and let it look out upon the two departments of nature and the three departments of mind. Now it surprises us at first to see that school education has done this very thing by its course of study. Arithmetic gives the first glimpse of inorganic nature, for it reveals the nature of quantity, and quantity gives the law to time and space, and to ail bodies. Then in geography a glimpse is given of organic nature as related to the inorganic on the one hand, and as related to man on the other — a very educative study indeed! Then there is grammar, which looks into the logical structure of the intellect as revealed in language; history, which reveals the human will; literature in the school readers, showing how the great geniuses of the language have revealed the aspira¬ tions of the people in impassioned prose and poetry. The school does something more than give this all-round glimpse of man’s fivefold world. The school teaches the pupil how to restrain his animal impulses to prate and chatter, dis¬ turbing the work of others, and himself idle; it teaches him the great lesson of industry and perseverance; it teaches him regularity and punctuality, the great virtues that lie at the basis of all human combination; it teaches courtesy and good social behavior; it lays greatest stress on truth-speaking, b}^ showing the pupil in every recitation how important it is to be accurate in statement, and to fix the exact facts by verification and research. The studies and disciplines of the school therefore open the windows of the intellect upon all points of the horizon of existence, and they train the will to labor at what is most difficult because most unusual for the animal nature. The lower organized human being can work with his hands with pleEisure, while it is still a task of great difficulty for him to contemplate ideas or undertake any sustained trains of thought. If youth can be taught to bring their powers to bear on such ideal subjects as arithmetic, grammar, history, and literature, they certainly can with ease give their minds to any form of manual training or the work of external observation, because the greater includes the less, and the studies of pure science are far mmre difficult to carry on than studies in applied science. If we now ask the question, ¥7hat is the comparative value of tool work? we may see our way to reply. Tool work without the theory of construction is educative to some extent, especially in the first stages of its practice. Tool work taught with the theor}' of machinery, with applied mathematics, is far more educative than mere tool work, and its educative influence lasts for a much longer time. Tool work with its theory and with natural science is permanently educative, and it does much to raise manual labor above drudgery, and especially is this the case if it is studied \vith the history of ornamentation and with careful cultivation of sesthetic taste. But when com.pared Vvith the present course of study in the schools it can not be claimed that manual training opens any new windows of the soul, although it may give a more dis¬ tinct view from the windov/ that opens toward inorganic nature. There remains, notwithstanding, a permanently valid place for the manual-training school side by side with apprentice schools for all youths vdio are old enough to enter a trade, and who are unwilling to carry on any further their purely culture studies. Cultivate the humanities first, and afterwards the industrial faculties. In our civilization there ascend 1144 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1904. out of the ab3’ss of the future problems of anarchy on the one hand and of socialism on the other; individualism carried to such extremes that all subordination to peaceable and establislied law is deemed a fetter to freedom. This centrifugal tendency to anarchy is paralleled by a centripetal tendency that v/ishes to have the central government perform not only all the duties of establishing justice and securing the public peace, but also to have it own all the property and manage all the industries. In short, the nationalists propose abolishing the sphere of competition and individual enterprise. Education in the history of the world, and in the literature that reveals the aspirations of the human heart, is well calcu¬ lated to prepare the youth for a rational verdict on the extreme issues that will continually arise among a free people. Above all, we must never yield to the economic spirit that pro¬ poses to curtail the humanizing studies in our schools for the sake of adding special training for industries. Rather must we do what we can to extend the period of study in pure science and the humanities, knowing as we do that all which goes to develop the ability of the youth to see possibilities and ideals, goes to make him a more productive laborer in the fields of industry. CHAPTER XIX LIST OF EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1901. (1) ARRANGED BY STATES. Alabama. Illinois — Continued. Birmingham, Educational Exchange, M., 1904, vol. 19. Huntsville, The Educator, M., 1904, vol. 6. Tuskegee, Southern Letter, M., 1904, vol. 20. " A rkansas. Little Rock, Arkansas School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 9. California. Berkeley, University Chronicle, Bi-m., 1904, vol. 7. San Francisco, Western Journal of Education, M. 1904, vo'. 9. Colorado. Chicago, Manual Training Magazine, Qu., 1904 vol. 6. Chicago, School Review, M., 1904, vol. 12. Chicago, School Science, M., 1904, vol. 4. Chicago, Teachers’ Federation Bulletin, W. , 1904, vol. 4. Chicago, The Commons, M., 1904, vol. 9. Chicago, University Record, M. , 1904, vol. 9. Chicago, University Extension Quarterly, Qu., 1904, vol. 2. Oak Park, Intelligence, Semi-m., 1904, vol. 24. Taylorville, School News and Practical Edu¬ cator, M., 1904, vol. 18. Indiana. Denver, Colorado School Journal, M. , 1904, vol. 20. Greeley, State Normal School Bulletin, M. , 1904, vol. 3. Connecticut. New Haven, Yale Review, M., 1904, vol. 13. District of Columbia. Washington, American Annals of the Deaf, Bi-m. , 1904, vol 50. Washington, Catholic University Bulletin, Qu., 1904, vol. 10. Washington, National Geographical Magazine, M., 1904, vol. 15. Washington, University Courier, Qu., 1904, vol. 11. Florida. Gainesville, Florida School Exponent, M., 1904, vol. 12. Illinois. Bloomington, School and Home Education, M., 1904, vol. 24. Chicago, Biblical 'World, M. , 1904, vol. 23. Chicago, Board of Education Bulletin, W. , 1904, vol. 2. Chicago, Correct English, M., 1904, vol. 4. Chicago, Dial (The), Semi-m., 1904, vol. 36. Chicago, Elementary School Teacher, M., 1904, vol. 5. Chicago, Home Education, M., 1904, vol. 2. Chicago, Journal of Geography, M., 1904, vol. 4. Chicago, Kindergarten Magazine, M., 1904, vol. 17. Indianapolis, Educator-Journal, M., 1904, vol. 5. loiva. Charles City, Iowa Teacher, M., 1904, vol. 18. Des Moines, Midland Schools, M., 1904, vol. 18. Fort Dodge, Webster County Teacher, M., 1904, vol. 14. Keokuk, School Music Monthly, M., 1904, vol. 5. Kansas. Hutchinson, Kansas Educator, M. , 1904, vol. 2. Lawrence, Kansas University Science Bulletin, Qu., 1904, vol. 2 Manhattan, Industrialist (The), W. , 1904, vol. 31. New Albany, Country School Champion, M. , 1904, vol. 8. Topeka, Western School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 21. Kentucky. Berea, Berea Quarterly, Qu., 1904, vol. 9. Lexington, Southern School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 15. Louisiana. New Orleans, Teachers’ Outlook, M., 1904, vol. 5. Maine. Farmington, Normal (The), M. , 1904, vol. 3. Maryland. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Circular, M. , 1904, vol. 23. 1145 1146 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. Massachusetts. New York — Continued. Boston, American Primary Teacher, M., 1904, vol. 23. Boston, Bostonia, Qu., 1904, vol. 5. Boston, Boston Cooking School Magazine, Bi-m., 1904, vol. 9. Boston, Education, M., 1904, vol. 25. Boston, Home Science Magazine, M., 1904, vol. 21. Boston, Journal of Education, W., 1904, vol. 60. Boston, Literary World, Semi-m. , 1904, vol. 35. Boston, New England Conservatory Magazine, M.,1904, vol. 10. Boston, Popular Educator, M., 1904, vol. 21. Boston, Posse Gymnasium Journal, M., 1904, vol. 12. Boston, Primary Education, M., 1904, vol. 12. Boston, School Physiology Journal, M. , 1904, vol. 14. Boston, Technological Quarterly, Qu., 1904, vol. 17. 1 Cambridge, The People, Qu., 1904, vol. 7. | Salem, Little Folks, M. , 1904, vol. 8. j Springfield, Kindergarten Review, M., 1904, j vol. 15. I Worcester, American Journal of Psjmhology, Qu., 1904, vol. 16. Worcester, American Journal of Religious Psy¬ chology and Education, Qu., 1904, vol. 1. Worcester, School Arts Book, M. , 1904, vol. 4. Worcester, Pedagogical Seminary (The), Qu., 1904, vol. 11. M ich igan. Battle Creek, Good Health, M., 1904, vol. 39. Lansing, Moderator-Topics, Semi-m., 1904, vol. 25. Minnesota. Minneapolis, School Education, M. , 1904, vol. 23. j Minneapolis, Minnesota School Journal, M., 1904, ! vol. 4. I Missouri. j Jefferson City, Missouri School Journal, M., 1904, I vol. 21. 1 St. Louis, Evangelish-Lutherisches Schulblatt, ! M., 1904, vol. 39. I Nebraska. \ I Lincoln, Nebraska Teacher, M. , 1904, vol. 7. i Omaha, Nebraska Mute Journal, M. , 1904, vol. 32. j Santee Agency, Word Carrier, M., 1904, vol. 33. j New Hampshire. \ Manchester, Notes and Queries, M. , 1904, vol. 22. j New Jersey. I Ringoes, Journal of Orthoepi and Orthografi, M., I 1904, vol. 21. Trenton, Silent Worker (The), M.,1904, vol. 17. New York. Albany, American Education from Kindergarten to College, M., 1904, vol. 8. Brooklyn, American Physical Education Review, Qu., 1904, vol. 9. Brooklyn, Latin Leaflet, W. , 1904, vol. 5. Chautauqua, Assembly Herald, D. during sum¬ mer, 1904, vol. 29. I Dansville, Normal Instructor and Teachers’ World, M., 1904, vol. 14. Malone, Mentor (The), M. , 1904, vol. 10. New York, American Geographical Bulletin, M., 1904, vol. 36. New York, American School Board Journal, M. , 1904, vol. 29. New York, Champlain Educator, Qu., 1904, vol. 23. New York, Charities, W. , 1904, vol. 13. New York, Columbia University Quarterly, Qu., 1904, vol. 7. New York, Deaf Mutes’ Journal, W., 1904, vol. 33. New York, Educational Foundations, M., 1904, vol. 16. New York Educational Reviev/, M., 1904, vol. 28. New York, Ethical Record, Bi-m., 1904, vol. 5. New York, Journal of Mental Pathology, M. , 1904, vol. 6. New York, Literary Digest, W., 1904, vol. 29. New York, Nature Study Review, M., 1905, vol. 1. New York, New Education, M., 1904, vol. 17. New York, Penman’s Art Journal, M., 1904. vol. 29. New York, Pitman’s Phonetic Journal, W., 1904, vol. 62. New York, Pitman’s Shorthand Weekly, W. , 1904, vol. 28. New York, Pratt Institute Monthly, M., 1904, vol. 13. New York, Primary School, M., 1904, vol. 14. New York, Psychological Bulletin, M. , 1904, vol. 1. New York, Psychological Review, M. , 1904, vol. 11. New York, School, W., 1904., vol. 16. New York, School Journal, W., 1904, vol. 69. New York, School, Work, Qu., 1904, vol. 3. New York, Sunday School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 36. New York, Teachers’ College Record, M., 1904, vol. 5. New York, Teachers’ Institute, M., 1904, vol. 27. Syracuse, Craftsman (The) M., 1904, vol. 7. Syracuse, Journal of Pedagogy, Qu., 1904, vol. 17. Syracuse, School Bulletin, M., 1904, vol. 31. Ohio. Athens, Ohio Teacher, M., 1904, vol. 25. Cincinnati, Our Companion, M., 1904, vol. 15. Cincinnati, Phonographic Magazine, M., 1904, vol. 18. Cincinnati, Public School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 44. Columbus, Ohio Chronicle (for Deaf and Dumb), W., 1904, vol. 37. Columbus, Ohio Educational Monthly, M., 1904, vol. 53. Springfield, Chautauquan (The), M., 1904, vol. 40. Oklahoma. Oklahoma City, School Herald, M., 1904, vol. 13. Oregon. Salem, Oregon Teachers’ Monthly, M., 1904, vol. 9. Pennsylvania. Lancaster, Journal of Philosophy, Psjmhology and Scientific Method, M., 1904, vol. 1. EDUCATIONAL PEKIODICALS. 1147 Penns yZvama— Continued. Lancaster, Pennsylvania School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 53. Millersville, Normal Journal, Qu., 1904, vol. 18. Mount Airy, Philadelphia, Association Review, Bi-m., 1904, vol. 6. Philadelphia, American Church Sunday School Magazine, M., 1904, vol. 34. Philadelphia, Journal of Franklin Institute, M., 1904, vol. 158. Philadelphia, Stenographer (The), M., 1904, vol. 19. Philadelphia, Teacher (The), M., 1904, vol. 8. Williamsport, National Educator, M., 1904, vcl. 45. South Carolina. Aiken, Schofield School Bulletin, M., 1904, vol. 15. Columbia, Educational (The), M., 1904, vol. 3. So-uth Dakota. Mitchell, South Dakota Educator, M., 1904, vol- 18. Tennessee. Chattanooga, Southern Educational Reviev/, M., 1904, vol. 1. Nashville, Progressive Teacher (The), M., 1904, vol. 10. Texas. Austin, Texas School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 22. Dallas, Texas School Magazine, M., 1904, vol. 7. (2) ARRANGED Common school education, elementary and I secondary. \ American Education, from Kindergarten to Col¬ lege— N. Y. American Journal of Education — Wis. American Primary Teacher— Mass. Arkansas School Journal— Ark. Berea Quarterly — Ky. Catholic School Journal— Wis. Champlain Educator— N. Y. Colorado School Journal — Colo. Country School Champion— Kans. Education— Mass. Educational (The)— S. C. Educational Exchange — Ala. Educational Foundations- N. Y. Educational Reviev/— N. Y. Educator (The)— Ala. Educator-J ournal— Ind. Elementary School Teacher — Ill. Evangelisch-Lutherisches Schulblatt— Mo= Florida School Exponent— Fla. Intelligence — Ill. Iowa Teacher— Iowa. Journal of Education— Mass. Kansas Educator— Kans. Lutherische Schulzeitung— Wis. Mentor— N. Y. Midland Schools— Iowa. Minneapolis School Journal — Minn, Missouri School Journal— Mo. Moderator-Topics- Mich. National Educator — Pa. Nature Study Review— N. Y. Virginia. Hampton, Southern Workman, M., 1904, vol. 33. Richmond, Virginia School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 13. Williamsburg, William and Mary College Quar¬ terly, Qu., 1904, vol. 13. Washington. Cheney, Normal Seminar, Qu., 1904, vol. 1. Seattle, Northwest Journal of Education, M., 1904, vol. 16. Vancouver, Washingtonian (The), Semi-m., 1904, vol. 13. West Virginia. Charleston, West Virginia School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 33. Wisconsin. Madison, Wisconsin Journal of Education, M., 1904, vol. 36. Milwaukee, American Journal of Education, M., 1904, vol. 38. Milwaukee, Catholic School Journal, M., 1904, vol. 5. Milwaukee, Lutherische Schulzeitung, M., 1904, vol. 30. Milwaukee, Mind and Body, M., 1904, vol. 11. Milwaukee, Psedagogische Monatshefte, M., 1904, vol. 6. Milwaukee, Western Teacher, M., 1904, vol. 13. BY SUBJECTS. , Common school education, elementary and secondary — Continued. Nebraska Teacher— Nebr. New Education— N. Y. Northwest Journal of Education— Wash. Ohio Educational Monthly— Ohio. Ohio Teacher— Ohio. Oregon Teachers’ Monthly — Oreg. Pycdagogische Monatshefte— W is. Pennsylvania School Journal— Pa. People (The)— Mass. Popular Educator — Mass. Primary Education — Mass. Primary School — N. Y. Progressive Teacher— Tenn. Public School Journal— Ohio. Schofield School Bulletin— S. C. School— N. Y. School and Home Education— Ill. School Bulletin- N. Y. School Education— Minn. School Herald— Okla. School Journal— N. Y. School News and Practical Educator— Ill. School Work— N. Y. Seminary, Pedagogical— Mass. South Dakota Educator— S. Dak. Southern Educational Review— Tcnn. Southern Letter— Ala. Southern School Journal— Ky. Teacher (The)— Pa. Teachers’ Federation Bulletin— Ill. Teachers’ Outlook— La. Texas School Journal— Tex. 1148 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904, Common school education, elementary and secondary— CoatmnQd. Texas School Magazine— Tex. Virginia School Journal— Va. Washingtonian (The)— Wash. Webster County Teacher— Iowa. Western Journal of Education— Cal. Western School Journal— Kans. Western Teacher — Wis. West Virginia School Journal— W. Va. Wisconsin Journal of Education— Wis. Kindergarten education. Home Education— Ill. Kindergarten Magazine— Ill. Kindergarten Review— Mass. Little Folks — Mass. Secondary education, exclusively or chiefly. Educational Review— N. Y. Journal of Pedagogy— N. Y. Review of Catholic Pedagogy— 111. School Review— Ill. School Science— III. Normal school education. Farmington Normal (The)— Me. Normal Instructor and Teachers’ World— N. Y. Normal Journal— Pa. Normal Seminar— Wash. State Normal School Bulletin— Colo. Teachers’ College Record— N. Y. Teachers’ Institute— N. Y. University 'publications. Bostonia— Mass. Catholic University Bulletin — D. C. Columbia University Quarterly — N. Y. Johns Hopkins University Circular— Md. Pedagogical Seminary (The)— Mass. University Chronicle— Cal. University Courier— D. C. University Extension Quarterly — Ill. University Science Bulletin— Kans. University Record— Ill. Yale Review- Conn. William and Mary College Quarterly— Va. Physical education. American Physical Education Review— N. Y. Mind and Body— Wis. Posse Gymnasium Journal — Mass. Religious and ethical education. American Church Sunday School Magazine— Pa. Biblical World-Ill. Ethical Record— N. Y. Our Companion — Ohio. Sunday School Journal— N. Y. Art education. School Arts Book— Mass. Child study and psychology. American Journal of Psychology— Mass. American Journal of Religious Psychology and E ducation— Mass. Child study and psychology — Continued. Journal of Mental Pathology — N. Y. J ournal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Method— Pa. Psychological Bulletin— N. Y. Psychological Review — N. Y. Industrial and technical education. Craftsman (The)— N. Y. Industrialist (The)— Kans. Journal of Franklin Institute — Pa. Manual Training Magazine— Ill. Pratt Institute Monthly— N. Y. Southern Workman — Va. Technological Quarterly— Mass. Deaf-mutes’ education. American Annals of the Deaf— D. C. Association Review — Pa. Deaf-Mutes’ Journal— N. Y. Nebraska Mute Journal— Nebr. Ohio Chronicle for Deaf and Dumb — Ohio. Silent Worker — N. J. Domestic education. American Home Science Magazine— Mass. Boston Cooking School Magazine— Mass. Language and elocution. Correct English— Ill. Journal of Orthoepi and Orthografi— N. J. Latin Leaflet— N. Y. Word Carrier— Nebr. Calligraphy and stenography. Penman’s Art Journal— N. Y. Phonographic Magazine— Ohio. Pitman’s Shorthand Weekly— N. Y. Pitman’s Phonetic Journal— N. Y. Stenographer (The)— Pa. Music. New England Conservatory Magazine— Mass. School Music Monthly— Iowa. Geography. American Geographical Bulletin— N. Y. Journal of Geography— Ill. National Geographical Magazine— D. C. Physiology and hygiene. Good Health— Mich. School Physiology Journal— Mass. School administration. American School Board Journal— N. Y. Chicago Board of Education Bulletin— 111. Literature and criticism. Chautauqua Assembly Herald— N. Y. Chautauquan (The)— Ohio. Dial (The)— Ill. Literary Digest— N. Y. Literary World— Mass. Notes and Queries — N. H. Charitable education. Charities— N. Y. Commons (The)— HI. CHAPTER XX. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY.' I. — Chief State School Officers. Name. Address. OfReial designation. I. W. Hill.... N. G. Layton Alontgomery, Ala Phoenix, Ariz. . . . John H. Hinemon . Thomas J. Kirk . Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell. . . Charles D. Hine . P. B. Norman, jr . A. T. Stuart . W. M. Holloway . W. B. Merritt . Miss May L. Scott . Alfred Bayliss . J ohn D . B enedict . F. A. Cotton . John F. Riggs . I. L. Dayhoff . J. H. Fuqua, sr . J. B. Aswell . W.W. Stetson . M. Bates Stephens . . George H. Martin . Patrick H. Kelley . J.W. Olsen . Henry L. Whitfield . W. T.‘ Carrington . W. W. Welch . J. L. McBrien . Orvis Ring . A. C. Morrison . Chas. J. Baxter . Hiram Hadley . Little Rock, Ark. Sacramento, Cal . . Denver, Colo . Hartford, Conn. . . Dover, Del . Washington, D. C. Tallahassee, Fla.. Atlanta, Ga . Boise, Idaho . Sprmgfield, Ill.... Muscogee, Ind. T. Indianapohs, Ind. Des Moines, Iowa. Topeka, Kans . . . . Frankfort, Ky. . . Baton Rouge, La. Augusta, Me . Annapolis, Md _ Boston, Mass. . . . Lansing, Mich . . . . St. Paul, Mmn _ Jackson, Miss _ Jefferson City, Mo Helena, Mont _ Lincoln, Nebr. . . . Carson, Nev . Concord, N. II. . . Trenton, N. J . Santa Fe, N. Mex. Andrew S. Draper J. Y. Joyner . W.L. Stockwell . E. A. Jones . . L. W. Baxter . Albany, N.Y Raleigh, N. C . Bismarck, N. Dak. Columbus, Ohio. . Guthrie, Okia . J. H. Ackerman . Nathan C. Schaeffer . Thom_as B. Stockwell. . . O. B. Martin . ' G. W.Nash . j Seymour A. Mynders. . .1 Arthur Lefevre . ! A. C. Nelson . j Walter E. Ranger . Joseph W. Southall . R. B. Bryan . j Thomas C. Miller . i C. P. Cary . Thomas T. Tynan . Salem, Oreg . Harrisburg, Pa . Providence, R. I . Columbia, S. C . Pierre, S Dak . Nashville, Tenn . Austin, Tex . Salt Lake City, Utah Montpelier, Vt . Richmond, Va . Olympia, Wash . Charleston, W. Va. . Madison, Vv'is . Cheyenne, Wyo . State superintendent of education. Territorial superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. State superintendent of public mstructicn. Do. Do. Secretary of State board of education. Do. Superintendent of District schools. State superintendent of public mstruction. State school commissioner. State supermtcndent of public mstruction Do. Territorial superintendent of schools. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. State supermtcndent of public education. State superintendent of public schools. State superintendent of public education. SecretaiA' of State board of education. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. State superintendent of public education. State superintendent of public schools. State superintendent of public mstruction. Do. Do. Do. Do. Territorial suiierintendent of public instruc¬ tion. State commissioner of education. State suiierintendent of public instruction. Do. State commissioner of common schools. Territorial superintendent of public mstruc¬ tion. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Commissioner of public schools. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of imblic instruction. Do. Do. State superintendent of education. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. State superintendent of free schools. State supjerintendent of public schools. State superintendent of public mstruction. Sheldon Jackson. . A. T. Atkmson _ D. P. Barrows _ Roland P. Falkner, Sitka, Alaska . Honolulu, Hawaii . j General agent of education. Superintendent of public instruction. General superintendent of public instruction. Commissiolier of education. Manila, Philippine Islands.. San Juan, Porto Rico . (I Corrected to May, 1905, in so far as changes have been reported to the Bureau. 1149 1150 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1904. II. — City Superintendents. ALABAMA. Anniston, D. H. Murphy Bessemer, Joseph M. Dill. Birmingham, J. H. Phillips. Eufaula, F. L. McCoy. Florence, Arthur F. Harman. Gadsden, W. F. Striplin. Girard, W. F. Monk. Huntsville, S. R. Butler. Mobile, S. S. Murphy. Iilontgomery, Charles L. Floyd. New Decatur, - . Opelika, George W. Brock. Phoenix, J. H. Davis. Selma, II. E. Hardaway. Talladega, John D. McNeel. Troy, John P. Selman. Tuscaloosa, James H. Foster. ARIZONA. Phoenix, J. Cole. Tucson, Francis M. Walker (supervising prin¬ cipal ; . ARKANSAS. Fayetteville, J. C. Mitchell. Fort Smith, B. W. Torreyson. Helena, S. H. Gpragins. Hot Springs, Gccrge B. Cook. Jonesboro, D. T. Rogers. Little Rock, J. R. Rightsell. Pine Bluff, Junius Jordan. Texarkana, W. C. McAlister. CALIFORNIA. Alameda, Fred T. Moore. Bakersfield, David W. Nelson. Berkeley, S. D. Waterman. Eureka, A. C. Barker. Fresno, C. L. McLane. Grass Valley, J. S. Hcnnessy. • Los Angeles, James A. Foshay. Napa City, J. L. Shearer (principal grammar school). Oakland, John W. McClymonds. Pasadena, James D. Graham. Pomona, P. W. Kauffman. Redlands; School distinct, A. Harvey Collins ( supervis¬ ing principal). I.ugonia district, D. C. Reed (supervismg principal). Riverside, A. N. Wheelock. Sacramento, O. W. Erlewine. San Bernardino, F. W. Conrad. San Diego, Willard S. Small. San Francisco, W. H. Langdon. San Jose, George S. Wells. Santa Ana, Joseph C. Templeton. Santa Barbara, H. A. Adrian. Santa Cmz, David C. Clark (principal). Santa Rosa, E. M. Cox (principal). Stockton, James A. Barr. Vallejo, John Davidson. COLORADO. Aspen, F. J. Brownscombe. Boulder, William V. Casey. Canyon City, J. H. Allen. Colorado Springs, John Deitrich. Cripple Creek, Wilson M. Shafer. Denver, Lewis C. Greenlee. Leadville, Frederick P. Austin. Pueblo: District No. 1, James S. McClung. District No. 20, John F. Keating. Trinidad, J. P. Treat. Victor, W. M. Shafer. CONNECTICUT. Ansonia, Edvdn C. Andrews. Branford, H. S. Lovejoy. Bridgeport, Charles W. Deane. Bristol, Charles L. Wooding. Danbury, Gilman C. Fisher (secretary board of school visitors). Derby, J. W. Peck. East Hartford, George Dickson. Enfield, George T. Finch (acting visitor). Glastonbury, Chas. G. Rankin. Greenwich, Newton B . Hobart (principal) , Thomas F. Howley (sec. bo. sch. visitors). Hamden, Charles F. Clarke (secretary school com¬ mittee). Hartford, Thomas S. Weaver. Huntington, W. D. Hood. Killingly, James M. Paine. Manchester: Town schools, Herbert O. Bowers (secretary board of school visitors). Ninth district (south), Fred. A. Verplanck. Meriden, Albert B. Mather. Middletown, Walter B. Ferguson. Naugatuck, Frank W. Eaton. New Britain, Giles A. Stuart. New Haven, Frank Herbert Beede. New London, Charles B. Jennings. New Milford, John Pettibone. Norwalk, Arthur C. Wheeler (secretary board of school visitors). N orwich ; Nathan Lee BishoiJ (superintendent Central district) . John B. Stanton (superintendent West Chel¬ sea district). Putnam: W. R. Barber (secretary board cf school visitors). E. II. Johnson (acting school visitor). Southington, Mrs. Anna D. Pollard. South Norwalk, A. Blanchard (secretary board of school visitors). Stafford, Alvaredo Howard (chairman). Stamford, Everett C. Willard. Stonington, James H. Weeks, jr. (secretary board of school visitors). Torrington, Edwin II. Forbes. Vernon, W. B. Foster. East district, Isaac M. Agard. EDUCATIOXAL DIRECTORY. 1151 C O NN EC TIC U T— Continued . 'Wallingford, W. O. CartTrright, J. E. "Wildman (secretary board of school visitors) . Waterbury, B. Y\h Tinker. West Haven, Edgar C. Stiles. ■Westport, George H. Tracy. ■Windham, Curtis Bean (chairman). Winsted, 'Wm. H. Millington. DELAWARE. YCilmington, George W. Twitmyer. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington, A. T. Stuart. FLORIDA. Jacksonville, Frank Elzey. Key West, J. Y. Harris (county superintendent). Lake City, T. H. Owens (county superintendent). Pensacola, N. B. Cook (coxmty superintendent) . St. Augustine, R. B. Ruthersford. Tampa, B. C. Graham (county superintendent). GEORGIA. Albany, L. E. Welsh (principal). Americus, A. G. Miller. Athens, G. G. Bond. Atlanta, ML F. Slaton. Augusta, Lawton B. Evans. Brunswick, N. H. Ballard. Columbus, Carleton B. Gibson. Dalton, B. M. Thomas. Elberton, J. C. Langston. Gainesville, J. D. Garner. Griffiii, J. Henry Walker. Lagrange, C. L. Smith. Macon, C. B. Chapman. Marietta, W. T. Dumas. Milledgeville, W. E. Reynolds. Rome, James C. Harris. Savannah, Otis Ashmore. ThomasviUe, Allen J. Barwick. Yaldosta, R. B. Daniel. lYayeross, E. A. Pound. IDAHO. Boise, J. E. Y'illiamson. Pocatello, Walter R. Siders. ILLINOIS. Alton, Robert A. Haight. Aurora: District No. 4 (west side), A. Y. Greenman, District No. 5 (east side), C. M. BardweU. Beardstown, J. Gladden Hutton. Belleville, George H. Busieck. Behddere, Arthur J. Snyder. Bloomington, J. K. Stableton. Blue Island, J. E. Lemon. Cairo, Taylor C. Clendenen. Canton, G. W. L. Meeker. Centralia, S. H. Bohn. Champaign, Joseph Carter. Charleston, De Witt Elwood. Chicago, Edwin G. Cooley. Chicago Heights, F. M. Richardson, Clinton, Frank L. Rom. OoUinsville, Samuel J. Curlee. ILLINOIS — Continued. Damdlle, L. II. Griffith. Decatur, Enoch A. Gastman. Dekalb, Newell D. Gilbert. Dixon, L. B. Neighbour. North Dixon, H. Y. Baldwin. Duquoin, Charles W. Houk. East St. Louis, John E. Miller. Edwardsville, T. M. Bimey. Elgin, M. A. WMtney. Evanston: District No. 75, Homer H. Kingsle}'. District No. 74, North Evanston, Nellie E. Trembor (principal). District No. 76, South Evanston, Fred Yd. Nichols. Freeport, S. E. Raines. Galena, P. H. Clark. Galesburg, William L. Steele. Harlem, Frank Curtis. Harveju F. L. Miller. Hoopcston, S. A. D. Harrju Jacksonville, E. E. Webster. Jersej'ville, J. Pike. Joliet, John J. Allison. Kankakee, F. N. Tracy. Kewanee, A. C. Butler. Lagrange, F. E. Sanford. La Salle, J. B. McManus. Lincoln, - . Litchfield, C. E. Richmond. Macomb, W. lY. Earnest. Majuvood, J. Porter Adams. Mattoon, G. P. Randle. Metropolis City, T. F. McCartneju Mohne, Gerard T. Smith. Monmouth, B. F. Armitage. Morris, Preston King Cross. Mount Carmel, W. S. Booth. Mount A'cmon, E. E. Yan Cleve. Murphysboro, Edward J. Klemme. Olney, G. D, AYham. Ottawa, AY. A. Furr. Pana, AA'm. Miner. Paris, H. AAL Alonical. Pekin, James J. Crosby. Peoria, Newton Charles Dougherty. Peru, Ira AI. Ong. Pontiac, Isaac Slitchell. Piinceton, il. G. Clark. Quincy, D. B. Rawlins. Rockford, P. R. AA'alker. Rock Island, Herbert B. Hayden. Springfield, J. H. Collhis. Spring A’alley, A'. R. AIcKnight. Sterling: District No. 3 (the Sterhng schools), H. L. Chaphn. District No. 10 (the AA'allace schools). Miss A. Laurie Hill. Streator, John Andrew Long. Taylorwhle : East side, Henry Fowkes. AYest side, H. N. Foltz. Urbana, J. AAL Haj’s. AYaukegan, M. A. Besley. 1152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904. INDIANA. Alexandria, J. G. Collicott. Anderson, John W. Carr. Bedford, W. E. Alexander. Bloomington, James K. Beck. Blufiton, W. A. Wh-t. Brazil, L. B. O’Dell. Columbus, T. F. Fitzgibbon. ConnersviTle, W. S. Rowe. Crawfordsville, William A. Millis. Decatur, II. A. Hartman. Elkhart, D. W. Thomas. Evansville, Frank W. Cooley. Fort Wayne, Justin N. Study. Frankfort, Edwin S. Monroe. Franklin, H. B. Wilson. Goshen, Victor W. B. Hedgepeth. Greenfield, W. C. Goble. Greensburg, Elmer C. Jerman. Hammond, W. H. Hershman. Hartford City, C. H. Drybread. Huntington, W. P. Hart. Indianapolis, Calvin N. Kendall. Jeffersonville, C. M. Marble. Kokomo, Robert A. Ogg. Lafayette, R. F. flight. L ap or te , J ohn A . Wood. Lawrenceburg, Jesse W. Riddle. Lebanon, Charles A. Peterson. Logansport, Albert H. Douglass. Madison, C. M. McDaniel. Marion, Benjamin F. Moore. Martinsville, J. E. Robinson. Michigan City, Paul A. Cowgill. Mishawaka, J. F. Nuner. Moimt Vernon, Edward G. Bauman Muncie, George L. Roberts. New Albany, C. A. Prosser. Noble sville, John A. Carnagey. Peru, A. A. Campbell. Portland, Hale Bradt. Princeton, Harold Barnes. Richmond, Thomas A. Mott. Rushville, J. H. Scholl. Seymour, H. C. Montgomery. Shelby ville, James H. Tomlin. South Bend, Calvin Moon. Terre Haute, William H. Whey. Tipton, I. L. Conner. Valparaiso, Arthur A. Hughart. Vincennes, Albert E. Plumke. Wabash, Adelaide S. Baylor. W'arsaw, Noble Harter. Washington, Whliam F. Axtell. Whiting, John C. Hall. INDIAN TERRITORYo Ardmore, W. H. Buck. Muskogee, Miss S. B. Trent. IOWA. Atlantic, Carlos M. Cole. Boone, J. C. King. Burlington, Francis M. Fultz. Cedar Falls, D. M. Kelly. Cedar Rapids, J. J. MeConneU, Centerville, F. E. King. IOWA— Continued. Chariton, J. B. Morris. Charles City, C. A. Kent. Cherokee, A. V. Storm. Clinton, O. P. Bostwick. Council Bluffs, W. N. Clifford. Creston, O. E. French. Davenport, J. B. Young. Des Moines: East Side, R. J. Hartung. West Side, Samuel H. Sheakley. Capital Park, W. A. Brandenburg. Dubuque, F. T. Oldt. Fairfield, S. A. Power. Fort Dodge, George H. Mullin. Fort Madison, C. W. Cruikshank. Grinnell, D. A. Thornburg. Iowa City, S. K. Stevenson. Keokuk, William Aldrich. Lemars, Thomas B. Hutton. Marion, G. E. Finch. Marshalltown, William I. Crane. Mason City, E. L. Coffecn. Missouri Valley, J. H. Beveridge. Mount Pleasant, Frank Whittier Else. Muscatine, W. F. Chevalier. Newton, E. J. H. Beard. Oelwein, L. B. Moffett. Oskaloosa, S. J. Finley. Ottumwa, A. W. Stuart. Perry, W. B. Thornburgh. Redoak, George S. Dick. Sioux City, W. M. Stevens. Washington, R. B. Crone. * Waterloo: East Side, F. H. Bloodgood, West Side, A. T. Hukill. Webster City, L. H. Ford. KANSAS. Argentine, H. P. Butcher. Arkansas City, W. M. Fisher. Atchison, Nathan T. Veatch. Chanute, W. E. Royster. Coffeyville, William M. Sinclair. Emporia, L. A. Lowther. Fort Scott, David M. Bowen. Galena, J. A. Higdon. Hutchinson, R. R. Price. Independence, C. S. Risdon. lola. Miss Clifford A. Mitchell. Junction City, William S. Ileusner. Kansas City, M. E. Pearson. Lawrence, Frank P. Smith. Leavenworth, George W. Kendrick. Newton, David F. Shirk. Osawatomie, R. Rankin. Ottawa, A. L. Bell. Parsons, J. A. Higdon. Pittsburg, A. II. Bushey. Salina, George R. Crissman. Topeka, L. D. Whittemore. Wellington, W. M. Massey. Wichita, R. F. Knight. Winfield, J. W. Spindler. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 1153 KENTUCKY Ashland, John Grant Crabbe. Bellevue, John Maddox. Bowling Green, Edward Taylor. Covington, Charles M. Merry. Danville, W. C. Grinstead (principal of high school). Dayton, G. W. Gurney. Frankfort, H. C. McKee. Georgetown, R. L. Garrison. Henderson, Livingstone McCartney. Ilopkmsville, J. B. Taylor. Lexington, M. A. Cassidy. Louisville, Edgar H. Mark. Maysville, E. Regenstein (principal of high school). Middlesboro, M. 0. Winfrey. Newport, John Burke. Ov/ensboro, McHenry Rhoads. Paducah, C. M. Lieb. Paris, J. A. Sharon. Richmond, H. H. Brock. Winchester, R. M. ShhI. LOUISIANA. Alexandria, L. L. Hooe. Baton Rouge, R. C. Gordon. Crowley, E. B. Stover. Donaldsonville, Richard McCulloch. Lake Charles, L. L. Squires. Monroe, George W. Reid. New Iberia, J. C. Ellis. New Orleans, Warren Easton. Shreveport, C. E. Byrd. MAINE. Auburn, Payson Smith. Augusta: Mrs. A. H. D. Hanks (superintendent sub¬ urban and high schools). Weston Lewis (principal Williams district). Bangor, Charles E. Tilton. Bath, Frederick W. Freeman. Belfast, John R. Dunton. Biddeford, Royal E. Gould. Brewer, Mrs. Mertie M. Curtis. Brunswick, Frank E. Woodruff. Calais, P. D. Brown. Eastport, Parker T. Pearson (district superin¬ tendent). Ellsworth, R. E. Mason. Gardiner, Charles O. Turner Houlton, H. L. Putnam. Lewiston, I. C. Phillips. Oldtown, D. L. Wormwood. Portland, Orlando M. Lord. Rockland, H. H. Randall. Saco, John S. Locke. Sanford, M. E. Bennett. Skowhegan, D. W. Colby. South Portland, L. M. Sandborn. Waterville, Elwood T. Wyman. Westbrook, Fred. Benson. ED 1904 M - 73 MARYLAND. Annapolis, II. R. Wallis (principal). Baltimore, J. H. Van Sickle. Cambridge, J. T. White. Cumberland, John T. White (county school exam¬ iner). Frederick, Ephraim L. Boblitz (county school ex¬ aminer) . Frostburg, Oliu R. Rice (principal). Hagerstown, John P. Fockler (county school ex¬ aminer) . Sahsbury, H. C. Bounds. MASSACHUSETTS. Abington, W. II. Sanderson. Adams, Francis A. Bagnall. Amesbury, C. S. Lyman. Amherst, Audubon L. Hardy. Andover, Corwin F. Palmer. Arlington, Frank S. Sutcliffe. Athol, W. Scott Ward. Attleboro, William P. Kelly. Barnstable, F. W. Kingman. Belmont, George P. Armstrong. Beverly, Adclbert Leon Safford. Blackstone, J. B. Davis. Boston, George H. Conley. Braintree, J. A. MacDougall. Bridgewater, W. H. Sanderson. Brockton, B. B. Russell. Brookline, George I. Aldrich. Cambridge, Francis Cogswell. .Canton, James S. Perkins. Chelsea, B. C. Gregory. Chicopee, John C. Gray. Clinton, Charles L. Hunt. Concord, William L. Eaton. Danvers, Arthur J. Collins. Dartmouth, Charles E. Soule (secretary of school committee); Dedham, Roderick Whittlesey Hine. Easthamptcn, W. D. ililler. Easton, Osman C. Evans. Everett, U. G. Wheeler. Fall River, William C. Bates. Fitchburg, Joseph G. Edgerly. Framingham, Samuel F. Blodgett. Franklin, Irving H. Gam\vell. Gardner, Judson I. Wood. Gioucester, Freeman Putney. Grafton, Robert O. Sm^all. Great Barrington, H. Dressel, jr. Greenfield, G. H. Danforth. Haverhill, Stanley H. Holmes. Hingham, Nelson G. Howard. Holyoke, Louis P. Nash. Hudson, James G. Morrell. Hyde Park, Frank 0. Draper. Ipswich, Andrew S. Thomson. Lawrence, John E. Burke. Leominster, Thomas E. Thompson. Lexington, Henry W. Porter. Lowell, Arthur K. Whitcomb. 1154 EDUCATIOI^ EEPOST, 1904. MASSACHUSETTS— Continued. Lynn, Frank J. Peaslee. Malden, Henry D. Hervcy. Manchester, George P. Armstrong. Mansfield, Edward P. Fitts. Marblehead, John B. Gifford. Marlboro, J. Asbury Pitman. Medford, Charles 11. Morss. Melrose, Fred H. Nickerson. Merrimac, George E. Chickering. Methuen, Charles A. Breek. Middleboro, Charles II. Bates. Milford, Charles W. Haley. Millbury, Watson C. Lea (post-office, Oxford). Milton, Asher J. Jacoby (post-office, East Milton). Montague, Frank P. Davison (post-office. Tur¬ ners Falls). Natick, Albert L. Barbour. Needham, Henry M. Walradt. New Bedford, William E. Hatch. Newburyport, William P. Lunt. Newton, Frank E. Spaulding. North Adams, Isaac Freeman Hall. Northampton, Schuyler F. Herron. North Andover, George E. Chickering. North Attleboro, James W. Brehant. Northbridge, S. A. Melcher. North Brookfield, Wm. A. Hoyt. Norwood, Bobert J. Fuller. Orange, Edward Dixon. Palmer, Harold M. Dean. Peabody, Albert Robinson. Pittsfield, Eugene Bouton. Plymouth, Francis J. Heavens. Provincetown, Alvan R. Lewis. Quincy, Frank Edson Parlin. Randolph, John E. Bradley. Reading, Melville A. Stone. Revere, Wm. H. V/inslow. Rockland, James H. Tangney. Rbckport, H. L. Woodv.^ard. Salem, John Wright Perkins. Saugus, Charles E. Stevens. Somerville, Gordon A. Southworth. Southbridge, Fred E. Corbin. South Hadley, Frederick E. Whittemore, Spencer, Charles F. Adams. Springfield, Thomas M. Baliiet. Stoneham, Charles E. Stevens. Stoughton, Edward P. Fitts. Swampscott, Harold C. Childs. Taunton, C. F. Boyden. Upton, R. 0. Small. Wakefield, Alfred C. Thompson. Waltham, William D. Parkinson. Ware, George W. Cox. Warren, O. H. Adams. WatertoAvn, Frank R. Page. Webster, E. W. Robinson. Wellesley, Marshall Livingston Perrin, V/estboro, H. C. Waldron. Vi estfield, Charles L. Simmons. West Springfield, C. E. Brockway. Weymouth, Elmer E. Sherman. Whitman, Henry M. Walradt. Williamstown, Walter G. Mitchell. Winchendon, David B. Locke. MASSACHUSETTS— Continued. Winchester, Robert C. Metcalf. Winthrop, Frank A. Douglas. Woburn, George I. Clapp. Worcester, Homer P. Lewis. MICHIGAN. Adrian, Charles W. Mickens. Albion, W. J. McKone. Alpena, George A. Hunt. Ann Arbor, H. M. Slauson. Battle Creek, William G. Coburn. Bay City, John A. Stewart. Benton Harbor, Eugene A. Wilson. Bessemer, Miss A. F. Olcott. Big Rapids, James R. Miller. Cadillac, James Hamilton Kaye. Calumet, H. E. Kratz. Charlotte, M. R. Parmelee. Cheboygan, William C. Thompson. Coldwater, M. Victor Staley. Delray, Frank Cody. Detroit, Wales C. Martindale. Dowagiac, Warren E. Conkling. Escanaba, William M. JollifTe. Flint, A. N. Cody. Gladstone, J. H. McDonald. Grand Haven, Edward P. Cum.mings. Grand Rapids, W. H. Elson. Hancock, Eugene La Rowe. Hillsdale, S. J. Gier. Holland, J. E. Clark. Ionia, C. L. Bemis. Iron Mountain, L. E. Amidon. Ironwood, L. L. Wright. Ishpeming, E. E. Scribner. Jackson, L. S. Norton. Kalamazoo, S. O. Hartwell. Lansing, W. D. Sterling. Ludington, Guy D. Smith. Manistee, Samuel W. Baker. Manistique, W. E. Hanson. Marine City, H. A. Markham. Marquette, E. C. Thompson. Marshall, Ralph S. Garwood. Menominee, B. S. Hopkins. Monroe, R. D. Briggs. Mount Clemens, J. B. Estabrook. Muskegon, Joseph M. Frost. Negaunee, Orr Schurtz. Niles, J. D. Schiller. Norway, E. P. Frost. Owosso, J. W. Simmons. Petoskey, W. M. Andrus. Pontiac, James H. Harris. Port Huron, W. F. Lewis. Saginaw: East Side, E. C. Warriner. West Side, Phil. Huber. St. Joseph, Ernest P. Clarke. Sault Ste. Marie, E. E. Ferguson. South Haven, A. D. Prentice. Traverse City, I. B. Gilbert. West Bay City, E. D. Palmer. Wyandotte, F. H. Sooy. Ypsilanti, Wm. B. Arbaugh. EDUCATIONAL DIEECTOEY. 1155 MINNESOTA. Albert Lea, E. M. Phillips. Austin, Andrew Nelson. Brainerd, T. B. Hartley. Crookston, E. E. Mclutire. Duluth, Robert E. Denfeld. Faribault, George A. Franklin. Fergus Falls, J. A. Vandyke. Hastings, C. W. Meyer. Little Falls, H. E. White. Mankato, James M. McConnell. Minneapolis, Charles M. Jordan. Moorhead, C. W. Mickens. New Ulm, E. T. Critchett. Owatonna, P. J. Kuntz. Red Wing, W. F. Kunze. Rochester, Lester S. Overholt. St. Cloud, J. A. Cranston. St. Paul, A. J. Smith. St. Peter, V. R. Wasson. Stillwater, Darius Steward. Winona, Charles R. Frazier. MISSISSIPPI. Biloxi, J. H. Owings. Columbus, Joe Cook. Greenville, E. E. Bass. Hattiesburg, F. B. JVoodley. Jackson, Edw^ard L. Bailejn McCoinb, Henry P. Hughes. Meridian, J. C. Fant. Natchez, J. Reese Lm (principal) ; J. W. Hender- , son (county superintendent); G. W. Brumfield (clerk of school board). Vicksburg, Charles Pendleton Kemper. Water Valley, W. W. Phelan. Yazoo City, Robert Torrey. MISSOURI. Aurora, N. N. Hoover. Boonville, M. A. O’Rear. Brookfield, J. U. White. Cape Girardeau, Fred. L. MacChesney. Carterville, O. N. Waltz. Carthage, J. M. V/hite. Chillicothe, G. A. Smith. Clinton, Arthur Lee. Columbia, R. H. Emberson. Desoto, Jasper N. Tankersley. Fulton, J. C. Humphreys. Hannibal, R. B. D. Simonson. Independence, William L. C. Palmer. Jefferson City, J. W. Richardson. Joplin, W. P. Roberts. Kansas City, James M. Greenwood. Kirksville, E. E. Funk. Lexington, C. A. Phillips. Louisiana, Miss Elizabeth Whitaker. Macon, William A. Annin. Marshall, J. M. Taylor. Maryville, C. A. Hawkins. Mexico, D. A. McMillan. Moberly, J. A. Whiteford. NevaHa, E. S. Clarke. Poplar Bluff, J. N. Street. Richhill, L. F. Robinson. St. Charles, Joseph Herring. MISSOURI— Continued. St. Joseph, J. A. Whiteford. St. Louis, F. Louis Soldan. Sedalia, G. V. Buchanan. Springfield, Jonathan Fairbanks. Trenton, T. B. Ford. Warrensburg, W. E. Morrow. Webb City, A. G. Young. MONTANA. Anaconda, F. A. Swanger. Butte, R. G. Young. Great Falls, S. D. Largent. Helena, Randall J. Condon. Missoula, J. G. McKay. NEBRASKA. Beatrice, C. A. Fulmer. Fremont, J. L. Laird. Grand Island, Robert J. Barr. Hastings, J. D. French. Keaniey, A, O. Thom.as. Lmcoln, W. L. Stephens. Nebraska City, N. Sinclair. Norfolk, D. C. O’Connor. Omaha, W. M. Davidson. Plattsmouth, E. L. Rouse. South Omaha, J. Arnott McLean. A"ork, W. W. Stoner. NEVADA. Reno, W. II. A. Pike. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Berlin, G. 11. Whitcher. Claremont, Charles Tracy. Concord (Union district), Louis J. Rundlett; (Penacook district No. 20), H. C. Sanborn. Dover, A. II. Keyes. Exeter, John A. Brown (chairman school board). Franklin, II. C. Sanborn. Keene (Union district), Thaddeus William Harris. Laconia, J. II. Blaisdell. Littleton, M. C. Smart. Manchester, Charles W. Bickford. Nashua, James H. Fassett. Portsmouth, H. C. Morrison. Rochester, Ernest L. Silver. Somersworth, C. C. Ferguson. NEVC JERSEW Asbury Park, Fred S. Shepherd. Atlantic City, Charles B. Boyer. Bayonne, James H. Christie. Bloomfield, William E. Chancellor. Boonton, M. P. Reagle (principal). Bordentown, VvTlliam Macfarland. Bridgeton, E. J. Hitchner. Burlington Wilbur Watts (principal). Camden, James E. Bryan. Dover, J. Howard Hulsart (supervising principal). East Orange, Vernon L. Davey. Elizabeth, William J. Shearer. Englewood, Elmer C. Sherman. Gloucester, Horatio Draper. Hackensack, Isaac A. Demarest. 1156 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1904. NEW JERSEY— Continued. Harrison, James E. Prendergast. Hoboken, A. J. Demarest. Irvington, F. H. Morrell. Jersey City, Henry Snyder. Kearney, Don C. Bliss (post-office, Arlington). Lambertville, Alex. P. Kerr (supervising princi¬ pal). Long Branch, Christopher Gregory. Madison, A. F. Stauffer. Millville, Silas C. Smith. Montclair, Randall Spaulding. Morristown, W. L. R. Haven. Newark, Addison B. Poland. New Brunswick, William Clinton Armstrong. Newton, Charles J. Majory (supervising princi¬ pal). North Plainfield, H. J. Wightman. Orange, William M. Swingle. Passaic, F. E. Spaulding. Paterson, Wm. E. Chancellar. Perth Amboy, S. E. Shull. Phillipsburg, H. Budd Howell. Plainfield, Henry M. Maxson. Princeton, J. M. Arnold. Rahway, E. C. Broome. Redbank, S. V. Arrowsmith. Rutherford, Stephen B. Gilhuly. Salem, Morris H. Stratton. Somerville, H. C. Krebs (supervising principal). South Amboy, R. M. Fitch (supervising princi¬ pal). South Orange, H. W. Foster. Summit, John K. Lathrop. Town of Union, Otto Ortel (post-office, Wee- hawken). Trenton, Ebenezer Mackey. Union, Ambrose B. Khne. • Vineland, J. J. Unger. West Hoboken, Robert Waters. West New Y^ork, Wm. M. Van Sickle. West Orange, A. H. Sherman. Woodbury, J. E. Frey (supervising principal). NEW MEXICO. Albuquerque, A. B. Stroup. Raton, Wm. M. Heiney. Santa Fe, J. A. AVood. NEAV YORK. Albany, Charles W. Cole. Albion, AVillis G. Carmer. Amsterdam, Harrison T. Morrow. Auburn, Clinton S. Marsh. Ballston Spa, A. A. Lavery (supervising princi¬ pal). Batavia, John Kennedy. Bath, AV. T. Palmer. Binghamton, G. R. Miller. Buffalo, Henry P. Emerson. Canandaigua, J. Carlton Norris. Catskill, Philo H. Edick. Cohoes, Edward Hayward. Corning: District No. 9, Leigh R. Hunt. District No. 13, A. M. Blodgett (principal). Cortland, Ferdinand E. Smith. NEW Y^ORK— Continued. Dunkirk, James C. Van Etten. Elmira, C. F. Walker. Fredonia, Mary F. Lord (principal). Fulton, J. R. Fairgrieve. Geneva, AA’illiam H. Truesdale. Glens Falls, E. AV. Griffith. Gloversville, James A. Estee. Green Island, James Ileatly. Haverstraw, L. O. Markham. Herkimer, - . Hoosick Falls, H. H. Snell. Hornellsville, Elmer S. Redman. Hudson, - . Ilion, Alfred AV. Abrams. Ithaca, F. D. Boynton. Jamestown, Rovillus R. Rogers. Johnstown, Frank AV. Jennings. Kingston, S. R. Shear. Lancaster, AV. J. Barr (principal). Lansingburg, George F. Sawyer. Little Falls, A. J. Merrell. Lockport, Emmet Belknap. Lyons, AV. H. Kinney. Malone, Miss Sarah L. Perry. Mamaroneck, George McAndrew (supervisiog principal). Matteawan, Earlman Fenner (principal). Mechanics ville, L. B. Blakeman. Medina, T. H. Armstrong. Middletown, James F. Tuthill. Mount A^ernon, Charles E. Nichols. Newark, Charles A. Hamilton (principal). Newburg, James M. Crane. New Rochelle, Isaac E. Y^oung. New Y^ork, AAYlliam 11. Maxwell. Niagara Falls, R. A. Taylor. North Tarrytown, L. AV. Craig (principal). North Tonawanda, R. A. Searing. Norwich, Stanford J. Gibson. Nyack, Ira H. Lawton. Ogdensburg, H. II. Southwick. Glean, Delmer E. Bacheller. Oneida, Avery AVamer Skinner. Oneonta, AVilliam C. Franklin. Ossining, AAV H. Ryan. Oswego, George E. Bullis. Owego, Elmer G. Bridgham. Peekskill: District No. 7 (Drumhill), AAYlbur L. Ellis. District No. 8 (Oakside), A. D. Dunbar. Penn Yan, Jay Crissey. Plattsburg, S. J. Preston. Port Chester, E. G. Lantman. Port Jervis, John M. Dolph. Poughkeepsie, AA^m. Alexander Smith, Rensselaer, A. R. Coulson. Rochester, Clarence F. Carroll, Rome, Lewis N. Crane. Salamanca, Thomas Stone Bell. Sandy Hill, Frances A. Tefft (principal). Saratoga Spiings, Thomas R. Kneil. Schenectady, Samuel B. Howe. Seneca Falls, C. AVillard Rice. Syracuse, A. B. Blodgett. Tarrytown, J. V. Sturges (principal). Tonawanda, Frank K. Sutley. EDUCATIONAL DIKECTORY. NEW YORK— Continued Troy, John II. Willets. Utica, Martin G. Benedict. Waterloo, H. B. Smith (supervising principal) Watertown, Frank S. Tisdale. Watervliet, RusseU H. Bellows. Waverly, E. B. Robbins. Whitehall, Wilber W. Howe. White Plains, W. A. McConnell. Yonkers, Charles E. Gorton. NORTH CAROLINA. Asheville, R. J. Tighe. Charlotte, R. B. Hunter. Concord, Walter Thompson. Durham, J. A. Matheson. Elizabeth City, W. M. Hinton. Fayetteville, B. T. McBryde. Gastonia, Joe S. Wray. Goldsboro, Eugene C. Brooks. Greensboro, Edgar D. Broadhurst. Henderson, J. T. Alderman. High Point, George H. Crowell. Kingston, L. C. Brogden. Newbem, H. B. Craven. Raleigh, Edward P. Moses. Salisbury, I. C. Grifhn. Wasliington, Harry Howell. Whmmgton, - ■. Winston, W. S. Snipes. NORTH DAKOTA. Fargo, Alfred E. Logie. Grand Forks, J. Nelson Kelley. OHIO. Akron, Henry V. Hotchkiss. Alliance, John E. Morris. « Ashland, E. P. Dean. Ashtabula, R. P. Clark. Barberton, W. M. Glasgow. Bellaire, J. R. Anderson. Belief ontaine, John W- Mackinnon. Bellevue, E. F. Warner. Bowling Green, N. D. O. Wilson. Bridgeport, S. A. Gillett. Bucyrus, J. J. Bliss. Cambridge, C. L. Cronebaugh. Canal Dover, Franklin P. Geiger. Canton, J. M. Sarver. Chillicothe, M. E. Hard. Cincinnati, F. B. Dyer. Circleville, C. L. Boyer. Cleveland, Edwin F. Moulton (superintendent) . Columbus, Jacob A. Shawan. Conneaut, C. T. Northrop. Coshocton, H. S. Piatt. Dayton, Edwin N. Brown. Defiance, R. W. Mitchell. Delaware, Horace A. Stokes. Delphos, T. W. Shimp. Dennison, H. Z. Hobson. East Liverpool, Robert E. Rayman. Elyria, W. R. Comings. Findlay, J. W. Zellar. OHIO— Continued. Fostoria, W. S. Robinson. Fremont, W. W. Ross. Gabon, I. C. Gumther. Gabipolis, S. II. Layton. Glenvble, H. H. Cully. Greenfield, Frank S. Alley. Greenville, John W. Swartz. Hambton, S. L. Rose. Hblsboro, F. H. Warren. Ironton, S. P. Humphrey. Jackson, J. E. Kinmson. Kent, A. B. Stutzman. Kenton, Charles J. Britton. Lancaster, H. A. Cassidy. Lima, Charles C. Miller. Loram, F. D. Ward. Mansfield, C. L. Van Cleve. Marietta, Elmer W. Jordan. Marion, H. L. Frank. Martins Ferry, J. H. Snyder. Massblon, C. A. Cronebaugh. Miamisburg, V/. McK. Vance. Middletown, Arthur Powell. Mount Vernon, John K, Baxter. Nelsonville, Aaron Grady. Newark, J. D. Simkins. Newburg, B. F. Stevenson. New Philadelphia, G. C. Maurer. Nbes, Frank J. Roller. Norwalk, A. D. Beechy. Norwood, W. S. Cadman. Oberbn, Ward H. Nye. Painesville, F. H. Kendall. Piqua, C. W. Beimett. Pomeroy, C. T. Coates. Portsmouth, J. I. Hudson. Ravenna, F. A. Merrill. St. Marys, E. A. Hotchkiss. Salem, Jesse L. Johnson. Sandusky, H. B. Williams. Shelby, W. S. Lynch. Sidney, H. R. McVay. Springfield, John S. Weaver. Steubenville, Edward M. Van Cleve. Tifhn, Charles A. Krout. Toledo, William Wallace Chalmers. Troy, Ralph M. Brown. Uhrichsville, L. E. Everett. Urbana, I. N. Keyser. Vanwert, J. P. Sharkey. Wapakoneta, H. H. Helter. VCarren, C. E. Carey. Washington C. H., E. Lincoln Mendenhall. Wellston, Ezekiel Wabace Patterson. Wellsvble, James L. MacDonald. Wooster, Charles Haupert. Xenia, Edwin B. Cox. Youngstown, N. H. Chaney. Zanesville, W. D. Lash. OKLAHOMA. Guthrie, Frank E. Buck. Oklahoma, Ed. S. Vaught. Perry, A. K. Gassom. EDUCATION KEPORT. 1904. 1158 OREGON. Astoria, A. L. Clark. Baker City, J. A. Churchill. Eugene, Mott II. Arnold. Pendleton, E. B. Conklin. Portland, Frank Rigler. Salem, L. R. Traver. PENNSYLVANIA. Allegheny, John Morrow. Allentown, Francis D. Raub. Altoona, D. S. Keith. Archbald, W. A. Kelly. Ashland, William C. Estler. Ashley, E. D. Bovard. Bangor, John W. Gruver (pidncipal). Beaverfalls, Edward Magume. Bellefonte, David O. Etters. Berwick, J. W. Snyder (supervising principal). Bethlehem, Fred W. Robbins. Blakely, II. B. Anthony (supervising principal; post-office, Peckville). Bloomsburg, L. P. Sterner (supervising princi¬ pal). Braddock, Grant Norris. Bradford, E. E. Miller. Bristol, Louise D. Baggs. Butler, John A. Gibson. Carbondale, Elmer E. Garr. Carlisle, John C. Wagner. Carnegie, W. S. Bryan (principal). Catasauqua, II. J. Reinhard (principal). Chamber sburg, Samuel Gelwix. Charleroi, J. A. Snodgrass (principal). Chester, A. Duncan Yocum. Clearfield, II. E. Trout. Coatesville, W. T. Gordon. Columbia, Daniel Fleisher. Connell sville, J. P. Wiley (principal). Conshohocken, E. B. Ziegler. Corry, W. W. Fell. Danville, U. L. Gordy. Dickson City, John E. Williams. Dubois, J. II. Alleman. Dunmore, C. F. Hoban. Duquesne, 11. E. Winner (principal). Easton, William W. Cottingham. Edwardsdale, J. 0. Hermann. Erie, II. C. Missimer. Etna, J. Q. A. Irvine (principal). Forest City, C. T. Thorpe (principal). Franklin, N. P. Kinsley. Freeland, E. F. Hanlon. Greensburg, Thomas S. March. Greenville, James J. Pahner. Hanover, Thomas F. Chrostwaite. Harrisburg, - . Hazleton, David A. Harman. Homestead, James M. Norris. Huntingdon, E. R. Barclay. Indiana, James F. Chapman (principal). Jeannette, Theo. B. Shank. Johnsonburg, G. B. Gerberich (supervising prin¬ cipal). Johnstown, J. M. Berkey. Kane, T. E. Lytle. Kingston, George Evans (principal). PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. Kittanning, D. R. Sumstine. Lancaster, R. K. Buehrle. Lansford, A. A. Killian. Latrobe, A. A. Streng (principal). Lebanon, R. T. Adams. Lehighton, F. A. Ebert. Lewistown, W. F. Kennedy (supervising prin¬ cipal) . Lockhaven, John A. Robb. Luzerne, Theron G. Osborne. McKeesport, J. Burdette Richey. McKees Rocks, F. H. Powers (principal). Mahanoy City, William N. Ehrhart. Mauchchunk, E. W. Romberger (supervising principal). Meadville, Ulysses G. Smith. Middletown, H. J. Wickey. Millvale, J. C. R. Johnston (principal). Milton, A. Reist Rutt. Minersville, H. H. Spayd (supervising principal). Monongahela City, C. H. Wolford (principal). Mount Carmel, Samuel Halsey Dean. Mount Pleasant, S. Grant Miller (principal). Nanticoke, John William Griffith. New Brighton, J. W. F. Wilkinson. Newcastle, J. W. Canon. New Kensington, A. D. Horton (prmcipal). Norristown, Joseph K. Gotwals. Oil City, C. A. Babcock. Olyphant, M. W. Cummings. Philadeli)hia, Edward Brooks. Phoenixville, Harry F. Leister. Pittsburg, Samuel Andrews. Pittston, Robert Shiel (supervising principal). Plymouth, E. H. Scott. Pottstown, V/m. W. Rupert. Pottsville, B. F. Patterson. Punxsutawney, C. H. DonneU. Rankin, M. E. Thompson. Reading, Charles S. Foos. Renovo, Oden C. Gortner (supervising principal). Rochester, O. C.. Lester. St. Clair, Thomas G. Jones. St. Marys, J. J. Lynch (supervising principal). Sayre, I. F. Stctler (supervising principal). Scottdale, P. N. Osborne (principal). Scranton, Geo. W. Phillips. Sewickley, F. E. Fickinger. Shamokin, Jos. Howerth. Sharon, S. II. Hadley. Sharpsburg, C. C. Kelso (supervising principal). Shenandoah, J. W. Cooper. South Bethlehem, Owen R. Wilt. Steelton, L. E. McGinnes. Sunbury, Ira Shipman. Tamaqua, Robert F. Ditchburn. Tarentum, A. D. Endsley (principal). Taylor, M. J. Lloyd. Titusville, Henry Pease. Towanda, II. G. Padget (supervising principal). Tyrone, I. C. M. Ellenberger. Uniontown, H. F. Brooks. . Warren, W. L. McGowan. Washington, WTlliam FIrichbaum (prmcipal). Waynesboro, J. Hassler Reber. Westchester, Addison L. Jones. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY. 1159 PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. West Pittston, L. P. Bierly (principal). Wilkesbarre, James M..Coi-igblin. Wilkinsburg, James L. Allison. Williamsport, Charles Lose. Wilmerding, W. G. Gans (principal). York, Atreus Wanner. RHODE ISI.AND. Bristol, John Post Reynolds. Burrillville, Leroy G. Staples (post-oiFice, Pas- coag). Central Falls, Wendell A. Mowry. Coventry, JohnMatteson (post-office, Anthony). Cranston, A'alentine Almy (post-office. Auburn). Cumberland, C. C. Richardson. East Providence, Allen P. Keith. Johnston, AA'illiam H. Starr (post-office, Thorn¬ ton). Lincoln, Frederick E. Bragdon. NevT^ort, Herbert AVarren Lull. North Kingstovrn, F. B. Cole (post-office, AYick- ford). Pawtucket, Maurice J. O’Brien. Providence, AV alter H. Small. South Kmgstown, B. E. Helme (post-office, Kingston) . AVarren, G. L. Church. War-wick, C. Edward Glover. Westerly, AV. H. Holmes, jr. AA'oonsocket, Frank E. McFee. SOUTH CAROLINA. Abbeville, Leonai’d AY. Dick. Anderson, Thomas C. AValton. Beaufort, Lueeo Gunter. Charleston, Henry P. Archer. Chester, AV. H. Hand. Columbia, E. S. Dreher. ' Florence, J. Iv. Mann. Gaffney, R. C. Sarratt. Georgetovm, C. E. Johnson. Greenville, E. L. Hughes. Greenwood, Edward C. Coker. Laurens, B. L. Jones. Newberry, AV. A. Stuckey. Orangeburg, A. J. Thackston. Rock Hill, J. C. Cork. Spartanburg, FranL Evans. Sumter, S. H. Edmunds. Union, Davis Jeffries. SOUTH DAKOTA. Aberdeen, AV. L. Cochrane. Lead, E. C. Grubbs. Mitchell, F. H. Hoff. Sioux Falls, Frank C. McClelland. Yankton, R. C. Shellenbarger. TENNESSEE. Bristol, Richard Henry AVatkins. Chattanooga, Sidney G. Gilbreath. Clarksville, Alfred Livingston. Columbia, AV. E. Bostick (pidncipal) and J. H. Kelly (prmcipal). TENNESSEE— Continued. Jackson, G. R. AIcGee. Johnson City, J. E. Crouch. Knoxville, Albert Ruth. Memphis, George AAA Gordon. Murfreesboro, J. AA^. AA". Daniels. Nashville, H. C. AYeber. TEXAS. Austin, A. N. AlcCallum. Beaumont, H. F. Triplett. Bonham, I. AA". Evans. Brenham, Edward AAA Tarrant. Brownsville, Thomas P. Barbour (principal). Brown-wood, George H. Carpenter. Clebun-ie, AA M. Fulton, Corpus Christi, Charles AA’. Crossley. Corsicana, J. AA'’. Cautvcell. Dallas, J. L. Long. Denison, F. B. Hughes. Denton, J. S. Carlisle. El Paso, G. P. Putnam. Ennis, AA^. E. Edelen. Fort AVorth, Alex. Hogg. Gainesville, E. F. Comegys. Galveston, John AA^. Hopkins. Gonzales, Thomas H. Lewis. Greenville, George A. Newton. Hillsboro, AV. D. Butler. Houston, P. AV. Horn. Laredo, L. J. Christen. McKinney, J. H. Flill. Marshall, AV. H. Attebery. Navasota, AV. B. Bizzell. Orange, S. B. Foster. Palestine, AVilhur F. AATlson. Paris, J. G. AA’ooten. San Antonio, L. E. AAYlfe. Sherman, B. AV. Glasgow. Taylor, AAA M. AATlhams. Temple, James E. Binkley- Terrell, S. M. N. Marrs. Texarkana, AV. Owens. Tjder, J. L. Henderson. Victoria, Felix E. Smith. AVaco, J. C. Lattimore. AVaxahatchie, AA’’alter Acker. AAYatherford, T. AAA Stanley. UTAH. Logan, D. C. Jensen. Ogden, AVilham Alhson. Park City, Clarence A. Blocher. Provo, AA’ilham S. Rawhngs. Salt Lake City, D. H. Christensen. A'ERMONT. Barre, 0. D. Mathewson. Bellows Falls, B. E. Merriam. Bennington, Albert AV AYrney. Brattleboro,MissMargueriteTucker (supervisor). Burlington, Henry O. AVheeler. Alontpelier, E. G. Ham. Rutland, AVillard A. Frazier. St. Albans, F. J. Sagendorph. St. Johnsbury, Clarence H. Dempsey. 1160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1904, VIRGINIA. WISCONSIN— Continued. Alexandria, Kosciusko Kemper. Bristol, E. 11. Russell. Charlottesville, John S. Patton. Danville, Abner Anderson. Fredericksburg, Benjamin P. WilUs. Lynchburg. E. C. Glass, Manchester, David L. Pulham. Newport News, John Sheldon Jones. Norfolk, Richard A. Dobie. Petersburg, D. M. Brown. Portsmouth, John C. Ashton. Richmond, WiUiam E. Fox. Roanoke, Bushrod Rust. Staunton, Francis H. Smith, jr. Suffolk, Lee Britt (county superintendent). Winchester, Maurice M. Lynch. WASHINGTON. Aberdeen, R. E. Harris. Ballard, J. C. Dickson. Bellingham, AV. J. Hughes. Everett, George E. St. John. Olympia, AV. AV. Montgomery. Seattle, Frank B. Cooper. Spokane, J. A. Tormey. Tacoma, A. B. AVarner. A'ancouver, C. AA^. Shumway. AA'alla AValla, O. S. Jones. AA^EST AHRGINIA. Benwood, Charles E. Carrigan (principal). Bluefield, C. A. Fulwider. Charleston, George S. Laidley. Clarksburg, F. L. Burdette. Fairmont, Joseph Rosier. Grafton, Hayward Flemmg Hinton, George AA^. Lilly (county superintendent). Huntington, AV. II Cole. Martinsburg, C. H. Cole. Moundsville, W. M. Henderson. Parkersburg, U. S. Fleming. AVheehng, H. B. AVork. AVISCONSIN. Antigo, Myron E. Keats. Appleton, Carrie E. Morgan. Ashland, J. T. Hooper. Baraboo, G. AV. Gehrand. Beaverdam, Homer B. Ilubbell. Beloit, Frankhn E. Converse. Berlin, C. H. Wright. Chippewa Falls, Silas B. Tobey. Depere; East Side, E. F. O’Brien. AVest Side, J. AC Brennan. Eau Claire, M. N. Mclver. Fond du Lac, AATlham AVilson. Grand Rapids, H. S. Yonker. Greenbay, A. AV. Burton. Janesville, H. C. Buell. Kaukauna, A. M. Olson. Kenosha, Norman L. Baker. La Crosse, John P. Bird. Madison, R. B. Dudgeon. Manitov\^oc, AA^alter E. Larson. Marinette, G. H. Landgraf. Marshfield, J. B. Borden. Menasha, John Callahan. Menominie, L. D. Harvey. Merrill, AV. H. Schulz. Milwaukee, C. G. Pearse. Monroe, G. AV. Swartz. Neenah, J. N. Stone. Oconto, Asa M. Royce. Oshkosh, H. A. Smionds. Portage, AV. G. Clough (principal). Racine, Burton E. Nelson. Rhinelander, F. A. Lowell. Sheboygan, H. F. Leverenz. Stevens Point. F. F. Showers. Superior, B. B. Jackson. AVashbum, D. E. Cameron. AVatertown, Charles F. Viebahn. Waukesha, H. L. Terry (principal). AA’ausau, Karl Mathie. AVYOMING. Cheyenne, II. E. Conard. Laramie, Frank AV. Lee. Rock Springs, S. M. Abbott. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOKY. 1161 III. — College Pkesidents. 1. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts. Name of president. University or college. Address. A. P. Montague, LL. D . Eev. S. M. Hosmer, D. D . Rev. Benedict Menges, O. S. B . Rev. William Tyrrell, S . J . John W. Abercrombie, LL. D . Kendric C. Babcock, Ph. D . J. H. Hineman, A. M., chairman... John W. Conger, LL. D . Eugene R. Long, Ph. D . Rev. E. H. Liles . Rev. S. Anderson, A. B . Henry S. Llartzog, LL. D . Rev. J. M. Cox, D. D . B. I. Wheeler, LL. D . Rev. George A. Gates, LL. D . Rev. G. W. Wadsworth, D. D . Rev. J. S. Glass, C. M., D. D . Rev. George E. Bovard, D. D . Rev. T. G. Brownson, D. D . Walter A. Edwards, LL. D . Rev. John P. Frieden, S. J . Rev. Eli McClish, D. D . Rev. Robert E. Kenna, S. J . D. S. Jordan, LL. D . James H. Baker, LL. D . Rev. W. F. Slocum, LL. D . Rev. A. J. Schuler, S. J . Rev. Henry A. Buchtel, LL. D., chancellor. Flavel S. Luther, LL. D . Rev. B. P. Raymond, LL. D . Arthur T. Hadley, LL. D . Rev. W. C. Jason, A. M . Geo. A. Harter, Ph. D . Rev. Dennis J. O’Connell, S. T. D., rector. E. M. Gallaudet, LL. D . Rev. Jerome Daugherty, S. J . Charles W. Needham, LL. D . Rev. Edward X. Fink, S. J . Rev. J ohn Gordon, D . D . Rev. Brother Gennanus, F. S. C _ Lincoln HuUey, Ph. D . Andrew Sledd. Ph. D . Rev. Charles H. Mohr, Ph. D . A. A. Murphree, A. M . Rev. Win. F. Blackman, Ph. D . Walter B. Hill, LL. D., chancellor. . Rev. George Sale, A. M . Rev. Horace Bumstead, D. D . Rev. J. S. Flipper, D. D . W. Claude Williams, A. B . G. R. Glenn . P. D. Pollock, LL. D . Rev. J. E. Dickey, D. D . W. H. Crogman, Litt. D . William F. Quiliian, jr., A. B . Rev. Joseph A. Sharp, A. B . James A. MacLean, Ph. D . Rev. Harry B. Gough, A. B . Rev. E. M. Smith, D. D . Rev. M. J. Marsile, C. S. V . W. H. Bradley, Ph. D., dean _ Rev. Fred L. Sigmund, D. D _ Rev. Henry J. Dumbach, S. J . . . Rev. John Kruszynski, C. R _ Rev. Wm. R. Haiper, LL. D _ A.R. Taylor, Ph. D . D.R. Bebout . Rev. Daniel Irion . Robert E. Hieronymus, A. M. . . Howard College . Southern University . St. Bernard College . Spring Hill College . University of Alabama . University of Arizona . Henderson College . Ouacliita College . Arkansas College . Arkansas Cumberland College . Hendrix College . •. . . Lmiversity of Arkansas . Philander Smith College . University of California . . . . Pomona College . . Occidental College . St. A'mcent’s College . University of Southern California. California College . Throop Polytechnic Institute . St. Ignatius College . University of the Pacific . Santa Clara College . . Leland Stanford Junior University University of Colorado . Colorado College . College of the Sacred Heart . University of Denver . Trinity College . . AYesleyan University . . Yale University . . . State College for Colored Students . Delaware College . . Catholic University of America . . . . Rev. J. A. Leavitt, D. D . Rev. Thomas McClelland, D. D - ; Rev. Charles E. Nash, S. T. D . i AVilson T. Hogue, Ph. B . | Rev. Richard b. Harlan, LL. D _ M. H. Chamberlin, LL. D . i Gallaudet College . Georgetown University . George AA'ashington University. . . . Gonzaga College . . . Howard L^niversity . St. John’s College . John B. Stetson University . University of Florida . St. Leo College . Florida State College . Rollins College . L'niversity of Georgia . Atlanta Baptist College . Atlanta University . Morris Brown College . Bowdon College . North Georgia Agricultural College. Mercer University . Emory College . . . Clark L'niversity . Nannie Lou AA'arthen Institute . Young Harris College . L^niversity of Idaho . Hedding College . Illinois Weslejmn LTniversity^ . St. ATateur’s College . Blackburn College . Carthage College . St. Ignatius College . St. Stanislaus College . University of Chicago . James MiUildn University . Austin College . Evangelical Prosemtnary . Eureka College . Northwestern University . Evdng College . Knox College . Lombard College . Greenville College . Illinois College . Lake Forest College . McKendree College . Eastlake, Ala. Greensboro, Ala. St. Bernard, Ala. Spiinghill, Ala. University, Ala. Tucson, Ariz. Arkadelphia, Ark. Do. Bates ville. Ark. Clarksville, Ark. Conway, Ark. Fayetteville, Ark. Little Rock, Ark. Berkeley, Cal. Claremont, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal. Do. Do. Oakland, Cal. Pasadena, Cal. San Francisco, Cal. San Jose, Cal. Santa Clara, Cal. Stanford University, Cal. Boulder, Colo. Colorado Springs, Colo. Denver, Colo. University Park, Colo. Hartford, Conn. Middletown, Conn. New Haven, Conn. Dover, Del. Newark, Del. AAfoshington, D, C. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Deland, Fla. Lake City, Fla. St. Leo, Fla. Tallahassee, Fla. AY interpark, Fla. Athens, Ga. Atlanta, Ga. Do. Do. Bowdon, Ga. Dahlonega, Ga. Macon, Ga. Oxford, Ga. South Atlanta, Ga. AAYights\dlle, Ga. A^oung Harris, Ga. Moscow, Idaho. Abingdon, Ill. Bloomington, Ill. Bourbonnais, Ill. Carlinville, IlL Carthage, Ill. Chicago, Ill. Do. Do. Decatur, Ill. Effingham, Ill. Elmhurst, Ill. Eureka, Ill. Evanston, Ill. Ewing, Ill. Galesburg, Ill. Do. Greenville, Ill. Jacksonville, Ill. Lake Forest, Ill. Lebanon, Ill. 1162 EDUCATIOISr EEPOKT, 1904. III. — College Presidents — Continued. 1. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Rev. J. L. Goodloiight, D. D . Rev. Thos. II. McMicliael, D. D _ Rev. It. J. Kiekhoefer, Pli. D . Rev. John Miller, O. S. B., rector. . . Rev. Anselm Mueller, 0. S. F . Gustav A. Aiidreen, Ph. D . Rev. Samuel Macke, O. S. F., rector Rev. Stanley A. McKay, D. D . Edmund J. James, LL. D . W. R. Shuey, A. M . Rev. C. A. Blanchard, D. D . William L. Bryan, Ph. D . Rev. Augustme Seifert, C. PP. S . . . Rev. Wm. P. Kane, LL. D . Rev. Martin Luecke . Rev. William T. Stott, lL. D . Rev. E. II. Hughes, S. T. D . Rev. H. W. Fisher, LL. D . W.E. Garrison, Ph. D . Rev.G.J. Jones, D.D . Rev. Frank C. English, D.D . Rev. A. Morrissey, C. S. C . Robert L. Kelly, Ph. M . Rev. A. Schmitt, O.S.B . Rev. C. Yv inchester, D. D . J. II. Scott, A. B . Rev. A. Grant Evans . Rev. Frank E. Hirsch, D.D . O. Kraushaar . Rev. R. T. Campbell, D.D . Rev. C. K, Preus . Hill M. Bell, A. M Rev. W. E. Parsons, D.D . Rev. T. J. Bassett, D.D . Rev. Dan F. Bradley, D.D . Rev. F. W. Grossman, A. B . Charles E. Shelton, LL. D . Goo. E. MacLean, LL. D . Ernest R. Dev/snup, A. M . Carlyle Surnmerbell, A. M . Rev. E. S. Havighorst, D.D . Rev. John W. Handier, S. T. D _ Rev. Wm. F, King, LL. D . A. Rosenberger, A. B . L. A. Ga,rrison, A. B . Rev. W. S. Lewis, D. D . Rev. E. E. Reed, D. D . George N. Ellis, A. M . Rev. L. Bookwalter, D. D . Rev. Millard F. Troxell, D.D . Rev.I. Wolf, O.S.B., D.D . Rev. L, H. Murlin, D.D . Rev. J.C. Miller, D.D . Amos A. Davis, A. M . P. O. Bonebrake, A. M . Rev. D. S. Stephens, D. D., chan¬ cellor. Frank Strong, Ph. D . T. W. Bellingham, Ph. D . ! Rev. Ernst F. Pihlblad, A. M . J.D.S.Riggs, L.H. D . 1 Rev. James McCabe, S. J . I Thomas W. Roach, A. M . ! Rev. F. M. Spencer, D.D . I Rev. Norman Plass, D. D . ' Rev. N. J. Morrison, LL. D . ! Edmund Stanley, A. M . ! Rev. A. W. Meyer . i George F. Cook, Ph. D . ! Rev. J. P. Faullmer, A. M . ' Rev. Wm. G. Frost, Ph. D . j Frederick W. Hinitt, Ph. D . Rev. J. J. Taylor, LL. D . ! Rev. Geo. J. Burnett, A. M . A. C. Kuykendall, A. B . Rev. Burris A. Jenkins, A. M., B. D.l Lmcoln College . . Monmouth College . . Northwestern College . . St. Bede College . . St. Francis Solanus College. Augustana College . . St. Joseph’s College . . Shurtleff College . . University of Illinois . . \V estfield College . . Wheaton College . Indiana University . St. Joseph’s College . Wabash College, . . Concordia College . . Franklin College . . De Pauw University . . Hanover College . Butler College . Union Christian College . . . . Moores Hill College . . University of Notre Dame. , Earlham College . . St. Meinrad College . Taylor University . Indian University . Henry Kendall College . Coe College . Charles City College . Wartburg College . Amity College . Luther College . Des Moines College . Drake University . St. Joseph’s College . Parsons College . Upper Iowa University. . . . Iowa College . Lenox College . Simpson College . State University of Iowa. . Graceland College . Palmer College . German College . lov/a Wesleyan University. Cornell College . Penn College . Central University of Iowa. Momingside College . Buena Vista College . Tabor College . Western College . Midland College . St. Benedict’s College . Baker University . College of Emporia . Highland University . Campbell College . Kansas City University. .. University of Kansans . Kansas Christian College . Bethany College . Ottawa University . St. Mary’s College . Kansas Wesleyan University . Cooper Memorial College . W ashburn College . Fairmount College . Friends University . St. John’s Lutheran College . Southwest Kansas College . Union College . Berea College . Central University of Kentucky . Georgetown College . Liberty College . South Kentucky College . Kentucky University . Lincoln, Ill. Monmouth, Ill. Naperville, Ill. Peru, Ill. Quincy, Ill. Rock island, lU. Teutopclis, Ill. Upper Alton, 111. Urbana, Ill. Westfield, Ill. Wheaton, Ill. Bloomington, Tnd. Collegeville, Ind. Crawfordsvhle, Ind. Fort Y/ayne, Ind. Franklm, Tnd. Greencastle, Tnd. Hanover, Ind. Irvington, Ind. Merom, Ind. Moores Hill, Ind. Notre Dame, Ind. Richmond, Ind. St. Meinrad, Ind. Upland, ind. Bacone, Ind. T. Muscogee, Ind. T. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Charles City, Iowa. Clinton, Iowa. College Springs, Iowa. Decorah, Iowa. Des Moines, Iowa. Do. Dubuque, Iowa. Fairfield, Iowa. Fayette, Iowa. Grinnell, Iowa. Hopkmton, Iowa. Indianola, Iowa. Iowa City, lowa.. I>amoni, Iowa. Legrand, Iowa. Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Do. Mount Vernon, Iowa. Oskaloosa, Iowa. Pella, lowa. Sioux City, Iowa. Storm Lake, low'a. Tabor, Iowa. Toledo, Iowa. Atchison, Kans. Do. Baldwin, Kans. Emporia, Kans. Highland, Kans. Holton, Kans. Kansas City, Kans. Lawrence, Kans. Lincoln, Kans. Lindsborg, Kans. Ottawa, Kans. St. Marys, Kans. Salina, Kans. Sterling, Kans, Topeka, Kans. Wichita, Kans. Do. Winfield, Kans. Do. Barbourville, Ky. Berea, Ky. Danville, Ky. Georgetovui, Ky. Glasgow, Ky. Hopkinsville, Ky. Lexington, Ky. EDUCATIOISTAL DIRECTOEY. 1163 Hi . — CoLLEG E Presidents — Continued . 1. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. J. K. Patterson, Ln. D . William H. Harrison, A. M . Rev. Michael Jaglowicz, C. R . ReAn John L. AVeber, Litt. D . Thomas D. Boyd, LL. D . Rev. M. Thouvenin, S. M . Rev. C. C. Miller . Rev. Henry S. Maring, S. J . R.AV. Perkins, Ph. D . Frederic H. Plnight, Ph. D . E. B. Craighead, LL. D . Rev. vVm. I). Hyde, LL. I) . Rev. G. C. Chase, LL. D . George E. Fellows, LL. D . Rev. Charles L. White, D. D . Thomas Fell, LL. D . Ira Remsen, LL. D . Rev. John F. Quirk, S. J . Rev. John O. Spencer, Ph. H . James W. Cain, LL. l3 . R. vV. Silvester . Rev. Brother Abraham . Rev. C. B. Schrantz, S. S . Rev. Wm. L. O’Hara, LL. I) . Rev. James Fraser, Ph. I) . Rev. Thomas H. Lewis, D. D . Rev. George Harris, LL. D . Rev. William Gannon, S. J . Rev. AV. E. Huntington, Ph. D _ Charles AAL Eliot, LL. D . Rev. Samuel H. Lee, A. M . Rev. Henry Hopkins, D. i> . G. Stanley Hall, LL. H . Carroll D. AVright, LL. I) . Rev. Joseph F. Eanselman, S. J... Rev. B. AV. Anthony, D. I) . Samuel Dickie, LL. D . Rev. August F. Bruske, D. D . James B. Angell, uL. D . Rev. Louis J. Kellinger, S. J . Joseph AV. Mauck, LL. D . Genit J. Kollen, LL. D . A. G. Slocum, LL. D . E. G. Lancaster, Ph. D . Rev. P. Engel, 0. S. B., Ph. D . Georg Sverdrup . . . Cyrus Northrop, LL. D . Rev. AVm. PI. Sallmon, A. M . Rev. John N. Kildahl . Rev. Geo. H. Bridgman, LL. D _ James AV allace, Ph. D . Rev. P. A. Mattson, B. D . Rev. E. AV. A^an Aken, A. M'., B. D. Rev. AVm. T. LoAvi'ey, D. D . Rev. AA’'m. AV. Foster, jr., D. D _ Rev. AV. B. Miirrah, LL. D . R. B. Fulton, LL. D., chancellor .. Ernest \V. Dow, Ph. D . AV. M. Jones, Ph. D . Rev. B. AV. Baker, Ph. D . Carl Johann, LL. D . Rev. J. E. Diilard, A. B . Richard H. Jesse, LL. D . Rev. James C. Morris, D. D . Rev. D. R. Kerr, Ph. D . Hon. U. S. Hail, A. B . Jere T. Muir, LL. D . Rev. J. P. Greene, LL. D . Rev. AVm. H. Black, LL. D . W. AV. Thomas . L.’m. McAfee, LL. D . Rev. Brother Justin . Rev. AV. B. Rogers, S. J . AV. S. Chaplin, LL. D., chancellor.. Rev. Plomer T. FuUer, Ph. D.. _ Rev. J. A. Thompson, D. D . Rev. Geo. B. Addicks, D. D . State College of Kentucky . . Bethel College . . St. Mary’s College . . Kentucky AVesleyan College . . Louisiana State University . . Jefferson College . . Centenary College of Louisiana . College of the Immaculate Concep¬ tion. Leland University . New Orleans University . Tulane University of Louisiana . Bowdoin College . . Bates College . University of Maine . . Colby College . . St. John’s College . . Johns Hopkins University . . Loyola College . . Morgan College . . AVashington College . . Maryland Agricultural College . . Rock Hill College . . St. Charles College . . Mount St. Mary’s College . . New AVindsor College . . AVestera Maryland College . Amherst College . . Boston College . . Boston University . . H arv ard U niver si ty . . French- American College . . Tufts College . . AArilliams College . . Clark University . Collegiate Department of Clark Uni¬ versity. College of the Holy Cross . . Adrian College . . Albion College . . Alma College . . University of Michigan . . Detroit College . Hillsdale College . Hope College . Kalamazoo College . Olivet College . St. John’s University . Augsburg Seminary . University of Mimiesota . Carleton College . St. Olaf College . Hamline University . Macalester College . Gustavus Adolphus College . Parker College . Mississippi College . Rust University . Mill saps College . University of Mississippi . . Southwest Baptist College . Pike College . Missouri Wesleyan College . . Christian University . . Clarksburg College . . University of Missouri . . Central College . . Westminster College . . Pritchett College. . . . Lagrange College . . AVilliam Jewell College . . Missouri A^ alley College . . Morilsville College . . Odessa College . . . Park College . . Christian Brothers College . . St. Louis University . . Washington University . . Drury College . . Tai'kio College . . Central AA'esleyan College . Lexington, Ky. Russellville, Ky. St. Marys, Ky. A'/inchester, Ky. Baton Rouge, La. Convent, La. Jackson, La. New Orleans, La. Do. Do. Do. Bmnswick, Me. Lewiston, Me. Orono, Me. ACaterville, Me. Annapolis, Md. Baltimore, Md. Do. Do. Chestertown, Md. Collegepark; Md. Ellicott City, Md. Do. Emmitsburg, Md. New' A'/indsor, Md, AAMstminster, Md. Amherst, Mass. Boston, Mass. Do. Cambridge, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Tufts College, Mass. AVilliainstown, Mass. AA’orcester, Mass. Do. Do. Adrian, Mich. Albion, Mich. Alma, Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich. Detroit, Mich. Hillsdale, Mich. Holland, Mich. Kalamazoo, Mich. Olivet, Mich. Collegeville, Minn. Mmneapolis, Minn. Do. Northfield, Minn. Do. St. Paul, Mum. Do. St. Peter, Minn. AVinnebago City, Minn. Clinton, Miss. Holly Springs, Miss. Jackson, Miss. University, Miss. Bolivar, Mo. Bowling Green, Mo. Cameron, Mo. Canton, Mo. Clarksburg, Mo. Columbia, Mo. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo. Glasgow, Mo. Lagrange, Mo. Liberty, Mo. Marshall, Mo. Morrisville, Mo. Odessa, Mo. Parkville, Mo. St. Louis, Mo. Do. Springfield, Mo. Tarkio, Mo. AA'arrenton, Mo. 1164 EDUCATION REPOKTj 1904. - III. — College Presidents — Continued. 1. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Oscar J. Craig, Pd. D W. P. Aylswortli, LL. D . C. C. Lewis, B. S . Rev. David B. Perry, D. D . Rev. Geo. Sutherland, D. D . Rev. E. Van Dyke Wight, A. M . .. Rev. E. B. Andrews, LL. D., chan¬ cellor. Rev. M. P. Dowling, S. J . Rev. D. W. C. Huntington, LL. D., chancellor. Rev. Wm. E. Schell, D. D . Rev. J. E. Stubbs, LL. D . Rev. W. J. Tucker, LL. D . Rev. Abbot Hilary, O.S.B.,D.D.. Rev. J. W. Fox, S. J . Rev. G. Bien, O. S. B., director _ Austin Scott, LL. D . Woodrow Wilson, LL. D . Rev, John A. Stafford, S. T. L . William G. Tight, Ph. D . Rev. B. C. Davis, Ph. D . Rev. Joseph F. Butler, O. F. M _ Rev. Thomas R. Harris, D. D . C. H, Levermore, Ph. D . F. W. Atkinson, Ph. D . Brother Linus, O. S. F . Rev. Patrick McHale, C. M . Rev. Aloysius J. Pfeil, S. J . Rev. Almon Gunnison, LL. D . Rev. M. W. Stryker, LL. D . Rev. L. C. Stewardson, LL. D . Rev. Geo. E. Merrill, LL. D . J. G. Schurman, LL. D . Rev. D. W. Hearn, S. J . John H. Firdey, LL. D . Nicholas M. Butler, LL. D . Rev. Brother Edward, F. S. C . Rev. John J. Collins, S. J . Rev, H. M. MacCracken, LL. D., chancellor. University of Montana . . . Bellevue College . Cotner University . Union College . Doane College . Grand Island College . Hastings College . University of Nebraska . Creighton University . Nebraska Wesleyan University. . . York College . State University of Nevada . Dartmouth College . St. Anselm’s College . St. Peter’s College . St. Benedict’s College . Rutgers College . Princeton University . Seton Hall College . University of New Mexico . Alfred University . St. Bonaventure’s College . St. Stephen’s College . Adelphi College . Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. St. Francis College . St. John’s College . Canisius College . St. La-wrence University . Hamilton College . Hobart College . Colgate University . Cornell LTniversity . College of St, Francis Xavier . College of the City of New York. . . Columbia University . Manhattan College . St.John’s College . New York University . Missoula, Mont. Bellevue, Nebr. Bethany, Nebr, College View, Nebr. Crete, Nebr. Grand Island, Nebr. Hastings, Nebr. Lincoln, Nebr. Omaha, Nebr. University Place, Nebr. York, Nebr. Reno, Nev. Hanover, N. IT, Manchester, N. H. Jersey City, N. J. Newark, N. J. New Brunswick, N. J. Princeton, N. J. South Orange, N. J. Albuquerque, N, Mex. Alfred, N. Y. Allegany, N. Y. Annandale, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Do. Do. Do. Buffalo, N. Y. Canton, N. Y. Clinton, N. Y, Geneva, N. Y. Hamilton, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Do. Do. Do. Do. Rev. W. F. Likly, C. M . Rev. Rush Rhees, LL. D . Rev. A. V. V. Raymond, LL. D. . . Rev. J. R. Dav, LL. D., chancellor. Rev. Leo Haid, D. D., O. S. B . F. P. Venable, LL. D . Rev. D. J. Sanders, D. D . Henry L. Smith, Ph. D . Rev. John C. Kilgo, D. D . Rev. W. W. Staley, D. D . L. Lyndon Hobbs, A. M . Rev. R. L. Fritz, A. M . Rev. George A. Snyder, A. M . Chas. F. Meserve, LL. D . Rev. William H. Goier, LL. D . Rev. C. E. Taylor, D. D . James M. Robeson . Rev. John H. Morley, LL. D . W. Merrideld, A. M . Rev. E. P. Robertson, D. D . Rev. A. B. Church, D. D . Rev. Albert B. Riker, D. D . Alston Ellis, LL. D . Rev. G. A. Reeder, D. D., chancel¬ lor. Rev. C. Riemenschneider, Ph. D... Rev. David McKinney, D. D . Rev. Albert A. Dierckes, S. J . Chas. W. Dabney, LL. D . Rev. John I. Zahm, S. J . Rev. C. F. Thwing, LL. D . Rev. L. H. Schuh, Ph. D . Rev. W. O. Thompson, LL. D . Rev. Louis A. Tragesser, S. M . P.W. McReynolds, A. M . Rev. Herbert Welch, D. D . Rev. C. I. Brown, A. M . Rev. Wm, F. Peirce, L. H. D . Niagara University . University of Rochester . Union College . Syracuse University . St. Mary’s College . University of North Carolina Biddle University . Davidson College . Trinity College . Elon College . Guilford College . Lenoir College . Catawba College . Shaw University . Livingstone College . Wake Forest College . Weaver ville College . Fargo College . University of North Dakota. Red River Valley University. Buchtel College . Moimt Union College . Ohio University . Baldwin University . German Wallace College, . Cedarville College . St. Xavier College . University of Cincinnati . St. Ignatius College . Western Reserve University. Capital University . Ohio State University . St. Mary’s Institute . Defiance College . Ohio Wesleyan University. . . Findlay College . Kenyon College . Niagara University, N. Y, Rochester, N. Y. Schenectady, N. Y. Syracuse, N. Y. Belmont, N. C. Chapelhill, N. C. Charlotte, N. C. Davidson, N. C. Durham, N. C. Elon College, N. C. Guilford College, N. C. Hickory, N. C. Newton, N. C. Raleigh, N. C. Salisbury, N. C. Wake Forest, N. C. Weaverville, N. C. Fargo, N. Dak. University, N. Dak. Wahpeton, N. Dak. Akron, Ohio. Alliance, Ohio. Athens, Ohio. Berea, Ohio. Do. Cedarville, Ohio. Cincinnati, Ohio. Do. Cleveland, Ohio. Do. Columbus, Ohio. Do. Dayton, Ohio. Defiance, Ohio. Delaware, Ohio. Findlay, Ohio. Gambier, Ohio, EDUCATIONAL DIKECTORY. 1165 III. — College Presidents — Continued. 1. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Rev. Emory W. Hunt, LL. H . E. B. Wakefield, A. M . O. G. Schoenlein, A. B . Rev. Alfred T. Perry, D. D . Rev. N. B. Kelly, D. D . L. J. Graham, A. id . Rev. Henry C. King, D. D . Rev. Guy P. Benton, D. D . Rev. G. W. MacMillan, Ph. D . Rev. J. M. Davis, Ph. D . Rev. I. C. Paugh, Ph. D . Rev. Charles G. Heckert, D. D . Rev. Charles E. Miller, D. D . Rev. L. Bookwalter, D. D . Rev. Joshua H. Jones, D. D . Rev. Albert J. Brown, D. D . Rev. Louis E. Holden, LL. D . Stephen F. Weston, Ph. D . D. R. Boyd, Ph. D . Wallace H. Lee, LL. D . Rev. C. C. Poling, Ph. D . Prince L. Campbell, A. B . Wm. N. Ferrin, LL. D . A. M. Brumback, A. M . Edwin McGrews M. S . I. E.Caldv/ell, A.B . . Rev. John H. Coleman, D.D . Rev. S. B. McCormick, LL.D., chan¬ cellor. Denison University . Hiram College. . Lima College . . . Marietta College . Franklin College . Muskingum College . Oberlin College . Miami University . Richmond College . Rio Grande College . Scio College . . Wittenberg College . Heidelberg University . Otterbein University . Wilberforce University . Wilmington College . University of Wooster . Antioch College . University of Oklahoma . Albany College. . . Dallas College . University of Oregon . Pacific University . . McMinnville College . . . . . Pacific College . . . Philomath College . Willamette University . Western University of Pennsylvania.. Granville, Ohio. Hiram, Ohio. Lima, Ohio. Marietta, Ohio. New Athens, Ohio. New Concord, Ohio. Oberlin, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Richmond, Ohio. Rio Grande, Ohio. Scio, Ohio. Springfield, Ohio. Tiffin, Ohio. Westerville, Ohio. Wilberforce, Ohio. Wilmington, Ohio. Wooster, Ohio. Yellowsprings, Ohio. Norman, Okla. AlbanjL Oreg. Dallas, Oreg. Eugene, Oreg. Eorestgrove, Oreg. McMinnville, Oreg. Newberg, Oreg. Philomath, Oreg. Salem, Oreg. Allegheny, Pa. Rev. J.W. A. Haas, D.D . Rev. H. U.Roop,Ph.D . Rev. Leander Schnerr, O. S. B . Rev. Arthur Staples, A. M . Rev. W. P. Johnston, D.D . Rev. Aug. Schultze, L. H. D . Rev. G. E. Reed, LL. D . Col. C.E. Hyatt, C.E . Rev.D. W.Ebbert,D.D . Rev. E. D. Warfield, LL. D . Rev. Samuel G. Hefelbower, A. M. . Rev. I. C. Ketler, Ph. D . Isaac Sharpless, LL. D . I. H. Brumbaugh, A. M., acting... Rev. J. S. Stahr, Ph. D . John n. Harris, LL. D . . Rev. Isaac N. Rendall, D.D . Rev. Wm. H. Crawford, D. D . Rev. James D. Woodring, D. D _ Rev. R. G. Ferguson, D. D . Rev. R. E. Thompson, S. T. D . Brother Wolf red . C. C. Harrison, LL. D., provost — Rev. M. A. Hehir, C. S. Sp . Rev. John B. Focht, D. D . G. W. Atherton, LL. D . Joseph Swain, LL. D . Rev. L. A. Delurey, O. S. A . C. E. Ball, A. M . Rev. J. D. Moffat, LL. D . A. F. Lewis, Ph. D . Rev. W. H. P. Faunce, LL. D . Harrison Randolph, LL. D . A. E. Spencer, A. M., vice-pres _ Rev. Wm. D. Johnson, D. D . Benjamin Sloan, LL. D . Rev. Francis Y. Pressly, D. D . Rev. Edward M. Poteat, D.D . James A. B. Scherer, Ph. D . Rev. L. M. Dunton, D. D . Henry N. Snyder, A. M . Rev. C. H. French, D. D . Rev. Thomas Nicholson, D. D . Rev. I. P. Patch . Garrett Droppers, A. B . Rev. H. K. Warren, LL. D . Rev. J. H. Race, D.D . Muhlenberg College . Lebanon Valley College . St. Vincent College . Beaver College . Geneva College . Moravian College . Dickinson College . Pennsylvania Military College . Ursinus College . Lafayette College . Pennsylvania College . Grove City College . Haverford College . Juniata College . Franklin and Marshall College . Bucknell University . Lincoln University . Allegheny College . Albright College . . . Westminster College . Central High School . La Salle College . University of Pennsylvania . Holy Ghost College . Susquehanna University . Lehigh University . Pennsylvania State College . Swarthmore College . Villanova College . Volant College . Washington and Jefferson College.... Waynesburg College . Brown University . College of Charleston . Presbyterian College of South Caro¬ lina. Allen University . South Carolina College . Erskine College . Furman University . Newberry College . Clafiin University . Wofford College . Huron College . ■ . Dakota University . Redfield College . : . University of South Dakota . Y ankton College . Grant University . Allentown, Pa. Annville, Pa. Beatty, Pa. Beaver, Pa. Beaverfalls, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Chester, Pa. Collegeville, Pa. Easton, Pa. Gettysburg, Pa. Grove City, Pa. Haverford, Pa. Huntingdon, Pa. Lancaster, Pa. Lewisburg, Pa. Lincoln University, Pa. Meadville, Pa. Myerstown, Pa. New Wilmington, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Do. Do. Pittsburg, Pa. Selinsgrove, Pa. South Bethlehem, Pa. State College, Pa. Swarthmore, Pa. Villanova, Pa. Volant, Pa. Washington, Pa. Waynesburg, Pa. Providence, R. I. Charleston, S. C. Clinton, S. C. Columbia, S. C. Do. Duewest, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Newberry, S. C. Orangeburg, S. C. Spartanburg, S. C. Huron, S. Dak. Mitchell, S. Dak. Redfield, S. Dak. Vermilion, S. Dak. Yankton, S. Dak. Athens, Tenn. 1166 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1904. III. — College Presidents — Continued. 1. — Colleges for men and coeducational colleges of llbercd arts — Continued. Name of president. F. P. Ramsay . G. F. Nieolassen, Ph. D., vice- chancellor. G. M. Savage, LL. D . M. P. Jeffries, M. D . I Rev. R. W. McGranahan, I). D _ I Brown Ayres, Ph. D . I D. E. Mitchell, A. B . | J. B. Reed . i Rev. Samuel T. V/ilson, B. D . I Brother Icarion . I II. R. Garrett, A. M . Rev. James G. Merrill, D. D . Rev. Peter B. Guernsey, A. M . James D. Porter, BL. D . James H. Kirkland, LL. D., chan¬ cellor. Rev. John A. Kumler, D. D . B. Lawton Wiggins, LL. I)., vice- chancellor. W. N. Billingsley, A. M . Rev. J. E. Lowery, A. M . O. C. Hulvey, A. M . Rev. S. A. Coile, P. D . Rev. James T. Cooter, A. M . Rev. John T. Boland, C. S. C . Wm. L. Prather, LL. P . J. II. Grove, A. M . Rev. George II. MacAdam, P. P. .. Rev. II. A. Boaz, A. M . Rev. P. Murphy, S. J . Robert S. Hyer, LL. P., regent _ W. I. Gibson, A. M . Rev. M. W. Pogan, Ph. P . Ely V. Zollars, LL. P . Rev. Thomas S. Clyce, P. P . Samuel P. Brooks, LL. P . Rev. William J. Laws, P. P . Archelaus E. Turner, Ph. P . James II. Linford, B. S . Joseph T. Kingsbury, Ph. P . Rev. George B alley,' Ph. P . Rev. M. II. Buckham, LL. P . Ezra Brainerd, LL. P . Charles H. Spooner, LL. P . Robert E. Blackwell, LL. P . W. B. Yount . E. A. Alderman, LL. P . Rev. R. G. Waterhouse, P. P . Rev. J. W. Rosebro, P. P . W. II. Whiting, A. M., acting . George II. Penny, Ph. P . F. W. Boatwright, LL. P . M. MaeVicar, LL. P . Rev. John A. Morehead, P. P . L. G. Tyler, LL. P . A. C. Jones, Ph. P . Thomas F. Kane, Ph. P . Rev. Francis C. Pillon, S. J . Edwin M. Randall . F. B. Gault, Ph. P . Rev. S. B. L. Penrose, A. B . P. W. Shaw, A. M . T. E. Cramblet . P. B. Purinton, LL. P . Rev. S. Plantz, Ph. P . Rev. Edward P. Eaton, LL. P _ Charles R. Van Hise, Ph. P . Rev. Wm. C. Paland, P. P . Rev. M. J. F. Albrecht . Rev. Alexander J. Burrowes, S. J.. Rev. II. A. Muehlmeicr, P. P . Rev. Richard C. Hughes, P. P . Rev. A. F. Ernst . . . Frederick M. Tisdel, Ph. P . Lniversity or college. Address. King College . Southwestern Presbyterian Uni¬ versity. Southwestern Baptist University.... Carson and Newman College . Knoxville College . University of Tennessee . Cumberland Plniversity . Bethel College . Maryville College . Christian Brothers College . Milligan College . Fisk University . Roger Williams University . University of Nashville . Vanderbilt University . Bristol, Tenn. Clarksville, Tenn Jackson, Tenn. Jefferson City, Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn. Po. Lebanon, Tenn. McKenzie, Tenn. Maryville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn. Milligan, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Po. Po. Po. Walden University . University of the South Po. Sewanee, Tenn. Burritt College . Hiwassee College . Sw'eetwater College . Greeneville and Tusculum College.... Washington College . St. Ed ward's College . University of Texas . i Howard Payne College . i Fort Worth University . I Polytechnic College . St. Mary’s University . Southwestern University . Burleson College . ^vTley University . Texas Christian University . Austin College . Baylor University . Paul Quinn College . Trinity University . Brigham Young College . University of Utah . V\’estminster College . University of Vermont . Middlebury College . Norwich University . Randolph-Macon College . Bridgewater College . University of Virginia . Emory and Henry College. . Fredericksburg College . Hampden-Sidney College. . Washington and Lee University . Richmond College . Virginia Union University . Roanoke College . College of William and Mary . Vashon College . University of Washington . Gonzaga College . University of Puget Sound . Whitworth College . W’hitman College . Morris Harvey College . Bethany College . West Virginia University . Lawrence University . Beloit College . University of Wisconsin . Milton College . Concordia College . Marquette College . Mission House . Ripon College . Northwestern University . University of IVyoming . Spencer, Tenn. Sweetwater, Tenn. Po. Tusculum, Tenn. Washington College, Tenn. Austin, Tex. Po. Brownwood, Tex. Fort Worth, Tex. Po. Galveston, Tex. Georgetown, Tex. Greenville, Tex. Marshall, Tex. North Waco, Tex. Sherman, Tex. Waco, Tex. Po. Waxahachie, Tex. Logan, Utah. Salt Lake City, Utah. Po. Burlington, Vt. Middlebury, Vt. Northfield, Vt. Ashland, Va. Bridgewater, Va. Chariot tesviile,Va. Emory, Va. Fredericksburg, Va. Hampden-Sidne3q Va. Lexington, Va. Richmond, Va. Po. Salem, Va. Williamsburg, Va. Burton, Wash. Seattle, Wash. Spokane, Wash. Tacoma, Wash. Po. Walla AValla, AYash. Barboursville, Vv^. A^a. Bethany, W. Va. Morgantown, W. A"a. Appleton, Wis. Beloit, AATs. Madison, AVis. Milton, AA'is. Milwaukee, AYis. Po. Plymouth, AATs. Ripon, AYis. AA^atertown, AA'is. Laramie, AYjm. EDUCATIO^^AI. DIRECTORY. 1167 III. — College Presidents — Continued. 2. — Colleges for women. Name of president. College. Address. C. J. Owens, LL. D . Miss Mary N. Moore . Rev. Robert G. Patrick, D. D . Jas. D. Wade, A. M . Rev. T. Peyton Walton . Rev. B. F. Giles, A. M . R. J. Holston, A. M . John Massey, LL. D . VC. W. Rivers, A. M . Mrs. C. T. Mills . Sister Mary Bemardine . Sister Georgiana . Mrs. M. A. Lipscomb . Rev. Homer Bush, A. M . Rev. Thomas L. Bryan . C. H. S. Jackson, A. M . A. W. Van Hoose; H. J. Pearce ... Rufus W. Smith, A. M . M. V/. Hatton, A. M . Du Pont Guerry . T. J. Simmons, A. M . Rev. Joseph R. Harker, Ph. D . Rev. C. W. Leffingwell, D. D., Anniston College . Athens Female College . Judson College . I Marion Female Seminary . Alabama Synodical College for ; Women. | Central Female College . I Tuscaloosa Female College . ' Alabama Conference Female Col- i lege. Central Baptist College . ' Mills College . I College of Notre Dame . ' Trinity College . ! Lucy Cobb Institute . ' Southern Female College . I Andrew Female College . I Dalton Female College . • . i Monroe Femade College . Brenau College . Lagrange Female College . Southern Female College . Wesleyan Female College . Shorter College . Illinois Woman’s College . St. Mary’s School . Anniston, Ala. Athens, Ala. Marion, Ala. Do. Talladega, Ala. Tuscaloosa, Ala. Do. Tuskegee, Ala. Conway, Ark. Mills College, Cal. San Jose, Cal. Washington, D. C. Athens, Ga. College Park, Ga. Cuthbert, Ga. Dalton, Ga. Forsyth, Ga. Gainesville, Ga. Lagrange, Ga. Do. Macon, Ga. Rome, Ga. Jacksonville, Ill.. Ivnox^dile, Ill. rector. Julia H. Gulliver, Ph. D . Rev. F. R. Millspaugh, D. D . Rev. Benj. F. Cabell . John C. Acheson, A. M . Th. Smith, A. M . Rev. Edmund Harrison, LL. D _ Mrs. L. W. St. Clair . Geo. J. Ramsey, LL. D . Rev. C. C. Fisher, A. M . Mrs. J. B. Skinner . J. Byron La Rue . B. E. Atkins, A. M . Rev. F. W. Lewis, D. D^ . G. IV. Thigpen, A. M . T. S. Sligh, A. M . Brandt V’. B. Dixon, LL. D . Rev. Wilbur F. Berry . O. II. Perry, A. B . Mary Theophila . Rev. John F. Goucher, LL. D . J. H. Apple, A. M . Bruce L. Kershner, A. M . Rev. J. H. Tuimer, D. D . C. C. Bragdon, LL. D_. . Le Baron R. Briggs, LL. D . Rev. L. Clark Seelye, LL. D . Mary E. Woolley, Litt. D . Miss Caroline Hazard, Litt. D . B. G. Lowrey, A. M . Rev. I. W. Cooper, D. D . Rev. John L. Johnson, LL. D . Hon. A. A. Kincannon . J. A Sanderson, principal . L. T. Fitzhugh, A. M . J. L. Logan . J. W. Beeson, A. M . Hon. James R. Preston, A. M . Mrs. Thida D. Moore . Rev. L. S. Jones, A. M . Mrs. W. T. Moore . Rev. J R. Pentuff, Ph. D . Rev, Hiram D. Groves . Rev. J. M. Spencer . Edward W. White, A. M . Alfred F. Smith . C. M. WUliams, A. M . J. W. Million, A. M . Mrs. V. A. C. Stockard . Rev. George F. Ayres, Ph. D . Rev. George M. Ward, LL. D . Truman J. Backus, LL. D . Rockford College . College of the Sisters of Bethany . Potter College . Caldwell College . Beaumont College . Bethel Female College . Hamilton Female College . Sayre Female Institute . Miller sburg Female College . Jessamine Female Institute . Owensboro Female College . Logan Female College . j Silliman Collegiate Institute . I Louisiana Female College . j Mansfield Female College . H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial Col¬ lege. Maine Wesleyan Seminarj^ and Female College. Westbrook Seminary . Notre Dame of Maryland . Woman’s College of Baltimore . Woman’s College . Ivee Mar College . Mar5dand College for Young Ladies. Lasell Seminary for Young Women. Radcliffe College . Smith College . Mount Holyoke College . IVellesley College . Blue Mountain Female College . Whitworth Female College . Hillman College . Industrial Institute and College . Central Mississippi Institute . Belhaven College for Young Ladies.. McComb Female Institute . Meridian Female College . Stanton College for Young Ladies.... Chickasaw Female College . Port Gibson Female College . Stephens College . j Howard Pa}me College . Synodical Female College . i Lexington College for Young Wom,en.| Central Female College . I Liberty Ladies College . Hardin College . Cottey College for Young Ladies . Lindenwood College for Women . Wells College . Packer Collegiate Institute . Rockford, Ill. Topeka, Kans. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. Harrodsburg, Ky. Hopkinsville, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Do. Millersburg, Ky. Nicholasville, Ky. Owensboro, Ky. Russellville, Ky. Clinton, La. Keatchie, La. Mansfield, La. New Orleans, La. Kents Hill, Me. Woodfords, Me. Baltimore, Md. Do. Frederick, Md. Hagerstown, Md. Lutherville, Md. Auburndale, Mass. Cambridge, Mass. Northampton, Mass. South Hadley, Mass. WYllesley, Mass. Blue Mountain, Miss. Brookhaven, Miss. Clinton, Miss Columbus, Miss. French Camp, Miss. Jackson, Miss. McComb, Miss. Meridian, Miss. Natchez, Miss. Pontotoc, Miss. Port Gibson, Miss. Columbia, Mo. Do. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo. Lexington, Mo. Do. Liberty, Mo. Mexico, Mo. Nevada, Mo. St. Charles, Mo. Aurora, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. 1168 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1904. III. — College Presidents — Continued. 2. — Colleges for women — Continued. Name of president. College. Address. Rev. A. C. Mackenzie, LL. D . Laura D. Gill, A. M., dean . Rev. J. M. Taylor, LL. D . Rev. C. B. King, A. M . S. A. Wolff, A. M . Mrs. Lucv il. Robertson . A. J. Bolin, A. M . M. S. Davis, A. M . John C. Scarborough, A. B . F. P. Hobgood, A. M . Rev. R. T. Vann, D. D . Rev. John II. Clewell, Ph. D . Rev. John II. Thomas, D. D . Lilian W. Johnson, Ph. D . Miss Mary Evans, Litt. D . . Rev. J. W. Knappenberger, A. M.. Rev. J. Max Hark, D. D . Rev. S. B. Linhart, A. M . Miss M. Carey Thomas, LL. D _ M. H. Reaser, Ph. D . E. E. Campbell, Ph. D . Rev. Samuel A. Martin, D. D . Rev. W. W. Daniel, D. D . Miss Euphemia McClintock, A. B .. Rev. James Boyce . Lee D. Lodge, Ph. D . A. S. Townes . Edward C. James, Litt D . Rev. John O. Willson, D. D . Robert P. PeU, A. B . Rev. B. G. Clifford, Ph. D . Rev. W. M. Dyer, A. M . T. E. Allen . Z. K. Griffin, B. S . Rev. A. B. Jones, LL. D... Miss V. O. Wardlav/, A. M Mrs. J. O. Rust . J. D. Blanton, LL. D . Rev. C. T. Carlton, A. B.. W. A. Wilson, D. D . James E. WiUis . Rev. J. E. Harrison, A. B A. Q. Nash, C. E . Miss Kate M. Hunt, A. B. J. T Henderson, A. M _ Rev. H. W. Tribble, D. D R. E. Hatton, Ph. D . Miss Matty L. Cocke . W. W. Smith, LL. D . Rev. J. J. Scherer, D. D. . Arthur K. Davis, A. M. . . Rev. James Nelson, D. D. Rev. R. L. Telford, D. D. Miss Ellen C. Sabin, A. M, Elmira College . Barnard College . Vassar College . Elizabeth College . Gaston College . Greensboro Female College . Claremont Female College . Louisburg Female College . Chowan Baptist Female Institute.... Oxford Female Seminary . Baptist Female University . Salem Female Academy and College. Oxford College . Western College . Lake Erie College . Allentown College for Women . Moravian Seminary and College for Women. Blairsville College . Bryn Mawr College . Wilson College . Irving Female College . Pennsylvania College for Women . Columbia Female College . Presbyterian College for Women . Due West Female College . Limestone College . Greenville College for W omen . Greenville Female College . Lander Female College . Converse College . Clifford Seminary . Sullins College . Brownsville Female College . Tennessee Female College . Howard Female College . Memphis Conference Female Institute Soule Female College . Boscobel College . Ward Seminary . Synodical Female College . Carlton College . Baylor Female College . Chappell Hill Female College . San Antonio Female College . Mary Nash College . Martha Washington College . Stonewall Jackson Institute . Southwest Virginia Institute . Rawlings Institute . Roanoke College of Danville . Hollins Institute . Randolph-Macon Woman’s College... Marion Female College . Southern Female College . Woman’s College . Lewisburg Female Institute . Milwaukee-Downer College . Elmira, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Poughkeepsie, N. Y. . Charlotte, N. C. Dallas, N. C. Greensboro, N. C. Hickory, N. C Louisburg, N. C. Murfreesboro, N. C. Oxford, N. C. Raleigh, N. C. Salem, N. C. Oxford, Ohio. Do. Painesville, Ohio. Allentown, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. ^ Blairsville, Pa. Bryn Mawr, Pa. Chambersburg, Pa. Meehanicsburg, Pa. Pittsburg, Pa. Columbia, S. C. Do. Duewest, S. C. Gaffney, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Do. Greenwood, S. C. Spartanburg, S. C. Union, S. C. Bristol, Tenn. Brownsville, Tenn. Franklin, Tenn. Gallatin, Tenn. Jackson, Tenn. Murfreesboro, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. • Do. Rogersville, Tenn. Bonham, Tex. Belton, Tex. Chappelhill, Tex. San Antonio, Tex. Sherman. Tex. Abingdon, Va. Do. Bristol, Va. Charlottesville, Va. Danville, Va. Hollins, Va. Lynchburg, Va. Marion, Va. Petersburg, Va. Richmond, Va. Lewisburg, W. Va. Milwaukee, Wis. 3. — Schools of technology. Charles C. Thaeh, A. M . Barton O. Aylesworth, LL. D . Victor C. Alderson, Sc. D . Rev. R. W. Stimson, A. M . Lyman Hall, LL. D . Rev. Frank W. Gunsaulus, D. D .. W. E. Stone, Ph. D . Carl L. Mees, Ph. D . Rev. Albert B. Storms, D. D . Ernest R. Nichols, A. M . Rear-Admiral J. H. Sands, U.S.N., superintendent. H. S. Pritchett, LL. D Alabama Polytechnic Institute . Colorado Agricultural College . State School of Mines . Connecticut Agricultural College . State School of Technology . Armour Institute of Technology . Purdue University . Rose Polytechnic Institute . Iowa College of Agriculture and Me¬ chanic Arts. Kansas Agricultural College . United States Naval Academy . Massachusetts Agricultural College.. . Massachusetts Institute of Tech- I uology. Auburn, Ala. Fort Collins, Colo. Golden, Colo. Storrs, Conn. Atlanta, Ga. Chicago, Ill. Lafayette, Ind. Terre Haute, Ind. Ames Iowa. Manhattan, Kans. Annapolis, Md. Amherst, Mass. Boston, Mass. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOKY. 1169 III. — College Presidents — Continued. 3. — Schools of technology — Continued. Name of president. College. Address. Edmund A. Engler, LL. D . J. L. Snyder, Ph. D . F. W. McNair, B. S . J. C. Hardy, LL. H . : W. H. Lanier, A. B . James M. Hamilton, M. S . Nathan R. Leonard, A. M . W. H. Gibbs, M. S . Alexander C. Humphreys, Sc. D... Luther Foster, M. S. A . Charles R, Keves, Ph. I). , director. . W. S. Aldrich; M. E., director . Palmer C. Ricketts, C. E . Gen. A. L. Mills, U. S. A., supt _ James B. Dudley, A. M . George T. Winston, LL. D . J. H. Worst, LL. D . Worcester Polytechnic Institute . Michigan Agricultural College . Michigan College of Mines . Mississippi Agricultural and Me¬ chanical College. Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College. Montana College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Montana State School of Mines . New Hampshire College of Agricul¬ ture and Mechanic Arts. Stevens Institute of Technology . New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. New Mexico School of Mines . Clarkson School of Technology . Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . United States Military Academy . Agricultural and Mechanical College for the Colored Race. North Carolina College of Agricul¬ ture and Mechanic Arts. North Dakota Agricultural College . . Worcester, Mass. Agricultural College, Mich. Houghton, Mich. Agricultural College, Miss. Westside, Miss. Bozeman, Mont. Butte, Mont. Durham, N. II. Hoboken, N. J. Mesilla Park, N. Mex. Socorro, N. Mex. Potsdam, N. Y. Troy, N. Y. West Point, N. Y. Greensboro, N. C. West Raleigh, N. C. Agricultural College, N. Dak. Charles S. Howe, Ph. D . Angelo C. Scott, A. M . Thomas M. Gatch, Ph. D . K. L. Butterfield, A. M . Asbury Coward, LL. D., supt P. H. Mell, Ph. D . Rev. James Chalmers, LL. D. Robert L. Slagle, Ph. D . David F. Houston, LL. D _ W. J. Kerr, Sc. D . J. M. McBryde, LL. D . Scott Shipp, LL. D., supt E. A. Bryan, LL. D . Case School of Applied Science . Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College. Oregon Agricultural College . Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. South Carolina Military Academy .... Clemson Agricultural College . South Dakota Agricultural College.. State School of Mines . Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Agricultural College of Utadi . Virginia Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College and Polytechnic In¬ stitute. Virginia Military Institute . Washington Agricultural College and School of Science. Cleveland, Ohio. Stillwater, Okla. Corvallis, Oreg. Kingston, R. I. Charleston, S. C. Clemson College, S. C. Brookings, S. Dak. Rapid City, S. Dak. College Station, Tex. Logan, Utah. Blacksburg, Va. Lexington, Va. Pullman, Wash. IV. — Professors of Pedagogy and Heads of Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and Colleges. Name of professor. University or college. Address. Edward F. Buchner, Ph.D Wm. S. Johnson, Ph. D _ Elmer E. Brown, Ph. D. . . A. H. Chaml)erlain, A. M. . E. P. Cubberley, A. M . Sanford Bell, A. M . D. E. Phillips, Ph. D... E. H. Sneath, LL. D... Lewis B. Moore, Ph. D. L. W. Buchholz . T. J. Woofter, Ph. D... George A. Towns, A. M Arthur W. Rowell . M. F. Reed, B. S . George H. Locke, A. M . A. R. Taylor, Ph. D., president... O. B. Clark, A. M . Herbert F. Fisk, LL. D . J. L. Goodknight, D. D., president Edwin G. Dexter, Ph. D . W. S. Reese, D. D . J. A. Bergstrom, Ph. D . Thomas S. Lowden, Ph. D . University of Alabama . University of Arkansas . University of California . Throop Polytechnic Institute . Leland Stanford Junior University... University of Colorado . Colorado College . University of Denver . Yale University . Howard University . Florida State College . University of Georgia . Atlanta University . North Georgia Agricultural College. . Clark University . University of Idaho . University of Chicago . James Millikin University . Eureka College . Northwestern University . Lincoln College . University of Illinois . Westfield College . Indiana University . De Pauw University . University, Ala. Fayetteville, Ark. Berkeley, Cal. Pasadena, Cal. Stanford University, Cal. Boulder, Colo. Colorado Springs, Colo. University Park, Colo. New Haven, Conn. Washington, D. C. Tallahassee, Fla. Athens, Ga. Atlanta, Ga. Dahlonega, Ga. South Atlanta, Ga. Moscow, Idaho. Chicago, Ill. Decatur, Ill. Eureka, Ill. Evanston, HI. Lincoln, Ill. Urbana, Ill. Westfield, Ill. Bloomington, Ind. Greencastle, Ind. ED 1904 M - 74 1170 EDUCATION KEPOKTj 1904. IV. — Professors of Pedagogy and Heads of Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and Colleges — Continued. Name of professor. Arthur K. Rogers, Ph. D . Burt W. Ayres, Ph. D . J. P. Hugget, Ph. B . William P. Barr, Ph. B . A. E. Bennett, A. M . Charles E. Shelton, LL. D., pres. . . F. E. Bolton, Ph. D . Elias Handy, A. B . Geo. H. Betts, Ph. M . Guy G. Sears, A. M . E. A. Brown, A. M . Robert J. Peters, x\. M . Lilian Scott, Ph. B . William Rinck, A. M . W. S. Reese, Ph. M . A. S. Olin, A. M . Vivian Henmon, A. M . R. A.. Schv/egler, A. B . Albert H. King . Otto W. Newby, A. B . B. W. Truesdell, A. B . Carrie P. Herndon, Ph. B . John W. Hinsmore, A. M . Ruric N. Roark, Ph. D . J. C. Willis, Ph. D . R. W. Perkins, Ph. D., pres . Charles E. Young, A. M . W. A. Garrison, A. M . Paul H. Hanus, B. S . George E. Dav/son, Ph. D . Anna J. McKeag, Ph. D . W. H. Burnham, Ph. D . Rufus C. Bentley, A. M., dean _ Sarah J. Knott, M. S . Joseph W. Ewing, A. M . W. H. Payne, LL. D . Charles H. Gurney, A. M . J. M. Vander Meulen, A. M . Herbert L. Stetson, LL. D . E. G. Lancaster, Ph. D., pres . George F. James, Ph. D . M. Wahlstrom, Ph. D . J. G. Deupree, LL. D . Albert R. Hill, Ph. D . Edgar J. Swift, Ph. D . George B. Randels, Ph. B . Josie Y. Osterhout . Charles C. Lewis . John F. Crawford, A. M . G. W. A. Luckey, Ph. D . Wm. R. Jackson, A. M . Romiinzo Adams, Ph. M . Herman H. Horne, Ph. D . E. R. Payson, Ph. D . Charles E. Hcdghi, B. Ped . Charles B. Clark, A. M . E. N. Henderson, A. M . W. H. Squires, Ph. D . . M. S. Read, Ph. D . Charles De Garmo, Ph. D . James E. Russell, Ld. D., pres _ T. M. Balliet, Ph. H., pres . George M. Forbes, A. M . J. R. Street, Ph. I) . Marcus C. S. Noble . W. R. Connors, A. B . Darius Eatman, A. M . Joseph Flennedy, A. M . John B. Bowman, A. M . Henry G. Williams, A. M . David R. Major, Ph. D.. Edward A. Miller, A. B.. Harvey C. Minnich, A. M J. E. IVlcMullan, Ph. M. . . Sarah C. B. Scarborough, M. Pd... Mary E. "Reynolds, B. S . University or college. Address. Butler College . Taylor University . Coe College . Drake University . Upper Iowa University . Simpson College . State University of Iowa . Iowa Wesleyan University . Cornell College . Central University of Iowa . Morningside College . Midland College . Baker University . Emporia College . Campbell College . University of Kansas . Bethany College . Ottawa University . Kansas Wesleyan University . Cooper College . Fairmount College . Friends University . Southwest Kansas College . Berea College . Agricultural and Mechanical College.. Kentucky University . Leland University . Morgan College . New Windsor College . Harvard University . Mount Holyoke College . Wellesley College . Clark University . Collegiate Department, Clark Uni¬ versity. Adrian College . Akna College . University of Michigan . Hillsdale College . Hope College . Kalamazoo College . Olivet College . University of Minnesota . Gustavus Adolphus College . University of Mississippi . University of Missouri . Washington University . Bellevue College . Cotner University . Union College . Grand Island College . University of Nebraska . . Nebraska Wesleyan University . Nevada State University . Dartmouth College . Rutgers College . University of New Mexico . Alfred University . Adelphi College . Hamilton College . Colgate University . Cornell University . Columbia University (Teachers’ Col¬ lege) . New York University . University of Rochester . Syracuse University . University of North Carolina . Livingstone College . Wake Forest College . University of North Dakota . Moimt Union College . Ohio University . University of Cincinnati . Ohio State University . Oberlin College . . Miami University . Scio College . Heidell>erg “University . Wilberforce University . Willamette University . Indianapolis, Ind. Upland, Ind. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Des Moines, Iowa. Fayette, Iowa. Indianola, Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa. Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Mount Vernon, Iowa. Pella, Iowa. Sioux City, Iowa. Atchison, Kans. Baldwin, Kans. Emporia, Kans. Holton, Kans. LavvTence, Kans. Lindsborg. Kans. Ottawa, Kans. Salina, Kans. Sterling, Kans. Wichita, Kans. Do. Winfield, Kans. Berea, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Do. New Orleans, La. Baltimore, Md. New Windsor, Md. Cambridge, Mass. South Hadley, Mass. Wellesley, Mass. W’ orcester, Mass. Do. Adrian, Mich. Alma, Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich Hillsdale, Mich. Holland, Mich. Kalamazoo, Mich. Olivet, Mich. Minneapolis, Minn. St. Peter, Minn. University, Miss. Columbia, Mo. St. Louis, Mo. Bellevue, Nebr. Bethany, Nebr. College View, Nebr. Grand Island, Nebr. Lincoln, Nebr. University Place, Nebr. Reno, Nev. Hanover, N. H. New Bruns^vick, N. J. Albuquerque, N. Mex. Alfred, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Clinton, N. Y. Hamilton, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Do. Rochester, N. Y. Syracuse, N. Y. Chapel Hill, N. C. Salisbury, N. C. Wake Forest, N. C. University, N. Dak. Alliance, Ohio. Athens, Ohio. Cincinnati, Ohio. Columbus, Ohio. Oberlin, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Scio, Ohio. Tiffin, Ohio. Wilberforce, Ohio. Salem, Oreg. EDUCA.TIGITAL DIREGTORY. 1171 IV. — Peofessors of Pedagogy and Heads of Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and Colleges — Continued. Name of professor. University or college. Address. G. T. Ettinger, Ph. D . Wm. L. Gooding, Pli. D . Geo. L. Omwake, A. M . James H, Ueuba, Pli. D . C. M. Thomas, Ph. D . J. H. Brumbaugh . Francis B. Brandt, Ph. D . M. G. Brumbaugh, LL. D . William Noetling, A. M . W. B. Jacobs, A. M . Patterson Wardiaw, A. B . G. Le Roy Noyes, A. B . Levi A. Stout, A. M . George M. Smith, A. M . Henry K. Warren, LL. D . P. P. Claxton, A. M _ _ Mary Stephens, A. . Albert T. Barrett, LL. D . W. S. Sutton, A. M . Albert F. Armstrong, A. M . . Frederick Eby, Ph. D _ _ _ Mosiah Hall, Ph. M . Wm. M. Stewart, M. Di . W ilmot B.- Lane, Ph. I) . Hugh S. Bird, A. B . Albert H. Yoder, A. B . W. D. Turner, A. M . . Jasper N. Deahl, A. M. . . Almon W. Burr, A. M . M. Vincent O’Shea, B. L . Steven S. Stockwell, Ph. B . Muhlenberg College . Dickinson College . Ursinus College . . Bryn Mawr College . Grove City College . . . J uniata College . Central High School . University of Pennsylvania . Susquehanna University . Brown University . South Carolina College . Claflm University . Dakota University . University of South Dakota . Yankton College . University of 'Tennessee . Roger Williams University . University of Nashville. . . University of Texas . . Texas Christian University.. . Baylor University . . . Brigham Young College . University of Utah . Randolph-Macon Woman’s College . . College of William and Mary . University of Washington.". . Bethany College . . West Virginia University . Beloit College . University of Wisconsin . U niversity of W yoming . . Allentown, Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Collegeville, Pa. Bryn Mawr, Pa. Grove City, Pa. Huntingdon, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Do. Selinsgrove, Pa. Providence, R. I. Columbia, S. C. Orangeburg, S. C. Mitchell, S. Dak. Vermilion, S. Dak, Yankton, S. Dak. Knoxville, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Austin, Tex. North Waco, Tex. Waco, Tex. Logan, Utah. Salt Lake City, Utah. Lynchburg, Va. Williamsburg, Va. Seattle, Wash. Bethany, W. Va, Morgantown, W. Va. Beloit, Wis. Madison, V/is. Laramhe, Wyo. V. — Principals of Normal Schools. Public normal schools. Location. Name of institution. Principal. ALABAMA. Florence . . State Normal College . Marshall C, WTlson. Jacksonville . . . do . C. W. Daugette, Livingston . Alabama Normal College for Girls.. Miss Julia S. Tutwiler. Montgomery . State Normal School for Colored Wm. B. Paterson. Normal . Students. Agricultural and Mechanical College W. H. Councill. Troy. . . for Negroes. State Normal College . E. M. Shackelford. ARIZONA. FlagstaS . . Northern Arizona Normal School _ A. N. Taylor. Tempe . . . Tempe Normal School of Arizona . . . . A. J. Matthews. ARKANSAS. Mount Ida . Mount Tda Nonnal A-cademy . John H. Pierce. Pine Bluff . Branch Normal College . Isaac Fisher CALIFORNIA. Chico . . . . . California State Normal School _ Chas. C. Van Liew. Los Angeles . State Normal School . . Edward T. Pierce. San Diego . . . .. ..do . . . . Samuel T. Black. San Francisco . .do . Frederick Burk. San J ose . > . do . . . Morris Elmer Dailey. COLORADO. Greeley .. . Colorado State Normal School.. . Z. X. Snyder. CONNECTICUT. Bridp'enort . Bridgeport Training School . Besse E Howes. New Britain . Normal Training School . Marcus White. N ew H a ven . State Normal Training School . Arthur B. Morrill Willimantic . . do . George P. Phenix. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington . . Washington Normal School No. 1 _ Anne M. Goding. Do . Washington Normal School No. 2 _ Lucy E. Moten. FLORIDA. De Funiak Springs . . . Florida State Normal School . H. E. Bennett. Tallahassee . Florida State Normal and Indus¬ Nathan B. Young. trial College. 1172 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1904, V. — Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Athens . Cornelia. . . . Douglas. . . . Milledgeville Savannah... Location. Name of institution. Principal. GEORGI.X.. State Normal School . . Cornelia Normal Institute . . Southern Normal Institute . . Georgia Normal and Industrial Col¬ lege. State Industrial College . . E. C. Branson. C. H. Clyde. J. Walter Hendricks. J. Harris Chappell. R. R. Wright. Albion . . . Lewiston IDAHO. state Normal School - do . Horace Ellis. Geo. H. Black. ILLINOIS. Carbondale . Charleston . Chicago, Station O . . . Dekafb . Normal . Macomb . Southern Illinois State Normal Uni¬ versity. Eastern Illinois State Normal School. Chicago Normal School . Northern Illinois State Normal School. Illinois State Normal University . Western Illinois State Normal School. D. B. Parkinson. L. C. Lord. Arnold Tompkins. John W. Cook. David Felmley. J. W. Henningcr. INDI.VNA. Indianapolis . Terre Haute . Indianapolis Normal School.. Indiana State Normal School M. E. Nicholson. William W. Parsons. IOWA. Cedarfalls . Woodbine . KANSAS. Emporia . Hays . KENTUCKY. Frankfort . Louisville . LOUISIANA. Natchitoches . New Orleans . Iowa State Normal School . Woodbine Normal and Commercial School. Homer H. Seerley. M. A. Reed. State Normal School . . Western Branch State Normal School. Jasper N. Wilkinson. William S. Picken. State Normal and Industrial Insti¬ tute for Colored Persons. Louisville Normal School . James S. Hathaway. W. J. McConathy. Louisiana State Normal School New Orleans Normal School. . . B. C. Caldwell. Miss Margaret C. Hanson. MAINE. Castine . Farmington . Fort Kent . Gorham . Springfield . Eastern State Normal School . Farmington State Normal School .... Madawaska Training School . State Normal School . Springfield Normal School . Albert F. Richardson. George C. Purington. Mary P. Nowland. W. J. Cor then. Miss Ava H. Chadbourne. MARYLAND. Baltimore . Maryland State Normal School . E. B. Prettyman. MASSACHUSETTS. Boston . . Do . . Bridgewater. . Fitchburg. . . . Framingham. Hyannis . . Lowell . . North Adams, Salem . . Westfield . W orcester . . . . Boston Normal School . Massachusetts Normal Art School... State Normal School . _ do . _ do . _ do . _ do . _ do . _ do . _ do . _ do . Wallace C. Boyden. George H. Bartlett. Albert G. Boyden. John G. Thompson. Henry Whittemore. Wm. A. Baldwin. F. F. Coburn. F. F. Murdock. W. P. Beckwith. Clarence A. Brodeur. E. Harlow Russell. MICHIGAN. Detroit . . Marquette . . Mount Pleasant . . Ypsilanti . . Washington Normal School... State Normal School . Central State Normal School.. Michigan State Normal School Duluth . . . Mankato . . Moorhead . St. Cloud. St. Paul.. Winona. .. MINNESOTA. state Normal School. .do. .do. .do. Teachers’ Training School . State Normal School . Chas. L. Spain. Dwight B. Waldo, Chas. T. Grawn. Lewis H. Jones. E. W. Bohannon. Chas. H. Cooper. Frank A. Weld. W. A. Shoemaker. Miss B. M. Phelan. J. F. Millspaugh. MISSISSIPPI. Paris . Sherman . Walnut Grove . Paris Normal School . Mississippi Normal Institute . Mississippi Central N ormal School . . . D. G. Carpenter. D. C. Langston. John Rundle. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORY, 1173 V.— Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Public normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. MISSOURI. Cape Girardeau . Kirksville . Warrensburg . MONTANA. Dillon . Peru . NEBRASKA. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Plymouth . NEW JERSEY. Jersey City. Newark _ Paterson. . . Trenton. . . Las Vegas. Silver City . NEW MEXICO. Albany. . . . Brockport. Brooklyn . . Buffalo. . . . Cohoes. ... Cortland. . Fredonia. . Geneseo . . . J amaica . . . New Paltz. New York. NEW Y'ORK. Do. Oneonta. Oswego. . Plattsburg Potsdam. . Rochester Syracuse. . NORTH CAROLINA. Elizabeth City. Fayetteville. . . Franklinton. . . Greensboro. Plymouth . . Salisbury. . . NORTH PAKOTA. Mayville . Valley City . Akron . . . . Canfield . . . Cleveland . Columbus. Dayton. . . Fayette . . . Toledo. . .. Alva. OKLAHOMA. Edmond . Langston _ Weatherford . Ashland. Drain . Monmouth. Weston. . . . State Normal School . State Normal School (first district).. State Normal School (second district) Montana Normal School . Nebraska State Normal School. W. S. Dearmont. John R. Kirk. State Normal School. Teachers’ Training School . Newark Normal and Training School. Paterson Normal Training School _ New Jersey State Normal and Model Schools. Henry 11. Swain. W. A. Clark. J. E. Klock. Joseph H. Brensinger. W. S. Willis. Jesse D. Burks. James M. Green. New Mexico Normal University . ! Edmund J. Vert. Normal School of New Mexico . C. M. Light. New York State Normal College . State Normal and Training School... Training School for Teachei's . Buffalo Normal School (State) . Cohoes Training School . State Normal and Training School. . . _ do . Geneseo State Normal School . Normal and Training School . State Normal School . New Y ork Training School for Teach¬ ers. Normal College of the City of New York. State Normal School . Oswego State Normal and Training School. State Normal School . State Normal and Training School... Rochester Training School . Syracuse High School, Normal De¬ partment. State Colored Normal School . . _ do . Albion Academy and State Normal School. State Normal and Industrial School, Plymouth State Normal School . . State Normal School . . State Normal School. _ do . . Perkins Normal School . Northeastern Ohio Normal School... Cleveland Normal and Training School Columbus Normal School . Dayton Normal School . Fayette Normal University . Toledo Normal Training School . Northwestern Territorial Normal School. Territorial Normal School . Colored Agricultural and Normal University. Southwestern State Normal School.. Southern Oregon State Normal School. Central Oregon State Normal School. State Normal School . Eastern State Normal School . Wm. J. Milne. Charles T. McFarlane. Emma L. Johnston. James M. Cassety. Mary E. Wilcox. Francis J. Cheney. F. B. Palmer. John M. Milne. A. C. McLachlan. Myron T. Scudder. A. S. Downing. Thomas Hunter. Percy I. Bugbee. Isaac B. Poucher. Geo. K. Hawkins. Thomas B. Stowell. Richard A. Searing. G. A. Lewis. P. W. Moore. E. E. Smith. Rev. J. A. Savage. Charles D. Mclver. Chas. M. Eppes. J. O. Crosby. Joseph Carhart. George A. McFarland. Lee R. Knight. Chas. O. Allaman. J. W. McGilvrey. Margaret W. Sutherland. Grace A. Greene. Judson Liepp. Mrs. E. C. Hard. T. W. Conv/ay. Frederick H. Umholtz, Inman E. Page. J. R. Campbell. Benj. F. Mulkey. W. H. Dempster. Edwin De Vore Ressler. Robert Carver French. 1174 EDUCATION REPOET, 1904. V. — Principals of NoPvMal Schools — Continued. Puhlic normal schools — Continued. Location. Name of institution. Principal. PENNSYLVANIA. Judson P. Welsh. Theo. B. Noss. Weir EaSb Stroudsburg . East Stroudsburg State Normal E. L. Kemp. School. State Normal School. John F. Bigler. D. J. Waller, jr. Indiana . Indiana Normal School of Pennsyl- vania. A. C. Rothermel. J. R. Flickinger. Andrew T. Smith. E. Oram Lyte. Miliersville . First Pennsylvania State Normal School. Philadelphia Normal School for Girls. Philadelphia . . . J. M. Willard. Pittsburg . . Pittsburg High School, Normal De- Jane Ralston. Shipponsburg . partment. Cumberland Valley State Normal G. M. D. Eckels. Slippery Rock . School. Slippery Rock State Normal School. . Albert E. Maltby. George M. Philips. RHODE ISLAND. Providence . . Rhode Island State Normal School. . . Charles S. Chapin. SOUTH CAROLINA. Rockhill . D. B. Johnson. SOUTH DAKOTA. iV. II. IT. Beadle. . do . F. L. Cook. Springfield . . . do . J. S. Frazee. TENNESSEE. Nashville . Peabody Normal School . James D. Porter. TEXAS. Denton . North Texas Normal School . J. S. Kendall. Detrcut . . Detroit Normal School . W. A. Dean. Ilunisville. . . Sam Houston Normal Institute . H. C. Pritchett. Prairie View . . . Prairie View State Normal and In¬ Ed. L. Blackshear. dustrial College. UTAH. Cedar City . . Southern Branch of the State Nor¬ Nathan T. Porter. mal School. VERMONT. Castleton . . State Normal School . Philip R. Leavenworth. John L. Alger. Charles H. Morrill. Johnson . . do . Randolph Center . . . do . VIRGINIA. Farmville . State Female Normal School . J. L. Jannan. Hampton . Hampton Normal and Agricultural H. B. Frissell. Petersburg . Institute. Virginia Normal and Industrial In¬ J. H. Johnston. stitute. V/ASHINGTON. Bellingham . State Normal School . Edward T. Mathes. Chenev . . do . Harry M. Shafer. W. E. Wilson. IRlensburg . do . AVEST VIRGINIA. Fairmont . State Normal School . W. L. McCowan. Glen viPe do . _ John C. Shaw. Huntington . Marshall College, State Normal Lawrence J. Corbly. Institute . School. West Virginia Colored Institute . J. McH. Jones. Shepherdstown . Shepherd College, State Normal J. G. Knutti. West Liberty . School. West Liberty State Normal School. . . Lorain Fortney. WISCONSIN. Menominee . . Dunn County Teachers’ Training W. L. Morrisen. Milwaukee .... . School. State Normal School . Charles McKenney. R. H. Ha’sey. D. McGregor. W. J. Brier. Oshkosh . . . do . Plflttevillfi do . River Falls . River Falls State Normal School . . . .1 Stevens Point ... . . State Normal School . 1 Theron B. Pray. I. C. McNeill. Superior . Superior State Normal School . ' Wausau . ' Marathon County Training School... 0. E. Wells. Whitewater . i State Normal School . Albert Salisbury. EDUCATIOITAL DTRECTOEY. 1175 V. — Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Private normal schools. Location. Name of mstitution. Principal ALABAMA. . Cullman . Normal Department, Polytechnic S. A. Fetter. College and Ladies’ Institute. E. L. Hays. Edvdn R. Eldiidge. B. Henson Ball. Rev. A. T. Burnell. W. J. Edwards. Huntsville . Mobile . Snow Hill. . . . . Snow Hill Normal and Industrial Tuskegee . Institute. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial B. T. Washington. Institute. ARKANSAS. Pea Ridge . S. C. Parish. W. B. Knight. SulphurTU-ock . Sulphurllock College. . . . COLORADO. Denver . . . . . Denver Normal and Preparatory Fred. Dick. School. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington . Ivindergarten Normal Training Miss Susan P. Pollock. School. FLORIDA. Jasper . Jasper Normal Institute . R. D. Hall. Orange Park . Orange Park Normal and Manual Rev. Walter S. Eaton. Training School. GEORGIA. Augusta . Haines Manual and Industrial In- Miss Lucy C. Laney. Macon . stitute. Ballard Normal School . George C. Burrage. James A. Love. Social Circle . Negro Normal and Industrial School. Thomasville . Allen Normal and Industrial School. . Abbie B. Howland. Waynesboro . W. II. Bryan. ILLINOIS. Addison . . German Evangelical Lutheran E. .4. W. Krauss. IToopeston . Teachers’ Seminary. Greer College . J. M. Clarv. Oregon . . . Wells School for Teachers .... IT. W. Sullivan. Rushville . Rushville Normal and Business Maxwell Kennedy. College. INDIANA. Corydon . . Ohio Valiev Normal School . E. S. Hallett. Danville _ _ _ Central Normal Collep'e A. J. Kinnaman. Indianapolis . Indiana Kindergarten and Primary Eliza A. Blaker. Marion . Normal Trainmg School. Marion Normal College . C. W. Boucher. Rochester . Rochester Normal University jr. . Wm. H. Banta. Valparaiso . . . Northern Indiana Normal School . . . . II. B. Brown. IOWA. Denison . Denison Normal School . . W. C. Van Ness. Lemars . Lemars Normal College . Herman H. Thoren. Newton . . Newton Normal College . G. W. Wormley. Vv ill M. Tarr. Perry . Perr}" Normal School. . . . Shenandoah . . . Western Normal College, Shenan¬ J. M. Hussey. doah' Commercial Institute and Musical Conservatory. KANSAS. Salina . Salina Normal L^niversity . Charles Swisher. KENTUCKAL Hardinsburg . Breckinridge Normal College . Andrew Dnskell. Hazard . . . Hazard Baptist Institute . A. S. Petrey. Fannie J. Webster, Lexington . . . . . Chandler Normal School . Middleburg . Middleburg Normal College . J. W. Davis. Mo rehead . Morehead Normal School . F. C. Button. Waddy . Central Normal College . E. J. Paxton. MAINE. Lee . Lee Normal xlcademy . Chas. M. Teague. George Harrison. MARYLAND. Baltimore . Baltirncin-Normal^Bchtooi (colored) . . MASSACHUSETTS. Boston (1069 Boylston) . i ^...*.1 • 5’r*d’ebel School, Kindeygarten Nor- Annie C. Rust. Boston . . i."* . mal Classes. / J Kindergarten Training School**. _ • Lucy Wheelock. ^ister Constantine. Waltham . A, . . _ Notre Dame Trainmg School. . MICHIGAN. , * *• /j 1 Owoso . . . O^k^iije 5(;hool . ; ,*Mr^ L. E. Gould. Petoskey . . ^ i Gr^vns'JMjOijuai* Acad^m^ . ; Graves, 1176 EDUCATION REPORT , 1904, V. — Principals of Normal Schools — Continued. Private normal schools — Continued. Madison. New Ulm Location. Name of institution. Principal. MINNESOTA. Normal School of the United Norwe- O. Lokensgaard. gian Lutheran Church. Dr. Martin Luther College . John Schaller. MISSISSIPPI. Shelby . Tougaloo . MISSOURI. Chillicothe . Stanberry . NEBRASKA. Fremont . Santee . Wayne . NORTH CAROLINA. Asheville . Charlotte . Enfield . Henderson . Liberty . Raleigii . Wilmington . Winton . Shelby Normal School . J. M. Williamson. Normal Department Tougaloo Uni- Frank G. Woodworth, versity. Chillicothe Normal Business and ' Allen Moore. Shorthand College. Stanberry Normal School . F. L. Maxwell. Fremont Normal School . Santee Normal Training School Nebraska Normal College . .W. H. Clemmons. AKred L. Riggs. J. M. Pile. Normal and Collegiate Institute . Rowan Normal Industrial Institute.. J os. K. Biick Agricultural, Industrial, and Normal School. Henderson Normal Institute . Liberty Normal College . St. Augustine’s School . Gregory Normal Institute . Waters Normal Institute . Rev. Thos. Lawrence. C. S. Somerville. T. S. Inborden. J. A. Cotton. Thos. C. Amick. Rev. A. B. Hunter. Geo. A. Woodard. C. S. Brown. OHIO. Ada . Dayton . Fostoria . Lebanon . New Philadelphia. . . Woodville . Ohio Northern University . St. Mary’s .4cademy . Ohio Normal Training School.. National Normal Universit}". . . John P. Kuhn’s Normal School Teachers’ Seminary . L. A. Belt. Brother Michael. Wm. E. Ashcraft. J. Oscar Creager. John P. Kuhn. Rev. E. Gerfen. PENNSYLVANIA. Muncy . Lycoming County Normal School.... II. A. Spotts. SOUTH CAROLINA. Charleston . Frogmore . Greenwood . Lancaster . SOUTH DAKOTA. Sioux Fails . Avery Normal Institute . Penn Normal and Industrial School. . Brewer Normal School . Lancaster Normal and Industrial In¬ stitute. Morrison A. Holmes. Miss Ellen Murray. Rev J. M. Robinson. M. D. Lee. Lutheran Normal School. Rev. A. Mikkelsen. TENNESSEE. Chattanooga . Dickson . Fomitain City . Hornbeak . Huntington . Memphis . Moriistown . TEXAS. Commerce . Cumby . VIRGINIA. Reliance . Richmond . Chattanooga Normal University . Tennessee Normal School . Temiessee Normal College . West Tennessee Normal College . Southern Normal University . Le Moyne Normal Institute . Morristown Normal Academy . Samuel Hixson. T. B. Loggins. W. S. Bryan. W. L. Willingham. A. E. Booth. A. J. Steele. Judson S. Hill. East Texas Normal College. , Independent Normal College W. L. Mayo. Geo. A. Curlee. Shenandoah Normal College. Hartshorn Memorial College Rev. W. W. Carson. Lyman B. Tefit. WEST VIRGINIA. Harpers Ferry . WISCONSIN. Storer College Henry T. McDonald. Milv/aukee . St. Francis National German-American Teach- Max Griebsch. ers Seminary. CathcTie Normal School of the Holy Rev. M. J. Lochemes. Family.^ ; , o FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY DATE DUE /• j VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY L111.A3 *1904,001 3 9346 00027395 5 27395 L 111 .A3 v.l I tJ.S* Bureau of Eauoation Aiinaal report ^ 1904